View source for Christianity and Islam

{{Short description|Relationship between Christianity and Islam}}
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{{Christianity|expanded=hide}}
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{{Islam and other religions}}
[[File:Cathédrale d'Amiens, façade - détail.JPG|thumb|right|A [[relief]] depicting the [[final judgement]] of sinners by [[Jesus]] at [[Amiens Cathedral]], [[France]]. The divinity of Jesus is an important aspect differentiating the two faiths.]]
'''Christianity and Islam''' are the two largest religions in the world, with approximately 2.3 billion and 1.8 billion adherents, respectively.<ref name="Pew Research Center-1">{{Cite web |title=World's largest religion by population is still Christianity |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/04/05/christians-remain-worlds-largest-religious-group-but-they-are-declining-in-europe/ |access-date=1 January 2020 |website=Pew Research Center |date=5 April 2017}}</ref> Both religions are [[Abrahamic]] and [[monotheism|monotheistic]], having originated in the [[Middle East]].

[[Christianity]] [[Split of early Christianity and Judaism|developed]] out of [[Second Temple Judaism]] in the 1st century CE. It is founded on the life, teachings, [[Death of Jesus|death]], and [[Resurrection of Jesus|resurrection]] of [[Jesus Christ]], and those who follow it are called [[Christians]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.patheos.com/library/christianity|title=Christianity Origins, Christianity History, Christianity Beliefs|website=www.patheos.com}}</ref> [[Islam]] developed in the 7th century CE. It is founded on the teachings of [[Muhammad in Islam|Muhammad]], as an expression of surrendering to the [[will of God]]. Those who follow it are called [[Muslims]] (meaning "submitters to [[God in Islam|God]]").<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|author1=Gardet, L. |author2= J. Jomier|title=Islām| year= 2012 |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam| edition=2nd|publisher=Brill |editor1=P. Bearman|editor2= Th. Bianquis|editor3= C.E. Bosworth|editor4= E. van Donzel|editor5= W.P. Heinrichs|doi= 10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_038|doi-broken-date= 1 November 2024}}{{subscription required}}</ref><ref>{{citation|last=Bravmann|first=M. M.|title=Studies in Semitic Philology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ebj45xm6r_4C|year=1977|publisher=BRILL|isbn=90-04-04743-3|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Ebj45xm6r_4C&pg=PA441&dq=aslama 441]}}</ref>

Muslims view Christians to be [[People of the Book]], but may also regard them as committing [[Shirk (Islam)|shirk]] because of the doctrines of the [[Trinity]] and the [[Incarnation (Christianity)|Incarnation]]. Christians are traditionally classified as [[dhimmi|dhimmis]] paying [[jizya]] under [[Sharia|Sharia law]]. [[Christianity and other religions|Christians similarly possess a wide range of views about Islam]]. The majority of Christians view Islam as a [[Apostasy in Christianity|false religion]] because its adherents reject the Trinity, the [[Jesus in Islam|divinity of Christ]], [[Crucifixion of Jesus|the Crucifixion]] and [[Resurrection of Christ]].

Like Christianity, Islam considers Jesus to be ''[[Messiah#Islam|al-Masih]]'' (Arabic for the [[Messiah]]) who was sent to guide the [[Israelites|Banī Isrā'īl]] (Arabic for Children of Israel) with a new revelation: ''[[Gospel in Islam|al-Injīl]]'' (Arabic for "the [[The gospel|Gospel]]").<ref>{{cite book|last=Glassé|first=Cyril|title=The new encyclopedia of Islam, with introduction by Huston Smith|year=2001|publisher=AltaMira Press|location=Walnut Creek, CA|isbn=9780759101906|page=239|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=focLrox-frUC&pg=PA240|edition=Édition révisée.}}</ref><ref name="Understanding Islam and Christianity: Beliefs That Separate Us and How to Talk About Them">{{cite book|last1=McDowell, Jim|first1=Josh|last2=Walker|first2=Jim|date=2002|title=Understanding Islam and Christianity: Beliefs That Separate Us and How to Talk About Them|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UfvgAAAAQBAJ&pg=PT12|location=Euguen, Oregon|publisher=Harvest House Publishers|page=12|isbn=9780736949910}}</ref><ref>[[The Oxford Dictionary of Islam]], p.158</ref> But while belief in Jesus is a fundamental tenet of both, a critical distinction far more central to most Christian faiths is that Jesus is the incarnated God, specifically, one of the [[Hypostasis (philosophy and religion)|hypostases]] of the [[Trinity|Triune God]], [[God the Son]].

While Christianity and Islam hold their recollections of Jesus's teachings as gospel and share narratives from the first five books of the Old Testament (the Hebrew Bible), the sacred text of Christianity also includes the later additions to the [[Bible]] while the primary sacred text of Islam instead is the [[Quran]]. Muslims believe that ''[[Gospel in Islam|al-Injīl]]'' was distorted or altered to form the Christian New Testament. Christians, on the contrary, do not have a univocal understanding of the Quran, though most believe that it is fabricated or [[apocrypha]]l work. There are similarities in both texts, such as accounts of the life and works of Jesus and the [[virgin birth of Jesus]] through [[Mary, mother of Jesus|Mary]]; yet still, some Biblical and Quranic accounts of these events differ.

==Similarities and differences==
In the Islamic tradition, Christians and Jews are believed to worship the same God that Muslims worship.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Surah Al-'Ankabut – 46 |url=https://quran.com/al-ankabut/46 |access-date=2023-02-02 |website=Quran.com |language=en}}</ref> However, to some, there are many different opinions in the discussion of whether [[Muslims]] and [[Christians]] worship the same God.<ref>{{cite journal |last1= Inwagen|first1= Peter van|date= January 2015|title= Did God Create Shapes?|url= https://www.researchgate.net/publication/328856848|journal= Philosophia Christi|volume= 17|issue= 2|pages= 285–290|doi= 10.5840/pc201517224|access-date= 14 March 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1= Craig|first1= William Lane|title= Response to Bridges and Van Inwagen|url= https://www.researchgate.net/publication/328856087|journal= Philosophia Christi|year= 2015|volume= 17|issue= 2|pages= 291–297|doi= 10.5840/pc201517225|access-date= 14 March 2021}}</ref>

