View source for Sibilant

{{short description|Type of fricative consonant sound}}
{{more footnotes needed| date = September 2013}}
'''Sibilants''' (from {{langx|la|sibilans|}} 'hissing') are [[fricative]] consonants of higher [[amplitude]] and [[Fundamental frequency|pitch]], made by [[manner of articulation|directing]] a stream of air with the tongue towards the [[teeth]].{{sfn|Ladefoged|Maddieson|1996|p=}} Examples of sibilants are the consonants at the beginning of the [[English language|English]] words ''sip'', ''zip'', ''ship'', and ''genre''. The symbols in the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]] used to denote the sibilant sounds in these words are, respectively, {{IPA|[s] [z] [ʃ] [ʒ]}}. Sibilants have a characteristically intense sound, which accounts for their [[Paralanguage|paralinguistic]] use in getting one's attention (e.g. calling someone using "psst!" or quieting someone using "shhhh!").

==Overview==
In the {{lcons|alveolar}} '''hissing''' sibilants {{IPA|[s]}} and {{IPA|[z]}}, the back of the tongue forms a narrow channel (is ''[[sulcalization|grooved]]'') to focus the stream of air more intensely, resulting in a high pitch. With the '''hushing''' sibilants (occasionally termed ''shibilants''), such as English {{IPA|[ʃ]}}, {{IPA|[tʃ]}}, {{IPA|[ʒ]}}, and {{IPA|[dʒ]}}, the tongue is flatter, and the resulting pitch lower.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=이재욱|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gBeFDwAAQBAJ|title=한국인을 위한 전세계 100가지 영어 사투리 (영국 잉글랜드 북부 영어 Mancunian 사투리, Scouse 사투리 Yorkshire 사투리 편): 100 English Dialects in the World for Koreans British English Northern England English Mancunian Dialect, Scouse Dialect Yorkshire Dialect|last2=이서호|date=2019-01-25|publisher=TAX & LAW PRESS|isbn=979-11-88917-34-1|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2014-02-14|title=Sibilance - Definition and Examples of Sibilance|url=https://literarydevices.net/sibilance/|access-date=2021-06-29|website=Literary Devices|language=en-US}}</ref>

A broader category is '''stridents''', which include more fricatives than sibilants such as [[Uvular consonant|uvulars]]. Sibilants are a higher pitched subset of the stridents. The English sibilants are:
*  {{IPA|/s, z, ʃ, ʒ, tʃ, dʒ/}}
while the English stridents are:
* {{IPA|/s, z, ʃ, ʒ, tʃ, dʒ, f, v/}}
as {{IPA|/f/}} and {{IPA|/v/}} are stridents but not sibilants because they are lower in pitch.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Pennock-Speck |first1=Barry |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2ivgDwAAQBAJ |title=A Practical Introduction to English Phonology, 2nd. Edition |last2=Valor |first2=Maria Lluïsa Gea |date=2020-04-29 |publisher=Universitat de València |isbn=978-84-9134-600-5 |page=64 |language=en |quote=Fricatives involve turbulent airflow caused by at least two articulators being closed together. There are two main kinds, sibilants, which are high-pitched fricative sounds, and non-sibilants, which have a low-pitched sound. The sibilants in English are /s, z, ʒ, ʃ, ʒ/. The non-sibilants are /f, v, θ, ð, h/.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Koffi |first=Ettien |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cq0PEAAAQBAJ |title=Relevant Acoustic Phonetics of L2 English: Focus on Intelligibility |date=2021-04-20 |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-1-000-34009-9 |language=en}}</ref>

Some linguistics use the terms "stridents" and "sibilants" interchangeably to refer to the greater [[amplitude]] and [[Fundamental frequency|pitch]] compared to other fricatives.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Koffi |first=Ettien |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cq0PEAAAQBAJ |title=Relevant Acoustic Phonetics of L2 English: Focus on Intelligibility |date=2021-04-20 |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-1-000-34009-9 |page=11 |quote=A substet of consonants, the production of which includes some amount of frication, is assigned the feature [+sibilant]. These consonants are /s, z, ʒ, tʃ, dʒ/. Some linguists also refer to them as stridents. The two terms are used interchangeably.}}</ref>

"Stridency" refers to the [[psychoacoustics|perceptual]] [[sound intensity|intensity]] of the sound of a sibilant consonant, or '''obstacle fricatives''' or '''affricates''', which refers to the critical role of the teeth in producing the sound as an obstacle to the airstream. Non-sibilant fricatives and affricates produce their characteristic sound directly with the tongue or lips etc. and the place of contact in the mouth, without secondary involvement of the teeth.{{Citation needed|date=May 2019}}

The characteristic intensity of sibilants means that small variations in tongue shape and position are perceivable, with the result that there are many sibilant types that contrast in various languages.

