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{{Short description|Systematic comparison of the world's religions}}
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[[Image:Religious syms.svg|thumb|Various [[religious symbols]] representing the [[World religions|world's largest religions]] (from left to right): {{Bulleted list|1st row: [[Christianity]], [[Judaism]], [[Hinduism]]|2nd row: [[Islam]], [[Buddhism]], [[Shinto]]|3rd row: [[Sikhism]], the [[Baháʼí Faith]], [[Jainism]]}}]]
{{Anthropology of religion}}

'''Comparative religion''' is the branch of the [[study of religions]]  with the systematic comparison of the [[doctrines]] and practices, themes and impacts (including [[human migration|migration]]) of the world's [[religion]]s. In general the comparative study of religion yields a deeper understanding of the fundamental philosophical concerns of religion such as [[ethics]], [[metaphysics]] and the nature and forms of [[salvation]]. It also considers and compares the origins and [[similarity (philosophy)|similarities]] shared between the various religions of the world. Studying such material facilitates a broadened and more sophisticated understanding of human [[beliefs]] and practices regarding the [[sacred]], [[numinous]], [[Spirituality|spiritual]] and [[Divinity|divine]].<ref>"Human beings' relation to that which they regard as holy, sacred, spiritual, and divine" [[Encyclopædia Britannica]] (online, 2006), cited in {{cite web |url= http://www.religionfacts.com/religion/quotes.htm |title= Definitions of Religion |website= Religion facts}}</ref>

In the field of comparative religion, a common geographical classification<ref name="EB" /> of the [[Major religious groups|main world religions]] distinguishes groups such as [[Religion in the Middle East|Middle Eastern religions]] (including [[Abrahamic religions]] and [[Iranian religions]]), [[Indian religions]], [[East Asian religions]], [[African religions]], [[Native American religion|American religions]], [[Religion in Oceania|Oceanic religions]], and [[Classical antiquity|classical]] [[Hellenistic religion]]s.<ref name="EB">{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/classification-of-religions|title=classification of religions &#124; Principles & Significance|website=Encyclopedia Britannica}}</ref>

There also exist various [[sociological classifications of religious movements]].

== History ==
[[File:Monumento a Ibn Hazm.jpg|thumb|right|A statue of [[Ibn Hazm]], father of modern comparative religious studies, in Córdoba [[Spain]].]]
[[Al-Biruni]] (973 – {{circa|1050}}) and [[Ibn Hazm]] (994 – 1064), both of the [[Islamic Golden Age]] and considered the "fathers of comparative religion", compared the study of religious pluralism and their works have been significant in the fields of theology and philosophy.<ref name="Arberry">Ibn Hazm. ''[http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/hazm/dove/preface.html The Ring of the Dove: A Treatise on the Art and Practice of Arab Love] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041030195410/http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/hazm/dove/preface.html |date=30 October 2004 }}'' (Preface). Trans. A. J. Arberry. Luzac Oriental, 1997 {{ISBN|1-898942-02-1}}</ref><ref name=brill>R. Arnaldez, [http://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-2/ibn-hazm-COM_0325 Ibn Ḥazm] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180802164109/http://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-2/ibn-hazm-COM_0325 |date=2 August 2018 }}. [[Encyclopaedia of Islam]], Second Edition. Brill Online, 2013. Reference. 9 January 2013</ref><ref name=gulf>Joseph A. Kechichian, [http://gulfnews.com/about-gulf-news/al-nisr-portfolio/weekend-review/a-mind-of-his-own-1.1121412 A mind of his own] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131227060724/http://gulfnews.com/about-gulf-news/al-nisr-portfolio/weekend-review/a-mind-of-his-own-1.1121412 |date=27 December 2013 }}. [[Gulf News]]: 21:30 December 20, 2012.</ref><ref name="hadithsunnah">{{cite web |url=http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/hadithsunnah/scienceofhadith/asb2.html |title=USC-MSA Compendium of Muslim Texts |publisher=Usc.edu |access-date=2010-09-12 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081128185832/http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/hadithsunnah/scienceofhadith/asb2.html |archive-date=2008-11-28 }}</ref> Al-Biruni discussed his idea of history in ''[[The Remaining Signs of Past Centuries]]'' ({{circa|1000}} AD) which was translated by [[Eduard Sachau]] in the 19th century. It is a comparative study of calendars of different cultures and civilizations, interlaced with mathematical, astronomical, and historical information, exploring the customs and religions of different peoples.<ref name=Khan>M. S. Khan (1976). "al-Biruni and the Political History of India", ''Oriens'' '''25''', pp.&nbsp;86-115.</ref>

In the seventeenth century, antiquarians such as [[Athanasius Kircher]] along with [[Sir Thomas Browne]] were pioneering scholars of comparative religion.

