View source for Polyphemus

{{short description|Son of Poseidon and Thoosa in Greek mythology}}
{{Other uses}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2020}}
{{Infobox mythical creature
|image             = Guido Reni - Polyphemus - Google Art Project.jpg
|caption           = The blinded Polyphemus seeks vengeance on Odysseus: [[Guido Reni]]'s painting in the [[Capitoline Museums]]
|name              = Polyphemus
|Folklore          = [[Greek mythology]]
|Grouping          = [[Cyclopes]]
|Sub_Grouping      =
|Family            = [[Poseidon]] (father)<br> [[Thoosa]] (mother)
|Country           =
|Region            = [[Sicily]]
|First_Attested    =
|Similar_entities  =
}}
'''Polyphemus''' ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|p|ɒ|l|i|ˈ|f|iː|m|ə|s|audio=LL-Q1860 (eng)-Naomi Persephone Amethyst (NaomiAmethyst)-Polyphemus.wav}}; {{langx|grc|Πολύφημος|Polyphēmos}}, {{IPA|grc|polypʰɛːmos|label=[[Epic Greek]]:}}; {{langx|la|Polyphēmus}} {{IPA|la|pɔlʏˈpʰeːmʊs|}}) is the one-eyed giant son of [[Poseidon]] and [[Thoosa]] in [[Greek mythology]], one of the [[Cyclopes]] described in [[Homer]]'s ''[[Odyssey]]''. His name means "abounding in songs and legends", "many-voiced" or "very famous".<ref>{{LSJ|polu/fhmos|πολύ-φημος|ref}}</ref> Polyphemus first appeared as a savage man-eating giant in the ninth book of the ''Odyssey''. The [[satyr play]] of [[Euripides]] is dependent on this episode apart from one detail; Polyphemus is made a [[Pederasty in ancient Greece|pederast]] in the play. Later Classical writers presented him in their poems as heterosexual and linked his name with the nymph [[Acis and Galatea|Galatea]]. Often he was portrayed as unsuccessful in these, and as unaware of his disproportionate size and musical failings.{{sfn|Creese|2009}} In the work of even later authors, however, he is presented as both a successful lover and skilled musician. From the [[Renaissance]] on, art and literature reflect all of these interpretations of the giant.

==Odysseus and Polyphemus==
[[File:Polyphemos reclining and holding a drinking bowl.jpg|thumb|right|[[Greek terracotta figurine]], ''[[Polyphemos reclining and holding a drinking bowl]]''. Late 5th to early 4th century BC, Boeotia. Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.]]

===Ancient sources===
In Homer's epic, [[Odysseus]] lands on the island of the Cyclopes during his journey home from the [[Trojan War]] and, together with some of his men, enters a cave filled with provisions. When the giant Polyphemus returns home with his flocks, he blocks the entrance with a great stone and, scorning the [[Xenia (Greek)|usual custom]] of [[hospitality]], eats two of the men. Next morning, the giant kills and eats two more and leaves the cave to graze his sheep.

[[File:Athanodoros, agesandros e polydoros, gruppo del polifemo di sperlonga, ricostruzione 01.jpg|thumb|245px|The blinding of Polyphemus, a reconstruction from the [[Sperlonga sculptures|villa of Tiberius at Sperlonga]], 1st century AD]]

After the giant returns in the evening and eats two more of the men, Odysseus offers Polyphemus some strong and undiluted wine given to him earlier on his journey. Drunk and unwary, the giant asks Odysseus his name, promising him a [[xenia (Greek)|guest-gift]] if he answers. Odysseus tells him "[[Outis|Οὖτις]]", which means "nobody"<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last = Autenrieth |first = Georg |encyclopedia = A Homeric Dictionary |title = οὔτις, οὔτι |url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0073%3Aentry%3Dou%29%2Ftis |access-date=11 March 2020 |language=el | date = 1876 |publisher=Harper & Brothers, Publishers |translator1-last= Keep |translator1-first= Robert P. |location=New York}}</ref><ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0073%3Aentry%3Dou%29%2Ftis οὔτις] and [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0073%3Aentry%3D*ou%29%3Dtis Οὖτις], Georg Autenrieth, ''A Homeric Dictionary'', on Perseus</ref> and Polyphemus promises to eat this "Nobody" last of all. With that, he falls into a drunken sleep. Odysseus had meanwhile hardened a wooden stake in the fire and drives it into Polyphemus' eye. When Polyphemus shouts for help from his fellow giants, saying that "Nobody" has hurt him, they think Polyphemus is being afflicted by divine power and recommend prayer as the answer.

In the morning, the blind Cyclops lets the sheep out to graze, feeling their backs to ensure that the men are not escaping. However, Odysseus and his men have tied themselves to the undersides of the animals and so get away. As he sails off with his men, Odysseus boastfully reveals his real name, an act of [[hubris]] that was to cause problems for him later. Polyphemus prays to his father, [[Poseidon]], for revenge and casts huge rocks towards the ship, which Odysseus barely escapes.

The story reappears in later Classical literature. In ''[[Cyclops (play)|Cyclops]]'', the 5th-century BC play by [[Euripides]], a chorus of satyrs offers comic relief from the grisly story of how Polyphemus is punished for his impious behaviour in not respecting the rites of hospitality.{{sfn|Euripides|2020}} In this play, Polyphemus claims to be a [[Pederasty in ancient Greece|pederast]], revealing to Odysseus that he takes more pleasure in boys than in women, and tries to take the [[satyr]] [[Silenus]], whom he kept together with his sons as slaves on [[Mount Etna]] in [[Sicily]], calling him "my [[Ganymede (mythology)|Ganymede]]".{{sfn|Euripides|1994|loc=lines [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Eur.%20Cycl.%20589 580-585]}} The scene is infused with low comedy, specifically from the chorus, and Polyphemus is made to look silly: he is drunk when he explains his sexual desire, Silenus is too old to play the part of the young lover, and he himself will be subjected to penetration—with the wooden spike.{{sfn|Roman|Roman|2010|p=126}}

In his Latin epic, [[Virgil]] describes how [[Aeneas]] observes blind Polyphemus as he leads his flocks down to the sea. They have encountered [[Achaemenides]], who re-tells the story of how Odysseus and his men escaped, leaving him behind. The giant is described as descending to the shore, using a "lopped pine tree" as a walking staff. Once Polyphemus reaches the sea, he washes his oozing, bloody eye socket and groans painfully. Achaemenides is taken aboard Aeneas' vessel and they cast off with Polyphemus in chase. His great roar of frustration brings the rest of the Cyclopes down to the shore as Aeneas draws away in fear.{{sfn|Virgil|2002|loc=[http://www.poetryintranslation.com/PITBR/Latin/VirgilAeneidIII.htm lines 588–691]}}

===Artistic representations===
[[File:Polyphemus Eleusis 2630.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Painting of Odysseus and his men blinding Polyphemus (from [[Eleusis Amphora]] by [[Polyphemos Painter]], [[Eleusis]] museum)]]
During the seventh century, the potters gave preference to scenes from both epics, ''The Odyssey'' and ''the Iliad'', almost half being that of the blinding of the Cyclops and the ruse by which Odysseus and his men escape.{{sfn|Junker|2012|p=80}} One such episode, on a vase featuring the hero carried beneath a sheep, was used on a 27 drachma Greek postage stamp in 1983.<ref>[https://www.imago-images.com/st/0156460345 Imago]</ref> This was a steep drop (to the point of being "insignificant") from the volume of pan-Hellenic pottery discovered from the fifth and sixth centuries, which largely depicted ancient Greek mythology: scenes from the [[Trojan War]] or deeds from [[Heracles]] or [[Perseus]].{{sfn|Junker|2012|p=80}}

