View source for Tibetic languages

{{Short description|Subfamily of the Sino-Tibetan languages}}
{{Infobox language family
| name          = Tibetic
| altname       = Tibetan<br />Central Bodish
| ethnicity     = [[Tibetan people]] and other Tibetic-speaking peoples
| region        = China ([[Tibet Autonomous Region]], [[Qinghai]], [[Sichuan]], [[Gansu]], [[Yunnan]]); India ([[Ladakh]], [[Sikkim]], [[Uttarakhand]], [[Himachal Pradesh]], [[Arunachal Pradesh]], [[Assam]]); Pakistan ([[Gilgit-Baltistan]]); [[Nepal]]; [[Bhutan]]; [[Myanmar]] ([[Kachin State]])
| familycolor   = Sino-Tibetan
| fam2          = [[Tibeto-Burman]]
| fam3          = [[Tibeto-Kanauri languages|Tibeto-Kanauri]] (?)
| fam4          = [[Bodish languages|Bodish]]
| ancestor      = [[Old Tibetan]]
| ancestor2     = [[Classical Tibetan]]
| child1        = [[Central Tibetan language|Central Tibetan]]
| child2        = [[Amdo Tibetan|Amdo]]
| child3        = [[Khams Tibetan|Khams]]
| child4        = [[Dzongkha]]–Lhokä
| child5        = [[Ladakhi–Balti languages|Ladakhi–Balti]]
| child6        = [[Lahuli–Spiti languages|Lahuli–Spiti]]
| child7        = [[Kyirong–Kagate languages|Kyirong–Kagate]]
| child8        = [[Sherpa language|Sherpa]]
| child9        = [[Jirel language|Jirel]]
| child10       = [[Hyelmulanguage|Hyelmu]]
| child11       = [[Lhomilanguage|Lhomi]]
| child12        = (various unclassified languages)
| glotto        = oldm1245
| glottorefname = Early Old Tibetan
| map           = Tibet provinces.png
| mapcaption    = Division of Tibetic Cultural Areas
| speakers      = 6 million
| date          = 2014
| ref           = <ref name=speakers/>
}}

The '''Tibetic languages''' form a well-defined group of languages descending from [[Old Tibetan]].<ref name= "Tournadre2014">Tournadre, Nicolas. 2014. "The Tibetic languages and their classification." In ''Trans-Himalayan linguistics, historical and descriptive linguistics of the Himalayan area''. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.</ref> According to Nicolas Tournadre, there are 50 Tibetic languages, which branch into more than 200 dialects, which could be grouped into eight [[Dialect continuum|dialect continua]].<ref name= "Tournadre2014" /> These Tibetic languages are spoken in [[Tibet]], [[Ladakh]], [[Baltistan]], [[Aksai Chin]], [[Nepal]], and in [[India]] in [[Himachal Pradesh]], and [[Uttarakhand]].{{sfn|Tournadre|Suzuki|2023}} [[Classical Tibetan]] is the major literary language, particularly for its use in [[Tibetan Buddhism|Tibetan Buddhist]] scriptures and literature.

Tibetan languages are spoken by some 6 million people, not all of whom are [[Tibetan people|Tibetan]].<ref name=speakers>{{cite book |given= Nicolas |surname= Tournadre |chapter= The Tibetic languages and their classification |pages= 103–129 |title= Trans-Himalayan Linguistics: Historical and Descriptive Linguistics of the Himalayan Area |editor1-given=Thomas |editor1-surname=Owen-Smith |editor2-given=Nathan W. |editor2-surname=Hill |publisher=De Gruyter |year=2014 |isbn= 978-3-11-031074-0 }} ([http://www.nicolas-tournadre.net/wp-content/uploads/multimedia/2014-The_Tibetic_languages.pdf preprint])</ref> With the worldwide spread of [[Tibetan Buddhism]], the Tibetan language has also spread into the western world and can be found in many [[Buddhist texts|Buddhist publications]] and prayer materials, while western students also learn the language for the translation of Tibetan texts. Outside of [[Lhasa]] itself, [[Lhasa Tibetan]] is spoken by approximately 200,000 exiled Tibetans who have moved from Tibet to [[India]], [[Nepal]] and other countries. Tibetan is also spoken by groups of ethnic minorities in [[Tibet]] who have lived in close proximity to Tibetans for centuries, but nevertheless retain their own languages and cultures.

Although the [[Qiang people]]s of [[Kham]] are classified by [[China]] as ethnic [[Tibetan people|Tibetan]], the [[Qiangic languages]] are not Tibetan, but rather form their own branch of the [[Tibeto-Burman languages|Tibeto-Burman language family]].

[[Classical Tibetan]] was not a [[tone (linguistics)|tonal language]], but many varieties such as [[Central Tibetan|Central]] and [[Khams Tibetan|Khams]] Tibetan have [[Tonogenesis|developed]] tone registers. [[Amdo Tibetan|Amdo]] and [[Ladakhi–Balti languages|Ladakhi-Balti]] are without tone. Tibetan [[Morphology (linguistics)|morphology]] can generally be described as [[agglutination|agglutinative]].

==Terminology==
Although the term "Tibetic" had been applied in various ways within the [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]] research tradition, [[Nicolas Tournadre]] defined it as a phylum derived from [[Old Tibetan]].<ref name= "Tournadre2014"/> Following Nishi (1987){{sfn|Nishi|1987|p=849}} and Beyer (1992),{{sfn|Beyer|1992|p=7}} he identified several lexical innovations that can be used as a diagnosis to distinguish Tibetic from the other languages of the family, such as {{bo-textonly|བདུན}} {{transliteration|bo|bdun}} "seven".<ref name= "Tournadre2014"/>{{sfn|Tournadre|Suzuki|2023|p=654}}

The "Tibetic languages" in this sense are a substitute for the term "Tibetan languages/dialects" used in the previous literature; the distinction between "language" and "dialect" is not straightforward, and labeling varieties of Tibetic as "Tibetan dialects" could be misleading not only because those "dialects" are often [[Mutual intelligibility|mutually-unintelligible]], but also the speakers of Tibetic do not necessarily consider themselves as ethnic [[Tibetan people|Tibetan]], as is the case with [[Sherpa people|Sherpas]], [[Ladakhis]], [[Balti people|Baltis]], [[Lahaula]]s, [[Sikkimese people|Sikkimese]] and [[Ethnic groups in Bhutan|Bhutanese]].<ref name= "Tournadre2014"/>{{sfn|Tournadre|Suzuki|2023|p=66}}

