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{{short description|Theory that life in general is meaningless}}
{{About|the philosophical theory||absurdist (disambiguation)}}

[[File:Sisyphus by von Stuck.jpg|thumb|200px|right|[[Sisyphus]], the symbol of the absurdity of existence, painting by [[Franz Stuck]] (1920)]]
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'''Absurdism''' is the [[philosophical]] theory that the universe is [[irrationality|irrational]] and meaningless. It states that trying to find meaning leads people into conflict with a seemingly meaningless world. This conflict can be between [[Rationality|rational]] man and an irrational universe, between [[intention]] and outcome, or between [[subjectivity and objectivity (philosophy)|subjective]] assessment and objective worth, but the precise definition of the term is disputed. Absurdism claims that, due to one or more of these conflicts, existence ''as a whole'' is [[absurdity#The Absurd|absurd]]. It differs in this regard from the less global thesis that some ''particular'' situations, persons, or phases in life are absurd.

Various components of the absurd are discussed in the academic literature, and different theorists frequently concentrate their definition and research on different components. On the practical level, the conflict underlying the absurd is characterized by the individual's struggle to find meaning in a meaningless world. The theoretical component, on the other hand, emphasizes more the [[Epistemology|epistemic]] inability of reason to penetrate and understand [[reality]]. Traditionally, the conflict is characterized as a collision between an internal component of human nature, and an external component of the universe. However, some later theorists have suggested that both components may be internal: the capacity to see through the arbitrariness of any ultimate purpose, on the one hand, and the incapacity to stop caring about such purposes, on the other hand. Certain accounts also involve a [[Metacognition|metacognitive]] component by holding that an [[awareness]] of the conflict is necessary for the absurd to arise.

Some arguments in favor of absurdism focus on the human insignificance in the universe, on the role of [[death]], or on the implausibility or irrationality of positing an ultimate purpose. Objections to absurdism often contend that life is in fact meaningful or point out certain problematic consequences or inconsistencies of absurdism. Defenders of absurdism often complain that it does not receive the attention of professional philosophers it merits in virtue of the topic's importance and its potential psychological impact on the affected individuals in the form of [[existential crises]]. Various possible responses to deal with absurdism and its impact have been suggested. The three responses discussed in the traditional absurdist literature are [[suicide]], [[Faith|religious belief]] in a higher purpose, and rebellion against the absurd. Of these, rebellion is usually presented as the recommended response since, unlike the other two responses, it does not escape the absurd and instead recognizes it for what it is. Later theorists have suggested additional responses, like using [[irony]] to take life less seriously or remaining ignorant of the responsible conflict. Some absurdists argue that whether and how one responds is insignificant. This is based on the idea that if nothing really matters then the human response toward this fact does not matter either.

The term "absurdism" is most closely associated with the philosophy of [[Albert Camus]]. However, important precursors and discussions of the absurd are also found in the works of [[Søren Kierkegaard]]. Absurdism is intimately related to various other concepts and theories. Its basic outlook is inspired by [[Existentialism|existentialist]] philosophy. However, existentialism includes additional theoretical commitments and often takes a more optimistic attitude toward the possibility of finding or creating meaning in one's life. Absurdism and [[nihilism]] share the belief that life is meaningless, but absurdists do not treat this as an isolated fact and are instead interested in the conflict between the human [[desire]] for meaning and the world's lack thereof. Being confronted with this conflict may trigger an existential crisis, in which unpleasant [[experience]]s like [[anxiety]] or [[Depression (mood)|depression]] may push the affected to find a response for dealing with the conflict. Recognizing the absence of objective meaning, however, does not preclude the conscious thinker from finding subjective meaning.

== Definition ==
Absurdism is the [[Philosophy|philosophical]] thesis that life, or the world in general, is absurd. There is wide agreement that the term "absurd" implies a lack of [[Meaning of life|meaning]] or purpose but there is also significant dispute concerning its exact definition and various versions have been suggested.<ref name="Gordon1984"/><ref name="Nagel2012"/><ref name="Pölzler2014"/><ref name="Fox2019"/><ref>{{Cite web |title=Merriam-Webster |date=16 May 2023 |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/absurdism}}</ref> The choice of one's definition has important implications for whether the thesis of absurdism is correct and for the arguments cited for and against it: it may be true on one definition and false on another.<ref name="Belliotti2019Introduction">{{cite book |last1=Belliotti |first1=Raymond Angelo |title=Is Human Life Absurd? A Philosophical Inquiry into Finitude, Value, and Meaning |year= 2019 |publisher=Brill|isbn=978-90-04-40879-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Up4hxwEACAAJ |language=en |chapter=Introduction}}</ref>

In a general sense, the absurd is that which lacks a sense, often because it involves some form of [[contradiction]]. The absurd is paradoxical in the sense that it cannot be grasped by [[reason]].<ref name="MetzlerAbsurd">{{cite book |editor1-last=Mittelstraß |editor1-first=Jürgen |title=Enzyklopädie Philosophie und Wissenschaftstheorie |date=2005 |publisher=Metzler |url=https://www.springer.com/de/book/9783476021083 |chapter=absurd/das Absurde}}</ref><ref name="Bertman1971">{{cite journal |last1=Bertman |first1=Martin A. |title=Education and Absurdism |journal=The Educational Forum |date=January 1971 |volume=35 |issue=2 |pages=239–241 |doi=10.1080/00131727109340469 |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00131727109340469 |language=en |issn=0013-1725|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=The American Heritage Dictionary entry: absurd |url=https://www.ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=absurd |website=www.ahdictionary.com |publisher=HarperCollins Publishers |access-date=21 April 2022}}</ref> But in the context of absurdism, the term is usually used in a more specific sense. According to most definitions, it involves a conflict, discrepancy, or collision between two things. Opinions differ on what these two things are.<ref name="Gordon1984"/><ref name="Nagel2012"/><ref name="Pölzler2014"/><ref name="Fox2019"/> For example, it is traditionally identified as the confrontation of [[Rationality|rational]] man with an irrational world or as the attempt to grasp something based on reasons even though it is beyond the limits of rationality.<ref name="Blomme2013"/><ref name="OxfordAbsurd">{{cite book |editor1-last=Honderich |editor1-first=Ted |title=The Oxford Companion to Philosophy |date=2005 |publisher=Oxford University Press |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/HONTOC-2 |chapter=absurd, the}}</ref> Similar definitions see the discrepancy between [[intention]] and outcome, between aspiration and [[reality]], or between subjective assessment and objective worth as the source of absurdity.<ref name="Gordon1984"/><ref name="Pölzler2014"/> Other definitions locate both conflicting sides within man: the ability to apprehend the arbitrariness of final ends and the inability to let go of commitments to them.<ref name="Fox2019"/> In regard to the conflict, absurdism differs from [[nihilism]] since it is not just the thesis that nothing matters. Instead, it includes the component that things seem to matter to us nonetheless and that this impression cannot be shaken off. This difference is expressed in the relational aspect of the absurd in that it constitutes a conflict between two sides.<ref name="Fox2019"/><ref name="Gordon1984"/><ref name="Nagel2012"/>

Various components of the absurd have been suggested and different researchers often focus their definition and inquiry on one of these components. Some accounts emphasize the practical components concerned with the individual seeking meaning while others stress the theoretical components about being unable to [[Knowledge|know]] the world or to rationally grasp it. A different disagreement concerns whether the conflict exists only internal to the individual or is between the individual's expectations and the [[World#Philosophy of mind|external world]]. Some theorists also include the [[Metacognition|metacognitive]] component that the absurd entails that the individual is aware of this conflict.<ref name="Nagel2012"/><ref name="Pölzler2014"/><ref name="Baltzer-Jaray2014"/><ref name="Fox2019"/>

An important aspect of absurdism is that the absurd is not limited to particular situations but encompasses life as a whole.<ref name="Nagel2012"/><ref name="Gordon1984"/><ref name="Simpson">{{cite web |last1=Simpson |first1=David |title=Camus, Albert: i. The Absurd |url=https://iep.utm.edu/albert-camus/#SSH5ci |website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=25 April 2022}}</ref> There is a general agreement that people are often confronted with absurd situations in everyday life.<ref name="MetzlerAbsurd"/> They often arise when there is a serious mismatch between one's intentions and reality.<ref name="Nagel2012"/> For example, a person struggling to break down a heavy front door is absurd if the house they are trying to break into lacks a back wall and could easily be entered on this route.<ref name="Gordon1984"/> But the philosophical thesis of absurdism is much more wide-reaching since it is not restricted to individual situations, persons, or phases in life. Instead, it asserts that life, or the world as a whole, is absurd. The claim that the absurd has such a global extension is controversial, in contrast to the weaker claim that some situations are absurd.<ref name="Nagel2012"/><ref name="Gordon1984"/><ref name="Simpson"/>

