View source for Restoration Movement

{{short description|Christian movement seeking church reformation and unification}}
{{About|the Stone–Campbell Restoration Movement and Christian churches that have a historical and/or theological connection to it||Restorationism (disambiguation)}}
[[File:Pioneers in the great religious reformation of the nineteenth century, eng. by J.C. Buttre.tif|thumb|Early leaders of the Restoration Movement (clockwise, from top): Thomas Campbell, Barton W. Stone, Alexander Campbell, and Walter Scott]]

The '''Restoration Movement''' (also known as the '''American Restoration Movement''' or the '''Stone–Campbell Movement''', and pejoratively as [[Campbellite|Campbellism]]) is a [[Christianity|Christian]] movement that began on the [[American frontier]] during the [[Second Great Awakening]] (1790–1840) of the early 19th century. The pioneers of this movement were seeking to reform the church from within{{Sfn | Fife | 1999 | p = 212}} and sought "the unification of all Christians in a single body patterned after the church of the New Testament."<ref name= "I Just Want to Be a Christian">[[Rubel Shelly]], ''I Just Want to Be a Christian'', 20th Century Christian, Nashville, [[Tennessee|TN]] 1984, {{ISBN|0-89098-021-7}}</ref>{{rp|54}}

The Restoration Movement developed from several independent strands of religious revival that idealized early Christianity. Two groups which independently developed similar approaches to the Christian faith were particularly important.<ref name="Redigging the Wells">{{Citation | first = Monroe E | last = Hawley | title = Redigging the Wells: Seeking Undenominational Christianity | publisher = Quality | place = Abilene, [[Texas|TX]] | year = 1976 | isbn = 0-89137-513-9 | pages = 27–32}}</ref> The first, led by [[Barton W. Stone]], began at [[Cane Ridge, Kentucky]], and identified as "[[Christians (Stone Movement)|Christians]]". The second began in western Pennsylvania and Virginia (now West Virginia) and was led by [[Thomas Campbell (minister)|Thomas Campbell]] and his son, [[Alexander Campbell (minister)|Alexander Campbell]], both educated in Scotland; they eventually used the name "[[Disciples of Christ (Campbell Movement)|Disciples of Christ]]". Both groups sought to restore the Christian church based on visible patterns outlined in the [[New Testament]], and both believed that [[creed]]s kept Christianity divided. In 1832, they joined in fellowship with a handshake.

Among other things, they were united in the belief that [[Jesus]] is the Christ, the [[Son of God]]; that Christians should celebrate the [[Eucharist|Lord's Supper]] on the [[Sabbath in Christianity|first day of each week]]; and that [[Believer's baptism|baptism of adult believers]] was necessarily by [[Immersion baptism|immersion in water]].<ref name="McAlister & Tucker, 1975" />{{rp |147–148}} Because the founders wanted to abandon all [[Christian denomination|denominational labels]], they used the biblical names for the followers of Jesus.<ref name = "McAlister & Tucker, 1975" />{{rp |27}} Both groups promoted a return to the purposes of the [[Christianity in the 1st century|1st-century churches]] as described in the New Testament. One historian of the movement has argued that it was primarily a unity movement, with the restoration motif playing a subordinate role.<ref name="Garrett 2002" />{{rp |8}}

The Restoration Movement has since been divided into multiple separate groups. The three main groups are the [[Churches of Christ]], the [[Christian Church (Disciples of Christ)]], and the independent [[Christian churches and churches of Christ|Christian Church/Church of Christ]] congregations. Additionally, there are the [[International Churches of Christ]], the [[International Christian Church]], the [[Churches of Christ in Europe]], and the [[Evangelical Christian Church in Canada]],<ref>Sydney E. Ahlstrom, ''A Religious History of the American People'' (2004)</ref><ref>Melton's Encyclopedia of American Religions (2009)</ref><ref>{{Citation | url = http://www.kentaurus.com/domine/protestant.HTM | title = Restoration Movement | publisher = Kentaurus | year = 2011}}.</ref> and the [[Churches of Christ in Australia]]. Some characterize the divisions in the movement as the result of the tension between the goals of [[Restorationism|restoration]] and [[ecumenism]]: the Churches of Christ and unaffiliated Christian Church/Church of Christ congregations resolved the tension by stressing restoration, while the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) resolved the tension by stressing ecumenism.<ref name="Garrett 2002">Leroy Garrett, ''The Stone-Campbell Movement: The Story of the American Restoration Movement'', College Press, 2002, {{ISBN|978-0-89900-909-4}}.</ref>{{rp |383}}

==Name==
Because the Restoration Movement lacks any centralized structure, having originated in a variety of places with different leaders, there is no consistent nomenclature for the movement as a whole.<ref name = "Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Names of the Movement">{{Harvnb | Foster | Dunnavant | Blowers | Williams | 2004 | p = 551 | ps =, 'Names of the Movement'}}.</ref>  The term "Restoration Movement" became popular during the 19th century;{{Sfn | Foster | Dunnavant | Blowers | Williams | 2004 | p = 551 | ps =, 'Names of the Movement'}} this appears to be the influence of Alexander Campbell's essays on "A Restoration of the Ancient Order of Things" in the ''[[Christian Baptist]].''{{Sfn | Foster | Dunnavant | Blowers | Williams | 2004 | p = 551 | ps =, 'Names of the Movement'}}  The term "Stone-Campbell Movement" emerged towards the end of the 19th century as a way to avoid the difficulties associated with some of the other names that have been used and to maintain a sense of the collective history of the movement.{{Sfn | Foster | Dunnavant | Blowers | Williams | 2004 | p = 551 | ps =, 'Names of the Movement'}}

==Principles==
The Restoration Movement has been characterized by several key principles:
* [[Christianity]] should not be divided; [[Jesus]] intended the creation of {{em|one}} church.<ref name="Redigging the Wells" />{{rp |38}}<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Unity">{{Harvnb | Foster | Dunnavant | Blowers | Williams | 2004 | p = 755 | ps =, 'Unity, Christian'}}.</ref>
* [[Creed]]s divide, but Christians should be able to find agreement by standing on the [[Bible]] (from which they believe all creeds are but human expansions or constrictions)<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Creeds">{{Harvnb | Foster | Dunnavant | Blowers | Williams | 2004 | pp = 252–54 | ps =, 'Creeds and Confessions'}}.</ref>
* Ecclesiastical traditions divide, but Christians should be able to find common ground by following the practice (as best as it can be determined) of the early church.<ref name= "Allen & Hughes 1988" />{{rp |104–6}}
* Names of human origin divide, but Christians should be able to find common ground by using biblical names for the church (i.e., "Christian Church", "Church of God", or "Church of Christ" as opposed to "Methodist" or "Lutheran", etc.).<ref name = "McAlister & Tucker, 1975" />{{rp |27}}
Thus, the church "should stress only what all Christians hold in common and should suppress all divisive doctrines and practices".<ref>The Lutheran Church, Missouri Synod, '[http://www.lcms.org/Document.fdoc?src=lcm&id=391 Restoration Movement: History, Beliefs, and Practices]', p. 2</ref>

Several slogans have been used in the Restoration Movement to express some of the distinctive themes of the movement:<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Slogans">{{Harvnb | Foster | Dunnavant | Blowers | Williams | 2004 | p = 688 | ps =, 'Slogans'}}.</ref>
* "Where the Scriptures speak, we speak; where the Scriptures are silent, we are silent."{{Sfn | Foster | Dunnavant | Blowers | Williams | 2004 | p = 688 | ps =, 'Slogans'}}
* "The church of Jesus Christ on earth is essentially, intentionally, and constitutionally one."{{Sfn | Foster | Dunnavant | Blowers | Williams | 2004 | p = 688 | ps =, 'Slogans'}}
* "We are Christians only, but not the only Christians."{{Sfn | Foster | Dunnavant | Blowers | Williams | 2004 | p = 688 | ps =, 'Slogans'}}
* "In essentials, unity; in opinions, liberty; in all things love."<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Slogans" />{{rp |688}}
* "No creed but [[Christ (title)|Christ]], no book but the Bible, no law but love, no name but the divine."<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Slogans" />{{rp |688}}
* "Do Bible things in Bible ways."<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Slogans" />{{rp |688}}
* "Call Bible things by Bible names."<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Slogans" />{{rp |688}}

==Background==

[[File:Ulrich-Zwingli-1.jpg|thumb|upright|Huldrych Zwingli (oil, 1531) by [[Hans Asper]] (housed at [[Kunstmuseum Winterthur|Kunstmuseum]])]]
During the late [[Middle Ages]], dissenters such as [[John Wycliffe]] and [[Jan Hus]] called for a restoration of a primitive form of Christianity, but they were driven underground. As a result, it is difficult to find any direct links between such early dissenters and the Restoration Movement.<ref name = "Allen & Hughes 1988">{{Harvnb | Allen | Hughes | 1988}}</ref>{{rp |13}} Beginning with the [[Renaissance]], intellectual roots become more straightforward to discern presently.{{Sfn|Allen|Hughes|1988|p=11}} At the heart of the [[Reformation]] was an emphasis on the principle of "scripture alone" (''[[sola scriptura]]'').{{Sfn|Allen|Hughes|1988|pp=22–3}} This, along with the emphasis on individuals' rights to read the Bible and interpret it for themselves, and a movement to reduce rituals in worship, contributed to the intellectual background of early Restoration Movement leaders.{{Sfn|Allen|Hughes|1988|pp=32–3}} The branch of the Reformation movement, which was represented by [[Huldrych Zwingli]] and [[John Calvin]], contributed an emphasis on "restoring biblical forms and patterns."{{Sfn|Allen|Hughes|1988|p=33}}

[[File:John Locke by Herman Verelst.jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[John Locke]] by Herman Verelst]]
The rationalism of [[John Locke]] provided another influence.{{Sfn | Allen | Hughes | 1988 | p = 78}} Reacting to the [[deism]] of [[Edward Herbert, 1st Baron Herbert of Cherbury]], Locke sought a way to address religious divisions and persecution without abandoning scripture.{{Sfn | Allen | Hughes | 1988 | p = 78}} To do this, Locke argued against the right of government to enforce religious orthodoxy and turned to the Bible to supply a set of beliefs that all Christians could agree upon.{{Sfn | Allen | Hughes | 1988 | pp = 78–79}} The core teachings which he viewed as essential were the [[messiah]]ship of [[Jesus]] and Jesus's direct commands.{{Sfn | Allen | Hughes | 1988 | pp = 78–79}} Christians could be devoutly committed to other Biblical teachings, but in Locke's view these were non-essentials over which Christians should never fight or try to coerce upon each other.{{Sfn | Allen | Hughes | 1988 | p = 79}} Unlike the [[Puritans]] and the later Restoration Movement, Locke did not call for a systematic restoration of the [[Early Christianity|early church]].{{Sfn | Allen | Hughes | 1988 | p = 79}} One of the basic goals of the English Puritans was to restore a pure, "primitive" church that would be a true apostolic community{{definition needed|date=March 2025}}.{{Sfn|Allen|Hughes|1988|pp=40–41}} This conception was a critical influence in the development of the Puritans in [[Colonial history of the United States|Colonial America]].{{Sfn|Allen|Hughes|1988|pp=50–6}} It has been described as the "oldest [[Ecumenism|ecumenical]] movement in America":<ref>JD Murch, 'Christians Only' (Eugene: Wipf & Stock, 2004), p. 360</ref>{{Blockquote | Both the great founding documents of the movement are authentically ecumenical. In ''The Last Will and Testament of the Springfield Presbytery'' (1804), Barton Stone and his fellow revivalists dissolved their exclusive presbyterial relationship, desiring to "sink into union with the Body of Christ at large." Five years later Thomas Campbell wrote in ''The Declaration and Address of the Christian Association of Washington'' [PA] (1809) "The church of Christ on earth is essentially, intentionally and constitutionally one."{{Sfn | Fife | 1999 | p = 212}}}} 
During the [[First Great Awakening]], a movement developed among [[Baptists]] known as [[Separate Baptists]]. Two themes of the movement were the rejection of creeds and "freedom in the [[Holy Spirit in Christianity|Spirit]]."{{Sfn | Allen | Hughes | 1988 | p = 65}} The Separate Baptists saw scripture as the "perfect rule" for the church.{{Sfn | Allen | Hughes | 1988 | p = 66}} However, while they turned to the Bible for a structural pattern for the church, they did not insist on complete agreement on the details of that pattern.{{Sfn | Allen | Hughes | 1988 | p = 67}} The group originated in [[New England]] but was especially strong in the [[Southern United States]], where the emphasis on a biblical pattern for the church grew stronger.{{Sfn | Allen | Hughes | 1988 | p = 67}} In the latter half of the 18th century, Separate Baptists became more numerous on the western frontier of [[Kentucky]] and [[Tennessee]], where the Stone and Campbell movements would later take root.{{Sfn | Allen | Hughes | 1988 | p = 68}} The development of the Separate Baptists on the southern frontier helped prepare the ground for the Restoration Movement. The membership of both the Stone and Campbell groups drew heavily from the ranks of the Separate Baptists.{{Sfn | Allen | Hughes | 1988 | p = 67}} Separate Baptist restorationism also contributed to the development of [[Landmarkism]] in the same region as the Stone-Campbell movement and at about the same time. Under the leadership of [[James Robinson Graves]], the Landmark Baptists sought to define a blueprint of the so-called "primitive" church, believing that any deviation from that blueprint would prevent a person from being part of the "true" church.{{Sfn|Allen|Hughes|1988|p=68}}

[[James O'Kelly]] was an early advocate of seeking unity through a return to early Christianity.<ref name="McFadden, 2006">{{Citation |last=McFadden |first=Jeff |title=One Baptism |year=2006 |publisher=Lulu |isbn=978-1-84728-381-8}}, 248 pp.</ref>{{rp|216}} In 1792, dissatisfied with the role of bishops in the [[Methodist Episcopal Church]], he created a schismatic movement of his own. O'Kelly's movement, centered in [[Virginia]] and [[North Carolina]], were originally called the "Republican Methodists". In 1794, they adopted the name "Christian Church".<ref>{{Citation |last=Olbricht |first=Thomas H |title=Who Are the Churches of Christ? |url=https://www.mun.ca/rels/restmov/who.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120111205307/http://www.mun.ca/rels/restmov/who.html |place=[[Canada|CA]] |publisher=Mun |archive-date=2012-01-11 |url-status=dead}}.</ref> During the same period, [[Elias Smith]] of [[Vermont]] and [[Abner Jones]] of [[New Hampshire]] led a movement espousing views similar to those of O'Kelly.{{Sfn|Allen|Hughes|1988|p=68}}<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Connection">{{Harvnb|Foster|Dunnavant|Blowers|Williams|2004|p=190|ps=, ''Christian Connection''}}.</ref> They believed that members could—by looking to Christian scriptures—be Christians without being bound to human traditions{{jargon|date=March 2025}} and the denominations brought by immigrants from Europe.{{Sfn|Allen|Hughes|1988|p=68}}<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Connection" />{{rp|190}}