==Origins==
Marius Zemp (2018)<ref>Zemp, Marius. 2018. [http://hdl.handle.net/2433/235316 On the origins of Tibetan]. ''Proceedings of the 51st International Conference on Sino-Tibetan Languages and Linguistics (2018)''. Kyoto: Kyoto University.</ref> hypothesizes that Tibetan originated as a [[pidgin]] with the [[West Himalayish languages|West Himalayish]] language [[Zhangzhung language|Zhangzhung]] as its [[superstratum]], and [[Rgyalrongic languages|Rgyalrongic]] as its [[Substrata (linguistics)|substratum]] (both languages are part of the broader [[Sino-Tibetan]] family). However, there are many grammatical differences between the Rgyalrongic and Tibetic languages; Rgyalrongic tend to use prefixes such as *kə-, *tə-, etc., while Tibetic languages use suffixes such as -pa/-ba, -ma, -po/-bo, -mo, etc.{{sfn|Tournadre|Suzuki|2023|p=660}}

Similarly, [[Tamangic languages|Tamangic]] also has a West Himalayish superstratum, but its substratum is derived from a different [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]] branch.

Only a few language clusters in the world are derived from a common language which is identical to or closely related to an old literary language. This small group includes the Tibetic languages, as descendants from [[Old Tibetan]] (7th–9th centuries), but also the [[Romance languages]] with [[Latin]], the [[Arabic languages]] (or "dialects") with [[Classical Arabic]], the [[Sinitic languages]] with [[Middle Chinese]], the modern [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indic languages]] with [[Vedic Sanskrit]].<ref name="Tournadre2014"/>

==Classification==

[[File:"TIBETO-BURMAN" GROUPS 1967 map with group key, "COMMUNIST CHINA ETHNOLINGUISTIC GROUPS" by the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency, Directorate of Intelligence, Office of Basic Geographic Intelligence, 1967 (cropped).jpg|thumb|Ethnolinguistic map of Tibet]]

The more divergent languages are spoken in the north and east, likely due to [[language contact]] with the [[Qiangic languages|Qiangic]], [[Rgyalrongic languages]]. The divergence exhibited in [[Khalong Tibetan language|Khalong]] may also be due to [[language shift]]. In addition, there is [[Baima language|Baima]], which retains an apparent Qiangic [[Stratum (linguistics)|substratum]], and has multiple layers of [[Loanword|borrowing]] from [[Amdo Tibetan|Amdo]], [[Khams Tibetan|Khams]], and [[Zhongu Tibetan language|Zhongu]], but does not correspond to any established branch of Tibetic.<ref>Katia Chirkova, 2008, "On the position of Báimǎ within Tibetan", in Lubotsky et al. (eds), ''Evidence and Counter-Evidence'', vol. 2.</ref>

The two major Tibetic languages used for broadcasting within China are [[Standard Tibetan]] and [[Amdo Tibetan]].

===Tournadre & Suzuki (2023)===
[[Nicolas Tournadre|Tournadre]] & Suzuki (2023) recognize 8 geographical ''sections'', each with about 7-14 ''groups'' of Tibetic dialects.{{sfn|Tournadre|Suzuki|2023}} This classification is a revision of Tournadre (2014).<ref name="Tournadre2014"/>

{{tree list}}
*'''Tibetic'''
**'''[[Khams Tibetan|South-eastern]]''' section (14 groups):
***[[Nagqu|Nagchu]] (traditionally called Hor dialects)
***Drachen/Bachen
***Kyegu
***Pämbar
***Khyungpo
***Rongdrak
***Minyak Rabgang
***Northern route（[[Chamdo]]） (Chab-mdo), （[[Dêgê County|Derge]]） (sde-dge), （[[Garzê County|Kandze]]） (dkar-mdzes)
***Southern route ([[Barkam|Markham]], [[Batang County|Bathang]], [[Litang County|Lithang]])
***[[Zayü County|Dzayül]]
***Derong-nJol
***Chagthreng
***Pomborgang
***Semkyi Nyida
**'''Eastern''' section (11 groups):
***[[Choni language|Čone]]
***[[Thewo language|Thewo-tö]]
***[[Thewo language|Thewo-mä]]
***[[Drugchu language|Drugchu]]
***Pälkyi/Pashi
***Khöpokhok
***Sharkhok
***Thromjekhok
***[[Zhongu Tibetan language|Zhongu]]
***Throchu
***[[Baima language|Baima]]
**'''[[Amdo Tibetan|North-eastern]]''' section (14 groups):
***Tsho Ngönpo (or Kokonor)
***Tsongkha
***Labrang-Rebgong
***Rwanak (Banak) pastoralist group
***[[Ngawa Tibetan and Qiang Autonomous Prefecture|Ngawa]]
***Arik
***Hwari (Pari)
***Mewa pastoralists’ group (with settlements in Kham)
***Washül pastoralists’group (with migrations into Kham)
***Gorkä (divergent)
***[[Gyalrongic languages|Gyälrongo]]-spheric Amdo (divergent)
***Dungnak and rTarmnyik (near [[Western Yugur language|Western Yughur]] in [[Gansu]]) (divergent)
**'''[[Central Tibetan|Central]]''' section (8 groups):
***Ü
***Tsang
***Phänpo
***Tö pastoralists’ dialects (Drogpä Tö-kä)
***Eastern Tö cultivators’ dialects (Sharchok Rongpä Tö-kä)
***Western Tö cultivators’ dialects (Nubchok Rongpä Tö-kä)
***[[Kongpo]]
***Lhokha
**'''Southern''' section (7 groups):
***[[Dzongkha]]
***Lhoke
***Choča-ngača (also called Tsamang-Tsakhaling)
***[[Brokpa language|Brokpa]] (Mera Sakteng pastoralists’ dialect)
***Dur pastoralists’ dialect
***[[Lakha language|Lakha]] or Säphuk pastoralists’ dialect
***[[Chumbi Valley|Dromo]]
**'''South-western''' section (9 groups):
***[[Humla language|Humla]] (or Limirong)
***Karmarong (Mugu)
***[[Dolpo language|Dölpo]] and [[Tichurong language|Tichyurong]]
***Lo-Mönthang (often called Lokä/[[Mustang District|Mustang]])
***[[Kyirong language|Kyirong]]-[[Yolmo language|Yolmo]]
***[[Jirel language|Jirel]]
***[[Sherpa language|Sherpa]]
***[[Lhomi]]
***[[Walung people|Gola]]
**'''Western''' section (8 groups):
***[[Lahuli–Spiti language|Spiti]]
***Khunu-Töt
***[[Stod Bhoti|Garzha]]
***Pangi
***Paldar
***Durbuk Jangpa dialect
***Nyoma Jangpa dialect
***Jadang (or Dzathang) dialect
**'''North-western''' section (7 groups):
***[[Balti language|Balti]]
***[[Purgi language|Purik]]
***[[Nubra]]
***Sham
***[[Leh]] (Central Ladakh)
***Zanhar
***Kharu
{{tree list/end}}

