View source for Mahakala

{{short description|God in Hinduism and Tantric Buddhism}}
{{for multi|Mahakala Temple|Mahakaleshwar Jyotirlinga|the dinosaur genus|Mahakala (dinosaur)}}
{{Infobox deity
| type = Hindu
| image = Mahakala and Companions LACMA M.77.19.11.jpg
| caption = Mahākāla and companions
| name = Mahakala
| affiliation = [[Shiva]] 
| deity_of = God of Time, Maya, Creation, Destruction and Power
| abode = [[Shmashana|Śmaśāna]] (but varies by interpretation)
| consort = [[Parvati]] as [[Mahakali]]
| mantra = 
| weapon = [[Khanda (sword)|Khanda]], [[Trishula]], <br/>[[Hammer]] (in Japanese depictions)
| festivals = 
| mount = 
}}

'''Mahākāla''' ({{langx|sa|महाकाल}}, {{IPA|sa|mɐɦaːˈkaːlɐ|pron}}) is a [[deity]] common to [[Hinduism]] and [[Buddhism]].{{sfnp|Bryson|2017|p=42}} 

In Buddhism, Mahākāla is regarded as a ''[[Dharmapala|Dharmapāla]]'' ("Protector of the [[Dharma]]") and a [[Wrathful deities|wrathful manifestation]] of a [[The Buddha|Buddha]], while in Hinduism, Mahākāla is a fierce manifestation of the [[Hindu deities|Hindu god]] [[Shiva]] and the consort of the [[Deva (Hinduism)|goddess]] [[Mahakali|Mahākālī]];{{sfnp|Bryson|2017|p=42}} he most prominently appears in the [[Shaktism#Kalikula: family of Kali|''Kalikula'']] sect of [[Shaktism]].{{sfnp|Magee|n.d.}}{{sfnp|Bhattacharya Saxena|2011}}{{sfnp|Johnson|2009|p={{page needed|date=December 2021}}}} 

Mahākāla appears as a protector deity in the various traditions of [[Vajrayana]] Buddhism, like [[Chinese Esoteric Buddhism]], [[Shingon Buddhism|Shingon]], and [[Tibetan Buddhism]].{{sfnp|Bryson|2017|p=42}} He is known as ''Dàhēitiān'' and '' Daaih'hāktīn'' ([[wiktionary:大黑天|大黑天]]) in Mandarin and Cantonese, ''Daeheukcheon'' (대흑천) in Korean, ''Đại Hắc Thiên'' in Vietnamese, and ''[[Daikokuten]]'' ([[wiktionary:大黒天|大黒天]]) in Japanese.

==Etymology==
{{IAST|Mahākāla}} is a [[Sanskrit]] [[bahuvrihi]] of ''{{IAST|mahā}}'' "great" and ''{{IAST|kāla}}'' "time/death", which means "beyond time" or death.{{sfnp|Mookerjee|1988|p={{page needed|date=December 2021}}}}

{{bo|t=ནག་པོ་ཆེན་པོ།|s=nak po chen po}} means "Great Black One". {{bo|t=མགོན་པོ།|s=gön po}} "Protector" is also used to refer specifically to Mahākāla.

==Description==
[[file:MET 36 DP310530R3 61D.jpg|thumb|Indian Buddhist Mahakala, 11th–12th century, Bihar]]
[[File:Basalt Mahalaka from Orissa.JPG|thumb|A basalt statue of Mahākāla from [[Odisha]], dated to the [[Pala Empire|Pala period]] ([[East Bengal|eastern Bengal]], 1100–1200 CE). [[Victoria and Albert Museum]], London]] 

According to ''Shaktisamgama Tantra'', the spouse of [[Mahakali|Mahākālī]] is extremely frightening. Mahākāla has four arms, three eyes and is of the brilliance of 10 million black fires of dissolution, dwells in the midst of eight [[Shmashana|cremation grounds]] (''śmaśāna''). He is adorned with eight [[human skull]]s, seated on five corpses, holds a [[Trishula|trident]] (''triśūla''), a drum, a sword, and a scythe in his hands. He is adorned with ashes from the cremation ground and surrounded by numbers of loudly shrieking vultures and jackals. At his side is his consort, symbolized as Kālī.