== Acoustics ==
Sibilants are louder than their non-sibilant counterparts, and most of their acoustic energy occurs at higher frequencies than non-sibilant fricatives—usually around 8,000&nbsp;Hz.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Tips For Controlling Vocal Sibilance|url=https://theproaudiofiles.com/vocal-sibilance/|date=2012-03-07|website=Pro Audio Files|language=en-US|access-date=2020-05-28}}</ref>

== Sibilant types ==
All sibilants are [[coronal consonant]]s (made with the tip or front part of the tongue). However, there is a great deal of variety among sibilants as to tongue shape, point of contact on the tongue, and point of contact on the upper side of the mouth.

The following variables affect sibilant sound quality, and, along with their possible values, are ordered from sharpest (highest-pitched) to dullest (lowest-pitched):
* Tongue shape: {{lcons|grooved}}, [[alveolo-palatal]], [[palato-alveolar]], [[retroflex]]
* [[Place of articulation]] (point of contact on the upper side of the mouth): {{lcons|dental}} or [[denti-alveolar]], {{lcons|alveolar}}, [[postalveolar]], {{lcons|palatal}}
* Point of contact on the tongue: {{lcons|laminal}} "closed" ([[#Point of contact on the tongue|see below]]), {{lcons|laminal}} non-"closed", {{lcons|apical}}, {{lcons|subapical}}

Generally, the values of the different variables co-occur so as to produce an overall sharper or duller sound. For example, a laminal denti-alveolar grooved sibilant occurs in [[Polish language|Polish]], and a subapical palatal retroflex sibilant occurs in [[Toda language|Toda]].

=== Tongue shape ===
The main distinction is the shape of the tongue. Most sibilants have a [[sulcalization|groove]] running down the centerline of the tongue that helps focus the airstream, but it is not known how widespread this is. In addition, the following tongue shapes are described, from sharpest and highest-pitched to dullest and lowest-pitched:

* Hollow (e.g. {{IPA|[s]}}): This hollow accepts a large volume of air that is forced through a typically narrow aperture that directs a high-velocity jet of air against the teeth, which results in a high-pitched, piercing "hissing" sound. Because of the prominence of these sounds, they are the most common and most stable of sibilants cross-linguistically. They occur in [[English language|English]], where they are denoted with a letter ''s'' or ''z'', as in ''soon'' or ''zone''.{{Dubious|date=May 2011}}
* [[Alveolo-palatal]] (e.g. {{IPA|[ɕ]}}): with a convex, V-shaped tongue, and highly [[Palatalization (phonetics)|palatalized]] (middle of the tongue strongly raised or bowed).
* [[Palato-alveolar]] (e.g. {{IPA|[ʃ]}}): with a [[Domed consonant|"domed" tongue]] (convex and moderately palatalized).  These sounds occur in [[English language|English]], where they are denoted with letter combinations such as ''sh'', ''ch'', ''g'', ''j'' or ''si'', as in ''shin'', ''chin'', ''gin'' and ''vision''.
* [[Retroflex]] (e.g. {{IPA|[ʂ]}}): with a flat or concave tongue, and no palatalization. There is a variety of these sounds, some of which also go by other names (e.g. "flat postalveolar" or "[[apico-alveolar]]"). The {{lcons|subapical|palatal}} or "true" retroflex sounds are the very dullest and lowest-pitched of all the sibilants.