===Scriptures===
The Christian Bible is made up of the [[Old Testament]] and the [[New Testament]]. The Old Testament was written over a period of two millennia prior to the birth of Christ. The New Testament was written in the decades following the death of Christ.  Historically, Christians universally believed that the entire Bible was the divinely inspired Word of God. However, the rise of harsher criticism during [[the Enlightenment]] has led to a diversity of views concerning the authority and inerrancy of the Bible in different denominations. Christians consider the Quran to be a [[History of the Quran#Skeptical scholars|non-divine]] set of texts.{{multiple image
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The Quran dates from the early 7th century or decades thereafter. Muslims believe it was revealed to Muhammad, gradually over a period of approximately 23 years, beginning on 22 December 609,<ref>* ''Chronology of Prophetic Events'', Fazlur Rehman Shaikh (2001) p. 50 Ta-Ha Publishers Ltd.
* {{qref|17|105|b=y}}</ref> when Muhammad was 40, and concluding in 632, the year of his death.<ref name="Britannica2">{{cite encyclopedia|year=2007|title=Qurʾān|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/487666/Quran|access-date=24 September 2013|last=Nasr|first=Seyyed Hossein|author-link=Seyyed Hossein Nasr}}</ref><ref name="LivRlgP3382">''Living Religions: An Encyclopaedia of the World's Faiths'', Mary Pat Fisher, 1997, page 338, I.B. Tauris Publishers.</ref><ref name="QuranC17V1062">{{qref|17|106|b=y}}</ref> The Quran is written mostly in [[parable]] and not in form of a linear process of history. However, the stories often involve Biblical figures.<ref>{{cite book | doi=10.1163/ej.9789004177529.i-536.65 | chapter=From Haggadic Exegesis to Myth: Popular Stories of the Prophets in Islam | title=Sacred Tropes: Tanakh, New Testament, and Qur'an as Literature and Culture | date=2009 | last1=Hagen | first1=Gottfried | pages=301–316 | isbn=978-90-04-17752-9 }}</ref> By that, the Quran assumes that the audience is familiar with their associated narratives. Sometimes, stories featuring in the Bible are summarized, dwelled at length, and sometimes entirely different.<ref name="sanigosian">{{cite book|last=Nigosian|first=S.A.|title=Islam: its history, teaching and practices|year=2004|publisher=Indiana Univ. Press|isbn=0-253-21627-3|pages=[https://archive.org/details/islamitshistoryt0000nigo/page/65 65–80]|edition=[New ed.].|url=https://archive.org/details/islamitshistoryt0000nigo/page/65}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|first=Brannon M.|last=Wheeler|year=2002|title=Prophets in the Quran: an introduction to the Quran and Muslim exegesis|publisher=Continuum|page=15|isbn=978-0-8264-4956-6}}</ref> Another difference in style is that the Bible offers a linear set of time, from the beginning of the narrative to its end, while the Quran implies a cyclical pattern, in which the main narrative of the Quran unfolds repeatedly at the time of each prophet.<ref>Dakake, Maria M. "Myth and History in Islamic Thought: A Comparison with the Jewish and Christian Traditions." Buddhist-Christian Studies 42.42 (2022): 279-298.</ref>

Muslims believe that Jesus was given the [[Injil]] (Greek ''evangel'', or ''Gospel'') by God, however that parts or the entirety of these teachings were lost or distorted (''[[tahrif]]'') to produce the [[Hebrew Bible]] and the Christian [[New Testament]]. The majority of Muslims consider the Quran to be the only [[Islamic Holy Books|revealed book]] that has been protected by God from [[tahrif|distortion or corruption]].<ref>Understanding the Qurán – Page xii, Ahmad Hussein Sakr – 2000</ref>

===Jesus===
{{Main article|Jesus in Christianity|Jesus in Islam}}
Muslims and Christians both believe that Jesus was born to [[Mary, mother of Jesus|Mary]], a [[virgin birth of Jesus|virgin]].<ref name="Robinson 12">{{cite book|last=Robinson|first=Neal|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ht1hpisBQF0C&pg=PA12|title=Christ in Islam and Christianity|date=31 July 1991|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-0791405598|location=New York|page=12}}</ref> They both also believe that Jesus is the [[Messiah]].<ref name="Robinson 12"/> However, they differ on other key issues regarding Jesus. Almost all Christians believe that Jesus was the incarnated Son of God, divine, and sinless. Islam teaches that Jesus was the penultimate and one of the most important [[Prophets and messengers in Islam|prophets of God]], but not the Son of God, not divine, and not part of the [[Islamic view of the Trinity|Trinity]]. Rather, Muslims believe the creation of Jesus was similar to the creation of [[Adam]] ([[Islamic view of Adam|Adem]]).

Christianity and Islam also differ in their fundamental views related to the [[crucifixion of Jesus#Islam|crucifixion]] and [[resurrection of Jesus]]. Christianity teaches that Jesus was condemned to death by the [[Sanhedrin trial of Jesus|Sanhedrin]] and the [[Roman Empire|Roman]] [[prefect]] [[Pontius Pilate]], [[crucifixion|crucified]], and after three days, resurrected. Islam teaches that Jesus was a human prophet who, like the other prophets, tried to bring his people to worship the one true God, termed ''[[Tawhid]]''. Muslims also believe that Jesus was condemned to crucifixion and then miraculously [[Islamic view of Jesus' death|saved from execution]], and was raised to the heavens.<ref>{{cite book|last=Zahniser|first=Mathias|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VxAZBwAAQBAJ&pg=PT55|title=The Mission and Death of Jesus in Islam and Christianity (Faith Meets Faith Series)|date=30 October 2008|publisher=Orbis Books|isbn=978-1570758072|location=New York|page=55}}</ref> In Islam, instead of Jesus being crucified, his lookalike was crucified.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Surah An-Nisa' Verse 157 {{!}} 4:157 النساء - Quran O|url=https://qurano.com/en/4-an-nisa/verse-157/|access-date=2021-06-25|website=qurano.com|language=en}}</ref>

Both Christians and Muslims believe in the Second Coming of Jesus. Christianity does not state where will Jesus return, while the Hadith in Islam states that Jesus will return at a white minaret at the east of [[Damascus]] (believed to be the [[Minaret of Isa]] in the [[Umayyad Mosque]]), and will [[Hadith of Jesus praying behind Mahdi|pray behind]] [[Mahdi]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=7 Things Muslims Should Know about Prophet 'Isa (as) {{!}} Muslim Hands UK|url=https://muslimhands.org.uk/latest/2020/12/jesus-in-islam-your-questions-answered-in-quran-and-hadith|access-date=2021-08-15|website=muslimhands.org.uk|date=25 December 2020 }}</ref> Christians believe that Jesus will return to kill the Antichrist and similarly Muslims believe that Jesus will return to kill [[Al-Masih ad-Dajjal|Dajjal]]. Many Christians believe that Jesus would then rule for 1,000 years, while Muslims believe Jesus will rule for forty years, marry, have children and will be buried at the [[Green Dome]].<ref name=":0" />