Both Mahākāla and Kālī represent the ultimate destructive power of [[Brahman]] and they are not bounded by any rules or regulations. They have the power to dissolve even time and space into themselves, and exist as the Void at the [[Hindu cosmology|dissolution of the universe]]. They are responsible for the dissolution of the universe at the end of each ''[[Kalpa (aeon)|kalpa]]''. They are also responsible for annihilating great evils and great demons when other [[Hindu deities|gods]], [[Deva (Hinduism)|devas]], and even [[Trimurti]]s fail to do so. Mahākāla and Kālī annihilate men, women, children, animals, the world, and the entire universe without mercy because they are ''Kala'' or ''Time'' in the personified form, and Time is not bound by anything, and Time does not show mercy, nor does it wait for anything or anyone.{{sfnp|Magee|n.d.}}{{sfnp|Snyder|2001|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=hoI4dvN_f0kC&pg=PA76 76]}} In some parts of [[Odisha]], [[Jharkhand]], and [[Dooars]] (that is, in [[East Bengal|eastern Bengal]]), wild elephants are worshiped as manifestations of Mahākāla.{{sfnp|Bhattacharya Saxena|2011}}{{sfnp|Johnson|2009|p={{page needed|date=December 2021}}}}

Mahākāla is typically depicted blue or black in colour. Just as all colours are absorbed and dissolved into black, all names and forms are said to melt into those of Mahākāla, symbolising his all-embracing, comprehensive nature. Black can also represent the total absence of colour, and again in this case it signifies the nature of Mahākāla as [[Absolute (philosophy)|ultimate or absolute reality]]. This principle is known in Sanskrit as ''[[Nirguna Brahman|nirguna]]'', beyond all quality and form, and it is typified by both interpretations.{{sfnp|Bowker|2000|p={{page needed|date=December 2021}}}}

==In Hinduism==
{{main|Bhairava}}

Mahakala is also known as [[Bhairava|Mahakala Bhairava]] in Hinduism, often depicted with four arms and three eyes, he is associated with time, creation, destruction, and power.{{sfnp|Coulter|Turner|2021|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=QEJUEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA99 99]}} Many temples in India and Nepal are dedicated solely for Mahakala [[Bhairava]], for example at the temple in [[Ujjain]], which is mentioned more than once by [[Kālidāsa]]. The primary temple, place of worship for Mahakala is Ujjain. Mahakala is also a name of one of Shiva's principal attendants (Sanskrit: ''gaṇa''),{{sfnp|Eck|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=rNlJOSf__xYC&pg=PA237 237]}} along with [[Nandi (bull)|Nandi]], Shiva's mount and so is often represented outside the main doorway of early [[Hinduism|Hindu]] temples.

==In Buddhism==
Numerous traditions of [[Mahayana Buddhism]] rely on Mahākāla as a guardian deity ([[Dharmapala]], "dharma protector"). Mahākāla is one of the most popular protector deities in [[Tibetan Buddhism]] and he is also sometimes used as a meditational deity ([[yidam]]) in tantric Buddhist yogas. He is depicted in a number of variations, each with distinctly different qualities and aspects. He is generally depicted as a wrathful deity.{{sfnp|Watt|2019}} 

Mahākāla is commonly regarded as the emanation of different beings in different cases, such as [[Hevajra]], [[Vajradhara]], [[Amitābha|Amitabha]], and [[Avalokiteśvara|Avalokiteshvara]] or [[Akshobhya]] Buddha.{{sfnmp|1a1=Rana|1y=2019|2a1=Watt|2y=2019}} Different tantric cycles, like [[Guhyasamāja Tantra|Guhyasamaja]] and [[Cakrasaṃvara Tantra|Chakrasamvara]], each contain Mahakala as an emanation of their central Buddha deity.{{sfnp|Rana|2019}}

Mahākāla is almost always depicted with a crown of five skulls, which represent the transmutation of the five [[Kleshas (Buddhism)|kleśā]]s (negative afflictions) into the [[Five Dhyani Buddhas|five wisdoms]]. He also wears a garland consisting of fifty severed heads, the number fifty is in reference to the number of letters in the Sanskrit alphabet and is symbolic of the pure speech of Buddha.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mahakala {{!}} The Walters Art Museum |url=https://art.thewalters.org/detail/2646/protector-deity-mahakala/ |access-date=2024-05-12 |website=Online Collection of the Walters Art Museum |language=en}}</ref> 

Mahākāla is also an important deity in [[East Asian Buddhism]], where he is generally known as a protector figure. In [[Buddhism in Japan|Japanese Buddhism]], Mahākāla transformed into a more friendly wealth and luck deity, known as [[Daikokuten]].{{cn|date=November 2024}}