[[File:1839-meth.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|1839 [[Methodism|Methodist]] [[camp meeting]], watercolor from the [[Second Great Awakening]]]]
The ideal of restoring a "primitive" form of Christianity grew in popularity in the U.S. after the [[American Revolution]].{{Sfn | Allen | Hughes | 1988 | pp = 89–94}} This desire to restore a purer form of Christianity played a role in the development of many groups during this period, known as the [[Second Great Awakening]].{{Sfn | Allen | Hughes | 1988 | p = 89}}  These included the [[History of the Latter Day Saint movement|Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]], [[Baptists in the United States|Baptists]] and [[Shakers]].{{Sfn | Allen | Hughes | 1988 | p = 89}} The Restoration Movement began during and was greatly influenced by, this Second Awakening.<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Great Awakenings">{{Harvnb | Foster | Dunnavant | Blowers | Williams | 2004 | p = 368 | ps =, 'Great Awakenings'}}.</ref>  While the Campbells resisted what they saw as the spiritual manipulation of the [[camp meeting]]s, the Southern phase of the awakening "was an important matrix of Barton Stone's reform movement" and shaped the evangelistic techniques used by both Stone and the Campbells.{{Sfn|Foster|Dunnavant|Blowers|Williams|2004|p=368|ps=, 'Great Awakenings'}}

==Stone movement==
{{Main |Christians (Stone Movement)}}
[[File:Stonebw01.jpg|thumb|upright|left|[[Barton W. Stone]]]]
{{Wikisource |Last Will and Testament of The Springfield Presbytery}}

===Cane Ridge revival===
[[File:Cane Ridge Meeting House Interior.JPG|thumb|Interior of the [[Cane Ridge Meeting House|original meeting house]] at Cane Ridge, Kentucky]]
In 1801, the [[Cane Ridge Revival]] in Kentucky planted the seed for a movement in Kentucky and the [[Ohio River]] valley to disassociate from [[Christian denomination]]alism. In 1803, [[Barton W. Stone]] and others withdrew from the [[Kentucky Synod]] and formed the [[Springfield Presbytery]]. The defining event of the Stone wing of the movement was the publication of ''Last Will and Testament of The Springfield Presbytery'' at Cane Ridge, Kentucky, in 1804. The brief document announces their withdrawal from [[Presbyterianism]] and their intention to be solely part of the broader [[Christian Church]].<ref>{{Citation | last1 = Marshall | first1 = Robert | last2 = Dunlavy | first2 = John | last3 = M'nemar | first3 = Richard | last4 = Stone | first4 = BW | last5 = Thompson | first5 = John | last6 = Purviance | first6 = David | year = 1804 | url = https://www.mun.ca/rels/restmov/texts/rmcnemar/ocg/OCG.HTM#Will | title = The Last Will and Testament of the Springfield Presbytery | publisher = MUN | place = [[Canada|CA]]}}.</ref> The writers appeal for the unity of all who follow Jesus, suggest the value of congregational self-governance, and declare the Bible as the source for understanding the will of God. They denounced the "divisive" use of the [[Westminster Confession of Faith]]<ref name="McAlister & Tucker, 1975" />{{rp |79}} and adopted the name "Christian" to identify their group.<ref name="McAlister & Tucker, 1975" />{{rp |80}}    
[[File:Bust_of_Barton_W._Stone,_in_cemetery,_at_Cane_Ridge_Meeting_House,_near_Paris,_KY.jpg|thumb|upright|Bust of Barton W. Stone, in cemetery, at Cane Ridge]]
By 1804, [[Elias Smith]] had heard of the Stone movement; he had heard of the O'Kelly movement by 1808.<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Connection" />{{rp |190}} Although not formally merged, the three groups were cooperating and fellowshiping by 1810.<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Connection" />{{rp |190}} At that time the combined movement had a membership of approximately 20,000.<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Connection" />{{rp|190}} This loose fellowship of churches was called by the names [[Christian Connection]] (also Christian Connexion) or "Christian Church."<ref name="Allen & Hughes 1988" />{{rp |68}}<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Connection" />{{rp |190}}

===Characteristics===
The cornerstone of the Stone movement was Christian freedom.<ref name="Allen & Hughes 1988" />{{rp |104}} This ideal of freedom led them to reject all the historical creeds, traditions, and theological systems that had developed over time and to focus instead on a "primitive" Christianity based on the Christian Bible.<ref name="Allen & Hughes 1988" />{{rp |104–5}}

While restoring "primitive" Christianity was central to the Stone movement, they believed restoring the ''lifestyle'' of members of the early church was essential. During the early years, they "focused more... on holy and righteous living than on the forms and structures of the early church."<ref name="Allen & Hughes 1988" />{{rp |103}} The group also worked to restore the "primitive" church.<ref name="Allen & Hughes 1988" />{{rp |104}} Concerned that emphasizing particular practices could undermine Christian freedom, this effort tended to take the form of rejecting tradition rather than an explicit program of reconstructing New Testament practices.<ref name= "Allen & Hughes 1988" />{{rp |104}} The emphasis on freedom was so strong that the movement avoided developing any ecclesiastical traditions; it was "largely without dogma, form, or structure."<ref name="Allen & Hughes 1988" />{{rp |104–5}} What held "the movement together was a commitment to primitive Christianity."<ref name="Allen & Hughes 1988" />{{rp |105}}

Another theme was that of [[millennialism]].<ref name="Allen & Hughes 1988" />{{rp |104}} Many Christian Americans of the period believed that the millennium was near and based their hopes for the millennium on their new nation, the [[United States]].<ref name="Allen & Hughes 1988" />{{rp |104}} Members of the Stone movement believed that only a unified Christianity based on the [[Christianity in the 1st century|apostolic]] church, rather than a country or any of the existing denominations, could lead to the coming of the millennium.<ref name= "Allen & Hughes 1988" />{{rp |104}} Stone's millennialism has been described as more "[[Apocalypticism|apocalyptic]]" than that of [[Alexander Campbell (minister)|Alexander Campbell]], in that he believed people were too flawed to usher in a millennial age through human progress.<ref name="Hughes and Roberts, 2001" />{{rp |6,7}} Rather, he believed that it depended on the power of God and that while waiting for God to establish His kingdom, one should live as if the rule of God were already fully established.<ref name="Hughes and Roberts, 2001" />{{rp |6}} For the Stone movement, this millennial emphasis had less to do with [[Eschatology|eschatological]] theories and more about a countercultural commitment to live as if the kingdom of God were already established on earth.<ref name="Hughes and Roberts, 2001" />{{rp|6,7}} This apocalyptic perspective or worldview led many in the Stone movement to adopt [[pacifism]], avoid participating in civil government, and reject violence, militarism, greed, materialism, and slavery.<ref name="Hughes and Roberts, 2001" />{{rp|6}}

==Campbell movement==
{{main |Disciples of Christ (Campbell Movement)}}
{{Wikisource |Declaration and Address of the Christian Association of Washington}}
[[File:CampbellThomas.png|thumb|upright=0.6|left|[[Thomas Campbell (clergyman)|Thomas Campbell]]]]

=== Background ===
The Campbell wing of the movement was launched when [[Thomas Campbell (minister)|Thomas Campbell]] published the ''[[Declaration and Address|Declaration and Address of the Christian Association of Washington]]'' in 1809.<ref name="McAlister & Tucker, 1975" />{{rp|108–11}} The Presbyterian Synod had suspended his ministerial credentials. In ''The Declaration and Address,'' he set forth some of his convictions about the church of Jesus Christ. He organized the [[Christian Association of Washington]] in [[Washington County, Pennsylvania]] on the western frontier of the state, not as a church but as an association of persons seeking to grow in faith.<ref name="McAlister & Tucker, 1975" />{{rp|108–11}} On May 4, 1811, the Christian Association reconstituted itself as a [[Congregationalist polity|congregationally governed]] church. With the building it constructed at Brush Run, Pennsylvania, it became known as [[Brush Run Church]].<ref name="McAlister & Tucker, 1975" />{{rp|117}} When their study of the New Testament led the reformers to begin to practice [[Immersion baptism|baptism by immersion]], the nearby [[Redstone Baptist Association]] invited Brush Run Church to join with them for the purpose of fellowship. The reformers agreed, provided that they would be "allowed to preach and to teach whatever they learned from the Scriptures."<ref name="Davis, 1915">Davis, M. M. (1915). [https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_HHgRAAAAIAAJ <!-- quote=davis "how the disciples began". --> ''How the Disciples Began and Grew, A Short History of the Christian Church''], Cincinnati: The Standard Publishing Company</ref>{{rp|86}}

[[File:Alexander Campbell Age 65.jpg|thumb|upright=0.6|[[Alexander Campbell (clergyman)|Alexander Campbell]]]]
Thomas' son Alexander came to the U.S. to join him in 1809.<ref name="Allen & Hughes 1988" />{{rp |106}} Before long, he assumed the leading role in the movement.<ref name="Allen & Hughes 1988" />{{rp |106}} The Campbells worked within the Redstone Baptist Association during the period 1815 through 1824. While both the Campbells and the Baptists shared practices of baptism by immersion and [[Congregationalist polity|congregational polity]], it quickly became clear the Campbells and their associates were not traditional Baptists. Within the Redstone Association, some of the Baptist leaders considered the differences intolerable when Alexander Campbell began publishing a journal, ''The [[Christian Baptist]],'' which promoted reform. Campbell anticipated the conflict and moved his membership to a congregation of the [[Mahoning Baptist Association]] in 1824.<ref name="McAlister & Tucker, 1975" />{{rp|131}} In 1827, the Mahoning Association appointed [[Walter Scott (clergyman)|Walter Scott]] as an [[Evangelism|evangelist]]. Through Scott's efforts, the Mahoning Association grew rapidly. In 1828, Thomas Campbell visited several of the congregations formed by Scott and heard him preach. Campbell believed that Scott was bringing an important new dimension to the movement with his approach to evangelism.<ref name="McAlister & Tucker, 1975" />{{rp|132–3}}

Alexander used ''The Christian Baptist'' to address what he saw as the key issue of reconstructing the apostolic Christian community in a systematic and rational manner.<ref name="Allen & Hughes 1988" />{{rp|106}} He wanted to clearly distinguish between essential and non-essential aspects of primitive Christianity.<ref name="Allen & Hughes 1988" />{{rp|106}} Among what he identified as essential were "congregational autonomy, a [[Ecclesiastical polity|plurality]] of [[Elder (Christianity)|elders]] in each congregation, weekly communion and immersion for the remission of sins."<ref name="Allen & Hughes 1988" />{{rp|106}} Among practices he rejected as non-essential were "the holy kiss, deaconesses, communal living, footwashing and charismatic exercises."<ref name="Allen & Hughes 1988" />{{rp|106}}

[[File:Walter Scott (Evangelist).jpg|thumb|upright=0.6|left|[[Walter Scott (Clergyman)|Walter Scott]]]]
Several Baptist associations began disassociating congregations that refused to subscribe to the [[Confession of Faith (1689)|Philadelphia Confession]].<ref>{{Citation | url = http://www.reformedreader.org/ccc/pctoc.htm | title = Reformed reader | contribution = Philadelphia Confession}}.</ref> The Mahoning Association came under attack. In 1830, The Mahoning Baptist Association disbanded. The younger Campbell ceased publication of the ''Christian Baptist''. In January 1831, he began publication of the ''[[Millennial Harbinger]]''.<ref name="McAlister & Tucker, 1975" />{{rp|144–5}}

===Characteristics===
The [[Age of Enlightenment]] had a significant influence on the Campbell movement.<ref name="Allen & Hughes 1988" />{{rp|80–6}} Thomas Campbell was a student of the Enlightenment philosopher [[John Locke]].<ref name = "Allen & Hughes 1988" />{{rp|82}} While he did not explicitly use the term "essentials" in the ''Declaration and Address'', Thomas proposed the same solution to religious division as had been advanced earlier by Locke and [[Edward Herbert, 1st Baron Herbert of Cherbury|Edward Herbert]]: "[R]educe religion to a set of essentials upon which all reasonable persons might agree."<ref name= "Allen & Hughes 1988" />{{rp|80}} The essentials he identified were those practices for which the Bible provided: "a 'Thus saith the Lord,' either in express terms or by approved precedent."<ref name = "Allen & Hughes 1988" />{{rp |81}} Unlike Locke, who considered the earlier efforts by Puritans to be inherently divisive, Thomas argued for "a complete restoration of apostolic Christianity."<ref name="Allen & Hughes 1988" />{{rp|82}} Thomas believed that creeds served to divide Christians. He also believed that the Bible was clear enough that anyone could understand it and, thus, creeds were unnecessary.<ref name ="Rhodes 2005">{{Citation | first = Ron | last = Rhodes | title = The Complete Guide to Christian Denominations | publisher = Harvest House | year = 2005 | isbn = 0-7369-1289-4}}</ref>{{rp |114}}

Alexander Campbell was also deeply influenced by Enlightenment thinking, in particular the [[Scottish School of Common Sense]] of [[Thomas Reid]] and [[Dugald Stewart]].<ref name="Allen & Hughes 1988" />{{rp|84}} This group believed that the Bible related concrete facts rather than abstract truths, and advocated a scientific or "[[Francis Bacon|Baconian]]" approach to interpreting the Bible. It would begin with those facts, arrange the ones applicable to a given topic, and draw conclusions from them in a way that has been described as "nothing less than the [[scientific method]] applied to the Bible."<ref name="Allen & Hughes 1988" />{{rp|84}} Alexander reflected this Baconian approach when he repeatedly argued that "the Bible is a book of facts, not of opinions, theories, abstract generalities, nor of verbal definitions."<ref name="Allen & Hughes 1988" />{{rp|84}} Just as a reliance on facts provides the basis for agreement among scientists, Alexander believed that if Christians limited themselves to the facts found in the Bible they would necessarily come to agreement.<ref name="Allen & Hughes 1988" />{{rp|84}} He believed that those facts, approached in a rational and scientific manner, provided a blueprint or constitution for the church.<ref name="Allen & Hughes 1988" />{{rp|85}} Alexander was attracted to this scientific approach to the Bible because it offered a reliable basis for Christian unity.<ref name="Allen & Hughes 1988" />{{rp|84}}

Thomas Campbell combined the Enlightenment approach to unity with the Reformed and Puritan traditions of restoration.<ref name="Allen & Hughes 1988" />{{rp|82,106}} The Enlightenment affected the Campbell movement in two ways. First, it provided the idea that Christian unity could be achieved by finding a set of essentials that all reasonable people could agree on. Second, it also provided the concept of a rational faith that was formulated and defended based on facts derived from the Bible.<ref name="Allen & Hughes 1988" />{{rp|85,86}} Campbell's solution to achieve Christian unity combined forsaking the creeds and traditions, which he believed had divided Christians, and recovering the primitive Christianity, found in scripture, that was common for all Christians.<ref name="Allen & Hughes 1988" />{{rp|106}}