===Tournadre (2014)===
[[Nicolas Tournadre|Tournadre]] (2014)<ref name="Tournadre2014"/> classifies the Tibetic languages as eight [[Dialect continuum|geolinguistic continua]], consisting of 50 languages and over 200 dialects. This is an updated version of his work in 2008.<ref name="2008Tournadre">{{cite book|first=Nicolas|last=Tournadre|date=2008|chapter=Arguments against the Concept of 'Conjunct'/'Disjunct' in Tibetan|title=Chomolangma, Demawend und Kasbek: Festschrift für Roland Bielmeier zu Seinem 65. Geburtstag, Vol. 1 |editor=B. Huber |editor2=M. Volkart |editor3=P. Widmer |editor4=P. Schwieger|chapter-url=http://tournadre.nicolas.free.fr/fichiers/2008-Conjunct.pdf|pages=282–283|location=Halle|publisher=International Institute for Tibetan and Buddhist Studies|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720224934/http://tournadre.nicolas.free.fr/fichiers/2008-Conjunct.pdf|archive-date=2011-07-20}}</ref> The Eastern and Southeastern branches have lower internal [[mutual intelligibility]], but it is more limited in the Northwestern branch and between certain southern and northern [[Khams Tibetan|Khams]] dialects. These continua are spread across five countries with one exception, this being Sangdam, a [[Khams Tibetan|Khams]] dialect in [[Kachin State|Kachin]], [[Myanmar]].

{{tree list}}
*'''Tibetic'''
**'''North-Western''': [[Ladakhi language|Ladakhi]], [[Zangskari language|Zangskari]], [[Balti language|Balti]], [[Purki language|Purki]]
**'''Western''': [[Lahuli–Spiti language|Spiti]], [[Stod Bhoti|Garzha]], [[Khunu]], [[Jad language|Jad]]
**'''Central''': [[Central Tibetan language|Dbus]], [[Tsang language|Tsang]], [[Phenpo]], [[Lhokha]], [[Tö language|Tö]], [[Kongpo language|Kongpo]] (in （Kongpo） with [[Basum language|Basum]])
**'''South-Western''': [[Sherpa language|Sherpa]] and [[Jirel language|Jirel]]; other languages/dialects along the Sino-Nepalese border: [[Humla language|Humla]], [[Mugom dialect|Mugu]], [[Dolpo language|Dolpo]], [[Loke language|Lo-ke]], [[Nubri language|Nubri]], [[Tsum language|Tsum]], [[Langtang language|Langtang]], [[Kyirong language|Kyirong]], [[Yolmo language|Yolmo]], [[Gyalsumdo language|Gyalsumdo]], [[Kagate language|Kagate]], [[Lhomi]], [[Walung people|Walungge]], [[Walung people|Tokpe Gola]].
**'''Southern''': [[Dzongkha]], [[Sikkimese language|Drengjong]], [[Chochangachakha language|Tsamang]], [[Groma language|Dhromo Lakha]], [[Brokkat language|Dur Brokkat]], [[Brokpa language|Mera Sakteng Brokpa-ke]]
**'''South-Eastern''': [[Khams Tibetan|Hor Nagchu]], [[Khams Tibetan|Hor Bachen]], [[Yushu Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture|Yushu]], Pembar, Rongdrak, Minyak, [[Zayü County|Dzayul]], Derong-Jol, Chaktreng, Muli-Dappa, Semkyi Nyida
***'Northern route' dialects: '[[Chamdo]] (Chab-mdo), [[Dêgê County|Derge]] (sde-dge), and [[Garzê County|Kandze]] (dkar-mdzes)
***'Southern route' dialects: [[Barkam|Markham]] (smar-khams), [[Batang County|Bathang]] ('ba'-thang), [[Litang County|Lithang]] (li-thang)
**'''Eastern''': [[Drugchu language|Drugchu]], [[Khöpokhok language|Khöpokhok]], [[Choni language|Thewo-Chone]], [[Baima language|Baima]], [[Sharkhok language|Sharkhok]], [[Palkyi language|Palkyi]] (or Pashi; four [[dialect]]s, including Chos-rje), and [[Zhongu Tibetan language|Zhongu]]
**'''North-Eastern'''
***[[Amdo Tibetan|Amdo]]
***'''Gser-Rdo''':<ref name="Sun">Sun, Jackson T.-S. 2021. ''[https://www.academia.edu/47755528/Gser_Rdo_A_New_Tibetic_Language_Across_the_Rngaba_Dkarmdzes_Border Gser-Rdo: A New Tibetic Language Across the Rngaba-Dkarmdzes Border]''.</ref> [[Gserpa language|Gserpa]], [[Khalong language|Khalong]]
{{tree list/end}}

===Tournadre (2005, 2008)===
[[Nicolas Tournadre|Tournadre]] (2005)<ref>N. Tournadre (2005) "L'aire linguistique tibétaine et ses divers dialectes." ''Lalies'', 2005, n°25, p.&nbsp;7–56 [http://tournadre.nicolas.free.fr/fichiers/2005-aire.pdf]</ref> classifies the Tibetic languages as follows.