Social scientists in the 19th century took a strong interest in comparative and "primitive" religion through the work of [[Max Müller]], [[Edward Burnett Tylor]], [[William Robertson Smith]], [[James George Frazer]], [[Émile Durkheim]], [[Max Weber]], and [[Rudolf Otto]].<ref>Hans Kippenberg, ''Discovering Religious History in the Modern Age'' (2001).</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Berner|first=Ulrich|date=2021-08-05|title=Max Müller, Charles Darwin and the science of religion|url=https://hts.org.za/index.php/hts/article/view/6730|journal=HTS Teologiese Studies / Theological Studies|language=en|volume=77|issue=2|pages=8|doi=10.4102/hts.v77i2.6730|issn=2072-8050|doi-access=free}}</ref>
[[Nicholas de Lange]], Professor of Hebrew and Jewish Studies at [[Cambridge University]], says that

{{blockquote|The comparative study of religions is an academic discipline which has been developed within Christian theology faculties, and it has a tendency to force widely differing phenomena into a kind of strait-jacket cut to a Christian pattern. The problem is not only that other 'religions' may have little or nothing to say about questions which are of burning importance for Christianity, but that they may not even see themselves as religions in precisely the same way in which Christianity sees itself as a religion.<ref>Nicholas de Lange, ''Judaism'', Oxford University Press, 1986</ref>}}Examples that demonstrate this point are Buddhism and Chinese Folk Religions. These belief systems have not historically been seen as mutually exclusive and have blended over time into different beliefs such as [[Pure Land Buddhism]]. This shows a marked difference from Western conceptions of religions, which see adherence to one religion as precluding membership of another faith.<ref>Yong, A. (2016). Many tongues, many buddhisms in a pluralistic world: A christian interpretation at the interreligious crossroads. ''Japanese Journal of Religious Studies, 43''(2), 357-IV.</ref>

Hinduism and Buddhism provide another insight in the form of [[soteriology]]. Comparative study of religions may approach religions with a base idea of salvation with eternal life after death, but religions like Hinduism or Buddhism don't necessarily share this view. Instead, Hinduism and [[Theravada]] Buddhism both speak of a falling back into nonexistence and escaping the cycle of [[reincarnation]], rather than eternal life after death.<ref name=":3">Batchelor, S. (2012). A secular buddhism. ''Journal of Global Buddhism, 13'', 87-107. {{ProQuest|2380027512}}</ref><ref>Osto, D. (2018). NO-SELF IN SĀṂKHYA: A COMPARATIVE LOOK AT CLASSICAL SĀṂKHYA AND THERAVĀDA BUDDHISM. ''Philosophy East and West, 68''(1), 201-222,III. {{ProQuest|1980472798}}</ref>

== Geographical classification ==
According to [[Charles Joseph Adams]], in the field of comparative religion, a common geographical classification discerns<ref name="EB"/> the [[Major religious groups|main world religions]] as follows:<ref name="EB" />

# Middle Eastern religions, including [[Judaism]], [[Christianity]], [[Islam]], [[Zoroastrianism]], and a variety of ancient belief systems;
# East Asian religions, the religious communities of China, Japan, Korea and Vietnam, and consisting of [[Confucianism]], [[Taoism]], the various schools of [[Mahayana]] ("Greater Vehicle") Buddhism, and [[Shintoism|Shintō]]; 
# Indian religions, including early [[Buddhism]], [[Hinduism]], [[Jainism]], [[Sikhism]], and sometimes also the [[Theravada]] ("Way of the Elders") Buddhism and the Hindu- and Buddhist-inspired religions of South and Southeast Asia; 
# African religions, the ancient belief systems of the various indigenous peoples of Africa, excluding [[ancient Egyptian religion]], which is considered to belong to the ancient Middle East;
# American religions, the beliefs and practices of the various Indigenous peoples of the two American continents; 
# Oceanic religions, the religious systems of the peoples of the Pacific islands, Australia, and New Zealand; and 
# Religions of ancient Greece and Rome and their Hellenistic descendants.

=== Middle Eastern religions ===
==== Abrahamic or Western Asian religions ====
{{Main|Abrahamic religion|Western religion|Islamic religion}}

In the study of comparative religion, the category of [[Abrahamic religion]]s includes the three [[monotheistic]] religions, [[Christianity]], [[Islam]] and [[Judaism]], which claim [[Abraham]] (Hebrew ''Avraham'' אַבְרָהָם; Arabic ''Ibrahim'' إبراهيم ) as a part of their sacred history. Smaller religions such as the [[Baháʼí Faith]] that fit this description are sometimes included but are often omitted.<ref>[http://lisar.lss.wisc.edu/welcome/abrahamic.html Why Abrahamic?] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070908060636/http://lisar.lss.wisc.edu/welcome/abrahamic.html |date=8 September 2007 }} Lubar Institute for the Study of the Abrahamic Religions at the University of Wisconsin</ref>