===Muhammad===
{{Main article|Muhammad in Islam|Muhammad's views on Christians}}
Muslims believe that Muhammad was a prophet who received revelations ([[Quran]]) by God through the angel [[Gabriel]] (''Jibril''),<ref name=Lambert>{{cite book|last1=Lambert|first1=Gray|title=The Leaders Are Coming!|date=2013|publisher=WestBow Press|isbn=9781449760137|page=287|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sV0mAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA287 }}</ref><ref name="Williams & Drew">{{cite book|author1=Roy H. Williams|author2=Michael R. Drew|title=Pendulum: How Past Generations Shape Our Present and Predict Our Future|date=2012|publisher=Vanguard Press|isbn=9781593157067|page=143|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mygRHh6p40kC&pg=PA143}}{{Dead link|date=December 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> gradually over a period of approximately 23 years, beginning on 22 December 609,<ref>
*''Chronology of Prophetic Events'', Fazlur Rehman Shaikh (2001) p. 50 Ta-Ha Publishers Ltd.
*[http://tanzil.net/#trans/en.arberry/17:105 Quran 17:105]</ref> when Muhammad was 40, and concluding in 632, the year of his death.<ref name="Britannica">{{cite encyclopedia|last=Nasr |first=Seyyed Hossein | author-link=Seyyed Hossein Nasr | title=Qurʾān |year=2007| encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online | access-date=24 September 2013|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/487666/Quran}}</ref><ref name="LivRlgP3382"/><ref name="QuranC17V1062"/> Muslims regard the Quran as the most important miracle of Muhammad, a proof of his prophethood.<ref>{{cite book|last=Peters|first=F.E.|title=The Words and Will of God|year=2003|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=0-691-11461-7|pages=[https://archive.org/details/monotheistsjewsc01pete/page/12 12–13]|url=https://archive.org/details/monotheistsjewsc01pete/page/12}}</ref>

Muslims revere Muhammad as the embodiment of the perfect believer and take his actions and sayings as a model of ideal conduct. Unlike Jesus, who Christians believe was God's son, Muhammad was a mortal, albeit with extraordinary qualities. Today many Muslims believe that it is wrong to represent Muhammad, but this was not always the case. At various times and places pious Muslims represented Muhammad although they never worshiped these images.<ref>{{cite web|title=Muhammad|website=[[PBS]]|url=https://www.pbs.org/empires/islam/profilesmuhammed.html}}</ref>

During the lifetime of Muhammad, he had many [[Muhammad's views on Christians|interactions with Christians]]. One of the first Christians who met Muhammad was [[Waraqah ibn Nawfal]], a Christian priest of ancient Arabia. He was one of the first ''[[hanif]]s'' to believe in the prophecy of Muhammad.<ref>''Encyclopedia of Islam'', Online ed., "Waraqah bin. Nawfal".</ref> Muhammad also met the [[Christian community of Najran|Najrani Christians]] and [[Event of Mubahala|made peace with them]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Nickel|first=Gordon D.|title="We Will Make Peace With You": The Christians of Najrān in Muqātil's Tafsir|url=https://www.academia.edu/2105686|journal=Collectanea Christiana Orientalia|date=January 2006 |hdl=10396/4112|hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Al-Mizan (Al I Imran) {{!}} PDF {{!}} Quran {{!}} Islam|url=https://www.scribd.com/document/36491521/Al-Mizan-al-i-Imran|access-date=2021-08-15|website=Scribd|language=en}}</ref> One of the earliest recorded comments of a Christian reaction to Muhammad can be dated to only a few years after Muhammad's death. As stories of the Arab prophet spread to [[Christianity in Syria|Christian Syria]], an old man who was asked about the "prophet who has appeared with the [[Saracens]]" responded: "He is false, for the prophets do not come armed with a sword."<ref>{{Cite journal| issn = 1047-5141| issue = Journal Article| pages = 19–| last = Wilken| first = Robert Louis| title = Christianity face to face with Islam| journal = First Things: A Monthly Journal of Religion and Public Life| date = 2009| url = http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?p=GPS&sw=w&v=2.1&it=r&id=GALE%7CA191315729&asid=0c4dc9ace2eac67d6dc013701641207f}}{{subscription required|via=General OneFile}}</ref>

===God===
{{Main article|Trinity|Tawhid|Islamic view of the Trinity}}
In Christianity, the most common name of God is [[Yahweh]]. In Islam, the most common name of God is [[Allah]], similar to [[Eloah]] in the Old Testament. The vast majority of the world's Christians adhere to the doctrine of the Trinity, which in creedal formulations states that God is three ''[[Hypostasis (philosophy and religion)|hypostases]]'' ([[God the Father|the Father]], the [[God the Son|Son]] and the [[Holy Spirit|Spirit]]) in one ''[[ousia]]'' (substance). In Islam, this concept is deemed to be a denial of [[monotheism]], and thus a [[Islamic views on sin|sin]] of [[Shirk (Islam)|shirk]],<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Glassé|first1=Cyril|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=focLrox-frUC&q=shirk+Islam&pg=PA429|title=The New Encyclopedia of Islam|last2=Smith|first2=Huston|date=2003-01-01|publisher=Rowman Altamira|isbn=9780759101906|page=429|language=en}}</ref> which is considered to be a major (''al-Kaba'ir'') sin.<ref>{{cite book |author=Siddiqui |first=Mohammad |url=http://www.islamicbookstore.com/b2448.html |title=The Major Sins : Arabic Text and English Translation of "Al Kaba'ir" (Muhammad Bin Uthman Adh Dhahabi) |publisher=Kazi Publications |year=1993 |isbn=1-56744-489-X |access-date=2017-05-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190401010933/http://www.islamicbookstore.com/b2448.html |archive-date=2019-04-01 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=The Major Sins: Al-Kaba'r|url=http://www.jannah.org/articles/sins.html|work=Jannah.org}}</ref>  The Quran itself refers to Trinity in [[Al-Ma'ida|Al-Ma'ida 5:73]] which says "''They have certainly disbelieved who say, "Allah is the third of three." And there is no god except one God. And if they do not desist from what they are saying, there will surely afflict the disbelievers among them a painful punishment''."<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Quranic Arabic Corpus – Translation|url=https://corpus.quran.com/translation.jsp?chapter=5&verse=73|access-date=2021-07-21|website=corpus.quran.com}}</ref> Islam has the concept of [[Tawhid]] which is the concept of a single, indivisible God, who has no partners.<ref>{{cite web|date=2010-10-30|title=The Fundamentals of Tawhid (Islamic Monotheism)|url=http://icrs.ugm.ac.id/book/35/the-fundamentals-of-tawhid-islamic-monotheism.html|access-date=2015-10-28|publisher=ICRS (Indonesian Consortium of Religious Studies|archive-date=2015-06-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150620064714/http://icrs.ugm.ac.id/book/35/the-fundamentals-of-tawhid-islamic-monotheism.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>