Alexander Campbell's millennialism was more optimistic than Stone's.<ref name="Hughes and Roberts, 2001" />{{rp|6}} He had more confidence in the potential for [[Progressivism in the United States|human progress]] and believed that Christians could unite to transform the world and initiate a millennial age.<ref name="Hughes and Roberts, 2001" />{{rp|6}} Campbell's conceptions were [[Postmillennialism|postmillennial]], as he anticipated that the progress of the church and society would lead to an age of peace and righteousness before the [[Second Coming|return of Christ]].<ref name= "Hughes and Roberts, 2001" />{{rp |6}} This optimistic approach meant that, in addition to his commitment to primitivism, he had a progressive strand in his thinking.<ref name="Hughes and Roberts, 2001" />{{rp|7}}

==Merger of the Stone and Campbell movements==
The Campbell movement was characterized by a "systematic and rational reconstruction" of the early church, in contrast to the Stone movement which was characterized by radical freedom and lack of dogma.{{Sfn | Allen | Hughes | 1988 | pp = 106–8}} Despite their differences, the two movements agreed on several critical issues.{{Sfn | Allen | Hughes | 1988 | p = 108}} Both saw restoring apostolic Christianity as a means of hastening the millennium.{{Sfn | Allen | Hughes | 1988 | p = 108}} Both also saw restoring the early church as a route to Christian freedom.{{Sfn | Allen | Hughes | 1988 | p = 108}} And both believed that unity among Christians could be achieved by using apostolic Christianity as a model.{{Sfn | Allen | Hughes | 1988 | p = 108}} The commitment of both movements to restoring the early church and to uniting Christians was enough to motivate a union between many in the two movements.<ref name= "Hughes and Roberts, 2001" />{{rp |8, 9}}

[[File:SMITH Raccoon John.jpg|thumb|upright=0.6|[[John Smith (Restoration movement)|"Raccoon" John Smith]]]]
The Stone and Campbell movements merged in 1832.<ref name = "Redigging the Wells" />{{rp|28}}<ref name="Davis, 1915" />{{rp |116–20}}<ref name ="Garrison & DeGroot, 1948">{{Citation | last1 = Garrison | first1 = Winfred Earnest | last2 = DeGroot | first2 = Alfred T | year = 1948 | title = The Disciples of Christ, A History | place = St Louis, [[Missouri|MO]] | publisher = The Bethany Press}}.</ref>{{rp |212}}<ref name = "Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Survey and Analysis">{{Harvnb | Foster | Dunnavant | Blowers | Williams | 2004 | pp = xxi, xxxvii | ps =, 'Stone-Campbell History Over Three Centuries: A Survey and Analysis', 'Introductory Chronology'}}.</ref> This was formalized at the [[Central Christian Church (Lexington, Kentucky)|Hill Street Meeting House]] in [[Lexington, Kentucky]], with a handshake between Stone and [[John Smith (Restoration Movement)|"Raccoon" John Smith]].<ref name="Davis, 1915" />{{rp |116–20}} Smith had been chosen by attendees as spokesman for the followers of the Campbells.<ref name = "Davis, 1915" />{{rp |116}} A preliminary meeting of the two groups had been held in late December 1831, culminating with the merger on January 1, 1832.<ref name= "Davis, 1915" />{{rp |116–20}}{{Sfn | Foster | Dunnavant | Blowers | Williams | 2004 | p = xxxvii | ps =, 'Introductory Chronology'}} Two representatives of the assembly were appointed to carry the news of the union to all the churches: John Rogers for the Christians and Smith for the reformers. Despite some challenges, the merger succeeded.<ref name="McAlister & Tucker, 1975" />{{rp|153–4}} Many believed the union held great promise for the future success of the combined movement and greeted the news enthusiastically.<ref name="Hughes and Roberts, 2001" />{{rp|9}}

When the two movements united, only a minority of Christians participated.{{Sfn|Foster|Dunnavant|Blowers|Williams|2004|p=190|ps=, 'Christian Connection'}} Those who did were from congregations west of the [[Appalachian Mountains]] that had come into contact with the Stone movement.{{Sfn|Foster|Dunnavant|Blowers|Williams|2004|p=190|ps=, 'Christian Connection'}} The eastern members had several key differences with the Stone and Campbell group: an emphasis on conversion experience, quarterly observance of communion, and [[nontrinitarianism]].{{Sfn|Foster|Dunnavant|Blowers|Williams|2004|p=190|ps=, 'Christian Connection'}} Those who did not unite with Campbell (the [[Christian Connection]]) merged with the [[National Council of the Congregational Churches of the United States|Congregational Churches]] in 1931 to form the [[Congregational Christian Churches]].{{Sfn|Foster|Dunnavant|Blowers|Williams|2004|p=191|ps=, 'Christian Connection'}} In 1957, the Congregational Christian Church merged with the [[Evangelical and Reformed Church]] to become the [[United Church of Christ]].{{Sfn|Foster|Dunnavant|Blowers|Williams|2004|p=191|ps=, 'Christian Connection'}}

===Genealogical chart===
{{chart top|width=100%|Genealogy of the Restoration Movement}}
{{chart/start|align=center}}
{{chart|border=0 | |ESAJ | |JOK  | | | | | | |BWS  | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |TCAC | | | | | |ESAJ=[[Elias Smith]] & [[Abner Jones]] |boxstyle_ESAJ=vertical-align:bottom |JOK=[[James O'Kelly]] |boxstyle_JOK=vertical-align:bottom |BWS=[[Barton W. Stone]]|boxstyle_BWS=vertical-align:bottom  |TCAC=[[Thomas Campbell (minister)|Thomas]] & [[Alexander Campbell (minister)|Alexander Campbell]] |boxstyle_TCAC=vertical-align:bottom}}
{{chart|border=0| |NE   | |NC   | | | | | | |KY   | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |WVPA | | | | | |NE=<small>New England</small> |NC=<small>North Carolina</small> |KY=<small>Kentucky</small> |WVPA=<small>W. Virginia & Pennsylvania</small>}}
{{chart| |BAP  | |MEC  | | | | | | |PCKY | | | | | | | | | | | | | |BAP  | |APA  | | | | | |BAP=[[Baptists]] |PCKY=[[Presbyterian Church in the United States of America|Presbyterian Church in the USA]] |MEC=[[Methodist Episcopal Church|Methodist<br/>Episcopal<br/>Church]] |APA=[[First Secession|Associate Presbytery in America]]}}
{{chart| | |:| | | |:| | | | | | | | |:| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |:| | | |:| | | | | | |}}
{{chart| | |:| | |RMC  | | | | | | | |:| | |CR   | | | | | | | | | | |:| | | |:| | | | | | |RMC='''Republican Methodist Church''',<br/>later '''Christians'''<br/>(1792)|CR=[[Cane Ridge Revival|Cane<br/>Ridge<br/>Revival]]<br/>(1801) |boxstyle_CR=border-width:0px}}
{{chart| | |:| | | |!|L|~|~|~|~|~|~|7|:| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |:| | | |:| | | | | | |}}
{{chart| | |:| | | |!| | |RH   | | |SP   | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |:| | |CA   | |DA   | |RH=<small>Rice Haggard influences O'Kelly and subsequently Stone to use the name "Christians"</small> |boxstyle_RH=border-width:0px |SP=[[Springfield Presbytery]]<br/>(1803) |CA=[[Christian Association of Washington]]<br/>(1809) |DA=<small>''[[Declaration and Address]]''</small> |boxstyle_DA=border-width:0px}}
{{chart| | |:| | | |!| | | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |d|-|-|.|!| | | | | | |}}
{{chart| |NEC  | | |!| | |CCN  | | |CST  | |LWT  | | | | | | | | | | |:| | |RBA  | |BR   | |NEC='''New England Christians'''<br/>(1801) | CCN=<small>The "Christian" movements loosely associate together around 1810</small> |boxstyle_CCN=border-width:0px |CST='''[[Christians (Stone Movement)|Christians]]'''<br/>in the West<br/>(1804) |LWT=<small>''[[s:Last Will and Testament of The Springfield Presbytery|Last Will and<br/>Testament of the<br/>Springfield<br/>Presbytery]]''</small> |boxstyle_LWT=border-width:0px |RBA=[[Redstone Baptist Association]]<br/>(1815) |BR=<small>The Campbell's [[Brush Run Church]] joins RBA</small> |boxstyle_BR=border-width:0px}}
{{chart| | |!| | | |o|P|P|P|T| | | | |!| | | | | | | | | | | | | | ||di|-|-|.|!|`|-|-|-|-|-|}}
{{chart| | |o|P|P|P|b|P|P|CC   |P|P|P|p| | | | | | | | | | | | | | |WS   | |MBA  | |BR   | |CC='''Christian Church/<br/>Christian Connection'''<br/>(c. 1810) |WS=<small>MBA appoints [[Walter Scott (clergyman)|Walter Scott]] as evangelist<br/>(1827)</small> |boxstyle_WS=border-width:0px |MBA=[[Mahoning Baptist Association]]<br/>(1824) |BR=<small>Brush Run withdraws from RBA and joins MBA</small> |boxstyle_BR=border-width:0px}}
{{chart| | |!| | | |!| | | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |!| | | | | | |}}
{{chart| | |!| | | |!| | | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |DCAM | | | | | |DCAM='''[[Disciples of Christ (Campbell Movement)|Disciples of Christ]]'''<br/>(1830)}}
{{chart| | |`|-|-|-|^|-|-|.| |F|~|~|~|^|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|.| |,|-|-|-|-|-|-|'| | | | | | |}}
{{chart| | | | | | | | | |CC   | | |CCN  | | | | | |SC   | |RM   | |RJS  | | | | | | | | | |CCN=<small>Most Christian Churches outside of the Ohio Valley remain separate</small> |boxstyle_CCN=border-width:0px |CC='''[[Christian Connection]]''' |SC=<small>Most of Stone's Christians<br/>unite with<br/>Campbell's Disciples</small> |boxstyle_SC=border-width:0px |RM='''Restoration Movement'''<br/>(1832) |RJS=<small>[[John Smith (Restoration Movement)|"Racoon" John Smith]] represents the Disciples in merger meeting</small> |boxstyle_RJS=border-width:0px}}
{{chart| | | | | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | |,|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|^|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|.| | | | | | |}}
{{chart| | | | | | | | | | |!| |,|-|ACMS |-|GC   | |MS   | | | | | | | | | | |!| | | | | | |ACMS=[[American Christian Missionary Society|ACMS]]<br/>(1849) |GC=General Convention<br/>(1849) |MS=<small>Missionary societies governed by convention form among part of the Movement</small> |boxstyle_MS=border-width:0px}}
{{chart| | | | | | | | | | |!| |!| | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |!| | | | | | |}}
{{chart| | | | | |NC   | | |!| |!|,|CWBM |-|-|(| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |!| | | | | | |NC=[[National Council of the Congregational Churches of the United States|Congregational<br/>Churches]] |CWBM=[[Christian Woman's Board of Missions|CWBM]]<br/>(1874)}}
{{chart| | |F|~|~|J|!| | | |!| |!|!| | | | | |!| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |!| | | | | | |}}
{{chart| |UCC  | | |!| | | |!| |!|!|FCMS |-|-|(| | | | | | | | | | |COCN | |COC  | | | | | |UCC=<small>Canadian Congregationalists, [[Methodist Church, Canada|Methodists]] and [[Presbyterian Church in Canada|Presbyterians]] merge</small> |boxstyle_UCC=border-width:0px |FCMS=[[Foreign Christian Missionary Society|FCMS]]<br/>(1876) |COCN=<small>Churches of Christ recognized as separate group</small> |boxstyle_COCN=border-width:0px |COC='''[[Churches of Christ]]'''<br/>(1906)}}
{{chart| | |!| | | |`|-|-|.|!| |!|`|-|.|!| | |!| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |!| | | | | | |}}
{{chart| |UCCAN| | | | | |CCC  |`|-|.|!|!| |IC   | |ICN  | | | | | | | | | | |!| | | | | | |UCCAN=[[United Church of Canada]] (1925) |CCC='''[[Congregational Christian Churches]]'''<br/>(1931) |IC=International Convention<br/>(1917) |ICN=<small>Convention reorganized; missionary societies merge soon after</small> |boxstyle_ICN=border-width:0px}}
{{chart| | |!| | | | | | | |!| | | |!|!|!| |!|!|`|-|-|-|-|-|-|.| | | | | | | |!| | | | | | |}}
{{chart| | |!| | |ER   | | |!| | | |UCMS |-|'|!| | |IND  | |NACC | | | | | | |!| | | | | | |ER=[[Evangelical and Reformed Church|Evangelical<br/>and Reformed<br/>Church]]|UCMS=United Christian Missionary Society<br/>(1919) |NACC=[[North American Christian Convention]]<br/>(1926) |IND=<small>Formation of NACC starts separation of [[Christian Churches and Churches of Christ|independents]]</small> |boxstyle_IND=border-width:0px}}
{{chart| | |!| | | |`|-|-|.|!| | | | |`|-|-|.|)|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|(| | | | | | | |)|-|-|-|.| | }}
{{chart| | |!| | | | | | |UCC  | | |DEN  | |CCDOC| |DEN2 | |INDCC| | | | | | |!| | |NICOC| |UCC='''[[United Church of Christ|United<br/>Church of<br/>Christ]]'''<br/>(1957) |DEN=<small>Disciples officially organize as a denomination</small> |boxstyle_DEN=border-width:0px |CCDOC='''[[Christian Church (Disciples of Christ)|Christian Church<br/>(Disciples<br/>of Christ)]]'''<br/>(1968) |DEN2=<small>Independents withdraw from CC(DOC), recognized separately in 1971</small> |boxstyle_DEN2=border-width:0px |INDCC='''[[Christian Churches and Churches of Christ]]'''<br/>(1971) |NICOC='''[[Churches of Christ (non-institutional)|Churches of Christ<br/>(non-institutional)]]'''<br/>(c. 1960)}}
{{chart| | |!| | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | |)|-|-|-|.| | | |!| | | |,|-|-|-|(| | | |!| | |}}
{{chart| | |!| | | | | | | |f|~|~|~|FCA  |~|~|e| | |DHF  | | |!| | |ICOC | | |!| | | |!| | |FCA=DOC–UCC<br/><small>[[Full Communion|Full Communion Agreement]]<br/>(1989)</small> | DHF='''Disciple Heritage Fellowship'''<br/>(1995) |ICOC='''[[International Churches of Christ|International<br/>Churches of Christ]]'''<br/>(1993)}}
{{chart| | |o|P|P|P|P|P|P|P|b|P|T| | | | | | |!| | | |!| | | |!| | | |!| | | |!| | | |!| | |}}
{{chart| | |f|~|~|FCA  |~|~|e| |Y|P|FCA2 |~|~|e| | | |!| | | |!| | | |!| | | |!| | | |!| | |FCA=UCCan–UCC<br/><small>Full Communion Agreement<br/>(2015)</small> |FCA2=DOC–UCCan <br/><small>Full Communion Agreement<br/>(2019)</small>}}
{{chart| | |!| | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | |!| | | |!| | | |!| | | |!| | | |!| | | |!| | |}}
{{chart/end}}
{{chart bottom}}