The latter three post-alveolar types of sounds are often known as "hushing" sounds because of their quality, as opposed to the "hissing" alveolar sounds. The alveolar sounds in fact occur in several varieties, in addition to the normal sound of English ''s'':<!--Is English [s] the norm?-->
* [[Palatalization (phonetics)|Palatalized]]: Sibilants can occur with or without raising the tongue body to the palate ([[Palatalization (phonetics)|palatalization]]). Palatalized alveolars are transcribed e.g. {{IPA|[sʲ]}} and occur in [[Russian language|Russian]]; they sound similar to the cluster {{IPA|[sj]}} occurring in the middle of the English phrase ''miss you''.
* Lisping: Alveolar sibilants made with the tip of the tongue ({{lcons|apical}}) near the upper teeth have a softer sound reminiscent of (but still sharper-sounding than) the "lisping" {{IPA|[θ]}} sound of English ''think''. These sounds are relatively uncommon, but occur in some of the indigenous languages of [[California]]{{sfn|Bright|1978}} as well as in the [[Spanish language|Spanish]] dialects of western and southern [[Andalucía]] (southwest [[Spain]]), mostly in the provinces of [[Cádiz]], [[Málaga]], [[Sevilla]] and [[Huelva]]. In these dialects, the lisping sibilant {{IPA|[s̟]}} (sometimes indicated in Spanish [[dialectology]] as {{angbr IPA|s̄}}) is the [[ceceo|most common pronunciation]] of the letters ''s'' and ''z'', as well as ''c'' before ''i'' or ''e'', replacing the {{IPA|[s]}} or {{IPA|[θ]}} that occur elsewhere in the country.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Dalbor|1980}}; {{Harvtxt|Obaid|1973}}.</ref>

Speaking non-technically, the retroflex consonant {{IPA|[ʂ]}} sounds somewhat like a mixture between the regular English {{IPA|[ʃ]}} of "ship" and a strong American "r"; while the alveolo-palatal consonant {{IPA|[ɕ]}} sounds somewhat like a mixture of English {{IPA|[ʃ]}} of "ship" and the {{IPA|[sj]}} in the middle of "miss you".

=== Place of articulation ===
Sibilants can be made at any {{lcons|coronal}} articulation{{cn|date=September 2024}}, i.e. the tongue can contact the upper side of the mouth anywhere from the upper teeth ({{lcons|dental}}) to the [[hard palate]] ({{lcons|palatal}}), with the in-between articulations being [[denti-alveolar]], {{lcons|alveolar}} and [[postalveolar]].

=== Point of contact on the tongue ===
{{See|Postalveolar consonant|topic=these variants and their relation to sibilants}}

The tongue can contact the upper side of the mouth with the very tip of the tongue (an ''{{lcons|apical}}'' articulation, e.g. {{IPA|[ʃ̺]}}); with the surface just behind the tip, called the ''[[tongue blade|blade]]'' of the tongue (a ''{{lcons|laminal}}'' articulation, e.g. {{IPA|[ʃ̻]}}); or with the underside of the tip (a ''{{lcons|subapical}}'' articulation). Apical and subapical articulations are always ''tongue-up'', with the tip of the tongue above the teeth, while laminal articulations can be either tongue-up or ''tongue-down'', with the tip of the tongue behind the lower teeth. This distinction is particularly important for [[retroflex]] sibilants, because all three varieties can occur, with noticeably different sound qualities.

For tongue-down laminal articulations, an additional distinction can be made depending on where exactly behind the lower teeth the tongue tip is placed. A little ways back from the lower teeth is a hollow area (or pit) in the lower surface of the mouth. When the tongue tip rests in this hollow area, there is an empty space below the tongue (a ''sublingual cavity''), which results in a relatively duller sound. When the tip of the tongue rests against the lower teeth, there is no sublingual cavity, resulting in a sharper sound. Usually, the position of the tip of the tongue correlates with the grooved vs. hushing tongue shape so as to maximize the differences. However, the palato-alveolar sibilants in the [[Northwest Caucasian languages]] such as [[Ubykh language|Ubykh]] are an exception. These sounds have the tongue tip resting directly against the lower teeth, which gives the sounds a quality that Catford describes as "hissing-hushing". Ladefoged and Maddieson{{sfn|Ladefoged|Maddieson|1996|p=}} term this a "''closed'' laminal postalveolar" articulation, and transcribe them (following Catford) as {{IPA|[ŝ, ẑ]}}, although this is not an IPA notation.