In a [[Vajrayana|Mantrayana]] text translated during the [[Tang dynasty|Tang Dynasty]], the mantra of Mahākāla appears as:

<blockquote>''Oṃ Mahākālāya svāhā.''<ref>[https://ntireader.org/taisho/t0850_03.html Vairocana Sutra Lotus Platform Matrix Assembly Compassion Mandala Liturgy (She Da Piluzhena Cheng Fo Shenbian Jia Chi Jing Ru Lianhua Tai Cang Hai Hui Bei Sheng Man Tu Luo Guangda Niansong Yi Gui Gongyang Fangbian Hui) 攝大毘盧遮那成佛神變加持經入蓮華胎藏海會悲生曼荼攞廣大念誦儀軌供養方便會]</ref></blockquote>

The same mantra also appears in a Tibetan text from [[Dunhuang]].{{sfnp|Kapstein|Van Schaik|2010}} This mantra (or rather, its Sino-Japanese form: ''On Makakyaraya sowaka''), is the main mantra of this deity in Japanese Esoteric Buddhism.<ref>{{cite web |title=大黒天 (Daikokuten) |url=http://tobifudo.jp/butuzo/7god/daikoku.html |access-date=2021-04-10 |website=Flying Deity Tobifudō (Ryūkō-zan Shōbō-in Official Website)}}</ref>{{sfnp|Hayek|Kyburz|2019}}

=== Tibetan Buddhism depictions ===

====Two-armed forms====
The two-armed "Black-Cloaked Mahakala" ({{bo|w=mgon po ber nag chen}}) is a protector of the [[Karma Kagyu]] school clad in the cloak of a ''māntrika'' "warlock". His imagery derives from terma of the Nyingma school and was adopted by the Karma Kagyu during the time of [[Karma Pakshi, 2nd Karmapa Lama]]. He is often depicted with his consort, [[Rangjung Gyalmo]]. He is often thought to be the primary protector, but he is in fact the main protector of the [[Karmapa]]s specifically. Four-Armed Mahakala is technically the primary protector. Six-Armed Mahakala ({{bo|w=mgon po phyag drug pa}}) is also a common dharmapala in the Kagyu school.

Pañjaranātha Mahakala "Mahakala, Lord of the Tent", an emanation of [[Manjusri|Mañjuśrī]], is a protector of the Sakya school.

<gallery mode="packed" heights="150">
File:Mahakala Bernakchen.jpg|Black-Cloaked Mahākāla
File:Mahakala, Protector of the Tent.jpg|Mahakala "Protector of the Tent", Central Tibet, circa 1500.
</gallery>

====Four-armed forms====
There are various Four-Armed Mahakalas (Skt. ''Chaturbhūjamahākāla'', {{bo|w=mgon po phyag bzhi pa}}, "The Great Black Vajra Lord with Four Hands"), one popular depiction comes from the Arya linegae of [[Guhyasamāja Tantra|Guhyasamaja]].{{sfnp|Rana|2019}}

These are the primary protectors of the [[Karma Kagyu]], [[Drikung Kagyu]], [[Drukpa Lineage]] and the [[Nyingma]] of Tibetan Buddhism.{{sfnp|Rana|2019}} A four-armed Mahakala is also found in the Nyingma school, although the primary protector of the [[Dzogchen]] (Skt: ''Mahasandhi'') teachings is [[Ekajati]].

<gallery mode="packed" heights="200px">
File:Mahakala, 12th century, Rubin Museum of Art.jpg|Mahakala, 12th century, [[Rubin Museum of Art]]
File:Mahākāla - AMNH - DSC06235.JPG|Exhibit in the Asian collection of the American Museum of Natural History, Manhattan, New York City, New York, USA.
</gallery>

====Six-armed forms====
[[File:Likir-Gompa-03.jpg|thumb|Six-Armed Mahakala, Likir Gompa, [[Ladakh]]]]
Nyingshuk came from Khyungpo Nenjor, the founder of the [[Shangpa Kagyu]], and spread to all the lineages ([[Sakya (Tibetan Buddhist school)|Sakya]], [[Nyingma]], and [[Gelug]]) and to the Kagyu lineages. There are also [[terma (religion)|terma]] lineages of various forms of Six-Armed Mahakala. Nyinghsuk, though derived from the Shangpa, is not the major Shangpa one; it is in a dancing posture rather than upright, and is a very advanced Mahakala practice. 