==United movement (1832–1906)==
The merger raised the question of what to call the new movement. Finding a biblical, non-sectarian name was important. Stone wanted to continue to use the name "Christians," while Alexander Campbell insisted upon "Disciples of Christ".<ref name="McAlister & Tucker, 1975" />{{rp |27–8}}{{Sfn | Foster | Dunnavant | Blowers | Williams | 2004 | ps =, 'Alexander Campbell'}} Stone advocated using the name "Christians" based on its use in {{bibleverse|Acts|11:26|NIV}}, while Campbell preferred the term "disciples" because he saw it as both a more humble and an older designation.{{Sfn | Foster | Dunnavant | Blowers | Williams | 2004 | p = 551 | ps =, 'Names of the Movement'}} As a result, both names were used, and the confusion over names has continued ever since.<ref name = "McAlister & Tucker, 1975" />{{rp |27–8}}

After 1832, use of the term "Reformation" became frequent among leaders of the movement.{{Sfn | Foster | Dunnavant | Blowers | Williams | 2004 | p = 551 | ps =, 'Names of the Movement'}} The Campbells had designated themselves as "Reformers," and other early leaders also saw themselves as reformers seeking Christian unity and restoring apostolic Christianity.{{Sfn | Foster | Dunnavant | Blowers | Williams | 2004 | p = 551 | ps =, 'Names of the Movement'}} The movement's language at the time included phrases such as "religious reformation," the "present reformation," the "current reformation" and "the cause of reformation."{{Sfn | Foster | Dunnavant | Blowers | Williams | 2004 | p = 551 | ps =, 'Names of the Movement'}} The term "Restoration Movement" became popular by the late 19th century.{{Sfn | Foster | Dunnavant | Blowers | Williams | 2004 | p = 551 | ps =, 'Names of the Movement'}} It appears to have been inspired by Alexander Campbell's essays on "A Restoration of the Ancient Order of Things" in the ''Christian Baptist.''{{Sfn | Foster | Dunnavant | Blowers | Williams | 2004 | p = 551 | ps =, 'Names of the Movement'}}

The combined movement grew rapidly over the period from 1832 to 1906.<ref name = "Tristano 1998"/>{{rp|92–93}}<ref name= "1906 Religious Census">{{Citation | first = William C | last = Hunt | title = Religions Bodies: 1906 | volume = Part 1, Summary and General Tables | publisher = [[United States Census Bureau|Bureau of the Census]], [[United States Government Printing Office|Government Printing Office]] | location = [[Washington, DC]] | year = 1910}}.</ref>{{rp |25}} According to the 1906 U.S. Religious Census the combined membership of the movement made it the 6th largest Christian group in the country at that time.<ref name= "1906 Religious Census" />{{rp |27}}
{| class="wikitable" | align = center
|+ Estimated Membership
|-
! Year !! 1832 !! 1860 !! 1890 !! 1900 !! 1906
|-
| Membership || 22,000<ref name = "Tristano 1998"/>{{rp|92}} || 192,000<ref name = "Tristano 1998"/>{{rp|92}} || 641,051<ref name = "1906 Religious Census"/>{{rp|25}} || 1,120,000<ref name = "Tristano 1998" />{{rp|93}} || 1,142,359<ref name = "1906 Religious Census" />{{rp |25}}
|}

===Journals===
{{Blockquote |The Disciples do not have bishops; they have editors| early movement historian William Thomas Moore<ref name = "Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: William T. Moore">{{Harvnb | Foster | Dunnavant | Blowers | Williams | 2004 | pp = 543–44, "Moore, William Thomas"}}.</ref>}}

From the beginning of the movement, the free exchange of ideas among the people was fostered by the journals published by its leaders. Alexander Campbell published ''The Christian Baptist'' and ''The Millennial Harbinger''. Stone published ''The [[Christian Messenger]]''.<ref name = "Garrison & DeGroot, 1948" />{{rp |208}} Both men routinely published the contributions of persons whose positions differed radically from their own. Following Campbell's death in 1866, the journals were used to keep the discussions going. Between 1870 and 1900, two journals emerged as the most prominent. The ''[[Christian Standard]]'' was edited and published by [[Isaac Errett]] of [[Cincinnati]]. ''The Christian Evangelist'' was edited and published by [[JH Garrison]] from [[St. Louis]]. The two men enjoyed a friendly rivalry and kept the dialog going within the movement.<ref name="Garrison & DeGroot, 1948" />{{rp|364}}

The ''Gospel Advocate'' was founded by the [[Nashville, Tennessee|Nashville]]-area preacher [[Tolbert Fanning]] in 1855.<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Gospel Advocate">{{Harvnb | Foster | Dunnavant | Blowers | Williams | 2004 | p = 361 | ps =, ''Gospel Advocate''}}.</ref> Fanning's student [[William Lipscomb (clergyman)|William Lipscomb]] served as co-editor until the [[American Civil War]] forced them to suspend publication in 1861.{{Sfn|Foster|Dunnavant|Blowers|Williams|2004|p=361|ps=, ''Gospel Advocate''}} After the end of the Civil War, publication resumed in 1866 under the editorship of Fanning and Lipscomb's younger brother [[David Lipscomb]]; Fanning soon retired, and David Lipscomb became the sole editor.{{Sfn|Foster|Dunnavant|Blowers|Williams|2004|pp=361–62|ps=, ''Gospel Advocate''}} While Lipscomb was the editor, the focus was on seeking unity by following scripture exactly, and the ''Advocate'''s editorial position was to reject anything that is not explicitly allowed by scripture.{{Sfn|Foster|Dunnavant|Blowers|Williams|2004|p=362|ps=, ''Gospel Advocate''}}

''The Christian Oracle'' began publication in 1884. It was later known as ''The Christian Century'' and offered an interdenominational appeal.<ref name="Garrison & DeGroot, 1948" />{{rp|364}} In 1914, Garrison's Christian Publishing company was purchased by R.A. Long. He established a non-profit corporation, The Christian Board of Publication" as the Brotherhood publishing house.<ref name="Garrison & DeGroot, 1948" />{{rp|426}}

===Anabaptism and materialism controversies===
{{unreferenced section|date=November 2018}}
The [[Christadelphians]], [[Church of the Blessed Hope]], and [[Church of God General Conference|Church of God (General Conference)]] also have roots in the restoration movement, but took their own direction about this time.

In 1832 [[Walter Scott (clergyman)|Walter Scott]] baptised [[John Thomas (Christadelphian)|John Thomas]], an English doctor who had emigrated to the United States. Thomas was a strong supporter of Alexander Campbell and the principles of the Disciples movement, and he quickly became a well-known leader and teacher. In 1834, however, Thomas took a contrary position to Campbell on the significance of baptism which led to a sharp conflict between the two men. While Campbell believed baptism by immersion to be very important, he recognised as Christians all who believed Jesus of Nazareth to be Messiah and Lord, and recognised any prior baptism. For this reason, members of Baptist churches who joined the Disciples movement were not required to be baptised again. Thomas, on the other hand, insisted that a baptism based on a different understanding of the gospel to that held in the Disciples movement was not a valid baptism, and he called for rebaptism in his periodical, the ''Apostolic Advocate''. Campbell viewed this as sectarianism, which cut across the fundamental commitment of the Disciples movement to "the union of all Christians," and rejected "[[anabaptism]]." The two men became estranged.

Thomas began to refuse to share prayer, worship, or communion with those he considered not to be validly baptised Christians. His theological views also continued to develop. By 1837 he was teaching [[annihilationism]], and he debated a Presbyterian clergymen, Isaac Watts. Campbell interpreted this as [[materialism]] and believed that it undermined the biblical doctrine of the resurrection, and he reacted strongly. In the ''Millennial Harbinger'' Campbell announced that he could no longer consider Thomas a brother. Many congregations of Disciples took this as an indication that they should withhold fellowship from Thomas, and he found himself on the margins of the movement. Thomas continued to have supporters among the Disciples but moved further from Christian orthodoxy. In 1846 he published a "Confession and Abjuration" of the faith he held at his baptism, and he arranged to be baptised again. Despite this, when he toured the United Kingdom to give prophetic lectures in 1848–1850 he played down his separation from the Disciples movement, in an endeavour to access congregations in Britain. But his true position was discovered by James Wallis and David King, and the movement closed ranks against him.

In 1864 he coined the name "Christadelphian" for those who shared his views and sought to register as conscientious objectors to military service. The name was adopted by [[Robert Roberts (Christadelphian)|Robert Roberts]], the Scottish protege of Thomas, for the periodical which he had just begun to publish in [[Birmingham]]; and the sect began to grow rapidly.

[[Benjamin Wilson (biblical scholar)|Benjamin Wilson]] left the Disciples about the same time as Thomas, but split with Thomas in 1863 over disagreements about eschatology, forming the Church of God of the Abrahamic Faith. During the American Civil War his followers also sought to register as [[conscientious objector]]s. Some congregations were unable to register this name because of local regulations and chose an alternative name, Church of the Blessed Hope; but the two names referred to the same sect. The sect divided in 1921, and the Church of God (General Conference) was formed by the larger grouping.

===Missionary society controversy===
In 1849, the first national convention was held at Cincinnati, Ohio.<ref name="Garrison & DeGroot, 1948" />{{rp |245}} Campbell had concerns that holding conventions would lead the movement into divisive denominationalism. He did not attend the gathering.<ref name="Garrison & DeGroot, 1948" />{{rp|245}} Among its actions, the convention elected Campbell its president and created the [[American Christian Missionary Society]] (ACMS).<ref name = "Garrison & DeGroot, 1948" />{{rp|247}} By the end of the century, the [[Foreign Christian Missionary Society]] and the [[Christian Woman's Board of Missions]] were also engaged in missionary activities. Forming the ACMS did not reflect a consensus of the entire movement, and these para-church organizations became a divisive issue. While there was no disagreement over the need for evangelism, many believed that missionary societies were not authorized by scripture and would compromise the autonomy of local congregations.<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Missionary Societies Controversy">Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L. Dunnavant, ''The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Christian Churches/Churches of Christ, Churches of Christ'', Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2004, {{ISBN|0-8028-3898-7}}, {{ISBN|978-0-8028-3898-8}}, 854 pages, entry on ''Missionary Societies, Controversy Over'', pp. 534-537</ref>

The ACMS was not as successful as proponents had hoped.<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Louisville Plan">Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L. Dunnavant, ''The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Christian Churches/Churches of Christ, Churches of Christ'', Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2004, {{ISBN|0-8028-3898-7}}, {{ISBN|978-0-8028-3898-8}}, 854 pages, entry on ''Louisville Plan, The'', pp. 496-497</ref> It was opposed by those who believed any extra-congregational organizations were inappropriate; hostility grew when the ACMS took a stand in 1863 favoring the [[Union (American Civil War)|Union]] side during the Civil War.<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Louisville Plan"/><ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: American Christian Missionary Society">Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L. Dunnavant, ''The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Christian Churches/Churches of Christ, Churches of Christ'', Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2004, {{ISBN|0-8028-3898-7}}, {{ISBN|978-0-8028-3898-8}}, 854 pages, entry on ''American Christian Missionary Society'', pages 24-26</ref>  A convention held in [[Louisville, Kentucky]], in 1869 adopted a plan intended to address "a perceived need to reorganize the American Christian Missionary Society (ACMS) in a way that would be acceptable to more members of the Movement."<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Louisville Plan"/>  The "Louisville Plan," as it came to be known, attempted to build on existing local and regional conventions and to "promote the harmonious cooperation of all the state and District Boards and Conventions."<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Louisville Plan"/><ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Conventions">Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L. Dunnavant, ''The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Christian Churches/Churches of Christ, Churches of Christ'', Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2004, {{ISBN|0-8028-3898-7}}, {{ISBN|978-0-8028-3898-8}}, 854 pages, entry on ''Conventions'', pp. 237-240</ref>  It established a General Christian Missionary Convention.<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Conventions"/>  Membership was congregational rather than individual.<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Louisville Plan"/><ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Conventions"/> Local congregations elected delegates to district meetings, which in turn elected delegates to state meetings.<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Louisville Plan"/> States were given two delegates, plus an additional delegate for every 5,000 members.<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Louisville Plan"/> The plan proved divisive and faced immediate opposition.<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Louisville Plan"/><ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Conventions"/> Opponents continued to argue that any organizational structure above the local congregational level was not authorized by scripture, and there was a general concern that the board had been given too much authority.<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Louisville Plan"/> By 1872 the Louisville Plan had effectively failed.<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Louisville Plan"/><ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Conventions"/> Direct contributions from individuals were sought again in 1873, individual membership was reinstated in 1881, and the name was changed back to the American Christian Missionary Society in 1895.<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Louisville Plan"/><ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Conventions"/>

===Use of musical instruments in worship===
[[File:American Organ Odilienberg 1.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Melodeon (organ)|Melodeon]]]]
The use of [[musical instrument]]s in worship was discussed in journal articles as early as 1849, but initial reactions were generally unfavorable.<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Instrumental Music">Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L. Dunnavant, ''The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Christian Churches/Churches of Christ, Churches of Christ'', Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2004, {{ISBN|0-8028-3898-7}}, {{ISBN|978-0-8028-3898-8}}, 854 pages, entry on ''Instrumental Music''</ref>{{rp |414}} Some congregations, however, are documented as having used musical instruments in the 1850s and 1860s.<ref name= "Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Instrumental Music" />{{rp |414}} An example is the church in [[Midway, Kentucky]], which was using an instrument by 1860.<ref name= "Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Instrumental Music" />{{rp |414}} A member of the congregation, L. L. Pinkerton, brought a [[Pump organ|melodeon]] into the church building.<ref name= "Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Instrumental Music" />{{rp |414}}<ref name = "Brewster 2006">{{Citation | first = Ben | last = Brewster | title = Torn Asunder: The Civil War and the 1906 Division of the Disciples | publisher = College Press | year = 2006 | isbn = 978-0-89900-951-3}}, 135 pp.</ref>{{rp |95,96}}<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: L. L. Pinkerton"/>{{rp |597–598}} The minister had been distressed to his "breaking point" by the poor quality of the congregation's singing.<ref name="Brewster 2006" />{{rp |96}} At first, the instrument was used for singing practices held on Saturday nights but was then incorporated into worship on Sundays.<ref name="Brewster 2006" />{{rp |96}} One of the elders of that assembly removed the first melodeon, but it was soon replaced by another.<ref name = "Brewster 2006" />{{rp |96}}

Both acceptance of instruments and discussion of the issue grew after the Civil War.<ref name= "Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Instrumental Music" />{{rp |414}} Opponents argued that the New Testament provided no authorization for their use in worship, while supporters argued on the basis of expediency and [[adiaphora|Christian liberty]].<ref name= "Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Instrumental Music" />{{rp |414}} Affluent urban congregations were more likely to adopt musical instruments, while poorer and more rural congregations tended to see them as "an accommodation to the ways of the world."<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Instrumental Music" />{{rp |414}}