== Symbols in the IPA ==

The following table shows the types of sibilant fricatives defined in the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]]:

{|
|+ '''IPA letters for sibilants'''
|
{| class="wikitable"
! colspan="6" | Voiceless
|-
! rowspan="2" | IPA
! rowspan="2" | Description
! colspan="4" | Example
|-
! Language
! Orthography
! IPA
! Meaning
|-
! style="text-align: center; font-size: x-large;" |  {{IPA|s}}
| [[voiceless alveolar sibilant]]
| [[English language|English]]
| '''s'''ip
| {{IPA|['''s'''ɪp]}}
| "{{wikt-lang|en|sip|i=no}}"
|-
! style="text-align: center; font-size: x-large;" |  {{IPA|ɕ}}
| [[voiceless alveolo-palatal sibilant]]
| [[Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin]]
| {{wikt-lang|zh|小}} ('''x'''iǎo)
| {{IPA|['''ɕ'''jɑ̀ʊ̯]}}
| "{{wikt-lang|en|small|i=no}}"
|-
! style="text-align: center; font-size: x-large;" |  {{IPA|ʃ}}
| [[voiceless palato-alveolar sibilant]]
| [[English language|English]]
| '''sh'''in
| {{IPA|['''ʃ'''ɪn]}}
| "{{wikt-lang|en|shin|i=no}}"
|-
! style="text-align: center; font-size: x-large;" |  {{IPA|ʂ}}
| [[voiceless retroflex sibilant]]
| [[Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin]]
| {{wikt-lang|zh|上海}} (Shànghǎi)
| {{IPA|['''ʂ'''ɑ̂ŋ.xàɪ̯]}}
| "[[Shanghai]]"
|}
|
{| class="wikitable"
! colspan="6" | Voiced
|-
! rowspan="2" | IPA
! rowspan="2" | Description
! colspan="4" | Example
|-
! Language
! Orthography
! IPA
! Meaning
|-
! style="text-align: center; font-size: x-large;" |  {{IPA|z}}
| [[voiced alveolar sibilant]]
| [[English language|English]]
| '''z'''ip
| {{IPA|['''z'''ɪp]}}
| "{{wikt-lang|en|zip|i=no}}"
|-
! style="text-align: center; font-size: x-large;" |  {{IPA|ʑ}}
| [[voiced alveolo-palatal sibilant]]
| [[Polish language|Polish]]
| {{wikt-lang|pl|'''zi'''oło}}
| {{IPA|[ˈ'''ʑ'''ɔwɔ]}}
| "{{wikt-lang|en|herb|i=no}}"
|-
! style="text-align: center; font-size: x-large;" |  {{IPA|ʒ}}
| [[voiced palato-alveolar sibilant]]
| [[English language|English]]
| vi'''si'''on
| {{IPA|[ˈvɪ'''ʒ'''ən]}}
| "{{wikt-lang|en|vision|i=no}}"
|-
! style="text-align: center; font-size: x-large;" |  {{IPA|ʐ}}
| [[voiced retroflex sibilant]]
| [[Russian language|Russian]]<br />[[Polish language|Polish]]
| {{wikt-lang|ru|'''ж'''аба}}<br />{{wikt-lang|pl|'''ż'''aba}}
| {{IPA|[ˈ'''ʐ'''abə]}}<br />{{IPA|[ˈ'''ʐ'''aba]}}
| "{{wikt-lang|en|toad|i=no}}"<br />"{{wikt-lang|en|frog|i=no}}"
|}
|}

Diacritics can be used for finer detail. For example, apical and laminal alveolars can be specified as {{IPA|[s̺]}} ''vs'' {{IPA|[s̻]}}; a [[dental consonant|dental]] (or more likely ''denti-alveolar'') sibilant as {{IPA|[s̪]}}; a palatalized alveolar as {{IPA|[sʲ]}}; and a generic "retracted sibilant" as {{IPA|[s̠]}}, a transcription frequently used for the sharper-quality types of retroflex consonants (e.g. the laminal "flat" type and the "[[apico-alveolar]]" type). There is no diacritic to denote the laminal "closed" articulation of palato-alveolars in the [[Northwest Caucasian languages]], but they are sometimes provisionally transcribed as {{IPA|[ŝ ẑ]}}.

== Possible combinations ==
The attested possibilities, with exemplar languages, are as follows. Note that the IPA diacritics are simplified; some articulations would require two diacritics to be fully specified, but only one is used in order to keep the results legible without the need for [[OpenType]] IPA fonts. Also, [[Peter Ladefoged|Ladefoged]] has resurrected an obsolete IPA symbol, the under dot, to indicate ''apical postalveolar'' (normally included in the category of [[retroflex consonant]]s), and that notation is used here. (Note that the notation {{IPA|s̠, ṣ}} is sometimes reversed; either may also be called 'retroflex' and written {{IPA|ʂ}}.)