The White Six-Armed Mahakala (Skt: ''Ṣadbhūjasītamahākāla''; {{bo|w=mgon po yid bzhin nor bu}}) is popular among [[Mongols|Mongolian]] Gelugpas.

====Other forms====
<gallery mode="packed" heights="200px">
File:Mahakala in the Form of a Brahman - Google Art Project.jpg |Mahakala in the Form of a Brahman
File:Brooklyn Museum - Mahakala (m Gon-po).jpg|A red Mahakala
</gallery>

===In China===
[[file:Six-armed Mahakala, a guardian of the law Qing dynasty China 1840 CE gilt bronze (2) (37350001852).jpg|thumb|Six armed Mahakala, Qing dynasty China c. 1840 CE, gilt bronze]]
[[file:Tibet, mahakala sotto l'aspetto di ye-shes mgon-po, xii sec.JPG|thumb|Tibetan Mahakala, 12th century]]

Mahākāla is mentioned in many [[Chinese Buddhist canon|Chinese Buddhist texts]], although iconographic depictions of him in [[China]] were rare during the [[Tang dynasty|Tang]] and [[Song dynasty|Song]] periods.  The deity's name was both [[Transcription into Chinese characters|transcribed]] into [[Hanzi|Chinese characters]] as {{Lang|zh|摩訶迦羅}} ({{lang-zh|p=Móhējiāluó}}; [[Middle Chinese]] ([[Baxter's transcription for Middle Chinese|Baxter]]): ''mwa xa kæ la'') and [[Chinese translation theory|translated]] as {{Lang|zh|大黑天}} ({{lang-zh|p=Dàhēitiān|l=Great Black [[Deva (Buddhism)|Deva]]}}, with ''kāla'' being understood to mean 'black'; M. C. (Baxter): ''dɑ<sup>H</sup> xok then'').

He eventually became the center of a flourishing cult after the 9th century in the kingdoms of [[Nanzhao]] and [[Dali Kingdom|Dali]] in what is now the province of [[Yunnan]], a region bordering [[Tibet]], where his cult was also widespread. Due to Tibetan influence, his importance further increased during the [[Mongol]]-led [[Yuan dynasty]], with his likeness being displayed in the imperial palace and in Buddhist temples inside and outside the [[Khanbaliq|capital]].{{sfnp|Faure|2015b|pp=46–47}}{{sfnp|Howard|Li|Wu|Yang|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=PGuPsNCaJdwC&pg=PA416 416]}} Mahakala remains a central figure in the minority Buddhist tradition of [[Azhaliism]].

In some texts, Mahākāla is described as a fearsome god, a "demon who steals the vital essence (of people)" and who feeds on flesh and blood, though he is also said to only devour those who committed sins against the [[Refuge (Buddhism)|Three Jewels]] of Buddhism.{{sfnp|Faure|2015b|pp=45–46}}

One story found in the Tang-era monk [[Yi Xing]]'s commentary on the ''[[Mahavairocana Tantra|Mahāvairocana Tantra]]'' portrays Mahākāla as a manifestation of the [[Buddhahood|buddha]] [[Vairocana]] who subjugated the [[Dakini|ḍākinīs]], a race of flesh-eating female demons, by swallowing them. Mahākāla released them on the condition that they no longer kill humans, decreeing that they could only eat the [[heart]] - believed to contain the vital essence of humans known as 'human yellow' ({{Lang|zh|人黄}}, {{lang-zh|p=rénhuáng}}) - of those who were near death.{{sfnp|Faure|2015a|p=195}}{{sfnp|Faure|2015b|pp=117–118}}<ref>{{cite web |title=荼枳尼天 (Dakiniten) |url=http://tobifudo.jp/newmon/shinbutu/dagini.html |website=Flying Deity Tobifudō (Ryūkō-zan Shōbō-in Official Website) |access-date=2021-04-08}}</ref> A tale found in [[Amoghavajra]]'s translation of the ''[[Humane King Sutra|Humane King Sūtra]]'' relates how a heterodox (i.e. non-Buddhist) master instructed [[Kalmashapada|Prince Kalmāṣapāda]] (斑足王) to offer the heads of a thousand kings to Mahākāla, the "great black god of the graveyard" ({{Lang|zh|塚間摩訶迦羅大黑天神}}), if he wished to ascend the throne of his kingdom.{{sfnp|Amoghavajra|n.d.}}{{sfnp|Iyanaga|2008}}