The ''Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement'' notes that Restoration Movement historians have tended to interpret the controversy over the use of musical instruments in worship in ways that "reflect their own attitudes on the issue."<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Instrumental Music" />{{rp |414}} Examples are given of historians from different branches of the movement interpreting it in relation to the statements of early Restoration Movement leaders, in terms of social and cultural factors, differing approaches to interpreting scripture, differing approaches to the authority of scripture, and "ecumenical progressivism" versus "sectarian primitivism."<ref name = "Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Instrumental Music" />{{rp |414–5}}

===Biblical interpretation===
The early 19th-century Restoration Movement encompassed very different views concerning the role of clergy: the Campbell branch was strongly anti-clergy, believing there was no justification for a clergy/lay distinction, while the Stone branch believed that only an ordained minister could officiate at communion.<ref name="Tristano 1998">{{Citation | first = Richard M | last = Tristano | url = https://webfiles.acu.edu/departments/Library/HR/restmov_nov11/www.mun.ca/rels/restmov/subs/Tristano_Book.pdf | title = Origins of the Restoration Movement: An Intellectual History | publisher = Glenmary Research Center |date=December 1998 | isbn = 0-914422-17-0}}</ref>

Early leaders of the movement had a high view of scripture and believed that it was both [[biblical inspiration|inspired]] and [[biblical infallibility|infallible]].<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Inspiration of the Bible">{{Harvnb | Foster | Dunnavant |Blowers|Williams|2004 | p = 77 | ps =, 'Bible, Authority and Inspiration of the'}}</ref> Dissenting views developed during the 19th century.<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Inspiration of the Bible" /> As early as 1849, Pinkerton denied the inerrancy of the Bible.<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: L. L. Pinkerton" /><ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Inspiration of the Bible" /> According to the ''Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement'' Pinkerton is "sometimes labeled the first 'liberal' of the Stone-Campbell Movement."<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: L. L. Pinkerton">{{Harvnb | Foster | Dunnavant|Blowers|Williams| 2004 | p = 597 | ps =, 'Pinkerton, Lewis Letig'}}</ref> In addition to rejecting the plenary inspiration of the Bible and supporting the use of instruments in worship, Pinkerton also supported "open membership" (recognizing as members individuals who have not been baptized by immersion)<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Open Membership">{{Harvnb | Foster | Dunnavant |Blowers|Williams|2004|p = 576 | ps =, 'Open Membership'}}.</ref> and was a strong supporter of the [[Temperance movement|temperance]] and [[Abolitionism in the United States|abolition]] movements.<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: L. L. Pinkerton" /> As the 19th century progressed, the denial of the inerrancy of the Bible slowly spread.<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Inspiration of the Bible" /> In 1883 the editor of the ''Christian Standard'', Isaac Errett, said "Admitting the fact of inspiration, have we in the inspired Scriptures an ''infallible'' guide?...  I do not see how we can answer this question affirmatively."<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Inspiration of the Bible" /> Others, including [[John William McGarvey|JW McGarvey]], fiercely opposed these liberal views.<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Inspiration of the Bible" />

==Separation of the Churches of Christ and Christian Churches==
[[File:DavidLipscomb.jpg|thumb|upright=0.6|David Lipscomb]]{{blockquote|Nothing in life has given me more pain in heart than the separation from those I have heretofore worked with and loved|[[David Lipscomb]]|1899<ref>[[David Lipscomb]], 1899, as quoted by Leroy Garrett on page 104 of ''The Stone-Campbell Movement: The Story of the American Restoration Movement'', College Press, 2002, {{ISBN|0-89900-909-3}}, {{ISBN|978-0-89900-909-4}}, 573 pages</ref>}}

===Factors leading to the separation===
Disagreement over centralized organizations above the local congregational level, such as missionary societies and conventions, was one important factor leading to the separation of the Churches of Christ from the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ).<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Missionary Societies Controversy"/>  After the Civil War more congregations began using instruments, which led to growing controversy.<ref name= "Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Instrumental Music" />{{rp |414}} The greatest acceptance was among urban congregations in the Northern states; very few congregations in the Southern United States used instruments in worship.<ref name= "Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Instrumental Music" />{{rp |414–415}} While music and the approach to missionary work were the most visible issues, there were also some deeper ones, such as basic differences in the underlying approach to Biblical interpretation. For the Churches of Christ, any practices not present in accounts of New Testament worship were not permissible in the church, and they could find no New Testament documentation of the use of instrumental music in worship. For the Christian Churches, any practices not expressly forbidden could be considered.<ref name="McAlister & Tucker, 1975" />{{rp|242–7}} The Civil War exacerbated the cultural tensions between the two groups.<ref name="Dictionary of Christianity in America: Churches of Christ (Non-Instrumental)">{{Citation | last1 = Reid | first1 = DG | last2 = Linder | first2 = RD | last3 = Shelley | first3 = BL | last4 = Stout | first4 = HS | year = 1990 | title = Dictionary of Christianity in America | place = Downers Grove, IL | publisher = InterVarsity Press | contribution = Churches of Christ (Non-Instrumental)}}.</ref><!--Expand – what were these cultural factors after Civil War?-->

As the 19th century progressed, a division gradually developed between those whose primary commitment was to unity and those whose primary commitment was to the restoration of the primitive church.<ref name = "Hughes and Roberts, 2001" />{{rp |5,6}} Those whose primary focus was unity gradually took on "an explicitly ecumenical agenda" and "sloughed off the restorationist vision."<ref name= "Hughes and Roberts, 2001" />{{rp |6}} This group increasingly used the terms "Disciples of Christ" and "Christian Churches" rather than "Churches of Christ."<ref name="Hughes and Roberts, 2001" />{{rp |6}} At the same time, those whose primary focus was restoration of the primitive church increasingly used the term "Churches of Christ" rather than "Disciples of Christ."<ref name="Hughes and Roberts, 2001" />{{rp |6}} Reports on the changes and increasing separation among the groups were published as early as 1883.<ref name="McAlister & Tucker, 1975" />{{rp|252}}

The rise of women leaders in the temperance<ref name="Zuber 2004">Zuber, Glenn (2004). "Temperance", ''The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement,'' edited by Douglas A. Foster, Paul Blowers, and D. Newell Williams. Grand Rapids, Eerdmans Publishing, 728–729.</ref>{{Rp|728–729}} and missionary movements, primarily in the North, also contributed to the separation of the unaffiliated [[Christian churches and churches of Christ|Christian Church/Church of Christ congregations]]. In the Christian Churches, many women spoke in public on behalf of the [[Christian Woman's Board of Missions]] and [[Woman's Christian Temperance Union]]. In contrast, the Churches of Christ largely discouraged women from joining activist women's organizations and speaking in public about any issue.<ref name="Zuber 2002">Zuber, Glenn (2002). "Mainline Women Ministers: Women Missionary and Temperance Organizers Become 'Disciples of Christ' Ministers, 1888–1908." In ''The Stone-Campbell Movement: An International Religious Tradition,'' ed. Michael Casey and Douglas A. Foster, 292–316.</ref>{{Rp|292–316}} In 1889 the [[Erie, Illinois]], Christian Church confirmed the leadership role of women by ordaining [[Clara Babcock]] as the first known woman Disciple preacher.<ref name="Zuber 1993">Zuber, Glenn (1993). "The Gospel of Temperance: Early Disciple Women Preachers and the WCTU," ''Discipliana'', 53 (47–60).</ref>{{Rp|47–60}}

===Formal recognition in 1906===
The [[United States Census Bureau]] began a religious census in 1906.<ref name="Foster – What Really Happened">[[Douglas A. Foster]], [http://www.christianchronicle.org/article/what-really-happened-in-1906-a-trek-through-history-reveals-role-of-census "What really happened in 1906? A trek through history reveals role of Census,"] ''[[The Christian Chronicle]]'', April 2006 (accessed November 20, 2013)</ref><ref name="Foster – The True Story">[[Douglas A. Foster]], [http://christianstandard.com/2006/06/cs_article-331/ "1906: The True Story,"] ''The Christian Standard'',  June 25, 2006 (accessed November 20, 2013)</ref> Special Agents were used to collect information on those groups which had little or no formal organizational structure, such as the churches associated with the Restoration Movement.<ref name="Foster – What Really Happened"/><ref name="Foster – The True Story"/>  Officials working on the census noticed signs that the movement was no longer unified: the ''Gospel Advocate'' appeared at times to distance itself from the Disciples of Christ, and the Bureau had received at least one letter claiming that some "churches of Christ" were no longer affiliated with the "Disciples of Christ."<ref name="Foster – What Really Happened"/><ref name="Foster – The True Story"/>

To resolve the question, [[Director of the United States Census Bureau|Census Director]] Simon Newton Dexter North wrote a letter to David Lipscomb, the editor of the ''Advocate''.<ref name="Foster – What Really Happened"/><ref name="Foster – The True Story"/>  He asked:

{{blockquote|I would like to know: 1. Whether there is a religious body called "Church of Christ," not identified with the Disciples of Christ, or any other Baptist body? 2. If there is such a body, has it any general organization, with headquarters, officers, district or general conventions, associations or conferences? 3. How did it originate, and what are its distinctive principles? 4. How best can there be secured a complete list of the churches?<ref name="Foster – The True Story"/>}}

Lipscomb summarized the early history of the movement, described the "general organization of the churches under a missionary society with a moneyed membership" and the "adoption of instrumental music in the worship" as "a subversion of the fundamental principles on which the churches were based," and then continued:<ref name="Foster – The True Story"/>

{{blockquote|There is a distinct people taking the word of God as their only and sufficient rule of faith, calling their churches "churches of Christ" or "churches of God," distinct and separate in name, work, and rule of faith from all other bodies of people.<ref name="Foster – What Really Happened"/><ref name="Foster – The True Story"/>}}

The 1906 U.S. Religious Census for the first time listed the "Churches of Christ" and the "Disciples of Christ" as separate and distinct groups.<ref name="McAlister & Tucker, 1975">{{Citation | last1 = McAlister | first1 = Lester G | last2 = Tucker | first2 = William E | year = 1975 | title = Journey in Faith: A History of the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) | place = St Louis | publisher = Chalice Press | isbn = 978-0-8272-1703-4 | url-access = registration | url = https://archive.org/details/journeyinfaithhi00tuck }}.</ref>{{rp |251}}This, however, was simply the recognition of a division that had been growing for years, with published reports as early as 1883.<ref name="McAlister & Tucker, 1975" />{{rp|252}} The process that led to this separation had begun prior to the Civil War.<ref name= "Cartwright, 1987">{{Cite book | last = Cartwright | first = Colbert S | title = People of the Chalice, Disciples of Christ in Faith and Practice | publisher = Chalice Press | year = 1987 | location = St Louis, MO | isbn = 978-0-8272-2938-9}}</ref>{{rp |17–8}}

For Lipscomb, an underlying theological concern was the adoption of German liberal theology by many among the Disciples wing of the Restoration Movement.<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: David Lipscomb">Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L. Dunnavant, ''The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Christian Churches/Churches of Christ, Churches of Christ'', Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2004, {{ISBN|0-8028-3898-7}}, {{ISBN|978-0-8028-3898-8}}, 854 pages, entry on ''Lipscomb, David''</ref> He saw them as taking a direction very different from the principles enunciated by Thomas and Alexander Campbell.<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: David Lipscomb"/> Lipscomb's response to the Census Bureau, and its official listing of the two groups in 1906, became another source of friction between the groups.<ref name="Foster – What Really Happened"/><ref name="Foster – The True Story"/> James Harvey Garrison, editor of ''The Christian-Evangelist,'' accused Lipscomb of "sectarianism." Lipscomb said that he had "done nothing to bring about the present condition of affairs," the Census Bureau had started the discussion, and he had simply answered the question they brought to him.<ref name="Foster – What Really Happened"/><ref name="Foster – The True Story"/>

Movement historian [[Douglas A. Foster|Douglas Foster]] has summarized the events this way:

{{blockquote|The data reflected what had already happened (and what continued to happen for at least another decade). The Census Bureau itself had noticed a rift between Churches of Christ and Disciples of Christ, and in the interest of reliable data collection tried to ascertain if that was true.

Lipscomb agreed that it was accurate to list the two separately; Garrison did not. The division did not begin or happen in 1906—it was nearing its end. The government did not declare the division; the Census Bureau simply published data it received.<ref name="Foster – What Really Happened"/>}}

===Aftermath===
When the 1906 U.S. Religious Census was published in 1910 it reported combined totals for the "Disciples or Christians" for comparison to the 1890 statistics on the movement, as well as separate statistics for the "Disciples of Christ" and the "Churches of Christ."<ref name="1906 Religious Census"/> The Disciples were by far the larger of the two groups at the time.<ref name="1906 Religious Census"/>{{rp|28, 514}}

{| class="wikitable" | align=center
|+ Relative Size of Disciples of Christ and Churches of Christ in 1906
|-
!  !! Congregations<ref name="1906 Religious Census"/>{{rp|514}} !! Members<ref name="1906 Religious Census"/>{{rp|28}}
|-
|- align="right"
| "Disciples of Christ" || 8,293 (75.8%) || 982,701 (86.0%)
|-
|- align="right"
| "Churches of Christ" || 2,649 (24.2%) || 159,658 (14.0%)
|-
|- align="right"
| Total "Disciples or Christians" || 10,942  || 1,142,359
|}

Generally speaking, the Disciples of Christ congregations tended to be predominantly urban and Northern, while the Churches of Christ were predominantly rural and Southern. The Disciples favored college-educated clergy, while the Churches of Christ discouraged formal theological education because they opposed the creation of a professional clergy. Disciples congregations tended to be wealthier and constructed larger, more expensive church buildings. Churches of Christ congregations built more modest structures and criticized the wearing of expensive clothing at worship.<ref name= "Tristano 1998"/>{{rp |109}} One commentator has described the Disciples "ideal" as reflecting the "businessman," and the Church of Christ "ideal" as reflecting "the simple and austere [[yeoman]] farmer."<ref name="Tristano 1998"/>{{rp |109}}

Churches of Christ have maintained an ongoing commitment to purely [[Congregationalist polity|congregational]] structure, rather than a denominational one, and have no central headquarters, councils, or other organizational structure above the local church level.<ref name="Encyclopedia of Religion in the South">Samuel S Hill, Charles H Lippy, Charles Reagan Wilson, ''Encyclopedia of Religion in the South'', Mercer University Press, 2005, {{ISBN|978-0-86554-758-2}} pp. 854</ref>{{rp|214}}<ref name="Garrett 2002" />{{rp|449}}<ref name="Rhodes 2005"/>{{rp|124}}<ref name = "Unauthorized Guide">{{Citation | first = Carmen Renee | last = Berry | title = The Unauthorized Guide to Choosing a Church | publisher = Brazos Press | year = 2003 | isbn = 1-58743-036-3 | url-access = registration | url = https://archive.org/details/unauthorizedguid00berr }}.</ref>{{rp|238}}<ref name="Perfect Stranger">{{Citation | first1 = Stuart M | last1 = Matlins | first2 = Arthur J | last2 = Magida | first3 = J | last3 = Magida | title = How to Be a Perfect Stranger: A Guide to Etiquette in Other People's Religious Ceremonies | publisher = Wood Lake | year = 1999 | isbn = 978-1-896836-28-7 | chapter = 6&nbsp;– Churches of Christ}}, 426 pp.</ref>{{rp |103}}<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Doctrine of the Church">Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L. Dunnavant, ''The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Christian Churches/Churches of Christ, Churches of Christ'', Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2004, page 206, entry on ''Church, Doctrine of the''</ref>