<!-- Note: Ladefoged is inconsistent in his sub-dot and sub-bar notation, especially between stops and fricatives. The table here follows his verbal descriptions and his notation for stops as well as for the fricatives of Ubykh, which was mistakenly placed in the same row as Chinese & Polish in table 5.7 of SOWL, perhaps because of this very ambiguity. -->
{| class="wikitable nowrap"
! IPA !! [[Tongue shape]] !! Place<br />of articulation<br />(mouth) !! Place<br />of articulation<br />(tongue) !! Exemplifying languages
|-
| style="text-align: center; font-size: x-large;" | {{IPA|[s̺̪ z̺̪]}} || rowspan="5" | hollow || {{lcons|dental}} || {{lcons|apical}} || southeast European [[Spanish language|Spanish]] ''s/z'', [[Kumeyaay language|Kumeyaay]]
|-
| style="text-align: center; font-size: x-large;" |  {{IPA|[s̪ z̪]}}  || {{lcons|denti-alveolar}} || {{lcons|laminal}} || [[Polish language|Polish]] ''s, z''; [[Basque language|Basque]] ''z, tz''
|-
| style="text-align: center; font-size: x-large;" | {{IPA|[s̺ z̺]}} || rowspan="3" | {{lcons|alveolar}} || {{lcons|apical}} || northern peninsular [[Spanish language|Spanish]] ''s'';<br />[[Basque language|Basque]] ''s, ts'';<br />[[Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin]] ''s, z, c'' (apical, dental or alveolar)
|-
| style="text-align: center; font-size: x-large;" | {{IPA|[s z]}} || apical or laminal || [[English language|English]] ''s, z'' (alveolar, laminal or apical);<br />American or southwest European [[Spanish language|Spanish]] ''s/z''
|-
| style="text-align: center; font-size: x-large;" | {{IPA|[s̻ z̻]}} || laminal || Toda, [[Ubykh language|Ubykh]], [[Abkhaz language|Abkhaz]]
|-
| style="text-align: center; font-size: x-large;" | {{IPA|[ʃ ʒ]}} || rowspan="2" | [[palato-alveolar consonant|domed]] || rowspan="6" | {{lcons|postalveolar}} || apical or laminal || [[English language|English]] ''sh, ch, j, zh''<br />and French ''ch, j'' ({{IPA|[ʃʷ ʒʷ]}})
|-
| style="text-align: center; font-size: x-large;" | {{IPA|[ʃ̻ ʒ̻]}} || rowspan="4" | {{lcons|laminal}} || [[Toda language|Toda]]; [[Basque language|Basque]] ''x, tx''
|-
| style="text-align: center; font-size: x-large;" |  {{IPA|[ɕ ʑ]}} || [[alveolo-palatal consonant|palatalized]] || [[Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin]] ''x, j, q'';<br />[[Polish language|Polish]] ''ś, ć, ź, dź'';<br />[[Ubykh language|Ubykh]]; [[Abkhaz language|Abkhaz]]
|-
| style="text-align: center; font-size: x-large;" |  {{IPA|[ŝ ẑ]}}{{ref|hollow|1}} || hollow<br />(no cavity) || [[Ubykh language|Ubykh]]; [[Abkhaz language|Abkhaz]]
|-
| style="text-align: center; font-size: x-large;" |  {{IPA|[s̠ ẕ]}},<br />{{IPA|[ʂ̻ ʐ̻]}} || hollow or flat<br />(cavity under tongue) || [[Polish language|Polish]] ''sz, cz, ż, dż'' ({{IPA|[ʂ̻ʷ, tʂ̻ʷ, ʐ̻ʷ, dʐ̻ʷ]}});<br />[[Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin]] ''sh, zh, ch''
|-
| style="text-align: center; font-size: x-large;" | {{IPA|[ʂ ʐ],<br />[ṣ ẓ]}},<br />etc.{{ref|apicoretroflex|2}} || hollow || {{lcons|apical}} || [[Ubykh language|Ubykh]]; [[Abkhaz language|Abkhaz]];<br />Kumeyaay; Toda; [[Russian language|Russian]]
|-
| style="text-align: center; font-size: x-large;" | {{IPA|[ʂ ʐ]}} || [[retroflex consonant|curled]] || {{lcons|palatal}} (or {{lcons|postalveolar}}?) || {{lcons|subapical}} || [[Toda language|Toda]]
|}

{{note|hollow|1}} <span style="font-size: large;">{{angbr IPA|ŝ ẑ}}</span> is an ad-hoc transcription. The old IPA letters <span style="font-size: large;">{{angbr IPA|ʆ ʓ}}</span> are also available.