===The Holy Spirit===
{{Main article|Holy Spirit in Christianity|Holy Spirit in Islam}}
Christians and Muslims have differing views about the Holy Spirit. Most Christians believe that the [[Holy Spirit in Christianity|Holy Spirit]] is God, and the third member of the Trinity. In Islam, the Holy Spirit is generally believed to be the angel [[Gabriel]].{{citation needed|date=March 2022}} Most Christians believe that the [[Paraclete]] referred to in the [[Gospel of John]], who was manifested on the day of [[Pentecost]], is the Holy Spirit.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://archive.today/20120708115615/http://concordances.org/p/paraclete.htm|title=Bible Concordance: Paraclete|date=July 8, 2012|website=archive.ph}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=P3LIqIq9628C|title=Beiträge zur Geschichte der biblischen Exegese|first=Anthony|last=Casurella|date=1 January 1983|publisher=Mohr|via=Google Books|isbn=9783161446481}}</ref> On the other hand, some Islamic scholars believe that the reference to the [[Paraclete]] is a prophecy of the coming of Muhammad.<ref name=":02">{{Cite journal|last=Anthony|first=Sean|year=2016|title=Muḥammad, Menaḥem, and the Paraclete: new light on Ibn Isḥāq's (d. 150/767) Arabic version of John 15: 23–16: 1|url=https://www.academia.edu/12230900|journal=Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies|volume=79|issue=2|pages=255–278|doi=10.1017/S0041977X16000458|s2cid=163407787}}</ref>

One of the key verses concerning the Paraclete is John 16:7:
{{Blockquote|"Nevertheless I tell you the truth: It is expedient for you that I go away; for if I go not away, the Comforter[Paraclete] will not come unto you; but if I go, I will send him unto you."|}}

=== Salvation ===
{{Main|Salvation in Christianity}}
The [[Catechism of the Catholic Church]], the official doctrine document released by the Roman [[Catholic Church]], has this to say regarding Muslims:
{{Blockquote|''The Church's relationship with the Muslims.'' "The plan of salvation also includes those who acknowledge the Creator, in the first place amongst whom are the Muslims; these profess to hold the faith of Abraham, and together with us they adore the one, merciful God, mankind's judge on the last day."|''Catechism of the Catholic Church''<ref name="CCC2000">{{cite book |title=Catechism of the Catholic Church |edition=2nd |publisher=Libreria Editrice Vaticana |location=Vatican City |date=April 16, 2000 |isbn=978-1574551099 }} [https://www.vatican.va/archive/ccc_css/archive/catechism/p123a9p3.htm ''The Church and non-Christians'' #841]</ref>}}

Protestant theology mostly emphasizes the necessity of faith in Jesus as a savior for [[Salvation#Christianity|salvation]]. Muslims may receive salvation in theologies relating to [[Universal reconciliation]], but will not according to most Protestant theologies based on [[Sola Fide|justification through faith]]:
{{Blockquote|"The first and chief article is this: Jesus Christ, our God and Lord, died for our sins and was raised again for our justification (Romans 3:24–25). He alone is the Lamb of God who takes away the sins of the world (John 1:29), and God has laid on Him the iniquity of us all (Isaiah 53:6). All have sinned and are justified freely, without their own works and merits, by His grace, through the redemption that is in Christ Jesus, in His blood (Romans 3:23–25). This is necessary to believe. This cannot be otherwise acquired or grasped by any work, law or merit. Therefore, it is clear and certain that this faith alone justifies us ... Nothing of this article can be yielded or surrendered, even though heaven and earth and everything else falls (Mark 13:31)." | [[Martin Luther]]<ref>"The Smalcald Articles," in Concordia: The Lutheran Confessions. Saint Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 2005, 289, Part two, Article 1.</ref>}}

Some modern Muslim scholars critique the doctrinal aspects of Christianity. For example, [[Ismail al-Faruqi | Isma'il Raji al-Faruqi]], in his work ''[[Christian Ethics (book) | Christian Ethics: A Historical and Systematic Analysis of Its Dominant Ideas]]'', argues that Christianity has incorporated various influences that diverge from Jesus' original teachings. He emphasizes the need for what he considers a rational and coherent ethical framework, contrasting Christian concepts like [[peccatism]] (inherent human sinfulness) and saviorism (belief in Jesus as the redeemer) with Islamic views. This perspective includes a critique of Christian theological paradoxes and advocates for a rational and coherent ethical framework.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Idrisi|first=Fathiyyatunnur|title=Christian Ethics: A Review from the Perspective of Al-Faruqi|journal=Journal of Fatwa Management and Research, Special Edition|volume=27|issue=2|date=January 2022|pages=1–9}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Mohd |first=Siti Hadija |title=A Structured Critical Analysis of Al-Faruqi's Christian Ethics |journal=Preprint |date=2023 |location=Kuala Lumpur}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Shehu |first=Fatmir |title=Investigating Ismāʿīl Rājī al-Fārūqī's Methodology in the Study of Christianity through Selected Textual Analysis from His Christian Ethics |journal=Intellectual Discourse |volume=31 |issue=1 |pages=31–55 |date=2023 |publisher=International Islamic University Malaysia Press|doi=10.31436/id.v31i1.1913 }}</ref>

The Quran explicitly promises [[salvation]] for all those righteous Christians who were there before the arrival of Muhammad:
{{Blockquote|Indeed, the believers, Jews, Christians, and Sabians—whoever ˹truly˺ believes in Allah and the Last Day and does good will have their reward with their Lord. And there will be no fear for them, nor will they grieve.|{{qref|2|62|c=y}}}}

The Quran also makes it clear that Christians will be nearest in love to those who follow the Quran and praises Christians for being humble and wise:
{{Blockquote|You will surely find the most bitter towards the believers to be the Jews and polytheists and the most gracious to be those who call themselves Christian. That is because there are priests and monks among them and because they are not arrogant. When they listen to what has been revealed to the Messenger, you see their eyes overflowing with tears for recognizing the truth. They say, “Our Lord! We believe, so count us among the witnesses. Why should we not believe in Allah and the truth that has come to us? And we long for our Lord to include us in the company of the righteous.” So Allah will reward them for what they said with Gardens under which rivers flow, to stay there forever. And that is the reward of the good-doers.|{{qref|5|82–84|c=y}}}}

==Early and Medieval Christian writers on Islam and Muhammad==
{{See also|Medieval Christian views on Muhammad}}
[[File:Mohammed_by_gustave_dore.jpg|thumb|[[Dante]], a Christian, and [[Virgil]] looking at Muhammad who suffers in hell as a [[schismatic (religion)|schismatic]], an illustration of the ''[[Divine Comedy]]'' by [[Gustave Doré]]. During the Middle Ages, Islam was often seen as a Christological heresy and Muhammad as a false prophet.]]