The perspective of absurdism usually comes into view when the agent takes a step back from their individual everyday engagements with the world to assess their importance from a bigger context.<ref name="Fox2019"/><ref name="Nagel2012"/><ref name="Hamer2020"/> Such an assessment can result in the insight that the day-to-day engagements matter a lot to us despite the fact that they lack real meaning when evaluated from a wider perspective. This assessment reveals the conflict between the significance seen from the internal perspective and the arbitrariness revealed through the external perspective.<ref name="Fox2019"/> The absurd becomes a problem since there is a strong [[desire]] for meaning and purpose even though they seem to be absent.<ref name="MetzlerAbsurd"/> In this sense, the conflict responsible for the absurd often either constitutes or is accompanied by an [[existential crisis]].<ref name="Belliotti2019Preface"/><ref name="Hamer2020"/>

== Components ==
=== Practical and theoretical ===
An important component of the absurd on the practical level concerns the seriousness people bring toward life. This seriousness is reflected in many different attitudes and areas, for example, concerning fame, [[pleasure]], [[justice]], knowledge, or survival, both in regard to ourselves as well as in regard to others.<ref name="Nagel2012"/><ref name="Bertman1971"/><ref name="Hamer2020"/> But there seems to be a discrepancy between how seriously we take our lives and the lives of others on the one hand, and how arbitrary they and the world at large seem to be on the other hand. This can be understood in terms of [[Importance#Nihilism, absurdism, and existential crisis|importance]] and caring: it is absurd that people continue to care about these matters even though they seem to lack importance on an objective level.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Benbaji |first1=Yitzhak |title=The Moral, the Personal, and the Importance of What We Care about |journal=Philosophy |date=2001 |volume=76 |issue=297 |pages=415–433 |doi=10.1017/S0031819101000365 |jstor=3751779 |s2cid=143737564 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3751779 |issn=0031-8191|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kahane |first1=Guy |title=If Nothing Matters |journal=Noûs |date=2017 |volume=51 |issue=2 |pages=327–353 |doi=10.1111/nous.12146 |s2cid=146890471 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/KAHINM|url-access=subscription }}</ref> The collision between these two sides can be defined as the absurd. This is perhaps best exemplified when the agent is seriously engaged in choosing between arbitrary options, none of which truly matters.<ref name="Nagel2012"/><ref name="Pölzler2014"/>

Some theorists characterize the [[ethical]] sides of absurdism and nihilism in the same way as the view that it does not matter how we act or that "everything is permitted."<ref name="Bertman1971"/> On this view, an important aspect of the absurd is that whatever higher end or purpose we choose to pursue, it can also be put into doubt since, in the last step, it always lacks a higher-order justification.<ref name="Nagel2012"/><ref name="Gordon1984"/> But usually, a distinction between absurdism and nihilism is made since absurdism involves the additional component that there is a conflict between man's desire for meaning and the absence of meaning.<ref name="Pölzler2018">{{cite journal |last1=Pölzler |first1=Thomas |title=Camus' Feeling of the Absurd |journal=The Journal of Value Inquiry |date=1 December 2018 |volume=52 |issue=4 |pages=477–490 |doi=10.1007/s10790-018-9633-1 |s2cid=171870246 |language=en |issn=1573-0492|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Hamer2020"/>

On a more theoretical view, absurdism is the [[belief]] that the world is, at its core, indifferent and impenetrable toward human attempts to uncover its deeper reason or that it cannot be known.<ref name="Baltzer-Jaray2014"/><ref name="Blomme2013"/> According to this theoretical component, it involves the [[epistemological]] problem of the human limitations of knowing the world.<ref name="Baltzer-Jaray2014"/> This includes the thesis that the world is in critical ways ungraspable to humans, both in relation to what to believe and how to act.<ref name="Baltzer-Jaray2014">{{cite book |last1=Baltzer-Jaray |first1=Kimberly |title=Journal of Camus Studies 2013 |date=14 August 2014 |publisher=Camus Society |isbn=978-1-291-98484-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1RIYBwAAQBAJ |language=en |chapter=1. Absurdism: The Second Truth of Philosophy}}</ref><ref name="Blomme2013">{{cite journal |last1=Blomme |first1=Robert J. |title=Absurdism as a Fundamental Value: Camusian Thoughts on Moral Development in Organisations |journal=International Journal of Management Concepts and Philosophy |date=2013 |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=116 |doi=10.1504/IJMCP.2013.055720 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/BLOAAA|url-access=subscription }}</ref> This is reflected in the chaos and irrationality of the universe, which acts according to its own laws in a manner indifferent to human concerns and aspirations. It is closely related to the idea that the world remains silent when we ask why things are the way they are. This silence arises from the impression that, on the most fundamental level, all things exist without a reason: they are simply there.<ref name="Baltzer-Jaray2014"/><ref name="Vörös2017">{{cite journal |last1=Vörös |first1=Sebastjan |title=Wrestling with the Absurd: Enaction Meets Non-Sense |journal=The Journal of Mind and Behavior |date=2017 |volume=38 |issue=2 |pages=155–165 |jstor=44631535 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44631535 |issn=0271-0137}}</ref><ref name="Aronson2011"/> An important aspect of these limitations to knowing the world is that they are essential to [[human cognition]], i.e. they are not due to following false principles or accidental weaknesses but are inherent in the human cognitive faculties themselves.<ref name="Baltzer-Jaray2014"/>

Some theorists also link this problem to the [[Münchhausen trilemma|circularity of human reason]], which is very skilled at producing chains of justification linking one thing to another while trying and failing to do the same for the chain of justification as a whole when taking a reflective step backward.<ref name="Nagel2012"/><ref name="Hamer2020"/> This implies that human reason is not just too limited to grasp life as a whole but that, if one seriously tried to do so anyway, its ungrounded circularity might collapse and lead to madness.<ref name="Nagel2012"/>

=== Internal and external ===
An important disagreement within the academic literature about the nature of absurdism and the absurd focuses specifically on whether the components responsible for the conflict are internal or external.<ref name="Gordon1984"/><ref name="Nagel2012"/><ref name="Pölzler2014"/><ref name="Fox2019">{{cite journal |last1=Fox |first1=Jacob |title=Absurd Relations |journal=Human Affairs |date=2019 |volume=29 |issue=4 |pages=387–394 |doi=10.1515/humaff-2019-0033 |s2cid=204963858 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/FOXAR|doi-access=free }}</ref> According to the traditional position, the absurd has both internal and external components: it is due to the discrepancy between man's internal desire to lead a [[Meaning of life|meaningful life]] and the external meaninglessness of the world. In this view, humans have, among their desires, some transcendent aspirations that seek a higher form of meaning in life. The absurd arises since these aspirations are ignored by the world, which is indifferent to our "need for validation of the importance of our concerns."<ref name="Gordon1984"/><ref name="Pölzler2014"/> This implies that the absurd "is not in man ... nor in the world, but in their presence together. " This position has been rejected by some later theorists, who hold that the absurd is purely internal because it "derives not from a collision between our expectations and the world, but from a collision within ourselves".<ref name="Gordon1984"/><ref name="Nagel2012"/><ref name="Fox2019"/><ref name="Belliotti2019Introduction"/>

The distinction is important since, on the latter view, the absurd is built into human nature and would prevail no matter what the world was like. So, it is not just that absurdism is true in the actual world. Instead, any [[possible world]], even one that was designed by a divine god and guided by them according to their higher purpose, would still be equally absurd to man. In this sense, absurdity is the product of the power of our [[consciousness]] to take a step back from whatever it is considering and reflect on the reason of its object. When this process is applied to the world as a whole including God, it is bound to fail its search for a reason or an explanation, no matter what the world is like.<ref name="Gordon1984"/><ref name="Nagel2012"/><ref name="Hamer2020"/> In this sense, absurdity arises from the conflict between features of ourselves: "our capacity to recognize the arbitrariness of our ultimate concerns and our simultaneous incapacity to relinquish our commitment to them".<ref name="Fox2019"/> This view has the side-effect that the absurd depends on the fact that the affected person recognizes it. For example, people who fail to apprehend the arbitrariness or the conflict would not be affected.<ref name="Gordon1984"/><ref name="Nagel2012"/><ref name="Hamer2020"/>