The blinding was depicted in life-size sculpture, including a giant Polyphemus, in the [[Sperlonga sculptures]] probably made for the Emperor [[Tiberius]]. This may be an interpretation of an existing composition, and was apparently repeated in variations in later Imperial palaces by [[Claudius]], [[Nero]] and at [[Hadrian's Villa]].{{sfn|Carey|2002|pp=44-61}}

[[File:Eckersberg, Christoffer Wilhelm, Ulysses Fleeing the Cave of Polyphemus, 1812.jpg|thumb|[[Christoffer Wilhelm Eckersberg]], ''Ulysses Fleeing the Cave of Polyphemus'', 1812, [[Princeton University Art Museum]]]]
Of the European painters of the subject, the Flemish [[Jacob Jordaens]] depicted Odysseus escaping from the cave of Polyphemus in 1635 (see gallery [[#Artistic depictions of Polyphemus|below]]) and others chose the dramatic scene of the giant casting boulders at the escaping ship. In [[Guido Reni]]'s painting of 1639/40 (see above), the furious giant is tugging a boulder from the cliff as Odysseus and his men row out to the ship far below. Polyphemus is portrayed, as it often happens, with two empty eye sockets and his damaged eye located in the middle on his forehead. This convention goes back to Greek statuary and painting,{{sfn|Roman|Roman|2010|p=416}} and is reproduced in [[Johann Heinrich Wilhelm Tischbein]]'s 1802 head and shoulders portrait of the giant (see [[#Artistic depictions of Polyphemus|below]]).

[[Arnold Böcklin]] pictures the giant as standing on rocks onshore and swinging one of them back as the men row desperately over a surging wave (see [[#Artistic depictions of Polyphemus|below]]), while Polyphemus is standing at the top of a cliff in [[Jean-Léon Gérôme]]'s painting of 1902. He stands poised, having already thrown one stone, which barely misses the ship. The reason for his rage is depicted in [[J. M. W. Turner]]'s painting, ''[[Ulysses Deriding Polyphemus]]'' (1829). Here the ship sails forward as the sun breaks free of clouds low on the horizon. The giant himself is an indistinct shape barely distinguished from the woods and smoky atmosphere high above.

===Possible origins===
Folktales similar to that of Homer's Polyphemus are a widespread phenomenon throughout the ancient world.{{sfn|Heubeck|Hoekstra|1990|loc=p.19&nbsp;on lines 105–556}} In 1857, [[Wilhelm Grimm]] collected versions in [[Serbian (language)|Serbian]], [[Romanian (language)|Romanian]], [[Estonian (language)|Estonian]], [[Finnish (language)|Finnish]], [[Russian (language)|Russian]], [[German (language)|German]], and others; versions in [[Basque (language)|Basque]], [[Sámi people|Sámi]], [[Lithuanian (language)|Lithuanian]], [[Gascon (language)|Gascon]], [[Syriac language|Syriac]], and [[Celtic languages|Celtic]] are also known.{{sfn|Pausanias|1898|loc= [https://archive.org/details/pausaniassdescri05pausuoft/page/344 p. 344 on 22.7]}} More than two hundred different versions have been identified,{{sfn|Heubeck|Hoekstra|1990|loc=p.19&nbsp;on lines 105–556}} from around twenty five nations, covering a geographic region extending from Iceland, Ireland, England, Portugal and Africa to Arabia, Turkey, Russia, and Korea.{{sfn|Glenn|1971|p=134}}{{refn|group=nb|For examples of the story from the [[Caucasus]], see "Legends About Shepherds, Including Cyclops Legends".{{sfn|Hunt|2012|pp=201–229|loc=Chapter VII}}}} The consensus of current modern scholarship is that these "Polyphemus legends" preserve traditions predating Homer.{{sfn|Fowler|2013|p=55|ps=: "The one-eyed cannibalistic monster from whom the clever hero escapes is an extremely widespread folktale which Homer or a predecessor has worked into the ''Odyssey''"}}{{sfn|Heubeck|Hoekstra|1990|loc=p.19&nbsp;on lines 105–556 "Analysis of the folk-tale material shows that the poet was using two originally unconnected stories, the first about a hero blinding a man-eating giant. Consistent features of this story are the hero's use of an animal, usually a sheep, or at least an animal skin, to effect an escape and the giant's attempt to bring the hero back with the help of a magical object. The second story concerns a hero outwitting a monster by giving a false name, usually 'I myself'. The fusion of these two stories is surely the work of the poet himself."}}{{sfn|Mondi|1983|p=17}}{{sfn|Glenn|1978|p=141}}{{sfn|Glenn|1971|pp=135–136}}<ref name="d'Huy">{{cite web |last1=d'Huy |first1=Julien |title=Julien d'Huy – Polyphemus (Aa. Th. 1137) – NMC |url=http://nouvellemythologiecomparee.hautetfort.com/archive/2013/01/20/julien-d-huy-polyphemus-aa-th-1137.html |website=Nouvelle Mythologie Comparée |access-date=11 March 2020 |language=fr |date=20 January 2013}}</ref>

An example of such a story is one from [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], in the [[Caucasus]], which describes several brothers held prisoner by a giant one-eyed shepherd called "One-eye". After all but two of the brothers are roasted on a spit and eaten, the remaining two take the spit, heat it red hot, and stab it into the giant's eye. As One-eye let his flock out of their pen, he felt each sheep as it passed between his legs, but the two brothers were able to escape by covering themselves with a sheepskin.{{sfn|Hunt|2012|pp=218–222}}

==Polyphemus and Galatea==
{{Main|Acis and Galatea (mythology)}}
[[File:WLA metmuseum Wall painting Polyphemus and Galaltea 4.jpg|thumb|right|Detail of Galatea and Polyphemus. From [[Boscotrecase]]. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. last decade of the 1st century BCE]]

===Ancient sources===
====Philoxenus of Cythera====
Writing more than three centuries after the [[Odyssey]] is thought to have been composed, [[Philoxenus of Cythera]] took up the myth of Polyphemus in his poem ''Cyclops'' or ''Galatea''. The poem was written to be performed as a [[dithyramb]], of which only fragments have survived, and was perhaps the first to provide a female love interest for the Cyclops.{{refn|group=nb|That Polyphemus' love for Galatea is "possibly" a Philoxenus innovation.{{sfn|Creese|2009|loc=563 with n.5}}}} The object of Polyphemus' romantic desire is a sea nymph named [[Galatea (mythology)|Galatea]].{{sfn|Brooks|1896|pp=163-164}} In the poem, Polyphemus is not a cave dwelling, monstrous brute, as in the ''Odyssey'', but instead he is rather like Odysseus himself in his vision of the world: He has weaknesses, he is adept at literary criticism, and he understands people.{{sfn|LeVen|2014|p=237}}