{{tree list}}
*'''Tibetic'''
**'''[[Central Tibetan language|Central Tibetan]]'''
***The basis of [[Standard Tibetan]] that includes various Nepalese varieties
**'''[[Khams Tibetan|Khams]]''' 
**'''[[Amdo Tibetan|Amdo]]''' 
**'''Dzongkha–Lhokä'''
***[[Dzongkha]], [[Sikkimese language|Sikkimese]], [[Lakha language|Lakha]], [[Naapa language|Naapa]], [[Chocangaca language|Chocangaca]], [[Brokkat language|Brokkat]], [[Brokpa language|Brokpa]] and probably [[Groma language|Groma]]
**'''[[Ladakhi–Balti languages|Ladakhi–Balti]]'''
***[[Ladakhi language|Ladakhi]], [[Burig]], [[Zangskari language|Zangskari]], [[Balti language|Balti]]
**'''[[Lahuli–Spiti languages|Lahuli–Spiti]]'''
**'''[[Kyirong–Kagate language|Kyirong–Kagate]]''' 
**'''Sherpa–Jirel'''
***[[Sherpa language|Sherpa]], [[Jirel language|Jirel]]
{{tree list/end}}

The other languages ([[Choni language|Thewo-Chone]], [[Zhongu language|Zhongu]], [[Khalong language|Khalong]], [[Dongwang language|Dongwang]], [[Gserpa language|Gserpa]], [[Zitsadegu language|Zitsadegu]], [[Drugchu language|Drugchu]], [[Baima language|Baima]]) are not [[Mutual intelligibility|mutually intelligible]], but are not known well enough to classify. [[mDungnag language|mDungnag]], a Tibetan language spoken in [[Gansu]], is also divergent and is not mutually intelligible with either [[Khams Tibetan|Khams]] or [[Amdo Tibetan|Amdo]].<ref name="Shao2018">Shao, Mingyuan 邵明园 (2018). ''Hexi Zoulang binwei Zangyu Dongnahua yanjiu'' 河西走廊濒危藏语东纳话研究 [Study on the mDungnag dialect, an endangered Tibetan language in Hexi Corridor]. Guangzhou: Zhongshan University Publishing House 中山大学出版社.</ref>

Tournadre (2013) adds [[Tseku language|Tseku]] and [[Khampa Tibetan|Khamba]] to [[Khams Tibetan|Khams]], and groups [[Choni language|Thewo-Chone]], [[Zhongu language|Zhongu]], and [[Baima language|Baima]] as an Eastern branch of Tibetic.

===Bradley (1997)===
According to Bradley,<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20070623162537/http://www.isw2.unibe.ch/tibet/Dialects.htm Bradley (1997)]</ref> the languages cluster as follows (dialect information from the ''Tibetan Dialects Project'' at the University of Bern):

{{tree list}}
*'''Tibetic'''
**'''Western Archaic Tibetan''' (non-tonal), including [[Ladakhi language|Ladakhi]], [[Balti language|Balti]] and [[Burig]]
**'''[[Amdo Tibetan]]''' (including [[Choni language|Thewo-Chone]]) (non-tonal)
**'''[[Khams Tibetan]]''' (tonal)
**'''[[Lahuli–Spiti language|Western Innovative Tibetan]]''' (Lahuli–Spiti) (slightly tonal)
***Dialects of Upper [[Ladakh]] and [[Zanskar]], of the Northwest Indian Border Area ([[Lahaul and Spiti district]] and [[Uttarakhand]]), and of [[Zanda County]] (westernmost Tibet)
**'''[[Central Tibetan language|Central Tibetan]]'''<!-- including but not synonymous with '''Dbus''' {{sc|aka}} '''Ü''']] (alternative romanisations of {{IPA-bo|wy˧˥˧ʔ|}}) in Bradley's classification --> (slightly tonal)
***Most dialects of [[Ngari Prefecture]] in western Tibet, of the northern Nepalese border area in Nepal, [[Ü-Tsang|Tsang]] dialects of [[Shigatse Prefecture]], and [[Ü (region)|Ü]] dialects ([[Lhoka (Shannan) Prefecture|Lhokha]], [[Lhasa]], etc.). The basis of [[Standard Tibetan]]. 
**'''Northern Tibetan''' (slightly tonal)
***Dialects of [[Gêrzê County|Gêrzê]], of [[Nagqu Prefecture]] in north-central Tibet, and of [[Nangqên County]] in South [[Qinghai]]<br />(Considered dialects of Khams by Tournadre)
**'''Southern Tibetan''' (slightly tonal)
***[[Groma language]] of [[Chumbi Valley]] in southern Tsang, [[Sikkimese language|Sikkimese]] in India, [[Sherpa language|Sherpa]] and [[Jirel language|Jirel]] in Nepal, and various languages of [[Bhutan]]:<br />[[Dzongkha]], [[Brokkat language|Brokkat]], [[Brokpa language|Brokpa]], [[Chocangaca language|Chocangaca]], [[Lakha language|Lakha]], [[Laya dialect]], [[Lunana dialect]].
{{tree list/end}}

;Other
Some classifications group Khams and Amdo together as Eastern Tibetan (not to be confused with [[East Bodish languages|East Bodish]], whose speakers are not ethnically Tibetan). Some, like Tournadre, break up Central Tibetan. Phrases such as 'Central Tibetan' and 'Central Bodish' may or may not be synonymous: Southern (Central) Tibetan can be found as Southern Bodish, for example; 'Central Tibetan' may mean dBus or all tonal lects apart from Khams; 'Western Bodish' may be used for the non-tonal western lects while 'Western Tibetan' is used for the tonal lects, or 'Bodish' may even be used for other branches of the [[Tibeto-Kanauri languages]].<ref name="z870">{{cite book | last=Minahan | first=J.B. | title=Ethnic Groups of North, East, and Central Asia: An Encyclopedia | publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing | series=Ethnic Groups of the World | year=2014 | isbn=978-1-61069-018-8 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YhXHEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA188 | access-date=2024-05-12 | page=188}}</ref>

=== Lexical similarity ===
Amdo Tibetan has 70% lexical similarity with Central Tibetan and Khams Tibetan, while Khams Tibetan has 80% lexical similarity with Central Tibetan.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2016 |title=China |url=http://www.ethnologue.com/country/CN/languages |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160909075938/http://www.ethnologue.com/country/CN/languages |archive-date=2016-09-09 |website=Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Nineteenth Edition}}</ref>

== Geographical distribution ==
The Tibetic-speaking area spans six countries: [[China]] (PRC), [[Nepal]], [[Pakistan]], [[India]], [[Bhutan]], and [[Myanmar]].<ref name= "Tournadre2014" />{{sfn|Tournadre|Suzuki|2023|p=49}} Tibetan is also spoken in [[Tibetan diaspora|diaspora communities]] in [[Europe]], [[North America]] (e.g. [[Little Tibet, Toronto]]), [[Asia]] and [[Australia]].{{sfn|Tournadre|Suzuki|2023|p=78}}

=== China ===
Within [[China]], the great majority of Tibetic speakers are [[List of ethnic groups in China|officially classified]] into the "[[Tibetan people|Tibetan nationality]]" which however includes speakers of other [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Trans-Himalayan]] languages such as [[Gyalrongic languages|Rgyalrongnic]].{{sfn|Tournadre|Suzuki|2023|p=62}} Aside from [[Tibet Autonomous Region]], there are several [[autonomous prefecture]]s for the "nationality" in [[Sichuan]], [[Qinghai]], [[Gansu]], and [[Yunnan]].{{sfn|Tournadre|Suzuki|2023|pp=81-83}}