=== Metacognitive ===
According to some researchers, a central aspect of the absurd is that the agent is [[Awareness|aware]] of the existence of the corresponding conflict. This means that the person is conscious both of the seriousness they invest and of how it seems misplaced in an arbitrary world.<ref name="Nagel2012"/><ref name="Hamer2020"/> It also implies that other entities that lack this form of consciousness, like non-organic matter or lower life forms, are not absurd and are not faced with this particular problem.<ref name="Nagel2012"/> Some theorists also emphasize that the conflict remains despite the individual's awareness of it, i.e. that the individual continues to care about their everyday concerns despite their impression that, on the large scale, these concerns are meaningless.<ref name="Fox2019"/> Defenders of the [[Metacognition|metacognitive]] component have argued that it manages to explain why absurdity is primarily ascribed to human aspirations but not to lower animals: because they lack this metacognitive awareness. However, other researchers reject the metacognitive requirement based on the fact that it would severely limit the scope of the absurd to only those possibly few individuals who clearly recognize the contradiction while sparing the rest. Thus, opponents have argued that not recognizing the conflict is just as absurd as consciously living through it.<ref name="Gordon1984"/><ref name="Nagel2012"/><ref name="Hamer2020"/>

== Arguments ==
=== For ===
Various popular arguments are often cited in favor of absurdism. Some focus on the future by pointing out that nothing we do today will matter in a million years.<ref name="Nagel2012"/><ref name="Hamer2020">{{cite book |last1=Hamer |first1=Thom |title=A Critique of Humoristic Absurdism. Problematizing the Legitimacy of a Humoristic Disposition Toward the Absurd |date=2020 |publisher=Utrecht: Utrecht University |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/HAMACO-13 |chapter=2. The Notion of the Absurd}}</ref> A similar line of argument points to the fact that our lives are insignificant because of how small they are in relation to the universe as a whole, both concerning their spatial and their temporal dimensions. The thesis of absurdism is also sometimes based on the problem of [[death]], i.e. that there is no final end for us to pursue since we are all going to die.<ref name="Nagel2012"/><ref name="Aronson2011"/> In this sense, death is said to destroy all our hard-earned achievements like career, wealth, or knowledge. This argument is mitigated to some extent by the fact that we may have positive or negative effects on the lives of other people as well. But this does not fully solve the issue since the same problem, i.e. the lack of an ultimate end, applies to their lives as well.<ref name="Nagel2012"/> [[Thomas Nagel]] has objected to these lines of argument based on the claim that they are circular: they assume rather than establish that life is absurd. For example, the claim that our actions today will not matter in a million years does not directly imply that they do not matter today. And similarly, the fact that a process does not reach a meaningful ultimate goal does not entail that the process as a whole is worthless since some parts of the process may contain their justification without depending on a justification external to them.<ref name="Nagel2012">{{cite book |last1=Nagel |first1=Thomas |title=Mortal Questions |date=2012 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-60471-1 |pages=11–23 |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/mortal-questions/absurd/F6799C54D1AC056A0F879D8841657D45 |chapter=2. The Absurd}}</ref><ref name="Hamer2020"/>

Another argument proceeds indirectly by pointing out how various great thinkers have obvious irrational elements in their systems of thought. These purported mistakes of reason are then taken as signs of absurdism that were meant to hide or avoid it.<ref name="Baltzer-Jaray2014"/><ref name="Hiekel2021"/> From this perspective, the tendency to posit the existence of a benevolent God may be seen as a form of [[defense mechanism]] or [[wishful thinking]] to avoid an unsettling and inconvenient truth.<ref name="Baltzer-Jaray2014"/> This is closely related to the idea that humans have an inborn desire for meaning and purpose, which is dwarfed by a meaningless and indifferent universe.<ref name="Yalom2020">{{cite book |last1=Yalom |first1=Irvin D. |title=Existential Psychotherapy |year=2020 |publisher=Basic Books |isbn=978-1-5416-4744-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nI7VDwAAQBAJ |language=en |chapter=10. Meaninglessness}}</ref><ref name="Andrews2016">{{cite journal |last1=Andrews |first1=Mary |date=April 2016 |title=The Existential Crisis |journal=Behavioral Development Bulletin |volume=21 |issue=1 |pages=104–109 |doi=10.1037/bdb0000014}}</ref><ref name="Butenaitė2016">{{cite journal |last1=Butenaitė |first1=Joana |last2=Sondaitė |first2=Jolanta |last3=Mockus |first3=Antanas |date=2016 |title=Components of Existential Crisis: A Theoretical Analysis |journal=International Journal of Psychology: A Biopsychosocial Approach |volume=18 |pages=9–27 |doi=10.7220/2345-024X.18.1|doi-access=free }}</ref> For example, [[René Descartes]] aims to build a philosophical system based on the absolute certainty of the "[[I think, therefore I am]]" just to introduce without a proper justification the existence of a benevolent and non-deceiving God in a later step in order to ensure that we can know about the external world.<ref name="Baltzer-Jaray2014"/><ref>{{cite web |last1=Skirry |first1=Justin |title=Descartes, Rene |url=https://iep.utm.edu/rene-descartes/ |website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=26 April 2022}}</ref> A similar problematic step is taken by [[John Locke]], who accepts the existence of a God beyond [[sensory experience]], despite his strict [[empiricism]], which demands that all knowledge be based on sensory experience.<ref name="Baltzer-Jaray2014"/><ref>{{cite web |last1=Uzgalis |first1=William |title=John Locke: 4.2 Human Nature and God's Purposes |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/locke/#HumaNatuGodsPurp |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=26 April 2022 |date=2020}}</ref>

Other theorists argue in favor of absurdism based on the claim that meaning is [[Relations (philosophy)|relational]]. In this sense, for something to be meaningful, it has to stand in relation to something else that is meaningful.<ref name="Fox2019"/><ref name="Hiekel2021">{{cite journal |last1=Hiekel |first1=Susanne |date=2021 |title=Meaning Nihilism? Is Our Life Absurd? |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/HIEMN |journal=Zeitschrift für Ethik und Moralphilosophie |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=3–21 |doi=10.1007/s42048-020-00089-x |s2cid=230988892|url-access=subscription }}</ref> For example, a word is meaningful because of its relation to a language or someone's life could be meaningful because this person dedicates their efforts to a higher meaningful project, like serving God or fighting poverty. An important consequence of this characterization of meaning is that it threatens to lead to an [[infinite regress]]:<ref name="Fox2019"/><ref name="Hiekel2021"/> at each step, something is meaningful because something else is meaningful, which in its turn has meaning only because it is related to yet another meaningful thing, and so on.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Cameron |first1=Ross |title=Infinite Regress Arguments |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/infinite-regress/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |date=2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Clark |first1=Romane |title=Vicious Infinite Regress Arguments |journal=Philosophical Perspectives |date=1988 |volume=2 |pages=369–380 |doi=10.2307/2214081 |jstor=2214081 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/CLAVIR|url-access=subscription }}</ref> This infinite chain and the corresponding absurdity could be avoided if some things had intrinsic or ultimate meaning, i.e. if their meaning did not depend on the meaning of something else.<ref name="Fox2019"/><ref name="Hiekel2021"/> For example, if things on the large scale, like God or fighting poverty, had meaning, then our everyday engagements could be meaningful by standing in the right relation to them. However, if these wider contexts themselves lack meaning then they are unable to act as sources of meaning for other things. This would lead to the absurd when understood as the conflict between the impression that our everyday engagements are meaningful even though they lack meaning because they do not stand in a relation to something else that is meaningful.<ref name="Fox2019"/>

Another argument for absurdism is based on the attempt of assessing standards of what matters and why it matters. It has been argued that the only way to answer such a question is in reference to these standards themselves. This means that, in the end, it depends only on us, that "what seems to us important or serious or valuable would not seem so if we were differently constituted". The circularity and groundlessness of these standards themselves are then used to argue for absurdism.<ref name="Nagel2012"/><ref name="Hamer2020"/>

=== Against ===
The most common criticism of absurdism is to argue that life in fact has meaning. [[Supernatural]]ist arguments to this effect are based on the claim that God exists and acts as the source of meaning. Naturalist arguments, on the other hand, contend that various sources of meaning can be found in the natural world without recourse to a supernatural realm. Some of them hold that meaning is subjective. On this view, whether a given thing is meaningful varies from person to person based on their subjective attitude toward this thing. Others find meaning in external values, for example, in [[morality]], knowledge, or [[beauty]]. All these different positions have in common that they affirm the existence of meaning, in contrast to absurdism.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Seachris |first1=Joshua |title=Meaning of Life: Contemporary Analytic Perspectives |url=https://iep.utm.edu/mean-ana/ |website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=27 April 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Metz |first1=Thaddeus |title=The Meaning of Life |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/life-meaning/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=27 April 2022 |date=2021}}</ref><ref name="Hiekel2021"/>