The date of composition for the ''Cyclops'' is not precisely known, but it must be prior to 388 BC, when [[Aristophanes]] parodied it in his comedy ''[[Plutus (play)|Plutus]]'' (''Wealth''); and probably after 406 BC, when [[Dionysius I of Syracuse|Dionysius I]] became tyrant of [[Syracuse, Sicily|Syracuse]].{{sfn|Rosen|2007|p=155}}{{sfn|Hordern|1999|p=445}} Philoxenus lived in that city and was the court poet of Dionysius I.{{sfn|Hordern|1999|p=446|ps=, with n. 4 giving numerous ancient sources}} According to ancient commentators, either because of his frankness regarding Dionysius' poetry, or because of a conflict with the tyrant over a female [[aulos]] player named Galatea, Philoxenus was imprisoned in the quarries and had there composed his ''Cyclops'' in the manner of a ''[[Roman à clef]]'', where the poem's characters, Polyphemus, Odysseus and Galatea, were meant to represent Dionysius, Philoxenus, and the aulos-player.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rocha |first1=Roosevelt |title=Review of: Philoxeni Cytherii Testimonia et Fragmenta. Dithyrambographi Graeci, 1 |url=http://bmcr.brynmawr.edu/2015/2015-05-32.html |journal=Bryn Mawr Classical Review |access-date=2 March 2020 |date=May 2015}}</ref>{{sfn|Hordern|1999|p=445–446}} Philoxenus had his Polyphemus perform on the [[cithara]], a professional [[lyre]] requiring great skill. The Cyclops playing such a sophisticated and fashionable instrument would have been quite a surprising juxtaposition for Philoxenus' audience.

Philoxenus' ''Cyclops'' is also referred to in [[Aristotle]]'s ''[[Poetics (Aristotle)|Poetics]]'' in a section that discusses representations of people in tragedy and comedy, citing as comedic examples the ''Cyclops'' of both [[Timotheus of Miletus|Timotheus]] and Philoxenus.{{sfn|LeVen|2014|p=235}}{{sfn|Hordern|1999|pp=448–450}}{{sfn|Farmer|2017|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=9Aw1DQAAQBAJ&pg=PA215 p. 215]}}

====Aristophanes====

The text of Aristophanes' last extant play ''Plutus'' (''Wealth'') has survived with almost all of its choral odes missing.{{sfn|Jackson|2019|p=124}} What remains shows Aristophanes (as he does to some extent in all his plays) parodying a contemporary literary work — in this case Philoxenus' ''Cyclops''.{{sfn|Jackson|2019|p=124}}{{sfn|Farmer|2017|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=9Aw1DQAAQBAJ&pg=PA213 p. 213]}}{{sfn|Hordern|1999|p=445}} While making fun of literary aspects of Philoxenus' dithyramb, Aristophanes is at the same time commenting on musical developments occurring in the fourth century BC, developing themes that run through the whole play.{{sfn|Jackson|2019|p=125}} It also contains lines and phrases taken directly from the ''Cyclops''.{{sfn|Jackson|2019|p=126}}

The slave Cario, tells the chorus that his master has brought home with him the god Wealth, and because of this they will all now be rich. The chorus wants to dance for joy,{{sfn|Aristophanes|1896|p=15}} so Cario takes the lead by parodying Philoxenus' ''Cyclops''.{{sfn|Farmer|2017|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=9Aw1DQAAQBAJ&pg=PA213 pp. 213–216]}}{{sfn|Jackson|2019|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=STG-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA124 pp. 124–126]}} As a solo performer leading a chorus that sings and dances, Cario recreates the form of a dithyramb. He first casts himself in the role of Polyphemus while assigning to the chorus the roles of sheep and goats, at the same time imitating the sound of a lyre: "And now I wish — threttanello! — to imitate the Cyclops and, swinging my feet to and fro like this, to lead you in the dance. But come on, children, shout and shout again the songs of bleating sheep and smelly goats."{{sfn|Farmer|2017|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=9Aw1DQAAQBAJ&pg=PA215 p. 215]}}{{sfn|Aristophanes|1896|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=wCcrYU0nExkC&pg=PA72 72]}} The chorus, however, does not want to play sheep and goats, they would rather be Odysseus and his men, and they threaten to blind Cario (as had Odysseus the drunken Cyclops) with a wooden stake.{{sfn|Jackson|2019|p=125}}

====Hellenistic pastoral poets====
The romantic element, originated by Philoxenus, was revived by later Hellenistic poets, including [[Theocritus]], [[Callimachus]], [[Hermesianax (poet)|Hermesianax]],<ref name="Williams">{{cite web |last1=Williams |first1=Frederick John |title=Hermesianax |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095932797 |website=Oxford Reference |access-date=11 March 2020 |language=en }}</ref> and [[Bion of Smyrna]].{{sfn|LeVen|2014|pp=234–234}}

[[Theocritus]] is credited with creating the genre of [[pastoral poetry]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Theocritus {{!}} Greek poet |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Theocritus |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. |access-date=11 March 2020 |language=en |date=5 February 2020}}</ref> His works are titled ''Idylls'' and of these [[Idyll XI]] tells the story of the Cyclops' love for Galatea.{{sfn|Ovid|2000|pp=36–37}} Though the character of Polyphemus derives from Homer, there are notable differences. Where Homer's Cyclops was beastly and wicked, Theocritus' is absurd, lovesick and comic. Polyphemus loves the sea nymph Galatea, but she rejects him because of his ugliness.{{sfn|Theocritus|1947|p=11.30–33}}{{sfn|Rosen|2007|p=162}} However, in a borrowing from Philoxenus' poem, Polyphemus has discovered that music will heal lovesickness,{{sfn|Faulkner|2011|p=178}} and so he plays the [[panpipes]] and sings of his woes, for "I am skilled in piping as no other Cyclops here".{{sfn|Theocritus|1947|p=38}} His longing is to overcome the antithetic elements that divide them, he of earth and she of water:{{sfn|Theocritus|1947|p=38}}

{{Poem quote|text=Ah me, would that my mother at my birth had given me gills, That so I might have dived down to your side and kissed your hand, If your lips you would not let me...|char=|sign=|title=|source=}}

[[File:Vanloo,_Triumph_of_Galatea.jpg|thumb|upright=1.4|[[Jean-Baptiste van Loo]]'s depiction of "The Triumph of Galatea"; Polyphemus plays the pan-pipes on the right]]
The love of the mismatched pair was later taken up by other pastoral poets. The same trope of music being the cure for love was introduced by Callimachus in his Epigram 47: "How excellent was the charm that Polyphemus discovered for the lover. By Earth, the Cyclops was no fool!"<ref name="Epigrams">{{cite web |last1=Callimachus |translator1-last=Mair |translator1-first=A. W. |title=Callimachus: Epigrams |url=http://www.attalus.org/poetry/callimachus2.html |website=Attalus |access-date=11 March 2020 |date=1921}}</ref> A fragment of a lost idyll by Bion also portrays Polyphemus declaring his undying love for Galatea.{{sfn|Theocritus|Bion|Moschus|1889|p=176}} Referring back to this, an elegy on Bion's death that was once attributed to [[Moschus]] takes the theme further in a piece of [[hyperbole]]. Where Polyphemus had failed, the poet declares, Bion's greater artistry had won Galatea's heart, drawing her from the sea to tend his herds.{{sfn|Theocritus|Bion|Moschus|1889|p=317}} This reflected the situation in [[Idyll VI]] of Theocritus. There two herdsmen engage in a musical competition, one of them playing the part of Polyphemus, who asserts that since he has adopted the ruse of ignoring Galatea, she has now become the one who pursues him.{{sfn|Theocritus|2004|loc=[http://www.gutenberg.org/files/11533/11533-h/11533-h.htm#IDYLL_VI Idyll VI]}}

====Latin poets====
The successful outcome of Polyphemus' love was also alluded to in the course of a 1st-century BC love elegy on the power of music by the Latin poet [[Propertius]]. Listed among the examples he mentions is that "Even Galatea, it's true, below wild Etna, wheeled her brine-wet horses, Polyphemus, to your songs."{{sfn|Propertius|2008|loc=[https://www.poetryintranslation.com/PITBR/Latin/PropertiusBkThree.php#anchor_Toc201112456 Book III.2]}} The division of contrary elements between the land-based monster and the sea nymph, lamented in Theocritus' Idyll 11, is brought into harmony by this means.