===John of Damascus===
In 746, [[John of Damascus]] (sometimes St. John of Damascus) wrote the ''Fount of Knowledge'' part two of which is entitled ''Heresies in Epitome: How They Began and Whence They Drew Their Origin''.<ref name="auto2">{{Cite web|url=http://orthodoxinfo.com/general/stjohn_islam.aspx|title=St. John of Damascus: Critique of Islam|website=orthodoxinfo.com}}</ref> In this work, John makes extensive reference to the Quran and, in John's opinion, its failure to live up to even the most basic scrutiny. The work is not exclusively concerned with the ''Ismaelites'' (a name for the Muslims as they claimed to have descended from Ismael) but all heresy. The ''Fount of Knowledge'' references several suras directly often with apparent incredulity.

{{Blockquote|From that time to the present a false prophet named Mohammed has appeared in their midst. This man, after having chanced upon the Old and New Testaments and likewise, it seems, having conversed with an [[Arianism|Arian]] monk, devised his own [[heresy]]. Then, having insinuated himself into the good graces of the people by a show of seeming piety, he gave out that a certain book had been sent down to him from heaven. He had set down some ridiculous compositions in this book of his and he gave it to them as an object of veneration. ... There are many other extraordinary and quite ridiculous things in this book which he boasts was sent down to him from God. But when we ask: 'And who is there to testify that God gave him the book? And which of the prophets foretold that such a prophet would rise up?' – they are at a loss. And we remark that Moses received the Law on [[Biblical Mount Sinai|Mount Sinai]], with God appearing in the sight of all the people in cloud, and fire, and darkness, and storm. And we say that all the Prophets from Moses on down foretold the coming of Christ and how Christ God (and incarnate Son of God) was to come and to be crucified and die and rise again, and how He was to be the judge of the living and dead. Then, when we say: 'How is it that this prophet of yours did not come in the same way, with others bearing witness to him? And how is it that God did not in your presence present this man with the book to which you refer, even as He gave the Law to Moses, with the people looking on and the mountain smoking, so that you, too, might have certainty?' – they answer that God does as He pleases. 'This,' we say, 'We know, but we are asking how the book came down to your prophet.' Then they reply that the book came down to him while he was asleep.<ref name="auto2"/>}}

===Theophanes the Confessor===
[[Theophanes the Confessor]] (died c. 822) wrote a series of chronicles (284 onwards and 602–813 AD)<ref>[http://www.roger-pearse.com/weblog/?p=2098 Theophanes in English, on Mohammed] gives an excerpt with all pertinent text as translated by Cyril Mango</ref><ref>The Chronicle of Theophanes Confessor (Byzantine and Near Eastern History AD 284–813). Translated with introduction and commentary by Cyril Mango and Geoffrey Greatrex, Oxford 1997. An updated version of the roger-pearse.com citation.</ref><ref>[http://www.upenn.edu/pennpress/book/1938.html The Chronicle of Theophanes Anni Mundi 6095–6305 (A.D. 602–813)] a more popularised but less rigorously studied translation of Theophanes chronicles</ref> based initially on those of the better known [[George Syncellus]]. Theophanes reports about Muhammad thus:
{{Blockquote|At the beginning of his advent the misguided Jews thought he was the Messiah. ... But when they saw him eating camel meat, they realized that he was not the one they thought him to be, ... those wretched men taught him illicit things directed against us, Christians, and remained with him.}}

{{Blockquote|Whenever he came to [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]] he consorted with Jews and Christians and sought from them certain scriptural matters. He was also afflicted with epilepsy. When [[Khadijah bint Khuwaylid|his wife]] became aware of this, she was greatly distressed, inasmuch as she, a noblewoman, had married a man such as he, who was not only poor, but also an epileptic. He tried deceitfully to placate her by saying, 'I keep seeing a vision of a certain angel called [[Gabriel]], and being unable to bear his sight, I faint and fall down.'}}

===Niketas===
In the work ''A History of Christian-Muslim Relations,''<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VMOU3UoNysQC|title=A History of Christian-Muslim Relations|first=Hugh|last=Goddard|date=1 January 2000|publisher=Edinburgh University Press|via=Google Books|isbn=9780748610099}}</ref> Hugh Goddard mentions both John of Damascus and Theophanes and goes on to consider the relevance of [[Niketas Byzantios]] {{clarify|date=November 2010}} who formulated replies to letters on behalf of Emperor [[Michael III]] (r. 842–867). Goddard sums up Niketas' view:
{{Blockquote|In short, Muhammad was an ignorant charlatan who succeeded by imposture in seducing the ignorant barbarian [[Arab people|Arabs]] into accepting a gross, blaspheming, idolatrous, demoniac religion, which is full of futile errors, intellectual enormities, doctrinal errors and moral aberrations.}}

Goddard further argues that Niketas demonstrates in his work a knowledge of the entire Quran, including an extensive knowledge of [[Surah|Suras]] 2–18. Niketas' account from behind the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] frontier apparently set a strong precedent for later writing both in tone and points of argument.

===11th century===
Knowledge and depictions of Islam continued to be varied within the Christian West during the 11th century. For instance, the author(s) of the 11th century ''[[Song of Roland]]'' evidently had little actual knowledge of Islam. As depicted in this epic poem, Muslims erect statues of Mohammed and worship them, and Mohammed is part of an "Unholy Trinity" together with the Classical Greek [[Abaddon|Apollyon]] and [[Termagant]], a completely fictional deity. This view, evidently confusing Islam with the pre-Christian Graeco-Roman Religion, appears to reflect misconceptions prevalent in Western Christian society at the time.

On the other hand, ecclesiastic writers such as [[Amatus of Montecassino]] or [[Geoffrey Malaterra]] in [[County of Apulia and Calabria|Norman Southern Italy]], who occasionally lived among Muslims themselves, would depict at times Muslims in a negative way but would depict equally any other (ethnic) group that was opposed to the Norman rule such as [[Byzantine Greeks]] or [[Lombards|Italian Lombards]]. Often the depictions would depend on context: when writing about neutral events, Muslims would be called according to geographical terms such as "Saracens" or "Sicilians, when reporting events where Muslims came into conflict with Normans, Muslims would be called "pagans" or "infidels".<ref name="Smit">{{cite journal |last1=Smit |first1=Timothy |title=Pagans and Infidels, Saracens and Sicilians: Identifying Muslims in the Eleventh-Century Chronicles of Norman Italy |journal=The Haskin Society Journal |date=2009 |volume=21 |pages=87–112}}</ref>

Similarities were occasionally acknowledged such as by [[Pope Gregory VII]] wrote in a letter to the [[Hammadid dynasty|Hammadid]] emir [[Nasir ibn Alnas|an-Nasir]] that both Christians and Muslims "worship and confess the same God though in diverse forms and daily praise".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Emerton |first1=Ephraim (trslt.) |title=The correspondence of Pope Gregory VII : selected letters from the Registrum |date=1979 |publisher=Octagon Books |location=New York |isbn=0374925658 |url=https://archive.org/details/correspondenceof0000cath/mode/2up |access-date=10 December 2022}}</ref>

===''The Divine Comedy''===
In [[Dante Alighieri]]'s ''[[Divine Comedy]]'',  Muhammad is in the ninth ditch of [[Malebolge]], the eighth realm, designed for those who have caused schism; specifically, he was placed among the Sowers of Religious Discord.  Muhammad is portrayed as split in half, with his entrails hanging out, representing his status as a [[heresiarch]] (Canto 28).