Another criticism of absurdism focuses on its negative attitude toward moral values. In the absurdist literature, the moral dimension is sometimes outright denied, for example, by holding that value judgments are to be discarded or that the rejection of God implies the rejection of moral values.<ref name="Pölzler2014"/> On this view, absurdism brings with it a highly controversial form of [[moral nihilism]]. This means that there is a lack, not just of a higher purpose in life, but also of moral values. These two sides can be linked by the idea that without a higher purpose, nothing is worth pursuing that could give one's life meaning. This worthlessness seems to apply to morally relevant actions equally as to other issues.<ref name="Pölzler2014"/><ref name="Bertman1971"/> In this sense, "[b]elief in the meaning of life always implies a scale of values" while "[b]elief in the absurd ... teaches the contrary".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Camus |first1=Albert |title=The Myth of Sisyphus and Other Essays |date=1991 |publisher=Knopf |page=21 |url=https://www2.hawaii.edu/~freeman/courses/phil360/16.%20Myth%20of%20Sisyphus.pdf}}</ref> Various objections to such a position have been presented, for example, that it violates [[common sense]] or that it leads to numerous radical consequences, like that no one is ever guilty of any blameworthy behavior or that there are no ethical rules.<ref name="Pölzler2014">{{cite journal |last1=Pölzler |first1=Thomas |title=Absurdism as Self-Help: Resolving an Essential Inconsistency in Camus? Early Philosophy |journal=Journal of Camus Studies |date=2014 |volume=2014 |pages=91–102 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/PLZAAS}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Sinnott-Armstrong |first1=Walter |date=2019 |title=Moral Skepticism: 2. A Presumption Against Moral Skepticism? |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/skepticism-moral/#PreAgaMorSke |access-date=26 April 2022 |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University}}</ref>

But this negative attitude toward moral values is not always consistently maintained by absurdists and some of the suggested responses on how to deal with the absurd seem to explicitly defend the existence of moral values.<ref name="Pölzler2014"/><ref name="Aronson2011"/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Denton |first1=David E. |title=Albert Camus: Philosopher of Moral Concern |journal=Educational Theory |date=April 1964 |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=99–127 |doi=10.1111/j.1741-5446.1964.tb00163.x |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1741-5446.1964.tb00163.x |language=en |issn=0013-2004|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Due to this ambiguity, other critics of absurdism have objected to it based on its inconsistency.<ref name="Pölzler2014"/> The moral values defended by absurdists often overlap with the ethical outlook of [[existentialism]] and include traits like [[sincerity]], [[Authenticity (philosophy)|authenticity]], and [[courage]] as [[virtue]]s.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Burnham |first1=Douglas |title=Existentialism |url=https://iep.utm.edu/existent/ |website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=26 April 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Crowell |first1=Steven |title=Existentialism |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/existentialism/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=26 April 2022 |date=2020}}</ref> In this sense, absurdists often argue that it matters how the agent faces the absurdity of their situation and that the response should exemplify these virtues. This aspect is particularly prominent in the idea that the agent should rebel against the absurd and live their life authentically as a form of passionate revolt.<ref name="Pölzler2014"/><ref name="Baltzer-Jaray2014"/><ref name="Blomme2013"/>

Some see the latter position as inconsistent with the idea that there is no meaning in life: if nothing matters then it should also not matter how we respond to this fact.<ref name="Pölzler2014"/><ref name="Nagel2012"/><ref name="Gordon1984"/><ref name="Fox2019"/> So absurdists seem to be committed both to the claim that moral values exist and that they do not exist. Defenders of absurdism have tried to resist this line of argument by contending that, in contrast to other responses, it remains true to the basic insight of absurdism and the "logic of the absurd" by acknowledging the existence of the absurd instead of denying it.<ref name="Pölzler2014"/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pölzler |first1=Thomas |title=Camus' Early Logic of the Absurd |journal=Journal of Camus Studies 2011 |date=2011 |pages=98–117 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/PLZCEL}}</ref> But this defense is not always accepted. One of its shortcomings seems to be that it commits the [[is-ought fallacy]]: absurdism presents itself as a descriptive claim about the existence and nature of the absurd but then goes on to posit various normative claims.<ref name="Pölzler2014"/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sagi |first1=Avi |title=Is the Absurd the Problem or the Solution?: The Myth of Sisyphus Reconsidered |journal=Philosophy Today |date=1994 |volume=38 |issue=3 |pages=278–284 |doi=10.5840/philtoday199438315}}</ref> Another defense of absurdism consists in weakening the claims about how one should respond to the absurd and which virtues such a response should exemplify. On this view, absurdism may be understood as a form of [[self-help]] that merely provides prudential advice. Such prudential advice may be helpful to certain people without pretending to have the status of universally valid moral values or categorical normative judgments. So the value of the prudential advice may merely be relative to the interests of some people but not valuable in a more general sense. This way, absurdists have tried to resolve the apparent inconsistency in their position.<ref name="Pölzler2014"/>

== Examples ==
According to absurdism, life in general is absurd: the absurd is not just limited to a few specific cases. Nonetheless, some cases are more paradigmatic examples than others. ''[[The Myth of Sisyphus]]'' is often treated as a key example of the absurd.<ref name="Blomme2013"/><ref name="Pölzler2014"/> In it, [[Zeus]] punishes [[Sisyphus|King Sisyphus]] by compelling him to roll a massive boulder up a hill. Whenever the boulder reaches the top, it rolls down again, thereby forcing Sisyphus to repeat the same task all over again throughout eternity. This story may be seen as an absurdist [[parable]] for the hopelessness and futility of human life in general: just like Sisyphus, humans in general are condemned to toil day in and day out in the attempt to fulfill pointless tasks, which will be replaced by new pointless tasks once they are completed. It has been argued that a central aspect of Sisyphus' situation is not just the futility of his labor but also his awareness of the futility.<ref name="Blomme2013"/><ref name="BritannicaSisyphus">{{cite web |title=The Myth of Sisyphus |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/The-Myth-of-Sisyphus |website=www.britannica.com |access-date=13 April 2022 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Pölzler2014"/>

Another example of the absurdist aspect of the human condition is given in [[Franz Kafka]]'s ''[[The Trial]]''.<ref name="Sutherland2013">{{cite book |last1=Sutherland |first1=John |title=A Little History of Literature |url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.12987/9780300188363-033/pdf |chapter=33. Absurd Existences Kafka, Camus, Beckett and Pinter |date=2013|pages=214–220 |publisher=Yale University Press |doi=10.12987/9780300188363-033 |isbn=978-0-300-18836-3 |s2cid=246109213 }}</ref><ref name="Guardian2019">{{cite web |date=14 August 2019 |title=From Kafka to Gogol via Pynchon: top 10 absurd quests in fiction |url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2019/aug/14/from-kafka-to-gogol-via-pynchon-top-10-absurd-quests-in-fiction |website=The Guardian |language=en}}</ref> In it, the protagonist Josef K. is arrested and prosecuted by an inaccessible authority even though he is convinced that he has done nothing wrong. Throughout the story, he desperately tries to discover what crimes he is accused of and how to defend himself. But in the end, he lets go of his futile attempts and submits to his execution without ever finding out what he was accused of. The absurd nature of the world is exemplified by the mysterious and impenetrable functioning of the judicial system, which seems indifferent to Josef K. and resists all of his attempts of making sense of it.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kavanagh |first1=Thomas M. |title=Kafka's "The Trial": The Semiotics of the Absurd |journal=Novel: A Forum on Fiction |date=1972 |volume=5 |issue=3 |pages=242–253 |doi=10.2307/1345282 |jstor=1345282 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1345282 |issn=0029-5132|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref name="Sutherland2013"/><ref name="Guardian2019"/>

== Importance ==
Philosophers of absurdism often complain that the topic of the absurd does not receive the attention of professional philosophers it merits, especially when compared to other perennial philosophical areas of inquiry. It has been argued, for example, that this can be seen in the tendency of various philosophers throughout the ages to include the epistemically dubitable existence of God in their philosophical systems as a source of ultimate explanation of the mysteries of existence. In that regard, this tendency may be seen as a form of defense mechanism or wishful thinking constituting a side-effect of the unacknowledged and ignored importance of the absurd.<ref name="Baltzer-Jaray2014"/><ref name="Hiekel2021"/> While some discussions of absurdism happen explicitly in the philosophical literature, it is often presented in a less explicit manner in the form of novels or plays. These presentations usually happen by telling stories that exemplify some of the key aspects of absurdism even though they may not explicitly discuss the topic.<ref name="Blomme2013"/><ref name="Pölzler2014"/>