While [[Ovid]]'s treatment of the story that he introduced into the ''[[Metamorphoses]]''{{sfn|Ovid|1922|loc=[http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:latinLit:phi0959.phi006.perseus-eng1:13.705-13.749 13.740–897]}} is reliant on the idylls of Theocritus,{{refn|group=nb|Alan Griffin{{sfn|Griffin|1983}} calls Ovid's treatment "an extended paraphrase of Theocritus' two idylls."{{sfn|Newlands|2015|p=77}}}} it is complicated by the introduction of Acis, who has now become the focus of Galatea's love.
{{poemquote|While I pursued him with a constant love,
the Cyclops followed me as constantly.
And, should you ask me, I could not declare
whether my hatred of him, or my love
of Acis was the stronger. —They were equal.{{ref|Ovid|loc=[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0028:book=13:card=750 13.755–759]}}}}

There is also a reversion to the Homeric vision of the hulking monster, whose attempt to play the tender shepherd singing love songs is made a source of humour by Galatea:
{{poemquote|Now, Polyphemus, wretched Cyclops, you
are careful of appearance, and you try
the art of pleasing. You have even combed
your stiffened hair with rakes: it pleases you
to trim your shaggy beard with a reaping hook.{{sfn|Ovid|1922|loc=[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0028:book=13:card=750 13.764–766]}}}}
In his own character, too, Polyphemus mentions the transgression of heavenly laws that once characterised his actions and is now overcome by Galatea: "I, who scorn Jove and his heaven and his piercing lightning bolt, submit to you alone."{{sfn|Ovid|2000b|loc=[http://ovid.lib.virginia.edu/trans/Metamorph13.htm#486898055 lines 860ff]}}

Galatea listens to the love song of Polyphemus while she and Acis lie hidden by a rock.{{sfn|Ovid|1922|loc=[http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:latinLit:phi0959.phi006.perseus-eng1:13.750-13.897 13.778–788]}} In his song, Polyphemus scolds her for not loving him in return, offers her rustic gifts and points out what he considers his best feature — the single eye that is, he boasts, the size of a great shield.{{sfn|Ovid|1922|loc=[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0028:book=13:card=750 13.789–869]}} But when Polyphemus discovers the hiding place of the lovers, he becomes enraged with jealousy. Galatea, terrified, dives into the ocean, while the Cyclops wrenches off a piece of the mountain and crushes Acis with it.{{sfn|Ovid|1922|loc=[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0028:book=13:card=750 13.870–884]}} But on her return, Galatea changes her dead lover into the spirit of the Sicilian river Acis.{{sfn|Ovid|1922|loc=[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0028:book=13:card=750 13.885–897]}}

[[File:Affreschi romani - polifemo galatea - pompei.JPG|thumb|upright=1.02|Polyphemus receives a love-letter from Galatea, a 1st-century AD fresco from Pompeii]]

====First-century AD art====
That the story sometimes had a more successful outcome for Polyphemus is also attested in the arts. In one of the murals rescued from the site of [[Pompeii]], Polyphemus is pictured seated on a rock with a [[cithara]] (rather than a syrinx) by his side, holding out a hand to receive a love letter from Galatea, which is carried by a winged [[Cupid]] riding on a dolphin.

In another fresco, also dating from the 1st century AD, the two stand locked in a naked embrace (see [[#Artistic depictions of Polyphemus|below]]). From their union came the ancestors of various wild and war-like races. According to some accounts, the [[Celts]] (Galati in Latin, Γάλλοi in Greek) were descended from their son Galatos,{{sfn|Rankin|2012|p=22}} while [[Appian]] credited them with three children, [[Celtus]], [[Illyrius]] and [[Galas]], from whom descend the [[Celts]], the [[Illyrians]] and the [[Gauls]] respectively.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Appian |translator1-first=Horace |translator1-last=White |title=The Illyrian Wars 1 |url=https://www.livius.org/sources/content/appian/appian-the-illyrian-wars/appian-the-illyrian-wars-1 |website=Livius |access-date=11 March 2020 |date=4 May 2019}}</ref>

====Lucian====
[[File:Cyclops Polyphemus & Galatea Family Tree (Greek Mythology) (English).jpg|thumb|left|250px|Offspring of Polyphemus and Galatea]]

There are indications that Polyphemus' courtship also had a more successful outcome in one of the dialogues of [[Lucian]] of Samosata. There Doris, one of Galatea's sisters, spitefully congratulates her on her love conquest and she defends Polyphemus. From the conversation, one understands that Doris is chiefly jealous that her sister has a lover. Galatea admits that she does not love Polyphemus but is pleased to have been chosen by him in preference to all her companions.{{sfn|Lucian of Samosata|1820|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FzVAAAAAYAAJ&q=Galatea pp. 338–40]}}

====Nonnus====
That their conjunction was fruitful is also implied in a later Greek epic from the turn of the 5th century AD. In the course of his ''[[Dionysiaca]]'', [[Nonnus]] gives an account of the wedding of [[Poseidon]] and Beroe, at which the [[Nereid]] "Galatea twangled a marriage dance and restlessly twirled in capering step, and she sang the marriage verses, for she had learnt well how to sing, being taught by Polyphemos with a shepherd's [[syrinx (instrument)|syrinx]]."{{sfn|Nonnus of Panopolis|1940|loc=[https://archive.org/stream/dionysiaca03nonnuoft#page/292/mode/2up 43.390–393]}}

===Later European interpretations===
====Literature and music====
During [[Renaissance]] and [[Baroque]] times Ovid's story emerged again as a popular theme. In Spain [[Luis de Góngora y Argote]] wrote the much admired narrative poem, ''Fábula de [[Polifemo]] y Galatea'', published in 1627. It is particularly noted for its depiction of landscape and for the sensual description of the love of Acis and Galatea.{{sfn|de Góngora|2008|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=M73JAsBiFxoC&pg=PA173 pp. 173]}} It was written in homage to an earlier and rather shorter narrative with the same title by Luis Carillo y Sotomayor (1611).{{refn|group=nb|Spanish text [http://www.biblioteca-antologica.org/wp-content/uploads/2009/09/CARRILLO-DE-SOTOMAYOR-F%C3%A1bula-de-Acis-y-Galatea-YA.pdf online] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130512224721/http://www.biblioteca-antologica.org/wp-content/uploads/2009/09/CARRILLO-DE-SOTOMAYOR-F%C3%A1bula-de-Acis-y-Galatea-YA.pdf |date=12 May 2013 }}}} The story was also given operatic treatment in the very popular [[zarzuela]] of [[Antoni Lliteres Carrió]] (1708). The atmosphere here is lighter and enlivened by the inclusion of the clowns Momo and Tisbe.