After the separation from the Churches of Christ, tensions remained among the Disciples of Christ over theological liberalism, the nascent ecumenical movement and "open membership."<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Churches/Churches of Christ">Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L. Dunnavant, ''The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Christian Churches/Churches of Christ, Churches of Christ'', Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2004, {{ISBN|0-8028-3898-7}}, {{ISBN|978-0-8028-3898-8}}, 854 pages, entry on ''Christian Churches/Churches of Christ''</ref>{{rp|185}} While the process was lengthy, the more conservative unaffiliated Christian Church/Church of Christ congregations eventually emerged as a separately identifiable religious body from the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ).<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Churches/Churches of Christ" />{{rp |185}} Some commentators believe divisions in the movement have resulted from the tension between the goals of restoration and ecumenism, and see the Churches of Christ and unaffiliated Christian Church/Church of Christ congregations resolving the tension by stressing restoration while the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) resolve the tension by stressing ecumenism.<ref name="Encyclopedia of Religion in the South" />{{rp|210}}<ref name="Garrett 2002" />{{rp|383}}

All of the three major U.S. branches of the movement share the following characteristics:
* A high view, compared to other Christian traditions, of the office of the elder; and<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Ministry">Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L. Dunnavant, ''The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Christian Churches/Churches of Christ, Churches of Christ'', Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2004, {{ISBN|0-8028-3898-7}}, {{ISBN|978-0-8028-3898-8}}, 854 pages, entry on ''Ministry''</ref>{{rp|532}}
* A "commitment to the priesthood of all believers".<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Ministry" />{{rp |532}}

The term "restoration movement" has remained popular among the Churches of Christ and the unaffiliated Christian Church/Church of Christ congregations.<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Names of the Movement" />{{rp |551}} Because of the emphasis it places on the theme of restoration, it has been a less comfortable fit for those whose primary focus has been on the theme of unity.<ref name= "Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Names of the Movement" />{{rp |551}} Historically, the term "Disciples of Christ" has also been used by some as a collective designation for the movement.<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Names of the Movement" />{{rp |551}} It has evolved, however, into a designation for a particular branch of the movement—the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ)—as a result of the divisions of the late 19th and early 20th centuries.<ref name = "Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Names of the Movement" />{{rp|551}}

The movement as a whole grew significantly over the course of the 20th century, and the relative size of the different groups associated with the movement shifted as well.<ref name=ARDA2000>{{cite web |url= http://www.thearda.com/mapsReports/reports/US_2000.asp |title= The Association of Religion Data Archives (ARDA), Year 2000 Report |publisher= [[Association of Religion Data Archives|ARDA]] |year= 2000 |access-date= November 26, 2013}}  Churches were asked for their membership numbers.</ref>

{| class="wikitable" | align=center
|+ Relative Size of Restoration Movement Groups in 2000<ref name=ARDA2000/>
|-
!  !! Congregations !! Members
|-
|- align="right"
| [[Christian Church (Disciples of Christ)]] || 3,625  || 785,776
|-
|- align="right"
| Unaffiliated [[Christian Church/Church of Christ congregations]] || 5,293  || 1,453,160
|-
|- align="right"
| [[Churches of Christ]] || 12,584  || 1,584,162
|-
|- align="right"
| [[International Churches of Christ]] || 450  || 120 000
|}

==Subsequent development of the Christian Churches (Disciples of Christ)==
{{main|Christian Church (Disciples of Christ)}}
Following the 1906 separation of the Churches of Christ, controversy still existed within the movement over whether the missionary efforts should be cooperative or independently sponsored by congregations. Questions on the role of the methods of biblical criticism to the study and interpretation of the Bible were also among the issues in conflict.<ref name="Garrison & DeGroot, 1948" />{{rp|418–20}} An awareness of [[historical criticism]] began developing in the 1880s, and by the 1920s many Disciples accepted the work of the higher critics.<ref name = "Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: CC(DOC)"/>{{rp|178}} By that time the question of "open membership," or "admission of the pious unimmersed to membership" had arisen as an additional source of tension.<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: CC(DOC)">Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L. Dunnavant, ''The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Christian Churches/Churches of Christ, Churches of Christ'', Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2004, {{ISBN|0-8028-3898-7}}, {{ISBN|978-0-8028-3898-8}}, 854 pages, entry on ''Christian Church (Disciples of Christ)''</ref>{{rp|182}}<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Baptism">Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L. Dunnavant, ''The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Christian Churches/Churches of Christ, Churches of Christ'', Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2004, {{ISBN|0-8028-3898-7}}, {{ISBN|978-0-8028-3898-8}}, 854 pages, entry on ''Baptism''</ref>{{rp|63}} During the first half of the 20th century the opposing factions among the Christian Churches coexisted but with discomfort. The three missionary societies were merged into the United Christian Missionary Society in 1920.<ref name="Garrison & DeGroot, 1948" />{{rp|428,429}} Human service ministries grew through the National Benevolent Association providing assistance to orphans, the elderly and the disabled. By mid century, the cooperative Christian Churches and the independent Christian Churches were following different paths.

By 1926 a split began to form within the Disciples over the future direction of the church. Conservatives within the group began to have problems with the perceived liberalism of the leadership, upon the same grounds described earlier in the accepting of instrumental music in worship. In 1927 they held the first North American Christian Convention, and the unaffiliated Christian Church/Church of Christ congregations began to emerge as a distinct group from the Disciples, although the break was not formalized until the late 1960s. By this time the decennial religious census was a thing of the past and could not be used as a delineation as it was in 1906.

Following World War II, it was believed that the organizations that had been developed in previous decades no longer effectively met the needs of the postwar era.<ref name="McAlister & Tucker, 1975" />{{rp|419}} After several discussions throughout the 1950s, the 1960 [[International Convention of Christian Churches]] adopted a process to plan the "restructure" of the entire organization.<ref name="McAlister & Tucker, 1975" />{{rp|421}} The Commission on Restructure, chaired by Granville T. Walker, held its first meeting October 30 and November 1, 1962.<ref name="McAlister & Tucker, 1975" />{{rp|436–37}} In 1968, at the International Convention of Christian Churches (Disciples of Christ), those Christian Churches that favored cooperative mission work adopted a new "provisional design" for their work together, becoming the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ).<ref name="Garrett 2002" />{{rp|495}} Those congregations that chose not to be associated with the new denominational organization went their own way as the unaffiliated Christian Church/Church of Christ congregations, completing a separation that had begun decades before.<ref name="Garrett 2002" />{{rp|407–9}}

The Disciples of Christ still have their own internal conservative-liberal tension. In 1985, a movement of conservative congregations and individuals among the Disciples formed the "Disciple Renewal."<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Disciple Heritage Fellowship">Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L. Dunnavant, ''The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Christian Churches/Churches of Christ, Churches of Christ'', Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2004, {{ISBN|0-8028-3898-7}}, {{ISBN|978-0-8028-3898-8}}, 854 pages, entry on ''Disciple Heritage Fellowship''</ref>{{rp |272}} They thought that others in the Disciples fellowship had increasingly liberal views on issues such as the lordship of Christ, the authority of the Bible, and tolerance of homosexuality.<ref name ="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Disciple Heritage Fellowship" />{{rp |272}} In 1985 the Disciples General Assembly rejected a resolution on the inspiration of scripture; afterward, the Disciple Renewal planned to encourage renewal from within the fellowship through founding a journal entitled ''Disciple Renewal''.<ref name= "Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Disciple Heritage Fellowship" />{{rp |272}} Conservative members were concerned that the Disciples had abandoned the fundamental principles of the Restoration Movement.<ref name = "Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Disciple Heritage Fellowship" />{{rp |272}}

In 1995 the Disciple Heritage Fellowship<ref>{{Citation | url = http://www.disciple-heritage.org/ | title = Disciple heritage}}.</ref> was established. It is a fellowship of autonomous congregations, about half of which are formally associated with the Disciples of Christ.<ref name = "Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Disciple Heritage Fellowship" />{{rp|272}} {{As of |2002}} the Disciples Heritage Fellowship included 60 congregations and 100 "supporting" churches.<ref name = "Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Disciple Heritage Fellowship" />{{rp |272}} The Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) has experienced a significant loss of membership since the middle of the 20th century. Membership peaked in 1958 at just under 2 million.<ref name="Arda Profile CC(Doc)">[http://www.thearda.com/Denoms/D_1071.asp Christian Church (Disciples of Christ): Denominational Profile], [[Association of Religion Data Archives]] website (accessed November 27, 2013)</ref> In 1993, membership dropped below 1 million. In 2009, the denomination reported 658,869 members in 3,691 congregations.<ref name="Arda Profile CC(Doc)" /> As of 2010, the five states with the highest adherence rates were Kansas, Missouri, Iowa, Kentucky and Oklahoma.<ref name="Arda Profile CC(Doc) – Distribution">[http://www.thearda.com/Denoms/D_1071_d.asp Christian Church (Disciples of Christ): Distribution], [[Association of Religion Data Archives]] website (accessed November 27, 2013)</ref> The states with the largest absolute number of adherents were Missouri, Texas, Indiana, Kentucky and Ohio.<ref name="Arda Profile CC(Doc) – Adherents by State">[http://www.thearda.com/mapsReports/maps/ArdaMap.asp?Map1=152&map2=&alpha= Christian Church (Disciples of Christ): Map by Number of Adherents], [[Association of Religion Data Archives]] website (accessed November 27, 2013)</ref>

==Subsequent development of the unaffiliated congregations==
{{anchor|Subsequent development of the Christian churches and churches of Christ}}
{{main|Christian churches and churches of Christ|l1=Unaffiliated Christian Church/Church of Christ congregations}}
Independent Christian churches and churches of Christ have both organizational and [[Hermeneutics|hermeneutic]] differences with the Churches of Christ.<ref name="Encyclopedia of Religion in the South" />{{rp|186}} For example, they have a loosely organized convention, and they view scriptural silence on an issue more permissively.<ref name="Encyclopedia of Religion in the South" />{{rp |186}} Nonetheless, they are much more closely related to the Churches of Christ in their theology and [[ecclesiology]] than they are with the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ).<ref name="Encyclopedia of Religion in the South" />{{rp |186}}

The development of the unaffiliated Christian Church/Church of Christ congregations as a separately identifiable religious body from the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) was a lengthy process.<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Churches/Churches of Christ"/>{{rp|185}} The roots of the separation can be found in the polarization resulting from three major controversies that arose during the early 20th century.<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Churches/Churches of Christ" />{{rp |185}} One, which was a source of division in other religious groups, was "the theological development of modernism and liberalism."<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Churches/Churches of Christ" />{{rp|185}} The early stages of the ecumenical movement, which led in 1908 to the [[Federal Council of Churches]], provide a second source of controversy.<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Churches/Churches of Christ" />{{rp|185}} The third was the practice of open membership, in which individuals who had not been baptized by immersion were granted full membership in the church.<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Churches/Churches of Christ" />{{rp|185}} Those who supported one of these points of view tended to support the others as well.<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Churches/Churches of Christ" />{{rp|185}}

The Disciples of Christ were, in 1910, a united, growing community with common goals.<ref name="Kragenbrink 2000">{{Citation | first = Kevin R | last = Kragenbrink | url = http://www.acu.edu/sponsored/restoration_quarterly/archives/2000s/vol_42_no_1_contents/kragenbrink.html | title = The Modernist/Fundamentalist Controversy and the Emergence of the Independent Christian Churches/Churches of Christ | journal = [[Restoration Quarterly]] | volume = 42 | number = 1 | year = 2000 | pages = 1–17 | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20131110040322/http://www.acu.edu/sponsored/restoration_quarterly/archives/2000s/vol_42_no_1_contents/kragenbrink.html | archive-date = 2013-11-10 }}.</ref> Support by the United Christian Missionary Society of missionaries who advocated open membership became a source of contention in 1920.<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Churches/Churches of Christ" />{{rp |185}} Efforts to recall support for these missionaries failed in a 1925 convention in [[Oklahoma City]] and a 1926 convention in [[Memphis, Tennessee]].<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Churches/Churches of Christ" />{{rp |185}} Many congregations withdrew from the missionary society as a result.<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Churches/Churches of Christ" />{{rp |185}}

The [[North American Christian Convention]] was organized by the more conservative congregations in 1927.<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Churches/Churches of Christ" />{{rp|185}} The ''Christian Standard'' served as a source of cohesion for these congregations.<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Churches/Churches of Christ" />{{rp |185}} From the 1960s on, newer unaffiliated missionary organizations like the Christian Missionary Fellowship (today, [[Christian Missionary Fellowship International]]) were working more on a national scale in the United States to rally Christian Church/Church of Christ congregations in international missions.<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Churches/Churches of Christ" />{{rp |9}} By this time the division between liberals and conservatives was well established.<ref name="Kragenbrink 2000" />

The official separation between the independent Christian churches and Churches of Christ and the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) is difficult to date.<ref name="Garrett 2002" />{{rp |407}} Suggestions range from 1926 to 1971 based on the events outlined below:
* 1926: The first North American Christian Convention in 1927<ref name="Garrett 2002" />{{rp|407}} was the result of disillusionment at the Memphis convention.
* 1944: International Convention of Disciples elects as president a proponent of open membership<ref name="Garrett 2002" />{{rp |408}}
* 1948: The Commission on Restudy, appointed to help avoid a split, disbands<ref name="Garrett 2002" />{{rp |409}}
* 1955: The Directory of the Ministry was first published listing only the "Independents" on a voluntary basis.<ref name="Garrett 2002" />{{rp |408}}
* 1968: Final redaction of the Disciples Year Book removing Independent churches<ref name="Garrett 2002" />{{rp |408}}
* 1971: Independent churches listed separately in the Yearbook of American Churches.<ref name="Garrett 2002" />{{rp |408}}

Because of this separation, many independent Christian churches and Churches of Christ are not only non-denominational, they can be anti-denominational, avoiding even the appearance or language associated with denominationalism holding true to their Restoration roots.