It has been argued that acknowledging the existence of the absurd has important consequences for epistemology, especially in relation to philosophy but also when applied more widely to other fields.<ref name="Baltzer-Jaray2014"/><ref name="Blomme2013"/> The reason for this is that acknowledging the absurd includes becoming aware of human cognitive limitations and may lead to a form of epistemic humbleness.<ref name="Baltzer-Jaray2014"/>

The impression that life is absurd may in some cases have serious psychological consequences like triggering an existential crisis. In this regard, an awareness both of absurdism itself and the possible responses to it can be central to avoiding or resolving such consequences.<ref name="Pölzler2014"/><ref name="Belliotti2019Preface"/><ref name="Hamer2020"/>

== Possible responses ==
{{Quote box
 | quote  = ... in spite of or in defiance of the whole of existence he wills to be himself with it, to take it along, almost defying his torment. For to hope in the possibility of help, not to speak of help by virtue of the absurd, that for God all things are possible—no, that he will not do. And as for seeking help from any other—no, that he will not do for all the world; rather than seek help he would prefer to be himself—with all the tortures of hell, if so it must be.
 | source =— [[Søren Kierkegaard]], ''[[The Sickness Unto Death]]''<ref name="KierkegaardSuD"/>
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Most researchers argue that the basic conflict posed by the absurd cannot be truly resolved. This means that any attempt to do so is bound to fail even though their protagonists may not be aware of their failure. On this view, there are still several possible responses, some better than others, but none able to solve the fundamental conflict. Traditional absurdism, as exemplified by [[Albert Camus]], holds that there are three possible responses to absurdism: [[suicide]], [[Faith|religious belief]], or revolting against the absurd.<ref name="Blomme2013"/><ref name="Pölzler2014"/> Later researchers have suggested more ways of responding to absurdism.<ref name="Nagel2012"/><ref name="Fox2019"/><ref name="Hamer2020"/>

A very blunt and simple response, though quite radical, is to commit suicide.<ref name="Simpson"/> According to Camus, for example, the problem of suicide is the only "really serious philosophical problem". It consists in seeking an answer to the question "Should I kill myself?".<ref name="Aronson2011">{{cite web |last1=Aronson |first1=Ronald |title=Albert Camus |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/camus/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=18 April 2022 |date=2022}}</ref> This response is motivated by the insight that, no matter how hard the agent tries, they may never reach their goal of leading a meaningful life, which can then justify the rejection of continuing to live at all.<ref name="Pölzler2014"/> Most researchers acknowledge that this is one form of response to the absurd but reject it due to its radical and irreversible nature and argue instead for a different approach.<ref name="Simpson"/><ref name="Aronson2011"/>

One such alternative response to the apparent absurdity of life is to assume that there is some higher ultimate purpose in which the individual may participate, like service to society, [[progress]] of history, or God's glory.<ref name="Nagel2012"/><ref name="Pölzler2014"/><ref name="Simpson"/> While the individual may only play a small part in the realization of this overarching purpose, it may still act as a source of meaning. This way, the individual may find meaning and thereby escape the absurd. One serious issue with this approach is that the problem of absurdity applies to this alleged higher purpose as well. So just like the aims of a single individual life can be put into doubt, this applies equally to a larger purpose shared by many.<ref name="Fox2019"/><ref name="Hiekel2021"/> And if this purpose is itself absurd, it fails to act as a source of meaning for the individual participating in it. Camus identifies this response as a form of suicide as well, pertaining not to the physical but to the philosophical level. It is a philosophical suicide in the sense that the individual just assumes that the chosen higher purpose is meaningful and thereby fails to reflect on its absurdity.<ref name="Nagel2012"/><ref name="Pölzler2014"/>

Traditional absurdists usually reject both physical and philosophical suicide as the recommended response to the absurd, usually with the argument that both these responses constitute some form of escape that fails to face the absurd for what it is. Despite the gravity and inevitability of the absurd, they recommend that we should face it directly, i.e. not escape from it by retreating into the illusion of false hope or by ending one's life.<ref name="Baltzer-Jaray2014"/><ref name="Blomme2013"/><ref name="Gordon1984"/> In this sense, accepting the reality of the absurd means rejecting any hopes for a happy [[afterlife]] free of those contradictions.<ref name="Blomme2013"/><ref name="Nagel2012"/> Instead, the individual should acknowledge the absurd and engage in a rebellion against it.<ref name="Baltzer-Jaray2014"/><ref name="Blomme2013"/><ref name="Gordon1984">{{cite journal |last1=Gordon |first1=Jeffrey |title=Nagel or Camus on the Absurd? |journal=Philosophy and Phenomenological Research |date=1984 |volume=45 |issue=1 |pages=15–28 |doi=10.2307/2107324 |jstor=2107324 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/GORNOC|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Such a revolt usually exemplifies certain virtues closely related to [[existentialism]], like the affirmation of one's [[freedom]] in the face of adversity as well as accepting [[Moral responsibility|responsibility]] and defining one's own [[essence]].<ref name="Baltzer-Jaray2014"/><ref name="Pölzler2014"/> An important aspect of this lifestyle is that life is lived passionately and intensely by inviting and seeking new [[experience]]s. Such a lifestyle might be exemplified by an [[actor]], a conqueror, or a [[Pickup artist|seduction artist]] who is constantly on the lookout for new roles, conquests, or attractive people despite their awareness of the absurdity of these enterprises.<ref name="Blomme2013"/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wade |first1=Gerald E. |title=Camus' Absurd Don Juan |journal=Romance Notes |date=1960 |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=85–91 |jstor=43800012 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/43800012 |issn=0035-7995}}</ref> Another aspect lies in [[creativity]], i.e. that the agent sees themselves as and acts as the creator of their own works and paths in life. This constitutes a form of rebellion in the sense that the agent remains aware of the absurdity of the world and their part in it but keeps on opposing it instead of resigning and admitting defeat.<ref name="Blomme2013"/> But this response does not solve the problem of the absurd at its core: even a life dedicated to the rebellion against the absurd is itself still absurd.<ref name="Nagel2012"/><ref name="Gordon1984"/> Defenders of the rebellious response to absurdism have pointed out that, despite its possible shortcomings, it has one important advantage over many of its alternatives: it manages to accept the absurd for what it is without denying it by rejecting that it exists or by stopping one's own existence. Some even hold that it is the only philosophically coherent response to the absurd.<ref name="Pölzler2014"/>

While these three responses are the most prominent ones in the traditional absurdist literature, various other responses have also been suggested. Instead of rebellion, for example, absurdism may also lead to a form of [[irony]]. This irony is not sufficient to escape the absurdity of life altogether, but it may mitigate it to some extent by distancing oneself to some degree from the seriousness of life.<ref name="Nagel2012"/><ref name="Gordon1984"/><ref name="Fox2019"/><ref name="Hamer2020"/> According to [[Thomas Nagel]], there may be, at least theoretically, two responses to actually resolving the problem of the absurd. This is based on the idea that the absurd arises from the consciousness of a conflict between two aspects of human life: that humans care about various things and that the world seems arbitrary and does not merit this concern.<ref name="Fox2019"/><ref name="Nagel2012"/><ref name="Hamer2020"/> The absurd would not arise if either of the conflicting elements would cease to exist, i.e. if the individual would stop caring about things, as some [[Eastern religion]]s seem to suggest, or if one could find something that possesses a non-arbitrary meaning that merits the concern. For theorists who give importance to the [[consciousness]] of this conflict for the absurd, a further option presents itself: to remain ignorant of it to the extent that this is possible.<ref name="Fox2019"/><ref name="Nagel2012"/><ref name="Hamer2020"/>

Other theorists hold that a proper response to the absurd may neither be possible nor necessary, that it just remains one of the basic aspects of life no matter how it is confronted. This lack of response may be justified through the thesis of absurdism itself: if nothing really matters on the grand scale, then this applies equally to human responses toward this fact. From this perspective, the passionate rebellion against an apparently trivial or unimportant state of affairs seems less like a heroic quest and more like a [[fool's errand]].<ref name="Nagel2012"/><ref name="Gordon1984"/><ref name="Fox2019"/> Jeffrey Gordon has objected to this criticism based on the claim that there is a difference between absurdity and lack of importance. So even if life as a whole is absurd, some facts about life may still be more important than others and the fact that life as a whole is absurd would be a good candidate for the more important facts.<ref name="Gordon1984"/>