In France the story was condensed to the fourteen lines of [[Tristan L'Hermite]]'s sonnet "Polyphème en furie" (1641). In it the giant expresses his fury upon viewing the loving couple, ultimately throwing the huge rock that kills Acis and even injures Galatea.<ref>{{cite web |title=François Tristan L'Hermite – Poète – 'Polyphème en furie' |url=http://le-blog-de-mcbalson-palys.over-blog.com/article-fran-ois-tristan-l-hermite-poete-polypheme-en-furie-117988490.html |website=Balades comtoises |language=fr |date=24 May 2013}}</ref> Later in the century, [[Jean-Baptiste Lully]] composed his opera ''[[Acis et Galatée]]'' (1686) on the theme.{{refn|group=nb|[http://www.prestoclassical.co.uk/r/DG%2BArchiv/E4534972 Excerpts from Jean-Baptiste Lully's 1686 opera, ''Acis et Galatée'' at PrestoClassical]}}

[[File:Fontaine Médicis Luxembourg.jpg|thumb|left|240px|Polyphemus discovers Galatea and Acis, statues by Auguste Ottin in the [[Jardin du Luxembourg]]'s Médici Fountain, 1866]]
In Italy [[Giovanni Bononcini]] composed the one-act opera ''Polifemo'' (1703). Shortly afterwards [[George Frideric Handel]] worked in that country and composed the cantata ''[[Aci, Galatea e Polifemo]]'' (1708), laying as much emphasis on the part of Polifemo as on the lovers. Written in Italian, Polifemo's deep bass solo "Fra l'ombre e gl'orrori" (From horrid shades) establishes his character from the start. After Handel's move to England, he gave the story a new treatment in his [[pastoral]] opera ''[[Acis and Galatea (Handel)|Acis and Galatea]]'' with an English libretto provided by [[John Gay]].{{refn|group=nb|The text is on the Stanford University site.<ref name="Gay">{{cite book |last1=Gay |first1=John |last2=Pope |first2=Alexander |last3=Hughes |first3=John |title=Georg Friedrich Händel's Acis and Galatea |date=c. 1718 |url=http://opera.stanford.edu/iu/libretti/acis.htm |access-date=5 April 2020}}</ref>}} Initially composed in 1718, the work went through many revisions and was later to be given updated orchestrations by both [[Mozart]] and [[Mendelssohn]].{{sfn|Montemorra Martin|2006|p=249}} As a pastoral work it is suffused with Theocritan atmosphere but largely centres on the two lovers. When Polyphemus declares his love in the lyric "O ruddier than the cherry", the effect is almost comic.{{sfn|Dugaw|2001|p=154}}{{refn|group=nb|There is a performance of {{YouTube|9wo-EqJC3i0|Acis and Galatea- Polyphemus: 'O ruddier than the cherry' by G. F. Handel}}.}} Handel's rival for a while on the London scene, [[Nicola Porpora]], also made the story the subject of his opera ''[[Polifemo (opera)|Polifemo]]'' (1735).

Later in the century [[Joseph Haydn]] composed ''Acide e Galatea'' (1763) as his first opera while in Vienna.{{refn|group=nb|Brief excerpts at [http://www.classicalarchives.com/work/126417.html Classical Archives]}} Designed for an imperial wedding, it was given a happy ending centred on the transformation scene after the murder of Acis as the pair declare their undying love.{{sfn|Green|1997|pp=167–68}} [[Johann Gottlieb Naumann]] was to turn the story into a comic opera, ''Aci e Galatea'', with the subtitle ''i ciclopi amanti'' (the amorous cyclops). The work was first performed in Dresden in 1801 and its plot was made more complicated by giving Polifemo a companion, Orgonte. There were also two other lovers, Dorinda and Lisia, with Orgonte Lisia's rival for Dorinda's love.<ref name="Levine">{{cite web |last1=Levine |first1=Robert |title=Naumann: Aci e Galatea/Bernius/Stuttgart |url=https://www.classicstoday.com/review/review-9089/ |website=Classics Today |access-date=11 March 2020}}</ref>{{refn|group=nb|There is a performance of Polifemo's aria {{YouTube|z42kvJ_MqKg|Fulmine che dal Cielo}}}}

After John Gay's libretto in Britain, it was not until the 19th century that the subject was given further poetical treatment. In 1819 appeared ''The Death of Acis'' by [[Bryan Procter]], writing under the name of Barry Cornwall.{{sfn|Cornwall|1820|loc=[https://archive.org/stream/asicilianstoryw00procgoog#page/n120/mode/2up pp. 107ff]}} A blank verse narrative with lyric episodes, it celebrates the musicianship of Polyphemus, which draws the lovers to expose themselves from their hiding place in a cave and thus brings about the death of Acis. At the other end of the century, there was [[Alfred Austin]]'s dramatic poem "Polyphemus", which is set after the murder and transformation of the herdsman. The giant is tortured by hearing the happy voices of Galatea and Acis as they pursue their love duet.<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://archive.org/stream/jstor-25105183/25105183#page/n1/mode/2up |last1=Austin |first1=Alfred |title=Polyphemus |journal=North American Review |date=July 1901 |volume=DXXXVI |access-date=2 March 2020}}</ref> Shortly afterwards [[Albert Samain]] wrote the 2-act verse drama ''Polyphème'' with the additional character of Lycas, Galatea's younger brother. In this the giant is humanised; sparing the lovers when he discovers them, he blinds himself and wades to his death in the sea. The play was first performed posthumously in 1904 with incidental music by Raymond Bonheur.{{sfn|Bempéchat|2009|pp=279–283}} On this the French composer [[Jean Cras]] based his operatic 'lyric tragedy' ''[[Polyphème]]'', composed in 1914 and first performed in 1922. Cras took Samain's text almost unchanged, subdividing the play's two acts into four and cutting a few lines from Polyphemus' final speech.{{sfn|Bempéchat|2009|pp=279–283}}

There have also been two Spanish musical items that reference Polyphemus' name. [[Reginald Smith Brindle]]'s four fragments for guitar, ''El Polifemo de Oro'' (1956), takes its title from [[Federico García Lorca]]'s poem, "The riddle of the guitar". That speaks of six dancing maidens (the guitar strings) entranced by 'a golden Polyphemus' (the one-eyed sound-hole).<ref>{{cite web |title=Golden Polyphemus (Brindle) and Riddle of the guitar (Lorca) – Generation of '27 – Part 5 |url=https://www.kazu-classicalguitar.co.uk/essays/generation-27/part5/golden-polyphemus-riddle-guitar-brindle-lorca |website=Kazu Suwa {{!}} Classical Guitarist |access-date=2 March 2020 |language=en |date=18 May 2013}}</ref> The Spanish composer Andres Valero Castells takes the inspiration for his ''Polifemo i Galatea'' from Gongora's work. Originally written for brass band in 2001, he rescored it for orchestra in 2006.<ref>{{cite web |first1=José Antonio |last1=Hernández Arce |title=A Short Story by Oscar |url=http://elcoloquiodelosperros.net/a-short-story-by-oscar/ |website=Dialogue of the Dogs |access-date=12 March 2020 |date=10 August 2019 |archive-date=31 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200331021614/http://elcoloquiodelosperros.net/a-short-story-by-oscar/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>