The original belief in the [[God in Abrahamic religions|God of Abraham]] eventually became strictly monotheistic present-day [[Rabbinic Judaism]]. Religious Jews regard Judaism as the expression of the [[Mosaic covenant|covenant]] that [[God in Judaism|God]] established with the [[Children of Israel]]. Jews hold that the [[Torah]] forms part of the larger text known as the [[Tanakh]] or the [[Hebrew Bible]]. They also look to a supplemental oral tradition represented by later texts such as the [[Midrash]] and the [[Talmud]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Isaacs |first=Alick |title=A Prophetic Peace |date=2011-09-06 |publisher=Indiana University Press |doi=10.2307/j.ctt2005vfn |isbn=978-0-253-00564-9}}</ref>

Christians believe that Christianity represents the [[Supersessionism|fulfillment]] and continuation of the Jewish [[Tanakh|Old Testament]]. Christians believe that [[Jesus]] (Hebrew ''[[Yeshua]]'' יֵשׁוּעַ) is the awaited [[Messiah]] (Christ) foretold in the [[Old Testament]] [[prophecy|prophecies]], and also honor the subsequently produced [[New Testament|New Testament scriptures]].<ref>{{Citation |last=Woodhead |first=Linda |title=4. Mystical Christianity |date=2005-09-01 |work=Christianity |pages=71–88 |publisher=Oxford University Press |doi=10.1093/actrade/9780192803221.003.0005 |isbn=978-0-19-280322-1}}</ref> Generally, Christians believe that Jesus is both the [[Incarnation (Christianity)|incarnation]] of God and the [[Son of God]]. Their [[creed]]s generally hold in common that the incarnation, [[Ministry of Jesus|ministry]], [[Passion of Jesus|suffering]], [[Crucifixion of Jesus|death on the cross]], and [[Resurrection of Jesus|resurrection]] of Jesus took place for the [[Salvation in Christianity|salvation]] of mankind.<ref>{{Citation |last=Gilpin |first=W. Clark |title=American Narratives of Sin and Salvation |date=2017-12-19 |encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Religion |publisher=Oxford University Press|doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.013.439|isbn=978-0-19-934037-8}}</ref>

Islam teaches that the present Christian and Jewish scriptures have been [[Tahrif|corrupted]] over time and are no longer the original divine revelations as given to the [[Revelation#Mass revelation|Jewish people]] and to [[Mosaic authorship|Moses]], [[Pauline Christianity|Jesus]], and other prophets. For Muslims, the [[Quran]] is the final, complete revelation from [[God]] (Arabic الله ''[[Allah]]''); they believe it to have been [[divine revelation|revealed]] to [[Muhammad]] alone, whom they characterise as the [[Prophet of Islam|final prophet of Islam]] and as the ''[[Khatam an-Nabiyyin]]'', meaning the last of the prophets ever sent by Allah ("seal of the prophets").

Based on the Muslim figure of the [[Mahdī]], the ultimate savior of humankind and the final Imām of the Twelve Imams, [[Báb|Ali Muhammad Shirazi]], later known as "the Báb", created the Bábí movement out of the belief that he was the gate to the Twelfth Imām. This signaled a break with Islam and started a new religious system, [[Bábism]]. However, in the 1860s a split occurred, after which the vast majority of Bábís who considered Mirza Husayn `Ali or [[Bahá'u'lláh]] to be the Báb's spiritual successor founded the Baháʼí Movement, while the minority who followed Subh-i-Azal came to be called [[Azalis]].<ref>"But the upshot of the whole matter is, that out of every hundred Bábís probably not more than three or four are Ezelís [sic], all the rest accepting Behá'u'lláh [sic] as the final and most perfect manifestation of the Truth." (Browne (1889) [http://www.h-net.org/~bahai/diglib/articles/A-E/browne/brbabism.htm p. 351] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070310172837/http://www.h-net.org/~bahai/diglib/articles/A-E/browne/brbabism.htm |date =10 March 2007 }})</ref> The Baháʼí division eventually became a full-fledged religion in its own right, the [[Baháʼí Faith]]. In comparison to the other Abrahamic religions - Judaism, Christianity and Islam - the number of adherents for Baháʼí faith and other minor Abrahamic religions are not very numerous.

Out of the three major Abrahamic faiths, [[Christianity and Judaism]] are the two religions that diverge the most in theology and practice.

The historical interaction between [[Islam and Judaism]] started in the 7th century CE with the origin and [[spread of Islam]]. There are many common aspects between Islam and Judaism, and as Islam [[History of Islam|developed]], it gradually became the major religion closest to Judaism. In contrast to Christianity, which originated from interaction between ancient [[Ancient Greece|Greek]], [[Roman empire|Roman]], and [[Hebrew]] cultures, Judaism is very similar to Islam in its fundamental religious outlook, structure, jurisprudence and practice.<ref>[[Rabbi David Rosen]], [http://rabbidavidrosen.net/doc/Muslim-Jewish%20Relations/Jewish-Muslim%20Relations,%20Past%20&%20Present%20Nov%2003.doc Jewish-Muslim Relations, Past and Present] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070616163849/http://rabbidavidrosen.net/doc/Muslim-Jewish%20Relations/Jewish-Muslim%20Relations%2C%20Past%20%26%20Present%20Nov%2003.doc |date=16 June 2007 }}, November 2003</ref> There are many traditions within Islam that originate from traditions which are recorded in the [[Hebrew Bible]] or which stem from post-biblical Jewish traditions. These practices are known collectively as the ''[[Isra'iliyat]]''.<ref>Rabbi Justin Jaron Lewis, [http://post.queensu.ca/~jjl/islam.html  Islam and Judaism] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070405102236/http://post.queensu.ca/~jjl/islam.html |date=5 April 2007 }}, October 2001</ref>