=== Nepal ===
[[Lhasa Tibetan]], or more technically, Standard Tibetan (natively called {{bo-textonly|སྤྱི་སྐད}} {{transliteration|bo|spyi skad}}) is used among post-1950s Tibetan emigrants to [[Nepal]].<ref name= "Tournadre2014" /> Other Tibetic varieties such as [[Sherpa language|Sherpa]], [[Jirel language|Jirel]] and [[Yolmo language|Yolmo]] are spoken in [[List of districts of Nepal|districts]] along the [[China-Nepal border]].{{sfn|Denwood|1999|p=34}}{{sfn|Tournadre|Suzuki|2023|p=54}}

=== Bhutan ===
The [[national language]] of [[Bhutan]] is [[Dzongkha language|Dzongkha]], a Tibetic language originally spoken in the western region.{{sfn|Tournadre|Suzuki|2023|p=54}} Although non-Tibetic languages ([[Tshangla language|Tshangla]], [[East Bodish languages|East Bodish]]) are dominant in many parts of the country, Dzongkha is also widely used there as a second-language.{{sfn|Tournadre|Suzuki|2023|p=54}} Other Tibetic varieties of Bhutan include Choča-ngača, [[Brokpa language|Brokpa]] and [[Lakha language|Lakha]].{{sfn|Denwood|1999|p=36}}

=== Pakistan ===
Within areas administrated by [[Pakistan]], [[Balti language|Balti]] is spoken in [[Gilgit-Baltistan]].{{sfn|Tournadre|Suzuki|2023|p=54}}

=== India ===
Within areas administrated by [[India]], some Tibetic varieties are spoken in [[Ladakh]], [[Sikkim]], [[Himachal Pradesh]] ([[Kinnaur district|Kinnaur]], [[Lahaul and Spiti district|Lahul and Spiti]]), [[West Bengal]] ([[Darjeeling district|Darjeeling]] and [[Kalimpong]]), as well as [[Uttarakhand]].{{sfn|Tournadre|Suzuki|2023|p=54}}{{sfn|Denwood|1999|pp=33-34}} As with [[Bhutan]] and [[Nepal]], there reside a number of [[Tibetan diaspora|Tibetan refugees]] across the country, notably in [[Dharamshala]] where the headquarters of the [[Central Tibetan Administration]] is located.{{sfn|Izzard|2015}}

=== Myanmar ===
In [[Myanmar]], a variant of [[Khams Tibetan]] is spoken near the [[Hkakabo Razi]], [[Kachin State]] which is adjacent to [[Nujiang Lisu Autonomous Prefecture]], [[Yunnan]] and [[Tibet Autonomous Region]].{{sfn|Tournadre|Suzuki|2023|p=50}} Suzuki (2012) describes the phonology of the Sangdam dialect, as well as giving a brief overview of Tibetic varieties in the country.

He estimates there are about 300 Khams Tibetan speakers inhabiting at least four villages in Dazundam Village Tract, Pannandin Sub-township, [[Nogmung Township|Nogmong Township]], [[Putao District]], Kachin State.{{sfn|Suzuki|2012|p=38}} The four villages he mentions are [[Tahaundam]], "Shidudan" {{Nihongo||シドゥダン||lead=yes}}, Sandam, Madin, the second of which he provides no romanization because the placename is uncharted on the map available to him.{{sfn|Suzuki|2012|p=38}} According to Suzuki's [[Informant (linguistics)|consultant]], they migrated from [[Zayu County]], Tibet more than a century ago although they still have contact with relatives living there, and there are few differences between the dialects of the four villages .{{sfn|Suzuki|2012|p=39}}

Since [[Nung Rawang|Rawang people]] are the [[ethnic majority]] of the area, the Tibetans also have a command of [[Rawang language|Rawang]], which is mainly used for interethnic communication; those with primary education can speak and write [[Burmese language|Burmese]] as well, while they are illiterate in their own language.{{sfn|Suzuki|2012|p=39}}

{{see also|Tibetans in Burma}}

== Writing systems ==
{{Main|Tibetan script|Tibetan braille}}
Most Tibetic languages are written in one of two [[Indic script]]s. [[Standard Tibetan]] and most other Tibetic languages are written in the [[Tibetan script]] with a historically conservative orthography (see below) that helps unify the Tibetan-language area. Some other Tibetan languages (in India and Nepal) are written in the related [[Devanagari]] script, which is also used to write [[Hindi]], [[Nepali language|Nepali]] and many other languages. However, some [[Ladakhi language|Ladakhi]] and [[Balti language|Balti]] speakers write with the [[Urdu alphabet|Urdu script]]; this occurs almost exclusively in [[Pakistan]]. The Tibetan script fell out of use in Pakistani [[Baltistan]] hundreds of years ago upon the region's adoption of [[Islam]]. However, increased concern among [[Balti people]] for the preservation of their [[Balti language|language]] and traditions, especially in the face of strong [[Punjabis|Punjabi]] cultural influence throughout Pakistan, has fostered renewed interest in reviving the Tibetan script and using it alongside the [[Persian alphabet|Perso-Arabic script]]. Many shops in Baltistan's capital [[Skardu]] in Pakistan's "Northern Areas" region have begun supplementing signs written in the Perso-Arabic script with signs written in the Tibetan script. Baltis see this initiative not as separatist but rather as part of an attempt to preserve the cultural aspects of their region which has shared a close history with neighbours like [[Kashmiris]] and Punjabis since the arrival of Islam in the region many centuries ago.

== Historical phonology ==
[[Old Tibetan]] phonology is rather accurately rendered by the script. The finals were pronounced devoiced although they are written as voiced, the prefix letters assimilated their voicing to the root letters. The graphic combinations ''hr'' and ''lh'' represent voiceless and not necessarily aspirate correspondences to ''r'' and ''l'' respectively. The letter ' was pronounced as a voiced guttural fricative before vowels but as homorganic prenasalization before consonants. Whether the gigu ''verso'' had phonetic meaning or not remains controversial.

For instance, ''Srongbtsan Sgampo'' would have been pronounced {{IPA|[sroŋpʦan zɡampo]}} (now pronounced {{IPA|[sɔ́ŋʦɛ̃ ɡʌ̀mpo]}} in Lhasa Tibetan) and '''babs'' would have been pronounced {{IPA|[mbaps]}} (pronounced {{IPA|[bapˤ]}}{{Dubious|date=February 2009}}<!--I don't think Tibetan has pharyngeals--> in Lhasa Tibetan).