====Painting and sculpture====
Paintings that include Polyphemus in the story of Acis and Galatea can be grouped according to their themes. Most notably the story takes place within a pastoral landscape in which the figures are almost incidental. This is particularly so in [[Nicolas Poussin]]'s 1649 "Landscape with Polyphemus" (see gallery [[#Artistic depictions of Polyphemus|below]]) in which the lovers play a minor part in the foreground.{{sfn|Langdon|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=P2w85qEMU34C&pg=PA169 169]}} To the right, Polyphemus merges with a distant mountain top on which he plays his pipes. In an earlier painting by Poussin from 1630 (now housed at the [[Dublin National Gallery]]) the couple are among several embracing figures in the foreground, shielded from view of Polyphemus, who is playing his flute higher up the slope. Another variation on the theme was painted by [[Pietro Dandini]] during this period.

[[File:Moreau Galatée.jpg|thumb|225px|Polyphemus spies on the sleeping Galatea, [[Gustave Moreau]] (1880)]]
An earlier fresco by [[Giulio Romano (painter)|Giulio Romano]] from 1528 seats Polyphemus against a rocky foreground with a lyre in his raised right hand. The lovers can just be viewed through a gap in the rock that gives onto the sea at the lower right. [[Corneille Van Clève]] (1681) represents a seated Polyphemus in his sculpture, except that in his version it is pipes that the giant holds in his lowered hand. Otherwise he has a massive club held across his body and turns to the left to look over his shoulder.

Other paintings take up the Theocritan theme of the pair divided by the elements with which they are identified, land and water. There are a series of paintings, often titled "The Triumph of Galatea", in which the nymph is carried through the sea by her Nereid sisters, while a minor figure of Polyphemus serenades her from the land. Typical examples of this were painted by [[François Perrier (painter)|François Perrier]], [[Giovanni Lanfranco]] and [[Jean-Baptiste van Loo]].

A whole series of paintings by [[Gustave Moreau]] make the same point in a variety of subtle ways.{{sfn|Roman|Roman|2010|p=175}} The giant spies on Galatea through the wall of a sea grotto or emerges from a cliff to adore her sleeping figure (see [[#Artistic depictions of Polyphemus|below]]). Again, Polyphemus merges with the cliff where he meditates in the same way that Galatea merges with her element within the grotto in the painting at Musée d'Orsay. The visionary interpretation of the story also finds its echo in [[Odilon Redon]]'s 1913 painting ''[[The Cyclops (Redon)|The Cyclops]]'' in which the giant towers over the slope on which Galatea sleeps.{{sfn|Kleiner|2008|p=672}}

French sculptors have also been responsible for some memorable versions. [[Auguste Ottin]]'s separate figures are brought together in an 1866 fountain in the [[Luxembourg Garden]]. Above is crouched the figure of Polyphemus in weathered bronze, peering down at the white marble group of Acis and Galatea embracing below (see above). A little later [[Auguste Rodin]] made a series of statues, centred on Polyphemus. Originally modelled in clay around 1888 and later cast in bronze, they may have been inspired by Ottin's work.{{sfn|Elsen|Haas|Frankel Jamison|2003|pp=275–76}}

A final theme is the rage that succeeds the moment of discovery. That is portrayed in earlier paintings of Polyphemus casting a rock at the fleeing lovers, such as those by [[Annibale Carracci]], Lucas Auger and [[Carle van Loo]]. [[Jean-François de Troy]]'s 18th-century version combines discovery with aftermath as the giant perched above the lovers turns to wrench up a rock.

==Artistic depictions of Polyphemus==
===Polyphemus and Odysseus===
<gallery>
File:Odysseus Polyphemos Cdm Paris 190.jpg|The blinding, Laconian black-figure cup, 565–560 BC
File:Jakob Jordaens 009.jpg|Flemish [[Jacob Jordaens]]' depiction of Odysseus escaping from the cave of Polyphemus, 1635.
File:Polyphemus.png|[[Johann Heinrich Wilhelm Tischbein]]'s 1802 head and shoulders portrait of the giant
File:Arnold Böcklin - Odysseus and Polyphemus.jpg|[[Arnold Böcklin]], Polyphemus attempts to crush the boat of the escaping Odysseus,
</gallery>

===Polyphemus as lover===
<gallery>
File:Affreschi romani - polifemo presenza galatea - pompei.JPG|Polyphemus hears of the arrival of Galatea, [[Pompeian Styles#Fourth Style|Fourth Style]], 45–79 AD
File:Mosaic of Polyphemus and Galatea, Alcázar de los Reyes Cristianos.JPG|Polyphemus and Galatea, Roman mosaic from the 2nd century AD. Córdoba (Spain).
File:Fresco Polyphemus Galatea MAN Naples 27687.jpg|Polyphemus and Galatea in a naked embrace. Fresco. From Pompeii 1st century
File:Poussin - Acis et Galatée - National Gallery Dublin.jpg|[[Nicolas Poussin]], Acis and Galatea concealed from the flute-playing Polyphemus, 1630.
File:Nicolas Poussin - Paysage avec Polyphème.jpg|[[Nicolas Poussin]]'s pastoral "Landscape with Polyphemus", 1649.
File:Gustave Moreau - Galatée (Museo Thyssen-Bornemisza).jpg|[[Gustave Moreau]], Polyphemus adores the sleeping Galatea, {{Circa|1896}}
File:Odilon Redon - The Cyclops, c. 1914.jpg|[[Odilon Redon]], [[The Cyclops (Redon)|The Cyclops]] 1898–1914
</gallery>

==Other uses==
Polyphemus is mentioned in the "Apprentice" chapter of [[Albert Pike]]'s ''Morals and Dogma'' (1871), as, within Scottish Rite Freemasonry, Polyphemus is regarded as a symbol for a civilization that harms itself using ill directed blind force.{{sfn|Pike|1871|p=1}}

The [[Antheraea polyphemus|Polyphemus moth]] is so named because of the large eyespots in the middle of the hind wings.<ref name="Hall">{{cite web |last1=Hall |first1=Donald W. |title=polyphemus moth - Antheraea polyphemus (Cramer) |url=http://entnemdept.ufl.edu/creatures/MISC/MOTHS/polyphemus_moth.htm#ref |website=University of Florida |access-date=13 March 2020 |date=September 2015}}</ref>

A species of burrowing tortoise, ''[[Gopherus polyphemus]]'', is named after Polyphemus because of their both using subterranean retreats.{{sfn|Beolens|Watkins|Grayson|2011|pp=209}}

In [[folkloristics]], the episode of the blinding of Polyphemus is also known as ''Polyphemsage'' and classified in the [[Aarne-Thompson-Uther Index]] as ATU 1137, "The Ogre Blinded (Polyphemus)".{{sfn|Thompson|1977|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=WKN44RtM_loC&pg=PA181 181]}}

==See also==
* [[Telemus]]
* [[Cyclopean Isles]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist|group=nb|colwidth=45em}}