== History ==
Absurdism has its origins in the work of the 19th-century [[Denmark|Danish]] philosopher [[Søren Kierkegaard]], who chose to confront the crisis that humans face with the Absurd by developing his own [[Philosophy of Søren Kierkegaard|existentialist philosophy]].<ref name="Kierkegaard"/> Absurdism as a belief system was born of the European existentialist movement that ensued, specifically when Camus rejected certain aspects of that philosophical line of thought<ref name="solom"/> and published his essay ''[[The Myth of Sisyphus]]''. The aftermath of [[World War II]] provided the social environment that stimulated absurdist views and allowed for their popular development, especially in the devastated country of [[France]]. [[Michel Foucault|Foucault]] viewed [[Shakespeare's plays|Shakespearean theater]] as a precursor of absurdism.<ref name="Bates 2014 p. 213">{{cite book | last=Bates | first=J.A. | title=Shakespeare and Continental Philosophy | publisher=Edinburgh University Press | year=2014 | isbn=978-0-7486-9497-6 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gQjdCQAAQBAJ&pg=PT213 | access-date=1 June 2023 | page=213}}</ref>

=== Immanuel Kant ===
An idea very close to the concept of the absurd is due to [[Immanuel Kant]], who distinguishes between [[phenomena]] and [[noumena]].<ref name="Baltzer-Jaray2014"/> This distinction refers to the gap between how things appear to us and what they are like in themselves. For example, according to Kant, space and times are dimensions belonging to the realm of phenomena since this is how sensory impressions are organized by the [[mind]], but may not be found on the level of noumena.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Stang |first1=Nicholas F. |title=Kant's Transcendental Idealism: 6.1 Phenomena and noumena |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-transcendental-idealism/#PhenNoum |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=28 April 2022 |date=2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Jankowiak |first1=Tim |title=Kant, Immanuel |url=https://iep.utm.edu/kantview/ |website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=28 April 2022}}</ref> The concept of the absurd corresponds to the thesis that there is such a gap and human limitations may limit the mind from ever truly grasping reality, i.e. that reality in this sense remains absurd to the mind.<ref name="Baltzer-Jaray2014"/>

=== Søren Kierkegaard ===
{{Main|Philosophy of Søren Kierkegaard}}
[[Image:Kierkegaard.jpg|thumb|Kierkegaard designed the relationship framework based (in part) on how a person reacts to [[existential despair|despair]]. Absurdist philosophy fits into the 'despair of defiance' rubric.<ref name="kierk1"/>]]
A century before [[Albert Camus|Camus]], the 19th-century Danish philosopher [[Søren Kierkegaard]] wrote extensively about the absurdity of the world. In his journals, Kierkegaard writes about the absurd:

{{quotation|text=What is the Absurd? It is, as may quite easily be seen, that I, a rational being, must act in a case where my reason, my powers of reflection, tell me: you can just as well do the one thing as the other, that is to say where my reason and reflection say: you cannot act and yet here is where I have to act... The Absurd, or to act by virtue of the absurd, is to act upon faith ... I must act, but reflection has closed the road so I take one of the possibilities and say: This is what I do, I cannot do otherwise because I am brought to a standstill by my powers of reflection.<ref name="kierk55"/>|author=Kierkegaard, Søren|source=Journals, 1849}}

Here is another example of the Absurd from his writings: {{Quotation|text=What, then, is the absurd? The absurd is that the eternal truth has come into existence in time, that God has come into existence, has been born, has grown up. etc., has come into existence exactly as an individual human being, indistinguishable from any other human being, in as much as all immediate recognizability is pre-Socratic paganism and from the Jewish point of view is idolatry.|author=Kierkegaard|source=''Concluding Unscientific Postscript'', 1846, Hong 1992, p. 210}}

How can this absurdity be held or believed? Kierkegaard says: {{Quotation|text=I gladly undertake, by way of brief repetition, to emphasize what other pseudonyms have emphasized. The absurd is not the absurd or absurdities without any distinction (wherefore Johannes de Silentio: "How many of our age understand what the absurd is?"). The absurd is a category, and the most developed thought is required to define the Christian absurd accurately and with conceptual correctness. The absurd is a category, the negative criterion, of the divine or of the relationship to the divine. When the believer has faith, the absurd is not the absurd—faith transforms it, but in every weak moment it is again more or less absurd to him. The passion of faith is the only thing which masters the absurd—if not, then faith is not faith in the strictest sense, but a kind of knowledge. The absurd terminates negatively before the sphere of faith, which is a sphere by itself. To a third person the believer relates himself by virtue of the absurd; so must a third person judge, for a third person does not have the passion of faith. Johannes de Silentio has never claimed to be a believer; just the opposite, he has explained that he is not a believer—in order to illuminate faith negatively.|source=''Journals of Søren Kierkegaard'' X6B 79<ref name="kierk72"/>}}

Kierkegaard provides an example in ''[[Fear and Trembling]]'' (1843), which was published under the pseudonym ''[[Johannes de Silentio]]''. In the story of [[Abraham]] in the [[Book of Genesis]], Abraham is told by [[God]] to [[Binding of Isaac|kill his son]] [[Isaac]]. Just as Abraham is about to kill Isaac, an angel stops Abraham from doing so. Kierkegaard believes that through virtue of the absurd, Abraham, defying all reason and ethical duties ("you cannot act"), got back his son and reaffirmed his faith ("where I have to act").<ref name="silen"/>

Another instance of absurdist themes in Kierkegaard's work appears in ''[[The Sickness Unto Death]]'', which Kierkegaard signed with pseudonym ''[[Anti-Climacus]]''. Exploring the forms of despair, Kierkegaard examines the type of despair known as defiance.<ref name="sickn"/> In the opening quotation reproduced at the beginning of the article, Kierkegaard describes how such a man would endure such a defiance and identifies the three major traits of the Absurd Man, later discussed by Albert Camus: a rejection of escaping existence (suicide), a rejection of help from a higher power and acceptance of his absurd (and despairing) condition.

According to Kierkegaard in his autobiography ''[[The Point of View of My Work as an Author]]'', most of his pseudonymous writings are not necessarily reflective of his own opinions. Nevertheless, his work anticipated many absurdist themes and provided its theoretical background.

=== Albert Camus ===
The philosophy of Albert Camus, or more precisely the “camusian absurd” ([[French language|French]] : ''l'absurde camusien''), refers with absurdism to the work and philosophical thought of the French writer [[Albert Camus]]. This philosophy is influenced by the author's political, [[Libertarianism|libertarian]], social and ecological ideas; and is inspired by previous philosophical trends, such as [[Ancient Greek philosophy|Greek philosophy]], [[nihilism]], the [[Philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche|Nietzschean thought]] or [[existentialism]]. It revolves around three major cycles: “the absurd (''l'absurde'')”, “the revolt (''la révolte'')” and “love (''l'amour'')”. Each cycle is linked to a Greek myth ([[Sisyphus]], [[Prometheus]], [[Nemesis]]) and explores specific themes and objects; the common thread remaining the solitude and despair of the human, constantly driven by the tireless search for the meaning of the world and of life.{{Blockquote|I had a precise plan when I started my work: I wanted to first express negation. In three forms. Romanesque: it was ''The Stranger''. Drama: ''Caligula'' and ''The Misunderstanding''. Ideological: ''The Myth of Sisyphus''. I wouldn't have been able to talk about it if I hadn't experienced it; I have no imagination. But for me it was, if you like, [[Cartesian doubt|the methodical doubt]] of Descartes. I knew that we cannot live in negation and I announced it in the preface to the Myth of Sisyphus; I anticipated the positive in all three forms again. Romance: ''The Plague''. Drama: ''The State of Siege'' and ''The Righteous''. Ideological: ''The Rebel''. I already saw a third layer around the theme of love. These are the projects I have in progress|Albert Camus at [[:Category:French Nobel laureates|Stockholm in 1957]], quoted by [[Roger Quilliot]] in ''Essais'', II, p. 1610.<ref>{{cite web |access-date=29 December 2023 |author=Arnaud Corbic, ''Études, 399'' |date=2003 |pages=227–234 |language=fr |title=''L'« humanisme athée » de Camus'' |url=https://www.cairn.info/revue-etudes-2003-9-page-227.htm#no19 |website=Cairn.info}}<!-- auto-translated from French by Module:CS1 translator --></ref><ref>{{cite web |access-date=2024-01-10 |title=La Pléiade - Auteur - Albert Camus |url=https://www.la-pleiade.fr/Auteur/Albert-Camus |website=www.la-pleiade.fr}}<!-- auto-translated from French by Module:CS1 translator --></ref><ref>''Essais'', Louis Faucon et Roger Quilliot éd., Intro. de Roger Quilliot, coll. « Bibliothèque de la Pléiade (n° 183) », Gallimard NRF, 08 décembre 1965 (Épuisé){{ISBN|2070101053}}.<br>Also present in the new 2008 edition : ''Œuvres complètes, Tome IV : 1957-1959 / Albert Camus'', Raymond Gay-Crosier dir., collaboration de Robert Dengler, Eugène Kouchkine, Gilles Philippe [et al.], coll. « Bibliothèque de la Pléiade (n° 549) », Gallimard, 14 novembre 2008.</ref>}}The cycle of the absurd, or ''negation'', primarily addresses [[Philosophy of suicide|suicide]] and the [[human condition]]. It is expressed through four of Camus's works: the [[novel]] ''[[The Stranger (Camus novel)|The Stranger]]'' and the [[essay]] ''[[The Myth of Sisyphus]]'' (1942), then the plays ''[[Caligula (play)|Caligula]]'' and ''[[The Misunderstanding]]'' (1944). By refusing the refuge of belief, Human becomes aware that his existence revolves around repetitive and meaningless acts. The certainty of death only reinforces, according to the writer, the feeling of uselessness of all existence. The absurd is therefore the feeling that man feels when confronted with the absence of meaning in the face of the Universe, the painful realization of his separation from the world. The question then arises of the legitimacy of suicide.