==Subsequent development of the Churches of Christ==
{{main|Churches of Christ}}
One of the issues leading to the 1906 separation was the question of organizational structures above the level of the local congregation. Since then, Churches of Christ have maintained an ongoing commitment to church governance that is [[Congregationalist polity|congregational]] only, rather than denominational. Churches of Christ purposefully have no central headquarters, councils, or other organizational structure above the local church level.<ref name="Encyclopedia of Religion in the South" />{{rp|214}}<ref name="Rhodes 2005"/>{{rp|124}}<ref name="Unauthorized Guide"/>{{rp|238}}<ref name="Perfect Stranger"/>{{rp |103}}<ref>"Churches of Christ from the beginning have maintained no formal organization structures larger than the local congregations and no official journals or vehicles declaring sanctioned positions. Consensus views do, however, often emerge through the influence of opinion leaders who express themselves in journals, at lectureships, or at area preacher meetings and other gatherings" page 213, Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L. Dunnavant, ''The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Christian Churches/Churches of Christ, Churches of Christ'', Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2004, {{ISBN|0-8028-3898-7}}, {{ISBN|978-0-8028-3898-8}}, 854 pages</ref> Rather, the independent congregations are a network with each congregation participating at its own discretion in various means of service and fellowship with other congregations (see [[Sponsoring church (Churches of Christ)]]).<ref name= "Rhodes 2005" />{{rp |124}}<ref name="Who Are the churches of Christ">{{Citation | first = Batsell Barrett | last = Baxter | author-link = Batsell Barrett Baxter | title = Who are the churches of Christ and what do they believe in? | publisher = Woodson chapel | url = http://www.woodsonchapel.com/coc.php | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080502001629/http://www.woodsonchapel.com/coc.php | archive-date = 2008-05-02 }}.</ref><ref>"Churches of Christ adhere to a strict congregationalism that cooperates in various projects overseen by one congregation or organized as parachurch enterprises, but many congregations hold themselves apart from such cooperative projects." Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L. Dunnavant, ''The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Christian Churches/Churches of Christ, Churches of Christ'', Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2004, page 206, entry on ''Church, Doctrine of the''</ref><ref>"It is nothing less than phenomenal that the Churches of Christ get so much done without any centralized planning or structure. Everything is ''ad hoc''. Most programs emerge from the inspiration and commitment of a single congregation or even a single person. Worthwhile projects survive and prosper by the voluntary cooperation of other individuals and congregations." Page 449, Leroy Garrett, ''The Stone-Campbell Movement: The Story of the American Restoration Movement'', College Press, 2002, {{ISBN|0-89900-909-3}}, {{ISBN|978-0-89900-909-4}}, 573 pages</ref> Churches of Christ are linked by their shared commitment to restoration principles.<ref name = "Perfect Stranger" />{{rp|106}}<ref name= "Who Are the churches of Christ" />

Since Churches of Christ are autonomous and purposefully do not maintain an ecclesiastical hierarchy or doctrinal council, it is not unusual to find variations from congregation to congregation. There are many notable consistencies, however; for example, very few Church of Christ buildings display a cross, a practice common in other Christian churches. The approach taken to restoring the New Testament church has focused on "methods and procedures" such as church organization, the form of worship, and how the church should function. As a result, most divisions among Churches of Christ have been the result of "methodological" disputes. These are meaningful to members of this movement because of the seriousness with which they take the goal of "restoring the form and structure of the primitive church."<ref name="Encyclopedia of Religion in the South" />{{rp |212}}

Three quarters of the congregations and 87% of the membership are described by ''The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement'' as "mainstream," sharing a consensus on practice and theology.<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Churches of Christ">Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L. Dunnavant, ''The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Christian Churches/Churches of Christ, Churches of Christ'', Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2004, {{ISBN|0-8028-3898-7}}, {{ISBN|978-0-8028-3898-8}}, 854 pages, entry on ''Churches of Christ''</ref>{{rp|213}} The remaining congregations may be grouped into four categories which generally differ from the mainstream consensus in specific practices, rather than in theological perspectives, and tend to have smaller congregations on average.<ref name = "Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Churches of Christ" />{{rp |213}} The largest of these four categories is the [[Churches of Christ (non-institutional)|"non-institutional" Churches of Christ]]. This group is notable for opposing congregational support of institutions such as orphans homes and Bible colleges. Approximately 2,055 congregations fall in this category.<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Churches of Christ" />{{rp|213}}<ref name="Who">{{Cite web|url = http://www.christianchronicle.org/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=621 |title= Who are we? |access-date = 2007-10-29 |last= Ross |first= Bobby Jr | work =Features |publisher=The Christian Chronicle}}</ref> The remaining three groups, whose congregations are generally considerably smaller than those of the mainstream or "non-institutional" groups, also oppose institutional support but differ from the "non-institutional" group by other beliefs and practices:<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Churches of Christ" />{{rp|213}}<ref name="Who" />

*One group opposes separate "[[Sunday school]]" classes; this group consists of approximately 1,100 congregations.
*Another group opposes the use of multiple communion cups (the term "one-cupper" is often used, sometimes pejoratively, to describe this group); there approximately 550 congregations in this group, and this group overlaps somewhat with those congregations that oppose separate Sunday school classes.
*The smallest group "emphasize[s] mutual edification by various leaders in the churches and oppose[s] one person doing most of the preaching." This group includes roughly 130 congregations.

While there are no official membership statistics for the Churches of Christ, growth appears to have been relatively steady through the 20th century.<ref name="Hughes and Roberts, 2001">{{Citation | first1 = Richard Thomas | last1 = Hughes | first2 = RL | last2 = Roberts | title = The Churches of Christ | edition = 2nd | publisher = Greenwood | year = 2001 | isbn = 978-0-313-23312-8 | page=345}}</ref>{{rp|4}} One source estimates total U.S. membership at 433,714 in 1926; 558,000 in 1936; 682,000 in 1946; 835,000 in 1965; and 1,250,000 in 1994.<ref name = "Hughes and Roberts, 2001" />{{rp |4}}

===Separation of the International Churches of Christ===
The [[International Churches of Christ]] (ICOC) had their roots in a "discipling" movement that arose among the mainline Churches of Christ during the 1970s.<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: ICOC">Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L. Dunnavant, ''The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Christian Churches/Churches of Christ, Churches of Christ'', Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2004, {{ISBN|0-8028-3898-7}}, {{ISBN|978-0-8028-3898-8}}, 854 pages, entry on ''International Churches of Christ''</ref>{{rp|418}} This discipling movement developed in the campus ministry of Chuck Lucas.<ref name= "Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: ICOC" />{{rp |418}} In 1967, Chuck Lucas was minister of the 14th Street Church of Christ in [[Gainesville, Florida]] (later renamed the Crossroads Church of Christ). That year he started a new project known as Campus Advance (based on principles borrowed from the [[Cru (Christian organization)|Campus Crusade]] and the [[Shepherding movement]]). Centered on the [[University of Florida]], the program called for a strong evangelistic outreach and an intimate religious atmosphere in the form of ''soul talks'' and ''prayer partners. Soul talks'' were held in student residences and involved prayer and sharing overseen by a leader who delegated authority over group members. ''Prayer partners ''refers to the practice of pairing a new Christian with an older guide for personal assistance and direction. Both procedures led to "in-depth involvement of each member in one another's lives," and critics accused Lucas of fostering cultism.<ref name="alt religions">{{Cite book | last = Paden | first = Russell | editor-first = Timothy | editor-last = Miller | title = America's Alternative Religions | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=og_u0Re1uwUC&q=%22international+churches+of+christ%22%7C%22boston+church+of+christ%22 | access-date = 2007-08-07 |date=July 1995 | publisher = State University of New York Press | location = Albany | isbn = 978-0-7914-2397-4 | pages = 133–36 | chapter = The Boston Church of Christ | chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=og_u0Re1uwUC&q=%22international+churches+of+christ%22%7C%22boston+church+of+christ%22&pg=PA133}}</ref>

The Crossroads movement later spread into some other Churches of Christ congregations. One of Lucas' converts, [[Kip McKean]], moved to the Boston area in 1979 and began working with the Lexington Church of Christ.<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: ICOC" />{{rp|418}} He asked the congregation to "redefine their commitment to Christ," and introduced the use of discipling partners. The congregation grew rapidly and was renamed Boston Church of Christ.<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: ICOC" />{{rp|418}} In the early 1980s, the focus of the movement moved to Boston where McKean and the Boston Church of Christ became prominently associated with the trend. With the national leadership located in Boston, during the 1980s it commonly became known as the "Boston movement."<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: ICOC" />{{rp|418}}

In 1990 the Crossroads Church of Christ broke with the Boston movement and, through a letter written to ''[[The Christian Chronicle]]'', attempted to restore relations with the mainline Churches of Christ.<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: ICOC" />{{rp|419}} By the early 1990s some first-generation leaders had become disillusioned by the movement and left.<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: ICOC" />{{rp|419}} The movement was first recognized as an independent religious group in 1992 when John Vaughn, a church growth specialist at [[Fuller Theological Seminary]], listed them as a separate entity.<ref name="ReferenceA">Stanback, C. Foster. Into All Nations: A History of the International Churches of Christ. IPI, 2005</ref> [[Time (magazine)|''Time'']] magazine ran a full-page story on the movement in 1992 calling them "one of the world's fastest-growing and most innovative bands of Bible thumpers" that had grown into "a global empire of 103 congregations from California to Cairo with total Sunday attendance of 50,000".<ref>Ostling, Richard N. "Keepers of the Flock." Time Magazine, May 18, 1992.</ref>

A formal break was made from the mainline Churches of Christ in 1993 when the movement organized under the name "International Churches of Christ."<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: ICOC" />{{rp|418}} This designation formalized a division that was already in existence between those involved with the Crossroads/Boston movement and "mainline" Churches of Christ.<ref name="Garrett 2002" /><ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: ICOC" />{{rp|418}} Other names that have been used for this movement include the "Multiplying Ministries" and the "Discipling Movement".<ref name="alt religions" />

==Reunion efforts==
Efforts have been made to restore unity among the various branches of the Restoration Movement. In 1984 a "Restoration Summit" was held at the [[Ozark Christian College]], with 50 representatives of both the Churches of Christ and the unaffiliated Christian Church/Church of Christ congregations.<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Restoration Forums">Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L. Dunnavant, ''The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Christian Churches/Churches of Christ, Churches of Christ'', Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2004, {{ISBN|0-8028-3898-7}}, {{ISBN|978-0-8028-3898-8}}, 854 pages, entry on ''Restoration Forums''</ref>{{rp|642}} Later meetings were open to all and were known as "Restoration Forums."<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Restoration Forums" />{{rp|642}} Beginning in 1986 they have been held annually, generally in October or November, with the hosting venue alternating between the Churches of Christ and the Christian churches and churches of Christ.<ref name = "Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Restoration Forums" />{{rp |642}} Topics discussed have included issues such as instrumental music, the nature of the church, and practical steps for promoting unity.<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Restoration Forums" />{{rp |642}}

Efforts were made in the early 21st century to include representatives of the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ).<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Restoration Forums" />{{rp|642}} These efforts followed the "Stone-Campbell Dialogue," which was a series of meetings beginning in 1999 that included representatives of all three major U.S. branches of the Restoration Movement.<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Restoration Forums" />{{rp |642}}<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Stone-Campbell Dialogue">Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L. Dunnavant, ''The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Christian Churches/Churches of Christ, Churches of Christ'', Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2004, {{ISBN|0-8028-3898-7}}, {{ISBN|978-0-8028-3898-8}}, 854 pages, entry on ''Stone-Campbell Dialogue''</ref>{{rp|720}} The first full meeting in 1999 included six representatives from each of the three traditions.<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Stone-Campbell Dialogue" />{{rp|720}} Meetings were held twice annually, and in 2001 were expanded to include anyone associated with the Restoration Movement who was interested in attending.<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Stone-Campbell Dialogue" />{{rp|720}} Also, special efforts were made in 2006 to create more intentional fellowship between the various branches of the Movement.<ref name="Tryggstad and Ross, 2006">{{Citation | first1 = Erik | last1 = Tryggestad | first2 = Bobby jr | last2 = Ross | url = http://www.christianchronicle.org/article179~1906_-_2006:_100_years_later,_can_we_converse_across_the_keyboard%3F | title = 1906–2006: 100 years later, can we converse across the keyboard? | newspaper = Christian Chronicle | date = February 1, 2006 | access-date = November 27, 2009 }}{{dead link|date=September 2018|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}.</ref><ref name="Faust 2009">{{Citation | first = David | last = Faust | url = http://www.christianstandard.com/articledisplay.asp?id=1241 | title = The 2006 Unity Efforts–Three Years Later | newspaper = Christian Standard | date = May 24, 2009 | access-date = November 27, 2009 }}{{dead link|date=April 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}.</ref> This was in conjunction with the centennial anniversary of the "official" recognition of the split between the Christian Church and the Churches of Christ by the U.S. Census in 1906.<ref name="Tryggstad and Ross, 2006" /><ref name="Faust 2009" /> One example of this was the hosting by [[Abilene Christian University]] (ACU) of the annual Restoration Unity Forum for 2006 as part of the university's annual Bible lectureship.<ref>{{Citation | url = http://www.acu.edu/news/2006/060216_Lectureship.html | contribution = ACU Bible Lectureship to focus on truth this spring; lectures moving to fall | publisher = [[Abilene Christian University]] | title = News | date = February 16, 2006 | access-date = January 21, 2009 | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070808070238/http://www.acu.edu/news/2006/060216_Lectureship.html | archive-date = August 8, 2007 }}.</ref> During the program Don Jeanes, president of [[Milligan University|Milligan College]] and [[Royce Money]], president of ACU, jointly gave a presentation on the first chapter of the [[Gospel of John]].<ref>Jonathan Smith, [http://www.acuoptimist.com/2006/02/forum-aims-to-restore-unity-among-churches-after-a-century-since-their-split-was-recognized-leaders-from-the-church-of-christ-and-christian-church-meet-at-lectureship-for-the-restoration-unity-forum/ "Forum aims to restore unity among churches: After a century since their split was recognized, leaders from the Church of Christ and Christian Church meet at Lectureship for the Restoration Unity Forum,"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150614014918/http://www.acuoptimist.com/2006/02/forum-aims-to-restore-unity-among-churches-after-a-century-since-their-split-was-recognized-leaders-from-the-church-of-christ-and-christian-church-meet-at-lectureship-for-the-restoration-unity-forum/ |date=2015-06-14 }} ''The Optimist'', [[Abilene Christian University]], February 20, 2006 (accessed December 3, 2013)</ref> The 2004 ACU Lectureship included a forum with leaders from the Churches of Christ and the ICOC that included apologies from both groups.<ref>{{Citation |title=Disciples Today Video Episode 1, 2004 {{!}} ICOC |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Nv8uMdE6Cp8 |access-date=2024-01-04 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Tryggestad |first=Erik |date=2004-03-03 |title=ICOC, 'mainline' leaders meet at Abilene Christian |url=https://christianchronicle.org/icoc-mainline-leaders-meet-at-abilene-christian-1/ |access-date=2024-01-04 |website=The Christian Chronicle |language=en-US}}</ref>