==References==
===Citations===
{{Reflist}}

===Works cited===
{{div col|colwidth=45em}}
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* {{cite book |first1=Roberta |last1=Montemorra Martin |chapter=Handel's Acis and Galatea|editor-last1=Cowgill |editor-first1=Rachel |editor-last2=Rushton |editor-first2=Julian |title=Europe, Empire, and Spectacle in Nineteenth-century British Music |date=2006 |publisher=Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. |isbn=978-0-7546-5208-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gFWVWesJcTIC&q=Mozart,+Mendelssohn+%22Acis+and+Galatea%22 |access-date=2 March 2020 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Newlands |first1=Carole E. |title=Ovid |date=2015 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=978-0-85772-660-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DBKMDwAAQBAJ |access-date=2 March 2020 }}
* {{cite web |last1=Nonnus of Panopolis |editor-last1=Frye |editor-first1=Northrop Marginalia |translator-last1=Rouse |translator-first1=William Henry Denham |editor-last2=Rose |editor-first2=Herbert Jennings |editor-last3=Lind |editor-first3=Levi Robert |title=Dionysiaca |url=https://archive.org/stream/dionysiaca03nonnuoft#page/n5/mode/2up |location=Cambridge, Mass. |publisher=Harvard University Press |access-date=3 March 2020 |date=1940}}
* {{cite book |last1=Ovid |location=Boston |publisher=Cornhill Publishing Co. |date=1922 |translator-last1=More |translator-first1=Brookes |title=Metamorphoses |url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0028 |access-date=2 March 2020 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Ovid |date=2000 |editor1-last=Dyck |editor1-first=Andrew R. |editor2-last=Hopkinson |editor2-first=Neil |editor3-last=Easterling |editor3-first=P. E. |editor3-link=P. E. Easterling |title=Metamorphoses Book XIII |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9780521554213 }}
* {{cite web |last1=Ovid |translator1-first=A.S.|translator1-last=Kline |title=Metamorphoses |url=https://ovid.lib.virginia.edu/trans/Ovhome.htm#askline |website=University of Virginia Library |access-date=12 March 2020 |date=2000b }}
* {{cite book |last1=Pausanias |translator1-last=Frazer |translator1-first=James George |title=Description of Greece |date=1898 |publisher=The Macmillan Company |location=New York |url=https://archive.org/details/pausaniassdescri05pausuoft/page/350/mode/2up |access-date=11 March 2020 }}
* {{cite book |editor-last=Pike |editor-first=Albert|editor-link=Albert Pike|title=Morals and Dogma of the Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite of Freemasonry|date=1871|publisher=Supreme Council of the Thirty-Third Degree, for the Southern Jurisdiction of the United States|location=Charleston |isbn=9781592328154 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cUspAAAAYAAJ |access-date=13 March 2020 }}
* {{cite web |last1=Propertius |translator1-first=A. S. |translator1-last=Kline |title=The Elegies: Book III |url=https://www.poetryintranslation.com/PITBR/Latin/PropertiusBkThree.php#anchor_Toc201112456 |website=Poetry in Translation |access-date=11 March 2020 |date=2008 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Rankin |first1=David |editor1-last=Green |editor1-first=Miranda |title=The Celtic World |date=2012 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1135632434 }}
* {{cite book |title=Encyclopedia of Greek and Roman Mythology |editor1-first=Luke |editor1-last=Roman |editor2-first=Monica |editor2-last=Roman |publisher=Infobase |year=2010 |chapter=''Cyclops'' |pages=123–27 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tOgWfjNIxoMC&pg=PT138 |location=New York|isbn=978-1-4381-2639-5}}
* {{cite book |last1=Rosen |first1=Ralph |title=Making Mockery: The Poetics of Ancient Satire |date=2007 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-804234-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TtMAglCh0lgC |language=en}}
* {{cite book |last1=Theocritus|last2=Bion|last3=Moschus |date=1889 |title=The Idylls of Theocritus, Bion, and Moschus: And The Warsongs of Tyrtæus |url=https://www.gutenberg.org/files/4775/4775-h/4775-h.htm |access-date=2 March 2020 |translator1-last=Lang |translator1-first=Andrew|translator-link=Andrew Lang}}
* {{cite book |last1=Theocritus |translator1-last=Trevelyan |translator1-first=R. C. |title=A Translation of the Idylls of Theocritus |date=1947|publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-43219-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9WM3BAAAQBAJ }}
* {{cite web |last1=Theocritus |translator1-last=Calverley |translator1-first=C.S. |title=Theocritus |url=http://www.gutenberg.org/files/11533/11533-h/11533-h.htm#IDYLL_VI |website=Project Gutenberg |access-date=11 March 2020 |date=2004 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Thompson |first1=Stith |title=The Folktale |date=1977 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-03537-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WKN44RtM_loC&pg=PA181 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Virgil |translator1-last=Kline |translator1-first=A. S. |title=Aeneid: III |date=2002 |url=https://www.poetryintranslation.com/PITBR/Latin/VirgilAeneidIII.php#anchor_Toc536528108 |access-date=11 March 2020 }}
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===General references===
{{div col|colwidth=45em}}
* {{cite book |last1=Aristophanes |last2=Cinesias |last3=Melanippides |last4=Phrynis |last5=Philoxenus |last6=Timotheus |translator1-last=Campbell |translator1-first=David A. |title=Greek Lyric, Volume V: The New School of Poetry and Anonymous Songs and Hymns |date=1993 |publisher=Harvard University Press |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |isbn=978-0-674-99559-8 |url=https://www.loebclassics.com/view/LCL144/1993/volume.xml |access-date=11 March 2020|ref=none}}
* [[Aristotle]], ''[[Poetics]]'' in ''Aristotle in 23 Volumes'', Vol. 23, translated by W.H. Fyfe. Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1932. [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0056%3Asection%3D1447a Online version at the Perseus Digital Library].
* {{cite book |last1=Grimm |first1=Wilhelm |author-link = Wilhelm Grimm |title=Die sage von Polyphem |date=1857 |location=Berlin |publisher=[[Prussian Academy of Sciences|Abhandlungen der Königlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin]] |url=https://archive.org/details/diesagevonpolyp00unkngoog/page/n5/mode/2up |access-date=12 March 2020| pages=1–30 |language=de|ref=none}}
* Hackman, O. ''[https://archive.org/details/diepolyphemsage00hackgoog/page/n5/mode/2up Die Polyphemsage in der Volksüberlieferung]''. Herlsingfors: Frenckellska tryckeri-aktiebolaget, 1904. Retrieved 14 March 2022.
{{div col end}}