The historical interaction between [[Christianity and Islam]] connects fundamental ideas in Christianity with similar ones in Islam. Islam accepts many aspects of Christianity as part of its faith{{snd}}with some differences in interpretation{{snd}}and rejects other aspects; for example, it simplifies complex Christian [[Christology | Christological]] teaching and completely avoids the potential pitfalls of [[Trinitarianism]]. Islam holds that the Quran is the final revelation from [[God]] and a completion of all previous revelations, including the [[Bible]].

[[Mandaeism]], sometimes also known as Sabianism (after the mysterious [[Sabians]] mentioned in the [[Quran]], a name historically claimed by several religious groups),<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last1=De Blois |first1=François |year=1960–2007 |title=Ṣābiʾ |editor1-last=Bearman |editor1-first=P. |editor1-link=Peri Bearman |editor2-last=Bianquis |editor2-first=Th. |editor2-link=Thierry Bianquis |editor3-last=Bosworth |editor3-first=C.E. |editor3-link=Clifford Edmund Bosworth |editor4-last=van Donzel |editor4-first=E. |editor4-link=Emeri Johannes van Donzel |editor5-last=Heinrichs |editor5-first=W.P. |editor5-link=Wolfhart Heinrichs |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition |doi=10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0952}} {{cite book |last1=Van Bladel |first1=Kevin |year=2017 |title=From Sasanian Mandaeans to Ṣābians of the Marshes |location=Leiden |publisher=Brill |doi=10.1163/9789004339460 |isbn=978-90-04-33943-9 |url=https://brill.com/view/title/34389}} p. 5.</ref> is a [[Gnosticism#Mandaeism|Gnostic]] and [[Monotheism#Mandaeism|monotheistic]] religion.<ref name="Mandaens">{{cite book |last =Buckley |first =Jorunn Jacobsen |author-link= |year =2002 |chapter =Part I: Beginnings - Introduction: The Mandaean World |chapter-url =https://books.google.com/books?id=I9G-zLZRMLQC&pg=PA3 |title =The Mandaeans: Ancient Texts and Modern People |location =[[New York City|New York]] |publisher =[[Oxford University Press]] on behalf of the [[American Academy of Religion]] |doi =10.1093/0195153855.003.0001 |pages =1–20 |isbn =9780195153859 |oclc =57385973}}</ref>{{rp|4}}<ref>{{cite book |page=1 |title=[[Ginza Rabba]] |translator1-last=Al-Saadi |translator1-first =Qais |translator2-last =Al-Saadi |translator2-first =Hamed |edition =2nd |place =Germany |year =2019 |publisher =Drabsha}}</ref> [[John the Baptist]] is their chief prophet, and frequent [[Baptism#Mandaean Baptism|baptism]] is part of their core practices. According to most scholars, Mandaeism originated sometime in the first three centuries CE, either in southwestern [[Mesopotamia]] or in the [[Levant|Syro-Palestinian area]].<ref name="auto">{{Cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Mandaeanism |title=Mandaeanism &#124; religion |website=Britannica |access-date=9 November 2021}}</ref> However, some scholars take the view that Mandaeism is older and dates from pre-Christian times.<ref>''Etudes mithriaques'' 1978 p545, Jacques Duchesne-Guillemin</ref> Mandaeans assert that their religion predates Judaism, Christianity, and Islam as a monotheistic faith.<ref>{{Cite web | url =https://www.ushmm.org/genocide-prevention/countries/iraq/case-study/background/people-of-the-book |title = The People of the Book and the Hierarchy of Discrimination | website=United States Holocaust Memorial Museum |access-date=9 November 2021}}</ref> Mandaeans believe that they descend directly from [[Shem]], [[Noah]]'s son,<ref name="auto2">Drower, Ethel Stefana. ''The Mandaeans of Iraq and Iran''. Oxford At The Clarendon Press, 1937</ref>{{rp|182}} and also from John the Baptist's original disciples.<ref name = DrowerHaranGawaita>{{cite book |last=Drower|first=Ethel Stefana |title=The Haran Gawaita and the Baptism of Hibil-Ziwa |publisher=Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana |location=Vatican City |date=1953}}</ref>

==== Iranian religions ====
{{Main|Proto-Indo-Iranian religion|Iranian religions}}