The cycle of revolt, called ''the positive'', is a direct response to the absurd and is also expressed by four of his works: the novel ''[[The Plague (novel)|The Plague]]'' (1947), the plays ''[[The State of Siege]]'' (1948) and ''[[Les Justes|The Just Assassins]]'' (1949), then the essay ''[[The Rebel (book)|The Rebel]]'' (1951). Positive concept of affirmation of the individual, where only action and commitment count in the face of the tragedy of the world, [[revolt]] is for the writer the way of experiencing the absurd, knowing our fatal destiny and nevertheless facing it : “Man refuses the world as it is, without agreeing to escape it.” It is intelligence grappling with the “unreasonable silence of the world”. Depriving ourselves of eternal life frees us from the constraints imposed by an improbable future; Man gains freedom of action, lucidity and dignity.

The philosophy of Camus therefore has as its finitude a singular [[humanism]]. Advancing a message of lucidity, resilience and emancipation in the face of the absurdity of life, it encourages people to create their own meanings through personal choices and commitments, and to embrace their freedom to the fullest. Because he affirms that, even in the absurd, there is room for passion and rebellion; and although the Universe may be indifferent to our search for meaning, this search is ''in itself'' meaningful. In ''The Myth of Sisyphus'', despite his absurd destiny, Sisyphus finds a form of liberation in his incessant work: “one must imagine Sisyphus happy”. With the cycle of love and the “midday thought” (French: ''la pensée de midi''), the philosophy of the absurd is completed by a principle of measurement and pleasure, close to [[Epicureanism]].

Though the notion of the 'absurd' pervades all [[Albert Camus]]'s writing, ''[[The Myth of Sisyphus]]'' is his chief work on the subject. In it, Camus considers absurdity as a confrontation, an opposition, a conflict or a "divorce" between two ideals. Specifically, he defines the human condition as absurd, as the confrontation between man's desire for significance, meaning and clarity on the one hand—and the silent, cold universe on the other. He continues that there are specific human experiences evoking notions of absurdity. Such a realization or encounter with the absurd leaves the individual with a choice: [[suicide]], a [[leap of faith]], or recognition. He concludes that recognition is the only defensible option.<ref name="CamusMyth" />

For Camus, suicide is a "confession" that life is not worth living; it is a choice that implicitly declares that life is "too much." Suicide offers the most basic "way out" of absurdity: the immediate termination of the self and its place in the universe.

The absurd encounter can also arouse a "leap of faith," a term derived from one of Kierkegaard's early pseudonyms, ''Johannes de Silentio'' (although the term was not used by Kierkegaard himself),<ref name="CC"/> where one believes that there is more than the rational life (aesthetic or ethical). To take a "leap of faith," one must act with the "virtue of the absurd" (as ''Johannes de Silentio'' put it), where a suspension of the ethical may need to exist. This faith has no expectations, but is a flexible power initiated by a recognition of the absurd. Camus states that because the leap of faith escapes rationality and defers to abstraction over personal experience, the leap of faith is not absurd. Camus considers the leap of faith as "philosophical suicide," rejecting both this and physical suicide.<ref name="CC"/><ref name="camus0"/>

Lastly, a person can choose to embrace the absurd condition. According to Camus, one's freedom—and the opportunity to give life meaning—lies in the recognition of absurdity. If the absurd experience is truly the realization that the universe is fundamentally devoid of absolutes, then we as individuals are truly free. "To live without appeal,"<ref name="camus47"/> as he puts it, is a philosophical move to define absolutes and universals subjectively, rather than objectively. The freedom of man is thus established in one's natural ability and opportunity to create their own meaning and purpose; to decide (or think) for oneself. The individual becomes the most precious unit of existence, representing a set of unique ideals that can be characterized as an entire universe in its own right. In acknowledging the absurdity of seeking any inherent meaning, but continuing this search regardless, one can be happy, gradually developing meaning from the search alone. ''"Happiness and the absurd are two sons of the same earth. They are inseparable."''<ref>Camus, Sisyphus, p122</ref>

Camus states in ''The Myth of Sisyphus'': "Thus I draw from the absurd three consequences, which are my revolt, my freedom, and my passion. By the mere activity of consciousness I transform into a rule of life what was an invitation to death, and I refuse suicide."<ref name="camus53"/> "Revolt" here refers to the refusal of suicide and search for meaning despite the revelation of the Absurd; "Freedom" refers to the lack of imprisonment by religious devotion or others' moral codes; "Passion" refers to the most wholehearted experiencing of life, since hope has been rejected, and so he concludes that every moment must be lived fully.

== Relation to other concepts ==
=== Existentialism and nihilism ===
Absurdism originated from (as well as alongside) the 20th-century strains of [[existentialism]] and [[nihilism]]; it shares some prominent starting points with both, though also entails conclusions that are uniquely distinct from these other schools of thought. All three arose from the human experience of anguish and confusion stemming from existence: the apparent meaninglessness of a world in which humans, nevertheless, are compelled to find or create meaning.<ref name="utmed"/> The three schools of thought diverge from there. Existentialists have generally advocated the individual's construction of their own meaning in life as well as the [[free will]] of the individual. Nihilists, on the contrary, contend that "it is futile to seek or to affirm meaning where none can be found."<ref name="spect"/> Absurdists, following Camus' formulation, hesitantly allow the possibility for some meaning or value in life, but are neither as certain as existentialists are about the value of one's own constructed meaning nor as nihilists are about the total inability to create meaning. Absurdists following Camus also devalue or outright reject free will, encouraging merely that the individual live defiantly and authentically ''in spite of'' the psychological tension of the Absurd.<ref name="stanf"/>

Camus himself passionately worked to counter [[nihilism]], as he explained in his essay "[[The Rebel (book)|The Rebel]]", while he also categorically rejected the label of "existentialist" in his essay "Enigma" and in the compilation ''The Lyrical and Critical Essays of Albert Camus'', though he was, and still is, often broadly characterized by others as an existentialist.<ref name="solo5"/> Both existentialism and absurdism entail consideration of the practical applications of becoming conscious of the truth of [[existential nihilism]]: i.e., how a driven seeker of meaning should act when suddenly confronted with the seeming concealment, or downright absence, of meaning in the universe.

