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{{Short description|College or university diploma}}
{{Distinguish|List of academic ranks{{!}}Academic ranks}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2025}}
An '''academic degree''' is a qualification awarded to a student upon successful completion of a course of study in [[higher education]], usually at a [[college]] or [[university]]. These institutions often offer degrees at various levels, usually divided into [[undergraduate]] and [[postgraduate]] degrees. The most common undergraduate degree is the [[bachelor's degree]], although some educational systems offer lower-level undergraduate degrees such as [[associate degree|associate]] and [[foundation degree|foundation]] degrees. Common postgraduate degrees include [[engineer's degree]]s, [[master's degree]]s and [[doctorate]]s.

In the UK and countries whose educational systems are based on the British system, [[honours degree]]s are divided into classes: first, second (broken into upper second, or 2.1, and lower second, or 2.2) and third class.

== History ==
[[File:Meeting of doctors at the university of Paris.jpg|thumb|upright=0.85|Meeting of doctors at the [[University of Paris]] (16th-century miniature)]]

=== Emergence of the doctor's and master's degrees and the licentiate ===
{{Further|Licentiate (degree)}}

The doctorate ([[Latin]]: ''doceo'', "I teach") first appeared in [[Middle Ages|medieval Europe]] as a license to teach ([[Latin]]: ''licentia docendi'') at a medieval university.<ref name="Lexikon des Mittelalters: Doctor, doctoratus">{{cite book | last = Verger | first = J. | contribution = Doctor, doctoratus | title = Lexikon des Mittelalters |trans-title=Lexicon of the Middle Ages|language=de | volume = 3 | number=cols. 1155–1156 | publisher = J.B. Metzler | place = Stuttgart | year=1998| title-link = Lexikon des Mittelalters }}</ref> Its roots can be traced to the [[early church]] when the term "doctor" referred to the [[Apostles in the New Testament|Apostles]], [[Church Fathers]] and other [[Christianity|Christian]] authorities who taught and interpreted the [[Bible]].<ref name="Lexikon des Mittelalters: Doctor, doctoratus" /> The right to grant a ''licentia docendi'' was originally reserved by the [[Catholic church|church]] which required the applicant to pass a test, take an oath of allegiance, and pay a fee. The [[Third Council of the Lateran]] of 1179 guaranteed the access – now largely free of charge – of all able applicants, who were, however, still tested for aptitude by the ecclesiastic scholastic.<ref name="Lexikon des Mittelalters: Licentia">{{cite book | last = Verger | first = J. | contribution = Licentia | title = Lexikon des Mittelalters |trans-title=Lexicon of the Middle Ages|language=de | volume = 5 | number=cols. 1957–1958 | publisher = J.B. Metzler | place = Stuttgart | year=1999| title-link = Lexikon des Mittelalters }}</ref> This right remained a point of contention between the church authorities and the slowly emancipating universities, but was granted by the [[Pope]] to the [[University of Paris]] in 1231 where it became a universal license to teach (''licentia ubique docendi'').<ref name="Lexikon des Mittelalters: Licentia" /> While the ''licentia'' continued to hold a higher prestige than the bachelor's degree (''Baccalaureus''), it was ultimately reduced to an intermediate step to the [[Magister (degree)|Magister]] and [[doctorate]], both of which now became the exclusive qualification for teaching.<ref name="Lexikon des Mittelalters: Licentia" />

In universities, doctoral training was a form of [[apprenticeship]] to a [[guild]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.k12academics.com/higher-education/academic-degree#.U75_Eo1_v20|title=Academic Degree|website=K12academics.com|date=6 February 2014|access-date=18 August 2017}}</ref> The traditional term of study before new teachers were admitted to the guild of "Master of Arts" was seven years. This was the same as the term of apprenticeship for other occupations. Originally the terms "master" and "doctor" were synonymous,<ref>{{cite web|title=Origin of the Bachelor's, Master's and Doctorate|url=http://www.academicapparel.com/caps/History-Academic-Degrees.html|website=Academicapparel.com|access-date=18 August 2017}}</ref> but over time the doctorate came to be regarded as a higher qualification than the [[master's degree]].{{Citation needed|date=September 2024}}