This scene is frequently shown in illustrations of the ''Divine Comedy''. Muhammad is represented in a 15th-century [[fresco]] ''[[Last Judgment]]'' by Giovanni da Modena and drawing on Dante, in the [[San Petronio Basilica]] in [[Bologna]],<ref name=fresco>{{cite news|url=http://arts.guardian.co.uk/news/story/0,11711,742914,00.html|title=Al-Qaida plot to blow up Bologna church fresco|date=2002-06-24|newspaper=[[The Guardian]]|author=Philip Willan}}</ref> as well as in artwork by [[Salvador Dalí]], [[Auguste Rodin]], [[William Blake]], and [[Gustave Doré]].<ref name=Chronicle>{{cite web|url=http://sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/c/a/2006/02/11/MNGRCH6UQK1.DTL|title=What's behind Muslim cartoon outrage|date=2006-02-11|work=[[San Francisco Chronicle]]|author=Ayesha Akram}}</ref>

==Catholic Church and Islam==
{{main|Catholic Church and Islam}}

===Second Vatican Council and ''Nostra aetate''===
The question of Islam was not on the agenda when ''[[Nostra aetate]]'' was first drafted, or even at the opening of the [[Second Vatican Council]]. However, as in the case of the question of Judaism, several events came together again to prompt a consideration of Islam. By the time of the Second Session of the Council in 1963, reservations began to be raised by bishops of the Middle East about the inclusion of this question. The position was taken that either the question will not be raised at all, or if it were raised, some mention of the Muslims should be made. [[Melkite Greek Catholic Church|Melkite]] [[List of Greek Orthodox Patriarchs of Antioch|patriarch]] [[Maximos IV Sayegh|Maximos IV]] was among those pushing for this latter position.

Early in 1964, [[Augustin Bea|Cardinal Bea]] notified [[Amleto Giovanni Cicognani|Cardinal Cicognani]], President of the Council's Coordinating Commission, that the Council fathers wanted the Council to say something about the great monotheistic religions, and in particular about Islam. The subject, however, was deemed to be outside the competence of Bea's [[Pontifical Council for Promoting Christian Unity|Secretariat for the Promotion of Christian Unity]]. Bea expressed willingness to "select some competent people and with them to draw up a draft" to be presented to the Coordinating Commission. At a meeting of the Coordinating Commission on 16–17 April Cicognani acknowledged that it would be necessary to speak of the Muslims.<ref>(''History of Vatican II'', pp. 142–43)</ref>

The period between the first and second sessions saw the change of [[pontiff]] from [[Pope John XXIII]] to [[Pope Paul VI]], who had been a member of the circle (the ''Badaliya'') of the [[Islamic studies|Islamologist]] [[Louis Massignon]]. Pope Paul VI chose to follow the path recommended by Maximos IV and he therefore established commissions to introduce what would become paragraphs on the Muslims in two different documents, one of them being ''Nostra aetate'', paragraph three, the other being ''[[Lumen gentium]]'', paragraph 16.<ref name="Robinson"/>

The text of the final draft bore traces of Massignon's influence. The reference to [[Virgin Mary|Mary]], for example, resulted from the intervention of Monsignor Descuffi, the Latin archbishop of [[Smyrna]] with whom Massignon collaborated in reviving the cult of Mary at Smyrna. The commendation of Muslim prayer may reflect the influence of the Badaliya.<ref name="Robinson">(Robinson, p. 195)</ref>

In ''Lumen gentium'', the Second Vatican Council declares that the plan of [[salvation]] also includes Muslims, due to their professed monotheism.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Lumen gentium |url=https://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_const_19641121_lumen-gentium_en.html |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140906031754/https://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_const_19641121_lumen-gentium_en.html |archivedate=September 6, 2014 |website=www.vatican.va}}</ref>

===Recent Catholic-Islamic controversies===
* For the controversy surrounding Muslim prayer in Spain, see [[Muslim campaign at Córdoba Cathedral]]
* For criticism of interfaith dialogue with Muslims, see [[Pierre Claverie#Relations with Islam]]
* For the controversy over whether Islam is a religion or a political system, see [[Raymond Leo Burke#Islam and immigration]]
* For the controversy over advice not to marry a Muslim and move to an Islamic country, see [[José Policarpo#Marriages with Muslim men]]
* For the controversy over whether Catholics may call God "Allah" if they want to, see ''[[Titular Roman Catholic Archbishop of Kuala Lumpur v Menteri Dalam Negeri]]''
* For the controversy over remarks by Pope Benedict XVI, see [[Regensburg lecture]] and [[Pope Benedict XVI and Islam]]

==Protestantism and Islam==
{{Main article|Protestantism and Islam}}
[[Protestantism and Islam]] entered into contact during the 16th century, at a time when [[Protestantism|Protestant]] movements in [[northern Europe]] coincided with the expansion of the [[Ottoman Empire]] in [[southern Europe]]. As both were in conflict with the [[Catholic]] [[Holy Roman Empire]], numerous exchanges occurred, exploring religious similarities and the possibility of trade and military alliances.<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://artsonline.monash.edu.au/eras/files/2012/07/jerkins-islam.pdf |title = Monash Arts| date=12 December 2023 }}</ref> Relations became more conflictual in the early modern and modern periods, although recent attempts have been made at [[rapprochement]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t236/e0567|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120909024821/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t236/e0567|url-status=dead|archive-date=September 9, 2012|title=Muslim-Christian Dialogue – Oxford Islamic Studies Online}}</ref>