Already in the 9th century the process of cluster simplification, [[Consonant voicing and devoicing|devoicing]] and [[Tone (linguistics)|tonogenesis]] had begun in the central dialects, as can be shown by Tibetan words transliterated into other languages, particularly [[Middle Chinese]] but also [[Uyghur language|Uyghur]].

The combination of the abovementioned evidence enables us to form the following outline of the evolution of Tibetan. In the 9th century, as shown by the bilingual Tibetan–[[Chinese language|Chinese]] treaty of 821–822 found in front of [[Lhasa]]'s [[Jokhang]], the complex initial clusters had already been reduced, and the process of tonogenesis was likely well underway.

The next change took place in Tsang (Gtsang) dialects: The ''ra''-tags were altered into [[retroflex consonant|retroflex]] consonants, and the ''ya''-tags became palatals.

Later on the superscribed letters and finals ''d'' and ''s'' disappeared, except in the east and west. It was at this stage that the language spread in Lahul and Spiti, where the superscribed letters were silent, the ''d'' and ''g'' finals were hardly heard, and ''as'', ''os'', ''us'' were pronounced ''ai'', ''oi'', ''ui''. The words introduced from Tibet into the border languages at that time differ greatly from those borrowed at an earlier period.

Other changes are more recent and restricted to Ü and Tsang. In Ü, the vowel sounds  ''a'', ''o'', ''u'' have now mostly [[Umlaut (diacritic)|umlauted]] to ''ä'', ''ö'', ''ü'' when followed by the coronal sounds ''i'', ''d'', ''s'', ''l'' and ''n''. The same holds for Tsang with the exception of ''l'', which merely lengthens the vowel. The medials have become [[Aspiration (phonetics)|aspirate]] tenues with a low intonation, which also marks words having a simple initial consonant; while the former aspirates and the complex initials simplified in speech are uttered with a high tone, shrill and rapidly.

==Reconstruction==
===Proto-Tibetic===
Proto-Tibetic, the hypothetical [[proto-language]] ancestral to the Tibetic languages, has been reconstructed by Tournadre (2014).<ref name="Tournadre2014"/> Proto-Tibetic is similar to, but not identical to, written [[Classical Tibetan|Classical Literary Tibetan]]. The following phonological features are characteristic of Proto-Tibetic (Tournadre 2014: 113).
*The prefixes <nowiki>*s(ǝ)-, *d(ǝ)-/g(ǝ)-, *m(ǝ)-, and *b(ǝ)-</nowiki>, which have been retained from [[Proto-Tibeto-Burman]]. *s(ǝ)- is primarily used with animals and body parts, as well as *d(ǝ)-/*g(ǝ)- and *m(ǝ)-/*r(ǝ)-.
*[[Palatalization (sound change)|Palatalization]] of [[dental consonant|dental]] and [[alveolar consonant]]s before ''y'' (/j/).
*Consonant change from [[lateral consonant|lateral]] to [[dental consonant|dental]] position after /m/ (e.g., *ml > *md).
*Distinctive aspirated initial stops. This phenomenon is attested by alternating aspirated and non-aspirated consonants in [[Old Tibetan]] orthography. Examples include gcig ~ gchig (གཅིག་ ~ གཆིག་) 'one'; phyin-chad ~ phyin-cad (ཕྱིན་ཆད་ ~ ཕྱིན་ཅད་) 'from now on'; ci ~ chi (ཅི་ ~ ཆི་) 'what'; and cu ~ chu (ཅུ་ ~ ཆུ་) 'water'.

Reconstructed Proto-Tibetic forms from Tournadre (2014) include:
{{refbegin|20em}}
* *g(ǝ)-tɕik 'one'
* *g(ǝ)-nyis 'two'
* *g(ǝ)-su- 'three'
* *b(ǝ)-ʑi 'four'
* *l(ǝ)-ŋa 'five'
* *d(ǝ)-ruk 'six'
* *b(ǝ)-dun 'seven'
* *b(ǝ)-rgyat 'eight'
* *d(ǝ)-gu 'nine'
* *b(ǝ)-tɕu 'ten'
* *s(ǝ)-dik-pa 'scorpion'
* *s(ǝ)-bal 'frog'
* *s(ǝ)-tak 'tiger'
* *s(ǝ)-b-rul 'snake'
* *s(ǝ)-pra 'monkey'
* *s(ǝ)-kra 'hair'
* *s(ǝ)-nyiŋ 'heart'
* *s(ǝ)-na 'nose'
* *d(ǝ)-myik 'eye'
* *m(ǝ)-go 'head'
* *r(ǝ)-na 'ear'
{{refend}}

===Pre-Tibetic===
Pre-Tibetic is a hypothetical pre-formation stage of Proto-Tibetic.<ref name="Tournadre2014"/>

<nowiki>*ty-, *ly-, *sy-</nowiki> were not palatalized in Pre-Tibetic, but underwent [[Palatalization (sound change)|palatalization]] in Proto-Tibetic (Tournadre 2014: 113-114).<ref name="Tournadre2014"/> Posited [[sound change]]s from Pre-Tibetic to Proto-Tibetic include *ty- > *tɕ-, *sy- > *ɕ-, *tsy- > *tɕ-, and *ly- > *ʑ-. However, Tournadre (2014: 114) notes that many [[Bodish languages]] such as [[Basum language|Basum]], [[Tamang language|Tamang]], and [[Kurtöp language|Kurtöp]] ([[East Bodish languages|East Bodish]]) have not undergone these changes (e.g., Bake ([[Basum language|Basum]]) ''ti'' 'what' vs. Proto-Tibetic *tɕ(h)i and Bake ''tɨ'' 'one' vs. Proto-Tibetic *g(ǝ)-tɕ(h)ik; Kurtöp ''<sup>H</sup>la:'' 'iron' and [[Bumthang language|Bumthap]] ''lak'' 'iron' vs. Proto-Tibetic *ltɕaks).

Some Pre-Tibetic reconstructions, along with reconstructed Proto-Tibetic forms and orthographic Classical Literary Tibetan, from Tournadre (2014: 114-116) are listed below.