Today the terms "master" (from the [[Latin]] ''magister'', {{literally|teacher}}), "Doctor", and "Professor" signify different levels of academic achievement, but in the [[Medieval university]], they were equivalent terms. The use of them in the degree name was a matter of custom at a university. Most universities conferred the Master of Arts, although the highest degree was often termed Master of Theology/Divinity or Doctor of Theology/Divinity, depending on the place.{{Citation needed|date=September 2024}}

The earliest [[doctoral degrees]] ([[theology]] – ''Divinitatis'' Doctor (D.D.), [[law]] – ''Legum'' Doctor (LL.D., later D.C.L.) and [[medicine]] – ''Medicinæ'' Doctor (M.D., D.M.)) reflected the historical separation of all higher university study into these three fields. Over time, the D.D. has gradually become less common outside theology and is now mostly used for honorary degrees, with the title "Doctor of Theology" being used more often for earned degrees. Studies outside [[theology]], [[law]], and [[medicine]] were then called "[[philosophy]]", due to the Renaissance conviction that real knowledge could be derived from empirical observation. The degree title of [[Doctor of Philosophy]] is a much later creation and was not introduced in England before 1900. Studies in what once was called philosophy are now classified as [[science]]s and [[humanities]].{{Citation needed|date=September 2024}}