==Mormonism and Islam==
{{Main article|Mormonism and Islam}}
[[Mormonism]] and Islam have been compared to one another ever since the earliest origins of the former in the nineteenth century, often by detractors of one religion or the other—or both.<ref>[http://www.saintswithouthalos.com/w/1838_tbmoh.phtml Thomas Marsh and Orson Hyde Affidavit], for example; see also [https://www.pbs.org/americanprophet/prologue.html PBS's American Prophet: Prologue] and Todd J. Harris, [http://contentdm.lib.byu.edu/ETD/image/etd2067.pdf A Comparison of Muhammad and Joseph Smith in the Prophetic Pattern] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111114102601/http://contentdm.lib.byu.edu/ETD/image/etd2067.pdf |date=2011-11-14 }}, a thesis submitted for a Master of Arts degree at Brigham Young University in 2007, footnotes on pages 1 and 2.</ref> For instance, [[Joseph Smith]], the founding [[Prophet#Latter Day Saint movement|prophet]] of Mormonism, was referred to as "the modern [[Muhammad|Mahomet]]" by the ''[[New York Herald]]'',<ref>[https://www.pbs.org/americanprophet/prologue.html PBS's American Prophet: Prologue].</ref> shortly after his [[Death of Joseph Smith|murder]] in June 1844. This epithet repeated a comparison that had been made from Smith's earliest career,<ref>[http://www.saintswithouthalos.com/w/1838_tbmoh.phtml Thomas Marsh and Orson Hyde Affidavit], also Todd J. Harris, [http://contentdm.lib.byu.edu/ETD/image/etd2067.pdf A Comparison of Muhammad and Joseph Smith in the Prophetic Pattern] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111114102601/http://contentdm.lib.byu.edu/ETD/image/etd2067.pdf |date=2011-11-14 }}, a thesis submitted for a Master of Arts degree at Brigham Young University in 2007, footnotes on pages 1 and 2.</ref> one that was not intended at the time to be complimentary. Comparison of the Mormon and Muslim prophets still occurs today, sometimes for derogatory or polemical reasons<ref>See, for example:[http://www.inplainsite.org/html/smith_and_muhammed.html Joseph Smith and Muhammad: The Similarities], and Eric Johnson,[http://www.utlm.org/booklist/titles/josephsmithandmuhammad_xb183.htm Joseph Smith and Muhammad], a book published by the "Mormonism Research Ministry" and offered for sale by the anti-Mormon "[http://www.utlm.org/ Utah Lighthouse Ministries]".</ref> but also for more scholarly and neutral purposes.<ref>See, for instance, Todd J. Harris, [http://contentdm.lib.byu.edu/ETD/image/etd2067.pdf A Comparison of Muhammad and Joseph Smith in the Prophetic Pattern] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111114102601/http://contentdm.lib.byu.edu/ETD/image/etd2067.pdf |date=2011-11-14 }}, a thesis submitted for a Master of Arts degree at Brigham Young University in 2007.</ref> While Mormonism and Islam certainly have many similarities, there are also significant, fundamental differences between the two religions. Mormon-Muslim relations have historically been cordial;<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2008-apr-02-me-morlims2-story.html|title=U.S. Muslims share friendship, similar values with Mormons|first=David|last=Haldane|date=2 April 2008|via=LA Times}}</ref> recent years have seen increasing [[dialogue]] between adherents of the two faiths, and cooperation in [[charity (practice)|charitable endeavors]], especially in the [[Middle East|Middle]] and [[Far East]].<ref>[http://worldmuslimcongress.blogspot.com/2008/04/mormons-muslims.html World Muslim Congress: Mormons and Muslims]; [http://bycommonconsent.com/2007/09/10/mormon-muslim-interfaith-ramadan-dinner-in-washington-dc-area/ Mormon-Muslim Interfaith Ramadan Dinner].</ref>

==Cultural influences==
{{Main article|Christian influences on the Islamic world|Islamic world contributions to Medieval Europe}}
[[File:ChristianAndMuslimPlayingChess.JPG|thumb|A Christian and a Muslim playing chess, illustration from the ''[[Book of Games]]'' of [[Alfonso X]] (c. 1285).]]
Scholars and intellectuals agree [[Christian influences on the Islamic world|Christians have made significant contributions]] to Arab and Islamic civilization since the introduction of [[Islam]],<ref>Hill, Donald. ''Islamic Science and Engineering''. 1993. Edinburgh Univ. Press. {{ISBN|0-7486-0455-3}}, p. 4</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The Legend of the Middle Ages|author=Brague, Rémi|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c8YjEkLPXNYC|isbn=978-0-226-07080-3|page=164|year=2009|publisher=University of Chicago Press }}</ref> and they have had a significant impact contributing the culture of the [[Middle East and North Africa]] and other areas.<ref>{{cite book|last=Pacini|first=Andrea|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KMfYAAAAMAAJ|title=Christian Communities in the Arab Middle East: The Challenge of the Future|publisher=Clarendon Press|year=1998|isbn=978-0-19-829388-0|pages=38, 55|access-date=21 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210310101859/https://books.google.com/books?id=KMfYAAAAMAAJ|archive-date=10 March 2021|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Jews, Antisemitism, and the Middle East|first=Kail|last= C. Ellis|year= 2017| isbn=9781351510721| page =173|publisher=Routledge}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Secular Nationalism and Citizenship in Muslim Countries: Arab Christians in the Levant|first=Michael |last=Curtis|year= 2018| isbn=9781351510721| page =11|publisher=Springer|quote=Christian contributions to art, culture, and literature in the Arab-Islamic world; Christian contributions education and social advancement in the region.}}</ref> [[List of Christian scientists and scholars of the medieval Islamic world|Eastern Christian scientists and scholars of the medieval Islamic world]] (particularly [[Nestorianism|Nestorian]] [[Christians]]) contributed to the Arab [[Islamic Golden Age|Islamic civilization]] during the [[Umayyad|Ummayads]] and the [[Abbasids]] periods by translating works of [[Greek philosophers]] to [[Syriac language|Syriac]] and afterwards to [[Arabic language|Arabic]].<ref name="auto7">Hill, Donald. ''Islamic Science and Engineering''. 1993. Edinburgh Univ. Press. {{ISBN|0-7486-0455-3}}, p.4</ref><ref name="auto3">{{cite book|title=The Legend of the Middle Ages|author=Brague, Rémi|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c8YjEkLPXNYC&q=House+of+Wisdom|access-date=11 Feb 2014|isbn=9780226070803|page=164|date=2009-04-15|publisher=University of Chicago Press }}</ref><ref name="auto">Ferguson, Kitty [https://books.google.com/books?id=trM7NJz011oC&dq=preserve+ancient+knowledge+syria&pg=PT100 Pythagoras: His Lives and the Legacy of a Rational Universe] Walker Publishing Company, New York, 2008, (page number not available – occurs toward end of Chapter 13, "The Wrap-up of Antiquity"). "It was in the Near and Middle East and North Africa that the old traditions of teaching and learning continued, and where Christian scholars were carefully preserving ancient texts and knowledge of the ancient Greek language."</ref> They also excelled in [[philosophy]], [[science]], [[theology]] and [[medicine]].<ref name="auto4">Rémi Brague, [http://www.christiansofiraq.com/assyriancontributionstotheislamiccivilization.htm Assyrians contributions to the Islamic civilization] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130927015958/http://www.christiansofiraq.com/assyriancontributionstotheislamiccivilization.htm |date=2013-09-27 }}</ref><ref name="auto1">Britannica, [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/409819/Nestorian Nestorian]</ref> [[Byzantine science]] played an important and crucial role in the [[Greek contributions to the Islamic world|transmission of classical knowledge]] to the [[Muslim world|Islamic world]].<ref>{{cite web|author=George Saliba|author-link=George Saliba|title=Islamic Science and the Making of Renaissance Europe|website=[[Library of Congress]]|date=2006-04-27|url=https://www.loc.gov/today/cyberlc/feature_wdesc.php?rec=3883|access-date=2008-03-01|archive-date=29 June 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060629204411/https://www.loc.gov/today/cyberlc/feature_wdesc.php?rec=3883|url-status=live}}</ref>