{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Gloss !! Pre-Tibetic !! Proto-Tibetic !! [[Classical Tibetan|Classical Literary Tibetan]]
|-
| one || *g(ǝ)-tyik || *g(ǝ)-tɕ(h)ik || gcig / gchig གཅིག་ / གཆིག ([[Old Tibetan]])
|-
| big || *tye || *tɕ(h)e || che ཆེ་ (Old Tibetan)
|-
| ten || *b(ǝ)-tyu || *b(ǝ)-tɕu || bcu / bchu བཅུ་ / བཆུ་ (Old Tibetan)
|-
| what || *tyi || *tɕ(h)i || ci / chi ཅི་ / ཆི་ (Old Tibetan)
|-
| flesh || *sya || *ɕa || sha ཤ་
|-
| know || *syes || *ɕes || shes ཤེས་
|-
| wood || *sying || *ɕiŋ || shing ཤིང་
|-
| to cut (past stem) || *b(ǝ)-tsyat || *b(ǝ)-tɕat || bcad བཅད་
|-
| spittle || *m(ǝ)-tsyil-ma || *m(ǝ)-tɕ(h)il-ma || mchil-ma མཆིལ་མ་
|-
| liver || *m(ǝ)-tsin-pa || *m(ǝ)-tɕ(h)in-pa || mchin-pa མཆིན་པ
|-
| four || *b(ǝ)-lyi || *b(ǝ)ʑi || bzhi བཞི་
|-
| field || *lying || *ʑiŋ || zhing ཞིང་
|-
| flea || *ldi || *ldʑi || lji ལྗི་, 'ji ་འཇི་
|-
| iron || *s(ǝ)-lak(s) > *l-sak(s) > *l-tsyak(s) || *ltɕaks || lcags ལྕགས་
|-
| arrow ||  || *mda || mda' མདའ་
|-
| to suppress || *bnans || *mnans || mnand (Old Tibetan)
|-
| to listen || *bnyan || *nyan || mnyand
|-
| eye ||  || *d(ǝ)myik || dmyig དམྱིག་ (Old Tibetan); mig
|-
| flower ||  || *mentok || men-tog མེན་ཏོག (Old Tibetan); ་me-tog
|}

== Comparison of numerals ==
The [[numeral (linguistics)|numerals]] in different Tibetan/Tibetic languages are:<ref>{{cite web |url=http://lingweb.eva.mpg.de/numeral/Sino-Tibetan.htm |title=Bodish Numerals (Eugene Chan). |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120305030131/http://lingweb.eva.mpg.de/numeral/Sino-Tibetan.htm |archive-date=2012-03-05}}</ref>

{|class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|-
! rowspan=2| <small>GLOSS</small>
! colspan=7| Ü-Tsang (Middle)
! rowspan=2| Amdo
! rowspan=2| Khams
! rowspan=2| <small>CLASSICAL TIBETAN</small>
|-
! Lhasa !! Cheng<br />Zhang !! Dolpo !! Jirel !! Mugom !! Sherpa !! Yohlmo
|-
| '1' || ʨiʔ<sup>53</sup> || ʨi<sup>53</sup> || ʂik || dokpoi || ʧɪk || ʦɪk<sup>55</sup> || ʨīː || xʨɨx || ʨi<sup>55</sup> || *xʨik<br />''gtšig''
|-
| '2' || ȵi<sup>55</sup> || ȵi<sup>55</sup> || ɲiː || ŋi || ŋi || ŋi<sup>55</sup> || ɲìː || ɦȵi || ɲɯ<sup>53</sup> || *gnis<br />''gnis''
|-
| '3' || sum<sup>55</sup> || sɔ̃<sup>53</sup> || sum || sum || sum || sum<sup>55</sup> || sūm || sɘm || sũ<sup>53</sup> || *xsum<br />''gsum''
|-
| '4' || ɕi<sup>13</sup> || ɣɯ<sup>31</sup> || ɕi̤ː || si || ɕi || ʣi<sup>55</sup> || ʑì̤ || ɦʑɘ || ʐə<sup>33</sup> || *βʑi<br />''bži''
|-
| '5' || ŋa<sup>53</sup> || ɴɐ<sup>53</sup> || ŋa || ŋa || ŋá || ŋɑ<sup>55</sup> || ŋɑ̀ || ɦŋa || ŋɑ<sup>53</sup> || *ɬŋɑ<br />''lŋa''
|-
| '6' || tʂʰuʔ<sup>13</sup> || tʂu<sup>31</sup> || ʈṳk || tʰuk || duk || ɖʊk<sup>11</sup> || ʈṳ̀ː || tʂəx || tʂo<sup>33</sup> || *dɽuk<br />''drug''
|-
| '7' || tỹ<sup>15</sup> || dɛ̃<sup>24</sup> || ty̤n || duin || dun || dɪn<sup>55</sup> || t̪ì̤n || ɦdɘn || dĩ<sup>33</sup> || *βdun<br />''bdun''
|-
| '8' || ɕɛʔ<sup>13</sup> || dʑe<sup>31</sup> || ce̤ʔ || get || ket || gæ<sup>55</sup> || cē̤ː || ɦdʑʲɛ || ʑe<sup>33</sup> || *βɽgjat<br />''brgyad''
|-
| '9' || ku<sup>13</sup> || ɡɯ<sup>31</sup> || kṳ || gu || gu || gu<sup>55</sup> || kṳ̀ || ɦgɘ || gə<sup>33</sup> || *dgu<br />''dgu''
|-
| '10' || ʨu<sup>53</sup> || ʨɯ<sup>53</sup> || tɕu || ʦutʰambaː || ʧú || ʦi<sup>55</sup>tʰɑm<sup>11</sup>ba<sup>11</sup> || ʨʉ̄ || ʨɘ || ʨə<sup>55</sup> || *ɸʨu<br />''btšu''
|}

For the Central or Eastern Tibetic languages:
{|class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|-
! rowspan=2| <small>GLOSS</small>
! colspan=2| Dzongkha-Lakha
! colspan=5| Balti-Ladakhi
! rowspan=2| Spiti<br />bhoti
|-
! Dzongkha !! Sikkimese !! Balti !! Changthang !! Ladakhi !! Purik !! Zangskari
|-
| '1' || ʨí || ʧi || ʧik || ʧik || ʧik || ʧik || ʧiʔ || ʧík
|-
| '2' || ɲí || ni || ɲis || ɲis || ɲis || ɲis || ɲiː || ɲiː
|-
| '3' || súm || súm || xsum || sum || sum || sum || sum || súm
|-
| '4' || ʃi̤ || ʒe || βʒi || zi || zi || ʒi || ʒi || ʒì
|-
| '5' || ŋə || ŋa || ɣɑ || ŋa || ʂŋa || ʂŋə || ŋa || ŋá
|-
| '6' || dʑo || tʰu || truk || ɖruk || ʈuk || ʈuk || ʈuʔ || ʈùk
|-
| '7' || ty̤n || dĩ || βdun || dun || rdun || rdun || ðun || dùn
|-
| '8' || kæ̤ || gɛ || βgyʌt || gʲat || rgʲat || rgyət || ʝət || ɟèt
|-
| '9' || kṳ || go || rgu || gu || rgu || rgu || ɣu || gù
|-
| '10' || ʨu tʰam || ʧɔːmba || ɸʧu || ʧu || rʧu || rču || ʧu || ʧú
|}