==Timeline==
{{Restoration Movement Timeline graphical timeline|state=plain}}

==Churches outside North America==
Restoration Movement churches are found around the world, and the [[World Convention of Churches of Christ]] provides many national profiles.<ref>{{Citation | url = http://www.worldconvention.org/newsite/resources/profiles/ | title = Resources | contribution = Profiles | publisher = World convention}}.</ref> Their genealogies are representative of developments in North America. Their theological orientation ranges from fundamentalist to liberal to ecumenical. In some places they have joined with churches of other traditions to form united churches at local, regional or national level.{{Citation needed|date=January 2008}}

A group in [[Nottingham]] withdrew from the [[Baptist Union of Scotland|Scotch Baptist]] church in 1836 to form a Church of Christ.<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Great Britain and Ireland">Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L. Dunnavant, ''The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Christian Churches/Churches of Christ, Churches of Christ'', Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2004, {{ISBN|0-8028-3898-7}}, {{ISBN|978-0-8028-3898-8}}, 854 pages, entry on ''Great Britain and Ireland, Churches of Christ in''</ref>{{rp|369}} James Wallis, a member of that group, founded a magazine named ''[[The British Millennial Harbinger]]'' in 1837.<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Great Britain and Ireland" />{{rp|369}} In 1842 the first Cooperative Meeting of Churches of Christ in Great Britain was held in [[Edinburgh]].<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Great Britain and Ireland" />{{rp|369}} Approximately 50 congregations were involved, representing a membership of 1,600.<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Great Britain and Ireland" />{{rp|369}} The name "Churches of Christ" was formally adopted at an annual meeting in 1870.<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Great Britain and Ireland" />{{rp|369}} Alexander Campbell influenced the British Restoration Movement indirectly through his writings; he visited the Britain for several months in 1847, and "presided at the Second Cooperative Meeting of the British Churches at Chester."<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Great Britain and Ireland" />{{rp|369}} At that time the movement had grown to encompass 80 congregations with a total membership of 2,300.<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Great Britain and Ireland" />{{rp|369}} Annual meetings were held after 1847.<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Great Britain and Ireland" />{{rp|369}} The use of instrumental music in worship was not a source of division among the Churches of Christ in Great Britain before World War I. More significant was the issue of pacifism; a national conference was established in 1916 for congregations that opposed the war.<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Great Britain and Ireland" />{{rp|371}} A conference for "Old Paths" congregations was first held in 1924.<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Great Britain and Ireland" />{{rp|371}} The issues involved included concern that the Christian Association was compromising traditional principles in seeking ecumenical ties with other organizations and a sense that it had abandoned Scripture as "an all-sufficient rule of faith and practice."<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Great Britain and Ireland" />{{rp|371}} Two "Old Paths" congregations withdrew from the association in 1931; an additional two withdrew in 1934, and 19 more withdrew between 1943 and 1947.<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Great Britain and Ireland" />{{rp|371}} Membership declined rapidly during and after the First World War.<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Great Britain and Ireland" />{{rp|372}}<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Great Britain and Ireland" />{{rp|372}}<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Missions in Europe">Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L. Dunnavant, ''The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Christian Churches/Churches of Christ, Churches of Christ'', Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2004, {{ISBN|0-8028-3898-7}}, {{ISBN|978-0-8028-3898-8}}, 854 pages, entry on ''Europe, Missions in''</ref>{{rp|312}}  The Association of Churches of Christ in Britain disbanded in 1980.<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Great Britain and Ireland" />{{rp|372}}<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Missions in Europe" />{{rp|312}} Most association congregations (approximately 40) united with the [[United Reformed Church]] in 1981.<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Great Britain and Ireland" />{{rp|372}}<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Missions in Europe" />{{rp|312}} In the same year, 24 other congregations formed a Fellowship of Churches of Christ.<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Great Britain and Ireland" />{{rp|372}} The fellowship developed ties with the unaffiliated Christian Church/Church of Christ congregations during the 1980s.<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Great Britain and Ireland" />{{rp|372}}<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Missions in Europe" />{{rp|312}}

Historically, Restoration Movement groups from Great Britain were more influential than those from the United States in the early [[Churches of Christ in Australia|development of the movement in Australia]].<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Australia">Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L. Dunnavant, ''The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Christian Churches/Churches of Christ, Churches of Christ'', Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2004, {{ISBN|0-8028-3898-7}}, {{ISBN|978-0-8028-3898-8}}, 854 pages, entry on ''Australia, The Movement in''</ref>{{rp|47}} Churches of Christ grew up independently in several locations.<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Australia" />{{rp|47}} While early Churches of Christ in Australia saw creeds as divisive, towards the end of the 19th century they began viewing "summary statements of belief" as useful in tutoring second generation members and converts from other religious groups.<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Australia" />{{rp|50}} The period from 1875 through 1910 also saw debates over the use of musical instruments in worship, Christian Endeavor Societies and Sunday schools. Ultimately, all three found general acceptance in the movement.<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Australia" />{{rp|51}} Currently, the Restoration Movement is not as divided in Australia as it is in the United States.<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Australia" />{{rp|53}} There have been strong ties with the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), but many conservative ministers and congregations associate with the unaffiliated Christian Church/Church of Christ congregations instead.<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Australia" />{{rp|53}} Others have sought support from non-instrumental Churches of Christ, particularly those who felt that "conference" congregations had "departed from the restoration ideal."<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Australia" />{{rp|53}} The Fellowship of Churches of Christ and some Australian and New Zealand Churches advocate a "missional" emphasis with an ideal of "five fold leadership." Many people in more traditional Churches of Christ see these groups as having more in common with [[Pentecostalism|Pentecostal]] churches. The main publishing organs of traditional Churches of Christ in Britain are ''The Christian Worker'' magazine and the ''Scripture Standard'' magazine.

There are believed to be more than 1 million members of the Churches of Christ in Africa.<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Churches of Christ" />{{rp|212}} The total number of congregations is approximately 14,000.<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Missions in Africa">Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L. Dunnavant, ''The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Christian Churches/Churches of Christ, Churches of Christ'', Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2004, {{ISBN|0-8028-3898-7}}, {{ISBN|978-0-8028-3898-8}}, 854 pages, entry on ''Africa, Missions in''</ref>{{rp|7}} The most significant concentrations are in "Nigeria, Malawi, Ghana, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Ethiopia, South Africa and Kenya".<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Missions in Africa" />{{rp|7}}

India has historically been a target for missionary efforts; estimates are that there are 2,000 or more Restoration Movement congregations in India,<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Missions in Asia">Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L. Dunnavant, ''The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Christian Churches/Churches of Christ, Churches of Christ'', Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2004, {{ISBN|0-8028-3898-7}}, {{ISBN|978-0-8028-3898-8}}, 854 pages, entry on ''Asia, Missions in''</ref>{{rp|37,38}} with a membership of approximately 1,000,000.<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Churches of Christ" />{{rp|212}} More than 100 congregations exist in the Philippines.<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Missions in Asia" />{{rp|38}}  Growth in other Asian countries has been smaller but is still significant.<ref name="Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Missions in Asia" />{{rp|38}}

==See also==

* [[History of Christianity]]
* [[Christianity in the 18th century]]
* [[Christianity in the 19th century]]
* [[New religious movement]]
* [[Non-denominational Christianity]]
* [[List of Notable Women of the Restoration Movement|List of notable women of the Restoration Movement]]

=== Notable people ===
* Rice Haggard (1769–1819)<ref>{{Citation | last = Haggard | first = Rice | title = Texts | publisher = [[Memorial University of Newfoundland]] | place = [[Canada|CA]] | url = https://webfiles.acu.edu/departments/Library/HR/restmov_nov11/www.mun.ca/rels/restmov/people/rhaggard.html}}.</ref>
* [[Abner Jones]] (1772–1841)<ref>{{Citation | last = Jones | first = Abner | title = Texts | publisher = [[Memorial University of Newfoundland]] | place = [[Canada|CA]] | url = https://webfiles.acu.edu/departments/Library/HR/restmov_nov11/www.mun.ca/rels/restmov/people/ajones.html}}</ref>
* [[Thomas Campbell (clergyman)|Thomas Campbell]] (1763–1854)<ref>{{Citation | last = Campbell | first = Thomas | title = Texts | publisher = [[Memorial University of Newfoundland]] | place = [[Canada|CA]] | url = https://webfiles.acu.edu/departments/Library/HR/restmov_nov11/www.mun.ca/rels/restmov/people/tcampbell.html}}.</ref>
* [[Elijah Martindale]] (1793–1874), active in Indiana<ref>{{Citation | url = http://www.hcgs.net/eem.html | title = Elijah Martindale biography | publisher = The Henry County Genealogical Services}}.</ref><ref>{{Citation | url = http://www.therestorationmovement.com/martindale.htm | type = biography | title = Elijah Martindale | publisher = The Restoration Movement | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110927135708/http://www.therestorationmovement.com/martindale.htm | archive-date = 2011-09-27 }}.</ref>
* [[Amos Sutton Hayden]] (1813–1880)<ref>{{Citation | last = Hayden | first = Amos Sutton | title = Texts | publisher = [[Memorial University of Newfoundland]] | place = [[Canada|CA]] | url = https://webfiles.acu.edu/departments/Library/HR/restmov_nov11/www.mun.ca/rels/restmov/people/ahayden.html}}.</ref>
* [[James A. Garfield]] (1831–1881), first Restoration Movement member to be elected United States President, the others being [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] (1908–1973) and [[Ronald Reagan]] (1911–2004)
* [[Marshall Keeble]] (1878–1968) His successful preaching career notably bridged a [[racial segregation|racial divide]] in the Restoration Movement prior to the American Civil Rights Movement.<ref>{{Citation | url = http://www.therestorationmovement.com/keeble2.htm | title = Articles Appearing In The Gospel Advocate After The April 20, 1968 Death of Marshall Keeble | publisher = The restoration movement | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090416012745/http://www.therestorationmovement.com/keeble2.htm | archive-date = April 16, 2009 }}.</ref><ref>{{Citation | url = https://webfiles.acu.edu/departments/Library/HR/restmov_nov11/www.mun.ca/rels/restmov/people/mkeeble.html | last = Keeble | first = Marshall | title = Texts & recording | publisher = [[Memorial University of Newfoundland]]}}.</ref>
* [[Caroline Neville Pearre]]
* [[John Oakes (apologist)|John Oakes]]
* [[William Robinson (theologian)|William Robinson]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Bibliography==
{{refbegin}}
* {{Citation | first1 = C Leonard | last1 = Allen | first2 = Richard T | last2 = Hughes | title = Discovering Our Roots: The Ancestry of Churches of Christ | place = Abilene, [[Texas|TX]] | publisher = ACU Press | year = 1988}}.
* {{Citation | first = Robert Oldham | last = Fife | title = The Restoration Movement and the Ecumenical Movement | newspaper = Leaven | volume = 7 | issue = 4 | date = Fall 1999}}.
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* {{Citation | first = Jerry | last = Jones | title = What Does the Boston Movement Teach? | volume = 1–3 | place = Bridgeton, [[Missouri|MO]] | publisher = Jerry Jones, 12880 Bittick | year = 1991–93}}.
* {{Citation | last = Jennings | first = Walter Wilson | title = Origin and Early History of the Disciples of Christ | place = Cincinnati | publisher = Standard | year = 1919}}.
* {{Citation | last = Morrill | first = Milo True | title = History of the Christian Denomination in America | place = Dayton | publisher = The Christian Publishing Association | year = 1912}}.
* {{Citation | last = Murch | first = James DeForest | title = Christians Only | place = Cincinnati | publisher = Standard | year = 1962}}.
* {{Citation | last = North | first = James B | year = 1994 | title = Union in Truth: An Interpretive History of the Restoration Movement | place = Cincinnati, [[Ohio|OH]] | publisher = The Standard | isbn = 0-7847-0197-0}}.
* {{Citation | author-link = Earl Irvin West| last = West | first = Earl Irvin | year = 2002 | title = The Search for the Ancient Order | volume = 1 | publisher = Gospel Light | isbn = 0-89225-154-9}}.
* {{Citation | first = Martin Edward | last = Wooten | title = The Boston Movement as a 'Revitalization Movement' | type = D.Min. thesis | publisher = Harding Graduate School of Religion | year = 1990}}.
* {{Citation | editor-first = Flavil R | editor-last = Yeakley | title = The Discipling Dilemma: A Study of the Discipling Movement Among Churches of Christ | place = Nashville | publisher = Gospel Advocate | year = 1988}}.
* {{Citation | last = Zuber | first = Glenn | year = 1993 | title = The Gospel of Temperance: Early Disciple Women Preachers and the WCTU | journal = Discipliana | volume = 53 | pages = 47–60}}.
* {{Citation | last = Zuber | first = Glenn | author-mask = 3 | year = 2002 | contribution = Mainline Women Ministers: Women Missionary and Temperance Organizers Become 'Disciples of Christ' Ministers, 1888–1908 | title = The Stone-Campbell Movement: An International Religious Tradition | editor1-first = Michael | editor1-last = Casey | editor2-first = Douglas A | editor2-last = Foster | pages = 292–316}}.
* {{Citation | last = Zuber | first = Glenn | author-mask = 3 | contribution = Temperance | editor1-first = Douglas Allen | editor1-last = Foster | editor1-link = Douglas A. Foster | editor2-first = Anthony L | editor2-last = Dunnavant | editor3-first = Paul M | editor3-last = Blowers | editor4-first = D Newell  | editor4-last = Williams  | title = The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Christian Churches/Churches of Christ, Churches of Christ | place = Grand Rapids, [[Michigan|MI]] | publisher = William B Eerdmans | year = 2004 | isbn = 978-0-8028-3898-8 | pages = 728–9}}.
* {{Citation | place = United States | editor = Department of Commerce and Labor, Bureau of the Census | title = Religious Bodies, 1906 | publisher = United States Printing Office | year = 1910 | page = 236}}.
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Restoration movement}}
* {{Citation | type = documentary | url = http://www.cyrilchurch.com/cyril_church_of_christ_052.htm | title = Our Restoration Heritage | first = William 'Bill' | last = Humble | publisher = Cyril church | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110708215321/http://www.cyrilchurch.com/cyril_church_of_christ_052.htm | archive-date = 2011-07-08 }}.
* {{Citation | url = http://www.therestorationmovement.com/ | title = Restoration History | type = historical texts and recordings}}.
* {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120615004742/http://www.mun.ca/rels/restmov/subs/texts.html |date=June 15, 2012 |title=''Restoration Movement Texts'' }}
* {{Citation | url=https://webfiles.acu.edu/departments/Library/HR/restmov_nov11/www.mun.ca/rels/restmov/index.html | title = The Restoration Movement Pages | publisher = [[Abilene Christian University]] | type = historical texts, images, biographies and other resources}}
* {{Citation | url = http://www.discipleshistory.org/ | title = Disciples of Christ Historical Society}}. Holds artifacts and records relating to the Restoration Movement.

{{Restoration Movement}}
{{Presbyterian Church in the United States of America}}
{{Christian History|collapsed}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Restoration Movement| ]]
[[Category:Christian revivals]]
[[Category:Nondenominational Christianity]]