During the [[High Middle Ages]], the [[Islamic world]] was at its cultural peak, [[Diffusion of innovations|supplying information and ideas]] to [[medieval Europe|Europe]], via [[Al-Andalus]], [[Emirate of Sicily|Sicily]] and the [[Crusader kingdoms]] in the [[Levant]]. These included [[Latin translations of the 12th century|Latin translations]] of [[transmission of the Greek Classics|the Greek Classics]] and of Arabic texts in  [[Islamic astronomy|astronomy]], [[Islamic mathematics|mathematics]], [[Islamic science|science]], and [[Islamic medicine|medicine]]. Translation of Arabic philosophical texts into Latin "led to the transformation of almost all philosophical disciplines in the medieval Latin world", with a particularly strong influence of Muslim philosophers being felt in natural philosophy, psychology and metaphysics.<ref name=standford>{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|title=Influence of Arabic and Islamic Philosophy on the Latin West|year=2014|author=Dag Nikolaus Hasse|url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/arabic-islamic-influence/|access-date=2020-06-03}}</ref> The Islamic world also influenced other aspects of medieval European culture, partly by [[List of inventions in the medieval Islamic world|original innovations]] made during the [[Islamic Golden Age]], including various fields such as the [[Islamic art|arts]], [[Arab Agricultural Revolution|agriculture]], [[Alchemy and chemistry in medieval Islam|alchemy]], [[Arab music|music]], [[Islamic pottery|pottery]], etc.

===Artistic influences ===
{{Main article|Christian influences in Islam#Art|Islamic influences on Christian art}}
[[Islamic art]] and [[Islamic culture|culture]] have both influenced and been influenced by [[Christian art]] and [[Christendom#Classical culture|culture]]. Some arts have received such influence strongly, particularly religious architecture in the [[Sacred architecture#Byzantine architecture|Byzantine]] and [[medieval architecture|medieval]] eras.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HrzPlqLjR1MC|title=A World History of Architecture|first1=Marian|last1=Moffett|first2=Michael W.|last2=Fazio|first3=Lawrence|last3=Wodehouse|date=1 January 2004|publisher=McGraw-Hill|via=Google Books|isbn=9780071417518}}</ref><ref name="Swartley">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4ezhbAk_OeIC|title=Encountering the World of Islam|first=Keith E.|last=Swartley|date=1 January 2005|publisher=Biblica|via=Google Books|isbn=9781932805246}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Christianity|Islam}}
{{colbegin}}
* [[Ashtiname of Muhammad]]
* [[Chrislam (Yoruba)]], a [[syncretism|syncretist religion]]
* [[Christian influences in Islam]]
* [[Christian philosophy]]
* [[Christianity and other religions]]
* [[Christianity and war]]
* [[Crusades]]
* [[Constantinople]]
* [[Divisions of the world in Islam]]
* [[Islam and other religions]]
* [[Islamic philosophy]]
* [[Islam and war]]
* [[Muhammad's views on Christians]]
{{Div col end}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Further reading==
* Abdiyah Akbar Abdul-Haqq, ''Sharing Your [Christian] Faith with a Muslim'', Minneapolis: Bethany House Publishers, 1980. {{ISBN|0-87123-553-6}}
* Giulio Basetti-Sani, ''The Koran in the Light of Christ: a Christian Interpretation of the Sacred Book of Islam'', trans. by W. Russell-Carroll and Bede Dauphinee, Chicago, Ill.: Franciscan Herald Press, 1977. {{ISBN|0-8199-0713-8}}
* [[Roger Arnaldez]], ''Jésus: Fils de Marie, prophète de l'Islam'', coll. ''Jésus et Jésus-Christ'', no 13, Paris: Desclée, 1980. {{ISBN|2-7189-0186-1}}
* Kenneth Cragg, ''The Call of the Minaret'', Third ed., Oxford: Oneworld [sic] Publications, 2000, xv, 358 p. {{ISBN|1-85168-210-4}}
* Maria Jaoudi, ''Christian & Islamic Spirituality: Sharing a Journey'', Mahwah, N.J.: Paulist Press, 1992. iii, 103 p. {{ISBN|0-8091-3426-8}}
* Jane Dammen McAuliffe, ''Qur'anic Christians: An Analysis of Classical and Modern Exegesis'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991. {{ISBN|0-521-36470-1}}
* Frithjof Schuon, ''Christianity/Islam: Essays on Esoteric Ecumenicism'', in series, ''The Library of Traditional Wisdom'', Bloomington, Ind.: World Wisdom Books, cop. 1985. vii, 270 p. ''N.B''.: Trans. from French. {{ISBN|0-941532-05-4}}; the ISBN on the verso of the t.p. surely is erroneous.
* Mark D. Siljander and John David Mann, ''A Deadly Misunderstanding: a Congressman's Quest to Bridge the Muslim-Christian Divide'', New York: Harper One, 2008. {{ISBN|978-0-06-143828-8}}.
* [[Robert Spencer (author)|Robert Spencer]], ''Not Peace But a Sword: The Great Chasm Between Christianity and Islam.''  Catholic Answers. March 25, 2013. {{ISBN|978-1938983283}}.
* Thomas, David, ''Muhammad in Medieval Christian-Muslim Relations (Medieval Islam),'' in Muhammad in History, Thought, and Culture: An Encyclopedia of the Prophet of God (2 vols.), Edited by C. Fitzpatrick and A. Walker, Santa Barbara, ABC-CLIO, 2014, Vol. I, pp.&nbsp;392–400. 1610691776

==External links==
{{Wikiquote}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20130828220916/https://repository.library.georgetown.edu/handle/10822/552573 Hasib Sabbagh: A Legacy of Understanding] from the [https://web.archive.org/web/20120312181034/http://repository.library.georgetown.edu/handle/10822/552494/browse?type=title Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives]
* [https://www.theatlantic.com/doc/200305/lewis  "I'm Right, You're Wrong, Go to Hell"] – Religions and the meeting of civilization by Bernard Lewis
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20111104184806/http://pachian.ir/post-89.aspx Islam & Christianity (IRAN & GEORGIA) News Photos]

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