{{note|apicoretroflex|2}} These sounds are usually just transcribed <span style="font-size: large;">{{angbr IPA|ʂ ʐ}}</span>. Apical postalveolar and subapical palatal sibilants do not contrast in any language, but if necessary, apical postalveolars can be transcribed with an apical diacritic, as <span style="font-size: large;">{{angbr IPA|s̠̺ z̠̺}}</span> or <span style="font-size: large;">{{angbr IPA|ʂ̺ ʐ̺}}</span>. Ladefoged resurrects the old retroflex sub-dot for apical retroflexes, <span style="font-size: large;">{{angbr IPA|ṣ ẓ}}</span> Also seen in the literature on e.g. Hindi and Norwegian is <span style="font-size: large;">{{angbr IPA|ᶘ ᶚ}}</span> – the domed articulation of {{IPA|[ʃ ʒ]}} precludes a subapical realization.

=== Whistled sibilants ===<!--This section is linked from the redirects Whistled sibilant and Whistled fricative-->
Whistled sibilants occur phonemically in several southern Bantu languages, the best known being [[Shona language|Shona]]. However, they also occur in speech pathology and may be caused by dental prostheses or orthodontics.

The whistled sibilants of Shona have been variously described—as [[labialized]] but not velarized, as retroflex, etc., but none of these features are required for the sounds.<ref>Shosted 2006</ref> Using the [[Extended IPA]], Shona ''sv'' and ''zv'' may be transcribed <span style="font-size: large;">{{angbr IPA|s͎}}</span> and <span style="font-size: large;">{{angbr IPA|z͎}}</span>. Other transcriptions seen include purely labialized <span style="font-size: large;">{{angbr IPA|s̫}}</span> and <span style="font-size: large;">{{angbr IPA|z̫}}</span> (Ladefoged and Maddieson 1996) and labially co-articulated <span style="font-size: large;">{{angbr IPA|sᶲ}}</span> and <span style="font-size: large;">{{angbr IPA|zᵝ}}</span> (or <span style="font-size: large;">{{angbr IPA|s͡ɸ}}</span> and <span style="font-size: large;">{{angbr IPA|z͜β}}</span>). In the otherwise IPA transcription of Shona in Doke (1967), the whistled sibilants are transcribed with the non-IPA letters <span style="font-size: large;">{{angbr IPA|[[ȿ]] [[ɀ]]}}</span> and <span style="font-size: large;">{{angbr IPA|tȿ dɀ}}</span>.

Besides Shona, whistled sibilants have been reported as phonemes in [[Kalanga language|Kalanga]], [[Tsonga language|Tsonga]], [[Tsonga language|Changana]], [[Tswa language|Tswa]]—all of which are Southern African languages—and [[Tabasaran language|Tabasaran]]. The articulation of whistled sibilants may differ between languages. In Shona, the lips are [[Roundedness|compressed]] throughout, and the sibilant may be followed by normal labialization upon release. (That is, there is a contrast among ''s, sw, ȿ, ȿw''.) In Tsonga, the whistling effect is weak; the lips are narrowed but also the tongue is [[retroflex]]. Tswa may be similar. In Changana, the lips are rounded (protruded), but so is /s/ in the sequence /usu/, so there is evidently some distinct phonetic phenomenon occurring here that has yet to be formally identified and described.<ref>Maddieson & Sands (2019). 'The Sounds of the Bantu Languages', in van de Velde et al. (eds) ''The Bantu Languages'', 2nd edition.</ref>

== Linguistic contrasts among sibilants ==

Not including differences in [[manner of articulation]] or [[secondary articulation]], some languages have as many as four different types of sibilants. For example, [[Northern Qiang]] and [[Southern Qiang]] have a four-way distinction among sibilant affricates {{IPA|/ts/ /tʂ/ /tʃ/ /tɕ/}}, with one for each of the four tongue shapes. {{citation needed|date=June 2020}} [[Toda language|Toda]] also has a four-way sibilant distinction, with one alveolar, one palato-alveolar, and two retroflex (apical postalveolar and subapical palatal). {{citation needed|date=June 2020}}