As time went by, Mahākāla also became seen as a guardian of [[Vihāra|Buddhist monasteries]], especially its kitchens. The monk [[Yijing (monk)|Yijing]], who traveled to [[Srivijaya]] and India during the late 7th century, claimed that images of Mahākāla were to be found in the kitchens and porches of Indian Buddhist monasteries, before which offerings of food were made:{{sfnp|Faure|2015b|p=49}}

{{blockquote|There is likewise in great monasteries in India, at the side of a pillar in the kitchen, or before the porch, a figure of a deity carved in wood, two or three feet high, holding a golden bag, and seated on a small chair, with one foot hanging down towards the ground. Being always wiped with oil its countenance is blackened, and the deity is called Mahākāla [莫訶哥羅, {{lang-zh|p=Mòhēgēluō}}, M.C. (Baxter): ''mak xa ka la''] or the great black deity [大黑神, {{lang-zh|p=Dàhēishén}}, M. C. (Baxter): ''dɑ<sup>H</sup> xok zyin'']. The ancient tradition asserts that he belonged to the beings (in the heaven) of the great god (or [[Maheśvara (Buddhism)|Maheśvara]]). He naturally loves the Three Jewels, and protects the five assemblies from misfortune. Those who offer prayers to him have their desires fulfilled. At meal-times those who serve in the kitchen offer light and incense, and arrange all kinds of prepared food before the deity. (...) In China the image of that deity has often been found in the districts of [[Jiangnan|Kiang-nan]], though not in [[Huaibei|Huai-poh]]. Those who ask him (for a boon) find their wishes fulfilled. The efficacy of that deity is undeniable.{{sfnp|I-Tsing|1896|pp=38–39}} }}

In China, the god was also associated with fertility and sexuality: during the [[Qixi Festival]] (a.k.a. the Double Seventh Festival) held on the 7th day of the 7th month of the [[Chinese calendar]], married women traditionally bought dolls or figurines called 'Móhéluó' ({{Lang|zh|魔合羅}}) or 'Móhóuluó' ({{Lang|zh|摩睺羅}}) - the term probably deriving from 'Mahākāla' - in the hopes of giving birth to a child.{{sfnp|Faure|2015b|pp=52–53}}{{sfnp|Johnson|2021|p=157}}{{sfnp|Hsia|Kao|Li|2014|p=147}} 

Ritual texts also prescribe the worship of Mahākāla to women looking for a male partner or to pregnant women.{{sfnp|Faure|2015b|pp=52–53}} 

In addition, he is also commonly invoked as a protective deity in certain mantras, such as the [[Shurangama Mantra|Śūraṅgama Mantra]] and the Mahamayuri-vidyarajñi-dharani contained in the [[Mahamayuri|Mahamayuri Vidyarajñi Sutra]], which are popular in [[Chan Buddhism]] tradition.{{sfnp|Hsüan Hua|2009|p=xviii}}{{sfnp|Keyworth|2016}}

The name of the Moheluo doll, a popular toy during the [[Song dynasty|Song]] and [[Yuan dynasty|Yuan dynasties]], is said derive from transliteration of Mahākāla.{{sfnp|Guo|Eyman|Sun|2024|p=6}}

<gallery mode="packed" heights="150px">
File:Hangzhou Baochengsi Mahegela Zaoxiang 20120518-07.jpg|Dàhēitiān (center) flanked by the [[bodhisattva]]s [[Samantabhadra (Bodhisattva)|Samantabhadra]] (left) and [[Mañjuśrī]] (right). [[Baocheng Temple]], [[Hangzhou]], Zhejiang, China
File:Cina, mahakala, guardiano della dottrina (dharmapala), nell'aseptto sitacintamani, xviii sec..JPG|[[Qing dynasty]] statuette of Dàhēitiān. China, 17th Century
File:Sichuan o yunnan, mahakala, guardiano della dottrina, xiv sec con piedistallo del xvi sec.JPG|upright|[[Ming dynasty]] statue of Dàhēitiān. [[Sichuan]], China. 14th Century (with pedestal from the 16th century)
File:The Mahakala Temple Kunming.JPG|Mahakala Temple ([[:zh:官渡土主庙|官渡土主庙]]) in [[Kunming]], Yunnan, China
</gallery>

===In Japan===
{{unreferenced section|date=September 2021}}

[[File:Daikoku.jpg|upright|thumb|Japanese Daikokuten]]
{{main|Daikokuten}}

Mahakala (known as ''Daikokuten'' 大黑天) enjoys an exalted position as a household deity in [[Japan]], as he is one of the [[Seven Lucky Gods]] in Japanese folklore.