Several important religions and religious movements originated in [[Greater Iran]], that is, among [[Iranian peoples|speakers of various Iranian languages]]. They include [[Zoroastrianism]], [[Mithraism]], [[Ætsæg Din]], [[Yazdanism]], [[Yarsanism|Ahl-e Haqq]], [[Zurvanism]], [[Manichaeism]], and [[Mazdakism]].
[[File:Faravahar-Gold.svg|thumb|Depiction of the [[Faravahar]], a popular symbol for Zoroastrianism]]
Perhaps one of the most important religions that originated in Iran was Zoroastrianism. While not, properly speaking, a world religion, it became widespread in the Iranian cultural sphere, especially through the [[Achaemenid Empire|Achaemenid]] and [[Sasanian Empire|Sasanian]] Empires. It went into decline alongside many Iranian religions with the rise of Islam and the establishment of [[Caliphate]]s. The religion still survives today in small numbers, with a particularly notable example being the [[Parsis]] in India and Pakistan.<ref>Elfenbein, J. (2003). INDO-IRANIAN LANGUAGES AND PEOPLES. edited by NICHOLAS SIMS-WILLIAMS. pp. viii, 296. oxford, oxford university press, 2002. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, 13(3), 400-403. {{ProQuest|218992785}}</ref><ref name=":0">SUNDERMANN, W. (2008). Zoroastrian motifs in non-zoroastrian traditions. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, 18(2), 155-165. {{doi|10.1017/S1356186307008036}}</ref>

Scholars have often noted the similarities between Zoroastrianism and the Abrahamic religions, especially Christianity. They've particularly noted this due to the historic relationship between the Jews and the Zoroastrian Persian Empires, as well as the relationship between Greek philosophy, Persia, and Christianity. They've debated whether Zoroastrianism played an influential role in shaping these religions. 

Key areas of concern include a shared sense of duality between the forces of good and evil, or light and darkness. In addition to this, there is a shared belief in the resurrection of the dead as well as an emphasis on free will and the moral responsibility of mankind. These are seen by some as having influenced the three major Abrahamic faiths as well as Gnosticism and the Baháʼí Faith.<ref name=":0" />

Manichaeism is another Iranian faith that shares many similarities with Zoroastrianism. Notably, Manichaeism shares a belief in the prophethood of [[Zoroaster]] while also acknowledging the prophethood of Gautama Buddha and Jesus Christ. It shares a dualist cosmology that pits good and light against evil and darkness, with an adversary to oppose the benevolent God.<ref>KRONEN, J. D., & MENSSEN, S. (2010). The defensibility of zoroastrian dualism. Religious Studies, 46(2), 185-205. {{doi|10.1017/S0034412509990357}}</ref> Furthermore, Manichaeism and [[Mandaeism]] also share a common belief in many of the figures and stories of the Abrahamic faiths, which has raised questions of influences and origins.<ref>Yamauchi, E. M. (2004). The mandaeans: Ancient texts and modern people. ''Journal of the American Oriental Society, 124''(1), 136-137. {{ProQuest|217141071}}</ref>

=== Indian religions ===
[[Image:Rigveda MS2097.jpg|thumb|right|150px|The ''[[Rig Veda]]'' is one of the oldest [[Vedas|Vedic texts]]. Shown here is a Rig Veda manuscript in [[Devanagari]], early nineteenth century.]]

{{main|Indian religions|Brahman#Brahman in Earliest Buddhism}}
{{See also|Buddha as an Avatar of Vishnu|Gautama Buddha in world religions|God in Buddhism}}

In comparative religion, Indian religions refer to all the faiths that originated in [[South Asia]]. It is believed that "the kinship of the religions of India stems from the fact that Jains, Buddhists, and Sikhs look back to Hinduism as their common mother."<ref>''Religions of the World'' S. Vernon McCasland, Grace E. Cairns, David C. Yu</ref><ref name=":3" />

[[Al-Biruni]] deeply studied the Vedic religions, and through his works essential details about pre-11th century Indian religions and cultures emerged. [[Adi Shankaracharya]] was an early 8th century philosopher and theologian<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Shankara|title=Shankara &#124; Indian philosopher|website= Encyclopedia Britannica|date=5 August 2024 }}</ref> who consolidated the doctrine of [[Advaita Vedanta]].{{sfn|Sharma|1962|p=vi}}{{sfn|Comans|2000|p=163}}{{refn|group=note|Modern scholarship places Shankara in the earlier part of the 8th century CE (c. 700–750).{{sfn|Comans|2000|p=163}} Earlier generations of scholars proposed 788–820 CE.{{sfn|Comans |2000|p=163}} Other proposals are 686–718 CE,{{citation needed|date=March 2013}} 44 BCE,{{citation needed|date=October 2019}}<!-- Empty reference <ref name="Keshava" />--> or as early as 509–477 BCE.}} [[Gautama Buddha]] is mentioned as an [[Avatar]] of [[Vishnu]] in the [[Puranic]] texts of Hinduism. Most Hindus believe the [[Gautama Buddha |Buddha]] accepted and incorporated many tenets of Hinduism in his doctrine.<ref name=":3" /> Prominent modern Hindu reformers such as [[Mahatma Gandhi]]<ref>“owes on eternal debt of gratitude to that great teacher,”Mahatma Gandhi and Buddhism Y.P. Anand An Encounter with Buddhism http://www.iop.or.jp/0414/anand.pdf {{Webarchive|url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120710230803/http://www.iop.or.jp/0414/anand.pdf |date=10 July 2012 }}</ref> and [[Vivekananda]]<ref>He is the ideal Karma-Yogi, acting entirely without motive, and the history of humanity shows him to have been the greatest man ever born; beyond compare the greatest combination of heart and brain that ever existed, the greatest soul-power that has ever been manifested. Essay, Ideal Karma Yogi  http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Olympus/5208/karmayoga/ideal.html {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200218030931/http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Olympus/5208/karmayoga/ideal.html |date=18 February 2020 }}</ref> acknowledge Buddhist influence. Like Hindus, Gandhi himself did not believe Buddha established a non-Hindu tradition. He writes, "I do not regard Jainism or Buddhism as separate from Hinduism."<ref>{{cite book|page= 17 |title=Gandhi|first= Ronald|last= Terchek|isbn = 9788170369523|publisher = Vistaar Publ.|date = 2000}}</ref>