== References ==
*{{cite book
  | last =  Beyer
  | first = Stephan V.
  | title = The Classical Tibetan Language
  | publisher = SUNY Press
  | year = 1992
  | isbn = 0-7914-1099-4}}
*{{cite book
  | last = Denwood
  | first = Philip
  | title = Tibetan
  | publisher = John Benjamins Publishing
  | year = 1999
  | isbn = 90-272-3803-0}}
*{{cite thesis |last=Izzard |first=Jeff Robert |year=2015 |title=Language attitudes and identity in the Tibetan Dharamsala diaspora |url=http://eprints.soas.ac.uk/22824/ |degree=Ph.D|publisher=SOAS University of London|access-date=2024-02-20}}
*{{cite journal
| last        = Nishi
| first       = Yoshiro
| author-link = Yoshio Nishi
| year        = 1987
| title       = Gendei Tibet-go hoogen no bunrui
| script-title=ja:現代チベット語方言の分類
| trans-title = A Classification of Tibetan Dialects
| journal     = Bulletin of the National Museum of Ethnology 
| volume      = 11
| issue       = 4
| pages       = 837–900
| hdl = 10502/2932
}}
* {{citation
  | surname1 = Sagart | given1 = Laurent | author1-link = Laurent Sagart
  | surname2 = Jacques | given2 = Guillaume | author2-link = Guillaume Jacques
  | surname3 = Lai | given3 = Yunfan
  | surname4 = Ryder | given4 = Robin
  | surname5 = Thouzeau | given5 = Valentin
  | surname6 = Greenhill | given6 = Simon J.
  | surname7 = List | given7 = Johann-Mattis
  | title = Dated language phylogenies shed light on the history of Sino-Tibetan
  | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
  | volume = 116 | issue = 21 | pages = 10317–10322 | year = 2019
  | doi = 10.1073/pnas.1817972116 | doi-access = free | pmid = 31061123 | pmc = 6534992
  | postscript = .
  }}
*{{Citation
| last  = Suzuki
| first = Hiroyuki
| title = Kamutibetto-go Sangdam hoogen no onsei bunseki to sono tokutyoo
|script-title=ja:カムチベット語 Sangdam 方言の音声分析とその方言特徴 
|trans-title=Khams Tibetan Sangdam Dialect: Phonetic and Dialectal Analysis
| journal = Journal of Asian and African Studies
| volume  = 83
| year    = 2012
| pages   = 37–58
| url = https://www.researchgate.net/publication/339786552
| postscript = .
}}
*{{cite book |last1=Tournadre |first1=Nicolas |author-link=Nicolas Tournadre |last2=Suzuki |first2=Hiroyuki |date=2023 |title=The Tibetic Languages: an introduction to the family of languages derived from Old Tibetan |url=https://lacito.cnrs.fr/en/tibetic-languages/ |location=Paris |publisher=LACITO |isbn=978-2-490768-08-0}}
*{{cite press release |date=May 6, 2019 |title=Origin of Sino-Tibetan language family revealed by new research |website=ScienceDaily |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2019/05/190506151822.htm}}

== Footnotes ==
{{Reflist}}

== Further reading ==
* {{cite book
   | first=Philip
   | last=Denwood
   | chapter=The Language History of Tibetan
   | title=Linguistics of the Himalayas and beyond
   |editor-first=Roland |editor-last=Bielmeier 
   |editor-first2=Felix |editor-last2=Haller
   | publisher=Walter de Gruyter
   | pages=47–70
   | year= 2007
   | isbn=978-3-11-019828-7 }}
* {{cite journal |author=Dpal ldan bkra shis |title=Amdo Tibetan Language: An Introduction to Normative Oral Amdo |lccn=2008944256 |issn=1925-6329 |journal=Asian Highland Perspectives |volume=43 |year=2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160628052350/http://tibetanplateau.wikischolars.columbia.edu/file/view/AHP43AmdoTibetanLanguage_An%20Introduction%20to%20Normative%20Oral%20Amdo_text.pdf/586186877/AHP43AmdoTibetanLanguage_An%20Introduction%20to%20Normative%20Oral%20Amdo_text.pdf |archive-date=2016-06-28 |url=http://tibetanplateau.wikischolars.columbia.edu/file/view/AHP43AmdoTibetanLanguage_An%20Introduction%20to%20Normative%20Oral%20Amdo_text.pdf/586186877/AHP43AmdoTibetanLanguage_An%20Introduction%20to%20Normative%20Oral%20Amdo_text.pdf}}
*{{cite book
  | last = van Driem
  | first = George
  | author-link = George van Driem
  | title =  Languages of the Himalayas: An Ethnolinguistic Handbook of the Greater Himalayan Region containing an Introduction to the Symbiotic Theory of Language
  | publisher = Brill
  | year = 2001
  | isbn = 	9004103902}}

== External links ==
{{Wikibooks|Research on Tibetan Languages: A Bibliography}}
*{{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20120219054239/http://www.himalayanlanguages.org/cdtd Comparative Dictionary of Tibetan Dialects (CDTD)]}}
*[http://www.thdl.org/xml/show.php?xml=/collections/langling/languages/index.xml&l=9 Languages on the Tibetan Plateau and the Himalayas] &mdash; Nicolas Tournadre
*[http://eprints.soas.ac.uk/8964/1/Hill_2010_overview_of_Old_Tibetan_phonology.pdf Overview of Old Tibetan Synchronic phonology] by Nathan Hill
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20120318215914/http://lacito.vjf.cnrs.fr/colloque/deserts/videos_gestion/nt.htm L'évolution des langues et les facteurs écolinguistiques : le cas des langues d'éleveurs et des langues d'agriculteurs sur le Haut Plateau tibétain] at CNRS-LACITO
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20140324094654/http://thetibetpost.com/en/outlook/opinions-and-columns/3811-chinas-tibet-policy-continued-attempt-at-erasing-tibetan-language China's Tibet policy continued attempt at erasing Tibetan language]

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