The Japanese also use the symbol of Mahakala as a monogram. The traditional pilgrims climbing the holy [[Mount Ontake]] wear [[tenugui]] on white Japanese scarves with the Sanskrit seed syllable of Mahakala.

In Japan, this deity is variously considered to be the god of wealth or of the household, particularly the kitchen. He is recognised by his wide face, smile, and a flat black hat, in stark contrast to the fierce imagery portrayed in Tibetan Buddhist art. He is often portrayed holding a golden [[mallet]], otherwise known as a magic money mallet, and is seen seated on bales of [[rice]], with [[mouse|mice]] nearby (mice signify plentiful food).

==In Sikhism==
[[File:Sikh depiction of Mahakal and Mahakali.jpg|thumb|Depiction of Mahakal from an edition of the [[Dasam Granth]]]]
In Sikhism Mahakal ({{script|Guru|ਮਹਾਕਾਲ}}) is used to refer to [[God in Sikhism|God]]. In the text [[Dasam Granth]], which is attributed to [[Guru Gobind Singh]],{{sfnp|Singha|2000|pp=53–54}} Mahakal is applied as a name of God to emphasize his supremacy over all beings. In the section titled [[Bachittar Natak]], It states that in a previous incarnation the author was a [[sadhu]] [[Gurdwara Hemkund Sahib|meditating in the Himalayan foothills]] on Mahakal before being called to take birth as Guru Gobind Singh.{{sfnp|Rinehart|2011|pp=26–27}} Further verses the praise Mahakal. Verse 434 of the [[Chaubis Avtar]] section states:

{{Blockquote|text=I will not first honor Ganesha [Ganesa], nor do I ever meditate upon Krishna or Vishnu (''kisan bisan'').

I have heard of but do not recognize them. I am absorbed in contemplation at His feet. (434)

Mahakal is my protector...{{sfnp|Rinehart|2011|pp=29–31}} }}

==See also==
* [[Vajrakilaya]]