=== East Asian or Taoic religions ===
[[File:Tao.svg|thumb|150px|The [[Chinese character]] depicting ''[[Tao]]'', the central concept in Taoism]]

{{Main|East Asian religions|East Asian Buddhism}}
{{See also|Tao|De (Chinese)}}

A Taoic religion is a religious philosophy that centers on the [[East Asian]] concept of ''[[Tao]], meaning'' "The Way". This forms a large group of eastern religions, including [[Taoism]], [[Confucianism]], [[Jeung San Do]], [[Shintoism]], [[I-Kuan Tao]], [[Cheondoism|Chondogyo]], and [[Chen Tao (UFO religion)|Chen Tao]]. In large parts of East Asia, [[Buddhism]] has taken on some taoic features.

Tao can be roughly defined as the flow of the universe or the force behind the natural order. It is believed to influence the balance and order of the cosmos and is closely associated with nature, as it is thought that nature exemplifies the Tao. 

The flow of ''[[qi]]'', as the essential energy of action and existence, is often compared to the universal order represented by the ''Tao''. Following the ''Tao'' is also associated with a "proper" attitude, morality and lifestyle. This concept is intimately tied to the complex idea of ''[[De (Chinese)|De]]'', or literally "virtue" or "power". ''De'' is the active expression of ''Tao''.

Taoism and [[Chan Buddhism]] for centuries had a mutual influence on each other in China, Japan, Korea, and Taiwan. These influences were inherited by [[Zen Buddhism]] when Chan Buddhism arrived in Japan and adapted as Zen Buddhism.

Despite the geographical distance that would seemingly preclude any direct influence, some scholars have historically observed similarities between traditional Chinese religious beliefs and Christianity.  This was noted by Jesuit missionaries who became known as [[Figurism|figurists]]. Figurists promoted the idea that the ancient Chinese knew the truth of Christian revelation and that many of the figures described in Chinese texts are actually figures and concepts from Christianity. Noted parallels include shared [[Great Flood (China)|flood myths]], similarities between [[Fuxi]] and [[Enoch]], as well as parallels between Christ and the sages.<ref name=":1">Ping, Y. (2020). The jesuit translation and interpretation of the yijing (classic of changes) in historical and cultural perspective. ''International Forum of Teaching and Studies, 16''(2), 47-53,76. {{ProQuest|2447280664}}</ref> There is also a noted similarity between the Tao being "the Way" as well as Christ claiming to be "the Way".<ref>Andrew, S. P. (2001). A theology of the way (tao): A journal of bible and theology. ''Interpretation, 55''(4), 389-399. {{ProQuest|202734112}}</ref>

While scholarship rejects this view today, it was a notable view in the history of comparative religion. These beliefs were ultimately opposed and disavowed by the Catholic Church in the 18th century.<ref name=":1" />

The introduction of Nestorian Christianity to China under the [[Tang dynasty]] also led to increasing similarities between Chinese Buddhism and [[Church of the East|Nestorian Christianity]]. Christians began using Buddhist and Taoist concepts to explain their faith. During this time the [[Jingjiao Documents|Jingjiao documents]] were created, sometimes called [[sutra]]s that demonstrated the blending of Christianity with Buddhism.<ref>Littlejohn, R. (2003). The jesus sutras: Rediscovering the lost scrolls of taoist christianity. Journal of Church and State, 45(1), 167-168. {{ProQuest|230045489}}</ref><ref name=":2">Chin Ken-pa. (2019). Jingjiao under the lenses of chinese political theology. ''Religions, 10''(10) {{doi|10.3390/rel10100551}}</ref> Nestorian Christians and Buddhists formed a monastic tradition that furthered the similarities. This fusion was so pronounced that when [[Emperor Wuzong of Tang|Emperor Wuzong]] of the Tang dynasty began [[Huichang Persecution of Buddhism|persecuting Buddhists]] in the 9th century, he claimed Christianity was merely a heresy of Buddhism rather than a distinct religion.<ref>Philip, T. V. (1998). "Christianity in China". East of the Euphrates: Early Christianity in Asia. Delhi: Indian Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge and Christian Sahitya Samithy, Tiruvalla. P. 123, {{isbn|81-7214-441-5}}.</ref> This conflation contributed to the collapse of Nestorian Christianity in China during the Buddhist persecutions.<ref name=":2" />