==Further reading==
{{div col|colwidth=45em}}
* {{cite journal |last=Brown |first=Calvin S. |title=Odysseus and Polyphemus: The Name and the Curse |journal=Comparative Literature |volume=18 |issue=3 |date=1966 |pages=193–202 |doi=10.2307/1770048|jstor=1770048|ref=none}}
* {{cite journal |last=Comhaire |first=Jean L. |title=Oriental Versions of Polyphem's Myth |journal=Anthropological Quarterly |volume=31 |issue=1 |date=1958 |pages=21–28 |doi=10.2307/3316559|jstor=3316559|ref=none}}
* {{cite journal |last=Conrad |first=Jo Ann |title=Polyphemus and [[Tepegöz]] Revisited: A Comparison of the Tales of the Blinding of the One-eyed Ogre in Western and Turkish Traditions |journal=[[Fabula (journal)|Fabula]] |volume=40 |issue=3–4 |date=1999 |pages=278–297 |doi=10.1515/fabl.1999.40.3-4.278|s2cid=161870245|ref=none}}
* Conrad, JoAnn. [https://www.degruyter.com/database/EMO/entry/emo.10.221/html "Polyphem (AaTh 1135–1137)"]. In: ''Enzyklopädie des Märchens Online''. Edited by Rolf Wilhelm Brednich, Heidrun Alzheimer, Hermann Bausinger, Wolfgang Brückner, Daniel Drascek, Helge Gerndt, Ines Köhler-Zülch, Klaus Roth and Hans-Jörg Uther. Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter, 2016 [2002]. (in German)
* {{cite journal |last=Davies |first=Malcolm |title=The Folk-Tale Origins of the Iliad and Odyssey |journal=Wiener Studien |volume=115 |date=2002 |pages=5–43 |jstor=24751364|ref=none}}
* d'Huy, Julien. "[https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-00734458/file/2012.4._-_Le_Conte-Type_de_PolyphA_me_-_Mythologie_FranA_aise_248_2012_47-59.pdf Le conte-type de Polyphème: essai de reconstitution phylogénétique]". In: ''Mythologie française'', SMF, 2012, pp.&nbsp;47–59. ffhalshs-00734458f
* d'Huy, Julien (2015). "Polyphemus, a Palaeolithic Tale?" In: ''The Retrospective Methods Network Newsletter''. Winter 2014–2015, 9: 43–64.
* d'Huy, Julien (2017). "Polyphème en Amérique". In: ''Mythologie française'' 269: 9–11.
* d'Huy, Julien (2019). "[https://www.academia.edu/41577343/2019_Du_nouveau_sur_Polyph%C3%A8me_Mythologie_fran%C3%A7aise_277_15_18 Du nouveau sur Polyphème"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220321223125/https://www.academia.edu/41577343/2019_Du_nouveau_sur_Polyph%C3%A8me_Mythologie_fran%C3%A7aise_277_15_18 |date=21 March 2022 }}. In: ''Mythologie française'', 277: 15-18.
* Montgomery, J. E. "[https://menadoc.bibliothek.uni-halle.de/incopyright/content/pageview/2054015 Al-Sindibād and Polyphemus. Reflections on the Genesis of an Archetype"]. In: ''Myths, historical archetypes and symbolic figures in Arabic literature: towards a new hermeneutic approach''. Proceedings of the International Symposium in Beirut, June 25–30, 1996. Edited by Angelika Neuwirth, Birgit Embaló, Sebastian Günther, Maher Jarrar. Stuttgart [u.a.]: Steiner [in Komm.], 1999. pp.&nbsp;437–466.
* Mundy, C. S. "Polyphemus and Tepegöz". In: ''Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies'', University of London 18, no. 2 (1956): 279–302. http://www.jstor.org/stable/609984.
* {{cite journal |last=Peretti |first=Daniel |title=The Ogre Blinded and 'The Lord of the Rings' |journal=Mythlore |volume=25 |issue=3/4 (97/98) |date=2007 |pages=133–43 |jstor=26814613|ref=none}}
* {{cite journal |last=Röhrich |first=Lutz |title=Die mittelalterlichen Redaktionen des Polyphem-Märchens (AT 1137) und ihr Verhältnis zur außerhomerischen Tradition |journal=[[Fabula (journal)|Fabula]] |volume=5 |date=1962 |pages=48–71 |doi=10.1515/fabl.1962.5.1.48|s2cid=162296224|ref=none}}
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==External links==
{{Commons category|Polyphemus}}
* [http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/todi/hd_todi.htm Polyphemus and Galatea depicted in statues with a golden harpsichord by Michele Todini, Rome, 1675] at [[The Metropolitan Museum of Art]]

'''Specific artworks discussed above'''
* [http://www.wikipaintings.org/en/jean-leon-gerome/polyphemus#supersized-artistPaintings-279403 Polyphemus standing at the top of a cliff, Jean-Léon Gérôme, 1902, at Wikipaintings]
* [http://www.wikipaintings.org/en/william-turner/ulysses-deriding-polyphemus-1829#supersized-artistPaintings-238870 "Odysseus Deriding Polyphemus", J.M.W. Turner, 1829, at Wikipaintings]
* [http://www.artvalue.com/auctionresult--dandini-pietro-pier-1646-1712-galatea-acis-e-polifemo-1516391.htm Galatea Acis e Polifemo, Pietro Dandini, c. 1630, at Art Value] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140202134122/http://www.artvalue.com/auctionresult--dandini-pietro-pier-1646-1712-galatea-acis-e-polifemo-1516391.htm |date=2 February 2014 }}
* [http://www.webalice.it/allietarti/Te%20Palace%20Mantua_file/image009.jpg fresco, Giulio Romano, 1528, at Webalice] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140201223437/http://www.webalice.it/allietarti/Te%20Palace%20Mantua_file/image009.jpg |date=1 February 2014 }}
* [http://www.wga.hu/html_m/c/cleve_c/polyphem.html Polyphemus with a massive club, Corneille Van Clève, 1681, at Web Gallery of Art]
* [http://www.wga.hu/art/p/perrier/acisgala.jpg "The Triumph of Galatea", Francois Perrier, at Web Gallery of Art]
* [http://www.artclon.com/paintings/galatea-and-polyphemus_29085.html "The Triumph of Galatea", Giovanni Lanfranco, Art Clon]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20121119114155/http://muian.com/muian03/03Moreau408.jpg The giant spies on Galatea, Gustave Moreau, at Muian]
* [http://www.culture.gouv.fr/Wave/image/joconde/0002/m504104_94de2326_p.jpg Polyphemus meditates, at French Government culture site]
* [http://www.culture.gouv.fr/Wave/image/joconde/0380/m504406_s1222_p.jpg statue of Polyphemus, Auguste Rodin, 1888, at French Government culture site]
* [http://www.wga.hu/art/c/carracci/annibale/farnese/farnese4.jpg A wrathful Polyphemus, Annibale Carracci, at Web Gallery of Art]
* [http://www.culture.gouv.fr/Wave/image/joconde/0640/m507704_02-014751_p.jpg A wrathful Polyphemus, Lucas Auger, at French Government culture site]
* [http://www.1st-art-gallery.com/%28after%29-Loo,-Carle-Van/Polyphemus-Attacking-Acis-And-Galatea.html A wrathful Polyphemus, Carle van Loo, at First Art Gallery]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20140202200306/http://tribes.tribe.net/b9b544af-89e5-4aa7-8dec-c917f83c3bd7/photos/ce5f648c-2c00-4f13-9147-55c24bbbbc1b A wrathful Polyphemus, Jean-Francois de Troy, 18th-century, at Tribes]

{{Characters in the Odyssey}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Polyphemus| ]]
[[Category:Characters in the Odyssey]]
[[Category:Cyclopes]]
[[Category:Children of Poseidon]]
[[Category:LGBTQ themes in Greek mythology]]
[[Category:Mythological Sicilians]]
[[Category:ATU 1000-1199]]
[[Category:Mythological blind people]]