==References==
===Citations===
{{reflist}}

===Works cited===
{{refbegin|2|indent=yes}}
*{{cite web |title=仁王護國般若波羅蜜多經 護国品第五 - T. 0246 |url=https://21dzk.l.u-tokyo.ac.jp/SAT2018/T0246_.08.0840b07.html |website=SAT Daizokyo Text Database |access-date=2021-04-21 |author=Amoghavajra |date=n.d.}}
*{{cite encyclopedia |last=Bhattacharya Saxena |first= Neela |title=Gynocentric Thealogy of Tantric Hinduism: A Meditation Upon the Devi |encyclopedia=[[Oxford Reference]] |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |year=2011 |pages= 131–156 |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199273881.003.0006|isbn= 978-0199273881 }} {{ODNBsub}}
*{{cite encyclopedia |last=Bowker |first=John |title=The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions |encyclopedia=[[Oxford Reference]] |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |year=2000 |doi=10.1093/acref/9780192800947.001.0001|isbn=978-0-19-280094-7 }} {{ODNBsub}}
*{{cite book |author-last=Bryson |author-first=Megan |year=2017 |chapter=Between China and Tibet: Mahākāla Worship and Esoteric Buddhism in the Dali Kingdom |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Mz-9DgAAQBAJ&pg=PA402 |editor1-last=Bentor |editor1-first=Yael |editor2-last=Shahar |editor2-first=Meir |title=Chinese and Tibetan Esoteric Buddhism |location=[[Leiden]] and [[Boston]] |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |series=Studies on East Asian Religions |volume=1 |pages=402–428 |doi=10.1163/9789004340503_019 |isbn=978-90-04-34049-7 |issn=2452-0098}}
*{{cite book |last1=Coulter |first1=Charles Russell |last2=Turner |first2=Patricia |title=Encyclopedia of Ancient Deities |date=2021 |publisher=McFarland |isbn=978-0-7864-9179-7}}
*{{cite book |last1=Eck |first1=Diana L. |title=India: A Sacred Geography |date=2012 |publisher=Harmony/Rodale |isbn=978-0-385-53191-7}}
*{{cite book |last1=Faure |first1=Bernard |title=The Fluid Pantheon: Gods of Medieval Japan |volume=1 |date=2015a |publisher=University of Hawaii Press}}
*{{cite book |last1=Faure |first1=Bernard |title=Protectors and Predators: Gods of Medieval Japan |volume=2 |date=2015b |publisher=University of Hawaii Press}}
*{{Cite book |last1=Guo |first1=Li |title=Games & Play in Chinese & Sinophone Cultures |last2=Eyman |first2=Douglas |last3=Sun |first3=Hongmei |date=2024 |publisher=[[University of Washington Press]] |isbn=9780295752402 |editor-last=Guo |editor-first=Li |location=Seattle |chapter=Introduction |editor-last2=Eyman |editor-first2=Douglas |editor-last3=Sun |editor-first3=Hongmei}}
*{{Cite web |last1=Hayek |first1=Matthias |last2=Kyburz |first2=Josef |date=2019 |title=Base Ofuda |url=http://ofuda.crcao.fr/ofuda/D-06-12 |access-date=2024-10-09 |website=ofuda.crcao.fr |language=fr}}
*{{cite book |last1=Howard |first1=Angela Falco |last2=Li |first2=Song |author3-link=Wu Hung |last3=Wu |first3=Hung |last4=Yang |first4=Hong |title=Chinese Sculpture |date=2006 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-10065-5 }}
*{{cite book |editor1-last=Hsia |editor1-first=Chih-tsing |editor2-last=Kao |editor2-first=George |editor3-last=Li |editor3-first=Wai-yee |title=The Columbia Anthology of Yuan Drama |date=2014 |publisher=Columbia University Press |chapter=The Moheluo Doll (Meng Hanqing) |translator=Jonathan Chaves}}
*{{cite book |author=Hsüan Hua |year=2009 |title=The Śūraṅgama Sūtra: A New Translation |translator=Buddhist Text Translation Society |place=Ukiah, CA, USA |publisher=Buddhist Text Translation Society |isbn=978-0881399622}}
*{{cite book |author1=I-Tsing |author1-link=Yijing (monk) |title=A Record of the Buddhist Religion as Practised in India and the Malay Archipelago |date=1896 |publisher=Clarendon Press |location=Oxford |url=https://archive.org/details/recordofbuddhist00ichi |translator=J. Takakusu}}
*{{cite journal |last1=Iyanaga |first1=Nobumi |title=Under the Shadow of the Great Śiva: Tantric Buddhism and its Influence on Japanese Mediaeval Culture|url=https://www.academia.edu/39725624 |website=academia.edu |access-date=2021-04-21 |date=2008}}
*{{cite book |last1=Johnson |first1=Dale |title=A Glossary of Words and Phrases in the Oral Performing and Dramatic Literatures of the Jin, Yuan, and Ming |date=2021 |publisher=University of Michigan Press |isbn=978-0472038237}}
*{{cite encyclopedia |last=Johnson |first=W. J |title=A Dictionary of Hinduism |encyclopedia=[[Oxford Reference]] |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |year=2009 |isbn=978-0198610250}} {{ODNBsub}}
*{{cite book |last1=Kapstein |first1=Matthew |first2=Sam |last2=Van Schaik |title=Esoteric Buddhism at Dunhuang: Rites and Teachings for This Life and Beyond |publisher=Brill |year=2010}}
*{{cite journal |last=Keyworth |first=George A. |date=2016 |title=Zen and the "Hero's March Spell" of the Shoulengyan jing| url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26799795 |journal=The Eastern Buddhist |volume=47 |issue=1 |pages=81–120 |jstor=26799795 |issn=0012-8708}}