== Comparing traditions ==
Religious ideologies can be systematically understood as having formed many major groups with tens of thousands of subbranches. It is a form of cultural evolution that can be intuitively illustrated through trees depicting historical relationships and the diversification over time of the various traditions.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Grande |first1=Lance |title=The Evolution of Religions. A History of Related Traditions. |date=2024 |publisher=Columbia University Press}}</ref> Some of the most successful have been those religions that aligned with empires, kingdoms, or caliphates early in their history (e.g., Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism). A few major groups of religion are given below.

=== Christianity ===
* [[Christianity and other religions]]
* [[Buddhism and Christianity]]
* [[Comparison of Buddhism and Christianity]]
* [[Christianity and Islam]]
* [[Christianity and Judaism]]
*[[Christianity and neopaganism|Christianity and Neopaganism]]
* [[Christianity and Paganism]]
* [[Christianity and Vodou]]
*[[Christianity and Mormonism]]
*[[Christianity and Theosophy]]

;Mormonism
* [[Mormonism and Christianity]]
* [[Mormonism and Islam]]
* [[Mormonism and Judaism]]

=== Judaism ===
* [[Christianity and Judaism]]
* [[Islamic–Jewish relations]]
* [[Hinduism and Judaism]]

=== Islam ===
* [[Islam and other religions]]
* [[Christianity and Islam]]
* [[Hindu–Islamic relations]]
* [[Islam and Jainism]]
* [[Islamic–Jewish relations]]
* [[Islam and Sikhism]]
* [[Mormonism and Islam]]

=== Sikhism ===
* [[Hinduism and Sikhism]]
* [[Islam and Sikhism]]
* [[Jainism and Sikhism]]

=== Hinduism ===
* [[Hinduism and other religions]]
* [[Baháʼí Faith and Hinduism]]
* [[Buddhism and Hinduism]]
* [[Hindu–Islamic relations]]
* [[Jainism and Hinduism]]
* [[Hinduism and Sikhism]]
* [[Hinduism and Judaism]]

=== Buddhism ===
* [[Buddhism and Christianity]]
* [[Buddhism and Eastern religions]]
* [[Buddhism and Gnosticism]]
* [[Buddhism and Hinduism]]
* [[Buddhism and Jainism]]
* [[Buddhism and Theosophy]]
* [[Buddhism and Islam]]
* [[Comparison of Buddhism and Christianity]]

=== Jainism ===
* [[Buddhism and Jainism]]
* [[Islam and Jainism]]
* [[Jainism and Sikhism]]

=== Paganism and Neopaganism ===
* [[Christianity and Paganism]]
*[[Christianity and neopaganism|Christianity and Neopaganism]]

=== Confucianism ===
* [[Vinegar tasters|Confucianism and eastern religions]]
* [[Confucianism#Influence|Confucianism and western religions]]

=== Taoism ===
* [[Taoism and World Religions|Taoism and other religions]]

=== Baháʼí Faith ===
* [[Baháʼí Faith and the unity of religion]]
* [[Baháʼí Faith and Buddhism]]
* [[Baháʼí Faith and Hinduism]]
* [[Baháʼí Faith and Zoroastrianism]]

=== Zoroastrianism ===
* [[Zoroastrianism#Relation to other religions and cultures|Zoroastrianism and other religions]]
*[[Baha'i Faith and Zoroastrianism|Zoroastrianism and Baháʼí Faith]]

== See also ==
{{commons category}}
{{col div|colwidth=25em}}
* [[Comparative mythology]]
* [[Comparative theology]]
* [[Hierographology]]
* [[Human Sacrifice]]
* [[Inclusivism]]
* [[Institute for Interreligious Dialogue]]
* [[Integral theory (Ken Wilber)]]
* [[Interfaith dialogue|Interfaith]]
* [[List of founders of religious traditions]]
* [[List of religions]]
* [[Panbabylonism]]
* [[Parallelomania and parallelophobia]]
* [[Parliament of the World's Religions]]
* [[Patternism]]
* [[Religious pluralism]]
* [[Religious universalism]]
{{colend}}

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=note}}

== References ==
{{reflist|30em}}

===Works cited===
* {{cite book |last=Comans |first=Michael |year=2000 |title=The Method of Early Advaita Vedānta: A Study of Gauḍapāda, Śaṅkara, Sureśvara, and Padmapāda |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-1722-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sx12hxoFVqwC}}
* {{cite book |last=Sharma |first=B.N. Krishnamurti |year=1962 |title=Philosophy of Śrī Madhvācārya |place=Bombay |publisher=Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan March |oclc=1075020345 |url=https://archive.org/stream/Philosophy.of.Sri.Madhvacarya/Philosophy.of.Sri.Madhvacharya#page/n0/mode/2up}}