The now-extinct [[Ubykh language]] was particularly complex, with a total of 27 sibilant consonants. Not only all four tongue shapes were represented (with the palato-alveolar appearing in the laminal "closed" variation) but also both the palato-alveolars and alveolo-palatals could additionally appear [[labialization|labialized]]. Besides, there was a five-way manner distinction among voiceless and voiced fricatives, voiceless and voiced affricates, and {{lcons|ejective}} affricates. (The three labialized palato-alveolar affricates were missing, which is why the total was 27, not 30.) {{citation needed|date=June 2020}} The Bzyp dialect of the related [[Abkhaz language]] also has a similar inventory. {{citation needed|date=June 2020}}

Some languages have four types when [[palatalization (phonetics)|palatalization]] is considered. [[Polish language|Polish]] is one example, with both palatalized and non-palatalized laminal denti-alveolars, laminal postalveolar (or "flat retroflex"), and alveolo-palatal ({{IPA|[s̪ z̪] [s̪ʲ z̪ʲ] [s̠ z̠] [ɕ ʑ]}}). {{citation needed|date=June 2020}} [[Russian language|Russian]] has the same surface contrasts, but the alveolo-palatals are arguably not phonemic. They occur only geminate, and the retroflex consonants never occur geminate, which suggests that both are allophones of the same phoneme. {{citation needed|date=June 2020}}

Somewhat more common are languages with three sibilant types, including one hissing and two hushing. As with Polish and Russian, the two hushing types are usually postalveolar and alveolo-palatal since these are the two most distinct from each other. [[Mandarin Chinese]] is an example of such a language. {{citation needed|date=June 2020}} However, other possibilities exist. [[Serbo-Croatian]] has alveolar, flat postalveolar and alveolo-palatal affricates whereas [[Basque language|Basque]] has palato-alveolar and laminal and apical alveolar ([[apico-alveolar]]) fricatives and affricates (late Medieval peninsular [[Spanish language|Spanish]] and [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] had the same distinctions among fricatives).

Many languages, such as [[English language|English]] or [[Arabic language|Arabic]], have two sibilant types, one hissing and one hushing. A wide variety of languages across the world have this pattern. Perhaps most common is the pattern, as in English and Arabic, with alveolar and palato-alveolar sibilants. Modern northern peninsular [[Spanish language|Spanish]] has a single [[apico-alveolar]] sibilant fricative {{IPA|[s̠]}}, as well as a single palato-alveolar sibilant affricate {{IPA|[tʃ]}}. However, there are also languages with alveolar and apical retroflex sibilants (such as Standard [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]]) and with alveolar and alveolo-palatal postalveolars (e.g. alveolar and laminal palatalized {{IPA|[ʃ ʒ tʃ dʒ]}} i.e. {{IPA|[ʃʲ ʒʲ tʃʲ dʒʲ]}} in [[Catalan language|Catalan]] and [[Brazilian Portuguese]], the latter probably through Amerindian influence,<ref>{{in lang|pt}} [http://www.coracoralina.ueg.br/visao_academica/revista/2010_novembro/rev10_2010_dialetos.pdf Dialects of Brazil: the palatalization of the phonemes {{IPA|/t/}} and {{IPA|/d/}}] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203010719/http://www.coracoralina.ueg.br/visao_academica/revista/2010_novembro/rev10_2010_dialetos.pdf |date=2013-12-03 }}.</ref> and alveolar and dorsal i.e. {{IPA|[ɕ ʑ tɕ dʑ]}} proper in [[Japanese language|Japanese]]).<ref>{{in lang|pt}} [http://www.abralin.org/abralin11_cdrom/artigos/Flavio_de_Oliveira.PDF Análise acústica de sequências de fricativas e africadas por japoneses aprendizes de português brasileiro]{{Dead link|date=October 2022 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}'', Universidade Federal do Paraná, page 1504</ref>

Only a few languages with sibilants lack the hissing type. [[Middle Vietnamese]] is normally reconstructed with two sibilant fricatives, both hushing (one retroflex, one alveolo-palatal). Some languages have only a single hushing sibilant and no hissing sibilant. That occurs in southern Peninsular Spanish dialects of the "[[ceceo]]" type, which have replaced the former hissing fricative with {{IPA|[θ]}}, leaving only {{IPA|[tʃ]}}.