*{{cite web |last=Magee |first=Mike (tr.) |date=n.d. |url=http://www.shivashakti.com/mahakala.htm |title=Śrī Mahākāla Deva |access-date=7 July 2016 |website=ShivaShakti.com}}
*{{cite book |last=Mookerjee |first=Ajit |year=1988 |title=Kali: The Feminine Force |publisher=Thames and Hudson |isbn=978-0500275054}}
*{{cite journal |first=Poonam R. L. |last=Rana |title=The sacred Mahakala in the Hindu and Buddhist texts |journal=Nepalese Culture |volume=XIII |pages=77–94 |year=2019 |publisher=Tribhuvan University |doi=10.3126/nc.v13i0.27503 |place=Kathmandu, Nepal |url=https://www.nepjol.info/index.php/nc/article/download/27503/22754/81718 |access-date=2023-03-08}}
*{{Cite book |last=Rinehart |first=Robin |title=Debating the Dasam Granth |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-19-984247-6}}
*{{Cite book |last=Singha |first=H. S |title=The Encyclopedia of Sikhism |publisher=Hemkunt Press |year=2000 |isbn=978-81-7010-301-1}}
*{{cite book |title=Time, Being, and Soul in the Oldest Sanskrit Sources |publisher=Global Academic Publishing |last=Snyder |first=William H. |year=2001 |isbn=978-1-58684-072-3}}
*{{Cite web |last=Watt |first=Jeff |date=December 2019 |title=Buddhist Protector: Mahakala Main Page |url=https://www.himalayanart.org/search/set.cfm?setID=173 |access-date=2023-11-25 |website=www.himalayanart.org}}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
{{refbegin|2|indent=yes}}
*{{cite magazine |title=Mahakala At Work: Learn to handle conflict skillfully, from the watercooler to the boardroom |first=Michael |last=Carroll |date=Winter 2004 |magazine=Tricycle |url=https://tricycle.org/magazine/mahakala-work/ |access-date=2023-03-08 |ref=none}}
*{{cite book |title=Routledge Revivals: Buddhist Stories |year=1913 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i-JBDgAAQBAJ&pg=PT13 |first=Paul |last=Dahlke |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9781351969659 |access-date=16 March 2017 |ref=none}}
*{{cite book |title=The Book of Buddhas: Ritual Symbolism Used on Buddhist Statuary and Ritual Objects |first=Eva Rudy |last=Jansen |publisher=Binkey Kok Publications |year=1990 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |first=Ladrang |last=Kalsang |translator=Pema Thinley |title=The Guardian Deities of Tibet |year=2003 |publisher=Winsome Books India |isbn=81-88043-04-4 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |first=Todd |last=Lewis |title=Popular Buddhist Texts From Nepal Narratives and Rituals of Newar Buddhism |publisher=State University of New York Press |year=2000 |isbn=978-0791492437 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |last=Linrothe |first=Rob |year=1999 |title=Ruthless Compassion: Wrathful Deities in Early Indo-Tibetan Esoteric Buddhist Art |place=London |publisher=Serindia Publications |isbn=0-906026-51-2 |ref=none}}
*{{cite book |last=Pal |first=Pratapaditya |year=1986 |title=Indian Sculpture: Circa 500 B.C.-A.D. 700 |publisher=Los Angeles County Museum of Art |isbn=978-0520059924 |ref=none}}
*{{cite book |title=The Myths of Narasimha and Vamana: Two Avatars in Cosmological Perspective |first=Deborah A. |last=Soifer |publisher=SUNY Press |year=1991 |isbn=978-0791407998 |ref=none}}
* {{cite thesis |last=Stablein |first=W. G.|year=1976 |title=The Mahākālatantra: A Theory of Ritual Blessings and Tantric Medicine |publisher=Columbia University |oclc=3801907 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |first=William |last=Stablein |title=Healing Image: The Great Black One |place=Berkeley-Hong Kong |publisher=SLG Books |year=1991 |isbn=0-943389-06-2 |ref=none}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{sisterlinks|d=Q922824|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=no|wikt=no|species=no|q=no}}
*{{Cite web |title=Mahakala, Protector of the Tent {{!}} Central Tibet |url=https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/78195 |website=The Metropolitan Museum of Art |date=1500 |language=en}}
*[https://kagyuoffice.org/mahakala-puja-part-one-introduction-empowerment-and-reading-transmission/ Mahakala Puja Part One: Introduction, Empowerment and Reading Transmission]
*[http://www.khandro.net/deity_Mahakala.htm Mahakala] at Khandro.net

{{Chinese Buddhist Pantheon}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Agricultural gods]]
[[Category:Buddhist tantras]]
[[Category:Dharmapalas]]
[[Category:Chinese deities]]
[[Category:Chinese gods]]
[[Category:Fortune gods]]
[[Category:Japanese gods]]
[[Category:Tibetan Buddhist practices]]
[[Category:Hindu tantric deities]]
[[Category:Forms of Shiva]]
[[Category:Time and fate gods]]
[[Category:Creator gods]]
[[Category:Destroyer gods]]
[[Category:Herukas]]
[[Category:Wrathful deities]]