While absurdism can be seen as a kind of response to existentialism, it can be debated exactly how substantively the two positions differ from each other.  The existentialist, after all, does not deny the reality of death.  But the absurdist seems to reaffirm the way in which death ultimately nullifies our meaning-making activities, a conclusion the existentialists seem to resist through various notions of posterity or, in [[Jean-Paul Sartre|Sartre]]'s case, participation in a grand humanist project.<ref>{{cite book|title=[[Existentialism Is a Humanism]] (original text: 'L'existentialisme est un humanisme', 1946)|last=Sartre|first=Jean-Paul|publisher=Yale University Press|year=2007}}</ref>

=== Existential crisis ===
The basic problem of absurdism is usually not encountered through a dispassionate philosophical inquiry but as the manifestation of an [[existential crisis]].<ref name="Belliotti2019Preface"/><ref name="Pölzler2014"/><ref name="Hamer2020"/> Existential crises are inner conflicts in which the individual wrestles with the impression that life lacks [[Meaning of life|meaning]]. They are accompanied by various negative [[experiences]], such as [[Stress (biology)|stress]], [[anxiety]], despair, and [[Depression (mood)|depression]], which can disturb the individual's normal functioning in everyday life.<ref name="Yalom2020"/><ref name="Andrews2016"/><ref name="Butenaitė2016"/> In this sense, the conflict underlying the absurdist perspective poses a psychological challenge to the affected. This challenge is due to the impression that the agent's vigorous daily engagement stands in incongruity with its apparent insignificance encountered through philosophical reflection.<ref name="Belliotti2019Preface"/> Realizing this incongruity is usually not a pleasant occurrence and may lead to estrangement, alienation, and hopelessness.<ref name="Belliotti2019Defining">{{cite book |last1=Belliotti |first1=Raymond Angelo |title=Is Human Life Absurd? A Philosophical Inquiry into Finitude, Value, and Meaning |year= 2019 |publisher=Brill|isbn=978-90-04-40879-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Up4hxwEACAAJ |language=en |chapter=1. Defining the Absurd}}</ref><ref name="Hamer2020"/> The intimate relation to psychological crises is also manifested in the problem of finding the right response to this unwelcome conflict, for example, by denying it, by taking life less seriously, or by revolting against the absurd.<ref name="Belliotti2019Preface">{{cite book |last1=Belliotti |first1=Raymond Angelo |title=Is Human Life Absurd? A Philosophical Inquiry into Finitude, Value, and Meaning |year=2019 |publisher=Brill|isbn=978-90-04-40879-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Up4hxwEACAAJ |language=en |chapter=Preface}}</ref> But accepting the position of absurdism may also have certain positive psychological effects. In this sense, it can help the individual achieve a certain psychological distance from unexamined dogmas and thus help them evaluate their situation from a more encompassing and objective perspective. However, it brings with it the danger of leveling all significant differences and thereby making it difficult for the individual to decide what to do or how to live their life.<ref name="Bertman1971"/>

=== Epistemological skepticism ===
It has been argued that absurdism in the practical domain resembles [[epistemological skepticism]] in the theoretical domain.<ref name="Nagel2012"/><ref name="Baltzer-Jaray2014"/> In the case of epistemology, we usually take for granted our knowledge of the world around us even though, when [[Cartesian doubt|methodological doubt]] is applied, it turns out that this knowledge is not as unshakable as initially assumed.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Malachowski |first1=Alan |date=1 September 1993 |title=Methodological Scepticism, Metaphysics and Meaning |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09672559308570774 |journal=International Journal of Philosophical Studies |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=302–312 |doi=10.1080/09672559308570774 |issn=0967-2559|url-access=subscription }}</ref> For example, the agent may decide to trust their perception that the sun is shining but its reliability depends on the assumption that the agent is not dreaming, which they would not know even if they were dreaming. In a similar sense in the practical domain, the agent may decide to take aspirin in order to avoid a headache even though they may be unable to give a reason for why they should be concerned with their own [[wellbeing]] at all.<ref name="Nagel2012"/> In both cases, the agent goes ahead with a form of unsupported natural confidence and takes life largely for granted despite the fact that their power to justify is only limited to a rather small range and fails when applied to the larger context, on which the small range depends.<ref name="Nagel2012"/><ref name="Hamer2020"/>

=== Education ===
It has been argued that absurdism is opposed to various fundamental principles and assumptions guiding [[education]], like the importance of [[truth]] and of fostering rationality in the students.<ref name="Bertman1971"/>

==See also==
{{Portal|Philosophy}}
{{div col}}

*[[Absurdist fiction]]
*''[[Credo quia absurdum]]''
*[[Discordianism]]
*[[Existential nihilism]]
*[[Existentialism]]
*[[Irrationality]]
*[[Is–ought problem]]
*[[Kafkaesque]]
*[[Fact–value distinction]]
*[[Lottery of birth]]
*[[Meaning of life]]
*[[Nihilism]]
*[[Non sequitur (literary device)]]
*[[Pataphysics]]
*[[Peter Wessel Zapffe]]
*[[Philosophical pessimism]]
*[[The Stranger (Camus novel)|''The Stranger'' (novel)]]
*[[Theatre of the Absurd]]
*[[Absurdistan]]
*[[Church of the SubGenius]]
*[[Terror management theory]]
*[[Use–mention distinction]]
{{div col end}}

==References==
{{Reflist|refs=

<ref name="CamusMyth">{{cite book|last=Camus|first=Albert|author-link=Albert Camus|title=Myth of Sisyphus and Other Essays|publisher=Vintage Books|isbn=0-679-73373-6|year=1991}}</ref>

<ref name="Kierkegaard">Stewart, Jon (2011). Kierkegaard and Existentialism. Farnham, England: Ashgate. {{ISBN|978-1-4094-2641-7}}. pp. 76–78.</ref>

<ref name="solom">{{cite book |last=Solomon |first=Robert C. |author-link=Robert C. Solomon |title=From Rationalism to Existentialism: The Existentialists and Their Nineteenth Century Backgrounds |publisher=[[Rowman and Littlefield]] |year=2001 |page=245 |isbn=0-7425-1241-X}}</ref>

<ref name="KierkegaardSuD">{{cite book|last=Kierkegaard|first=Søren|author-link=Søren Kierkegaard|title=The Sickness Unto Death|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.189042|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=1941}}</ref>

<ref name="utmed">{{cite encyclopedia |url=http://www.iep.utm.edu/nihilism/#H3 |title=Nihilism |author=Alan Pratt |date=23 April 2001 |encyclopedia=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=[[Embry–Riddle University]] |access-date=4 February 2012}}</ref>

<ref name="spect">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9VnPgFiW0CIC |title=The Specter of the Absurd: Sources and Criticisms of Modern Nihilism |author=Donald A. Crosby |date=1 July 1988 |publisher=State University of New York Press |isbn=9780887067198 |access-date=29 January 2012}}</ref>

<ref name="stanf">{{cite book|title=Albert Camus|year=2022|url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/camus/|publisher=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|quote=What is the Camusean alternative to suicide or hope? The answer is to live without escape and with integrity, in “revolt” and defiance, maintaining the tension intrinsic to human life}}.</ref>

<ref name="solo5">{{cite book |last=Solomon|first=Robert C. |author-link=Robert C. Solomon|title=From Rationalism to Existentialism: The Existentialists and Their Nineteenth Century Backgrounds |publisher=[[Rowman and Littlefield]] |year=2001 |page=245 |isbn=0-7425-1241-X}}</ref>

<ref name="kierk1">Kierkegaard, Søren. ''The Sickness Unto Death''. Kierkegaard wrote about all four viewpoints in his works at one time or another, but the majority of his work leaned towards what would later become absurdist and theistic existentialist views.</ref>

<ref name="kierk55">Dru, Alexander. ''The Journals of Søren Kierkegaard'', [[Oxford University Press]], 1938.</ref>

<ref name="kierk72">{{cite web|work=Naturalthinker.com|title=Søren Kierkegaard|url=http://www.naturalthinker.net/trl/texts/Kierkegaard,Soren/JournPapers/X_6_B.html|access-date=26 February 2016}}</ref>

<ref name="silen">Silentio, Johannes de. ''Fear and Trembling'', Denmark, 1843.</ref>

<ref name="sickn">''Sickness Unto Death'', Ch. 3, Part B, Sec. 2.</ref>

<ref name="CC">"The Kierkegaardian Leap" in ''The Cambridge Companion to Kierkegaard''.</ref>

<ref name="camus0">Camus, ''Myth of Sisyphus'', p. 41.</ref>

<ref name="camus47">Camus, ''Myth of Sisyphus'', p. 55.</ref>

<ref name="camus53">Camus, ''Myth of Sisyphus'', p. 64.</ref>

<!-- unused <ref name="camus82">Camus, ''Myth of Sisyphus'', p. 40, note 7</ref>-->

}}

==Further reading==
*''[[OBERIU]]'', edited by Eugene Ostashevsky. Northwestern University Press, 2005. {{ISBN|0-8101-2293-6}}
*[[Thomas Nagel]]: ''Mortal Questions'', 1991. {{ISBN|0-521-40676-5}}

==External links==
{{Wikiquote}}
*[http://amr.obook.org/ ''Absurdist Monthly Review''] magazine


{{Kierkegaard|state=collapsed}}
{{Albert Camus}}
{{Existentialism}}
{{Philosophy topics|schools}}

[[Category:Existentialist concepts]]
[[Category:Nihilism]]
[[Category:Metaphysical theories]]
[[Category:Philosophy of life]]