Languages with no sibilants are fairly rare. Most have no fricatives at all or only the fricative {{IPA|/h/}}. Examples include most [[Australian languages]], and [[Rotokas language|Rotokas]], and what is generally reconstructed for [[Proto-Bantu language|Proto-Bantu]]. Languages with fricatives but no sibilants, however, do occur, such as [[Ukue language|Ukue]] in [[Nigeria]], which has only the fricatives {{IPA|/f, v, h/}}. Also, almost all Eastern [[Polynesian languages]] have no sibilants but do have the fricatives {{IPA|/v/}} and/or {{IPA|/f/}}: [[Māori language|Māori]], [[Hawaiian language|Hawaiian]], [[Tahitian language|Tahitian]], [[Rapa Nui language|Rapa Nui]], most [[Cook Islands Māori]] dialects, [[Marquesan language|Marquesan]], and [[Tuamotuan language|Tuamotuan]].

[[Tamil language|Tamil]] only has the sibilant {{IPA|/ʂ/}} and fricative {{IPA|/f/}} in loanwords, and they are frequently replaced by native sounds. The sibilants {{IPA|[s, ɕ]}} exist as allophones of {{IPA|/t͡ɕ/}} and the fricative {{IPA|[h]}} as an allophone of {{IPA|/k/}}.

== Contested definitions ==

Authors including [[Noam Chomsky|Chomsky]] and [[Morris Halle|Halle]] group {{IPAblink|f}} and {{IPAblink|v}} as sibilants. However, they do not have the grooved articulation and high frequencies of other sibilants, and most phoneticians{{sfn|Ladefoged|Maddieson|1996|p=}} continue to group them together with [[bilabial consonant|bilabial]] {{IPAblink|ɸ}}, {{IPAblink|β}} and (inter)dental {{IPAblink|θ}}, {{IPAblink|ð}} as non-sibilant [[anterior (phonetics)|anterior]] fricatives. For a grouping of sibilants and {{IPA|[f, v]}}, the term ''strident'' is more common. Some researchers judge {{IPA|[f]}} to be non-strident in English, based on measurements of its comparative amplitude, but to be strident in other languages (for example, in the African language [[Ewe language|Ewe]], where it contrasts with non-strident {{IPA|[ɸ]}}).

The nature of ''sibilants'' as so-called 'obstacle fricatives' is complicated – there is a continuum of possibilities relating to the angle at which the jet of air may strike an obstacle. The grooving often considered necessary for classification as a ''sibilant'' has been observed in ultrasound studies of the tongue for the supposedly ''non-sibilant'' voiceless alveolar fricative {{IPA|[θ̠]}} of English.<ref>Stone, M. & Lundberg, A. (1996). [http://www.speech.umaryland.edu/Publications/Jasa96_Stone_Lundberg.pdf Three-dimensional tongue surface shapes of English consonants and vowels]. ''Journal of the Acoustical Society of America'', vol. '''99''' (6), pp. 3728–3737</ref>

== See also ==
* [[De-essing]]
* [[Plosive consonant]]
* [[Shibboleth]]
* [[Sj-sound]]
* [[Strident vowel]]
* [[Voiceless alveolar retracted sibilant]]
* [[Voiced apicoalveolar fricative]]
* [[Assibilation]]

== Notes ==
{{reflist}}

== References ==
* {{citation
| last= Bright
| first= William
| year= 1978
| title= Sibilants and naturalness in aboriginal California
| journal= Journal of California Anthropology, Papers in Linguistics
| volume= 1
| pages= 39–63
}}
* {{citation
| last= Dalbor
| first= John B.
| year= 1980
| title= Observations on Present-Day Seseo and Ceceo in Southern Spain
| journal= Hispania
| volume= 63
| pages= 5–19
| doi= 10.2307/340806
| issue= 1
| publisher= American Association of Teachers of Spanish and Portuguese
| jstor= 340806}}
* {{citation
| last= Hualde
| first= José Ignacio
| year= 1991
| title= Basque phonology
| place= London
| publisher= Routledge
| jstor= 340806}}
* {{SOWL}}
* {{citation
| last= Obaid
| first= Antonio H.
| year= 1973
| title= The Vagaries of the Spanish 'S'
| journal= Hispania
| volume= 56
| pages= 60–67
| doi= 10.2307/339038
| issue= 1
| publisher= American Association of Teachers of Spanish and Portuguese
| jstor= 339038}}
* Shosted, Ryan K. (2006) ''[http://www.cefala.org/issp2006/cdrom/articles/shosted.pdf Just put your lips together and blow? The whistled fricatives of Southern Bantu].''

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