== Further reading ==
* Chopra, R. M. ''A Study of Religions'', (Anuradha Prakashan, New Delhi, 2015) {{ISBN|978-9382339-94-6}}.
* Davis, G. Scott. ''Believing and Acting: The Pragmatic Turn in Comparative Religion and Ethics'' (Oxford University Press, 2012).
* Eastman, Roger. ''The Ways of Religion: An Introduction to the Major Traditions.'' (3rd ed. Oxford University Press, 1959) {{ISBN|978-0-19-511835-3}}.
* Eliade, Mircea. ''Patterns in comparative religion'' (1958) [https://archive.org/details/eliade-mircea-patterns-in-comparative-religion-sheed-ward-1958 online]
* Eliade, Mircea. ''The Sacred and the Profane: The Nature of Religion'' (1959) [https://archive.org/details/eliade-mircea-the-sacred-and-the-profane-1963 online]
* Gothoni, Rene, ''How to Do Comparative Religion: Three Ways, Many Goals'' (2005) [https://archive.org/details/howtodocomparati0000unse/page/n5/mode/2up online]
* James, E. O. ''Comparative Religion'' (1961) [https://archive.org/details/dli.ernet.166644 online textbook]
* Jones, Lindsay, ed. ''Encyclopedia of Religion'' (2nd edn, 15 vols, Macmillan, 2004)
* {{Cite book |last = Momen |first = Moojan |year = 2009 |orig-year = Originally published as ''The Phenomenon of Religion'' in 1999 |title = Understanding Religion: A Thematic Approach |publisher = Oneworld Publications |place = Oxford, UK |isbn = 978-1-85168-599-8 |ol = 25434252M }} 
* Muhiyaddin, M. A. (1984) ''A Comparative Study of the Religions of Today''. Vantage Press, US. {{ISBN|978-0533059638}}.
* Paden, William E. "Comparative religion." in ''The Routledge companion to the study of religion'' (Routledge, 2009). pp 239–256. [http://spiritual-minds.com/religion/philosophy/The%20Routledge%20Companion%20to%20the%20Study%20of%20RELIGION.pdf#page=221 online]
* Paden, William E.'' New patterns for comparative religion: Passages to an evolutionary perspective'' (Bloomsbury, 2016).
* Paden, William E. ''Interpreting the Sacred: Ways of Viewing Religion'' (2003) [https://www.amazon.com/Interpreting-Sacred-Ways-Viewing-Religion/dp/0807077054 excerpt]
* Paden, William E. ''Religious Worlds: The Comparative Study of Religion'' (2015) [https://www.amazon.com/Religious-Worlds-Comparative-Study-Religion-ebook/dp/B00AGV9BCQ/ excerpt]
* Saso, Michael R. ''Mystic, Shaman, Oracle, Priest (MYSHOP): Prayers Without Words''. (Sino-Asian Institute of America, US, 2015). {{ISBN|978-1624074059}}. 
* [[Eric J. Sharpe|Sharpe, Eric J.]] ''Comparative Religion: A History'', London: Duckworth, 1975 (2nd revised edition 1986).
* Shaw, Jeffrey M. ''Illusions of Freedom: Thomas Merton and Jacques Ellul on Technology and the Human Condition.'' (Wipf and Stock, 2014). {{ISBN|978-1625640581}}.
* Smart, Ninian. ''Dimensions of the Sacred: An Anatomy of the World's Beliefs'' (1999) {{ISBN|0-520-21960-0}}
* Smith, Huston. ''The World's Religions: Our Great Wisdom Traditions''. (1991)  HarperOne, US; Rev Rep edition. {{ISBN|978-0062508119}}.

== External links ==
* {{SEP|religion-comparative|Comparative Philosophy of Religion|Mikel Burley}}
* [http://www.patheos.com/Library/Lenses/Side-By-Side.html Patheos.com's Side-By-Side Comparative "Lenses"]
* [http://www.religioustolerance.org ReligiousTolerance.org] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101206092311/http://www.religioustolerance.org/agnostic.htm |date=6 December 2010 }}
* [http://www.religionfacts.com/ ReligionFacts.com]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060104003216/http://www.comparative-religion.com/ Comparative-religion.com]
* [http://www.studiesincomparativereligion.com/Public/default.aspx Studies in Comparative Religion]
* [http://www.godcontention.org Answers to Questions of Faith From Several Worldviews]
* {{cite web |url=http://www.age-of-the-sage.org |title=The Faith versus Reason Debate |postscript=none}}{{snd}}comparative religion studies inspired by Aldous Huxley's [[The Perennial Philosophy (book)|The Perennial Philosophy]]
*Have religious discussions and debates both voice and text on telegram group: [https://t.me/discussreligion Discuss Religion]

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[[Category:Comparative religion| ]]