[[George Makdisi]] theorizes that the ''[[ijazah]]'' issued in medieval Islamic [[madrasa]]s in the 9th century was the origin of the doctorate that later appeared in medieval European universities.<ref name=Makdisi>{{citation|doi=10.2307/604423|last=Makdisi|first=George|author-link=George Makdisi|title=Scholasticism and Humanism in Classical Islam and the Christian West|jstor=604423|journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society|volume=109|issue=2|date=April–June 1989|pages=175–182 [175–77]}}</ref> [[Alfred Guillaume]],<ref name="Alatas">{{cite journal |last1=Al-Attas |first1=Syed Farid |author1-link=Syed Farid al-Attas |title=From Jāmi' ah to University: Multiculturalism and Christian–Muslim Dialogue |journal=[[Current Sociology]] |date=1 January 2006 |volume=54 |issue=1 |pages=112–132 |doi=10.1177/0011392106058837 |s2cid=144509355 |issn=0011-3921 |quote=In the 1930s, the renowned Orientalist Alfred Guillaume noted strong resemblances between Muslim and Western Christian institutions of higher learning. An example he cited is the ijazah, which he recognized as being akin to the medieval licentia docendi, the precursor of the modern university degree.|url=https://zenodo.org/record/29439 }}</ref> [[Syed Farid al-Attas]]<ref name="Alatas"/> and [[Devin J. Stewart]] agree that there is a resemblance between the ''ijazah'' and the university degree.<ref name="stewart">{{cite encyclopedia|author=Devin J. Stewart|author-link=Devin J. Stewart|editor=Josef W. Meri|encyclopedia=[[Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia]]|title=Degrees, or Ijazah|date=2005|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=9781135455965|pages=201–203|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c1ZsBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA201|quote=The license to teach law and issue legal opinions [...] is the type of ijazah that resembles the medieval European university degree most closely [...] The main difference between the two is that the granting authority is an individual professor, in the Islamic case, rather than a corporate institution in the case of the university. Despite this point, Makdisi has likened the ijazat al-ifta' wa'l-tadris to the medieval Latin licentia docendi and suggests that it served as a model for that degree.}}</ref> However, [[Toby Huff]] and others reject Makdisi's theory.<ref>{{cite book|last=Huff|first=Toby E.|title=The rise of early modern science : Islam, China, and the West|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2007|isbn=978-0521529945|edition=2. ed., repr.|location=Cambridge [u.a.]|page=155|quote=It remains the case that no equivalent of the bachelor's degree, the licentia docendi, or higher degrees ever emerged in the medieval or early modern Islamic ''madrasas''.|author-link=Toby Huff}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|last=Verger|first=J.|title=Lexikon des Mittelalters|volume=3|year=1999|at=cols 1155–1156|contribution=Doctor, doctoratus|place=Stuttgart|publisher=J.B. Metzler|title-link=Lexikon des Mittelalters}}</ref><ref>Rüegg, Walter: "Foreword. The University as a European Institution", in: ''[[A History of the University in Europe|A History of the University in Europe. Vol. 1: Universities in the Middle Ages]]'', Cambridge University Press, 1992, {{ISBN|0-521-36105-2}}, pp. XIX: "No other European institution has spread over the entire world in the way in which the traditional form of the European university has done. The degrees awarded by European universities – the bachelor's degree, the licentiate, the master's degree, and the doctorate – have been adopted in the most diverse societies throughout the world."</ref><ref>Norman Daniel: Review of "The Rise of Colleges. Institutions of Learning in Islam and the West by George Makdisi", Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 104, No. 3 (Jul. – Sep. 1984), pp. 586–588 (587)</ref> [[Devin J. Stewart]] finds that the ''ijazat al-ifta'', license to teach [[Islamic law]] and issue legal opinions, is most similar to the medieval European university degree in that it permits entry into certain professions. A key difference was that the granting authority of the ''ijaza'' was an individual professor whereas the university degree was granted by a corporate entity.<ref name="stewart3">{{cite encyclopedia|author=Devin J. Stewart|editor=Josef W. Meri|encyclopedia=[[Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia]]|title=Degrees, or Ijazah|date=2005|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=9781135455965|pages=201–203|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c1ZsBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA201|quote=The license to teach law and issue legal opinions (ijazat al-ifta' wa 'l-tadris; also ijazat al-tadris wa'lifta' or simply ijazat al-ifta') is the type of ijazah that resembles the medieval European university degree most closely, for, rather than authorizing the recipient to transmit or teach a particular text, it attests to his or her mastery of an entire field (in this case, the law) and permits entry into professional categories: law professor (mudarris) and jurisconsult (mufti).] The main difference between the two is that the granting authority is an individual professor, in the Islamic case, rather than a corporate institution in the case of the university. Despite this point, Makdisi has likened the ijazat al-ifta' wa'l-tadris to the medieval Latin licentia docendi and suggests that it served as a model for that degree.|author-link=Devin J. Stewart}}</ref>

The [[University of Bologna]] in [[Italy]], regarded as the oldest university in [[Europe]], was the first institution to confer the degree of [[Doctorate|Doctor]] in [[Civil law (legal system)|Civil Law]] in the late 12th century; it also conferred similar degrees in other subjects, including [[medicine]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Degree explanations|url=http://www.hitechcj.com/criminal-justice-degree-online/degree_explanations.html|website=Hitechcj.com|access-date=18 August 2017}}</ref>

The [[University of Paris]] used the term "master" for its graduates, a practice adopted by the [[England|English]] universities of [[University of Oxford|Oxford]] and [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge]], as well as the ancient [[Scotland|Scottish]] universities of [[University of St Andrews|St Andrews]], [[University of Glasgow|Glasgow]], [[University of Aberdeen|Aberdeen]] and [[University of Edinburgh|Edinburgh]].

=== Emergence of the bachelor's degree ===
In [[Medieval university|medieval European universities]], candidates who had completed three or four years of study in the prescribed texts of the ''[[trivium (education)|trivium]]'' ([[grammar]], [[rhetoric]] and [[logic]]) and the ''[[quadrivium]]'' ([[arithmetic]], [[geometry]], [[astronomy]] and [[music]]), together known as the [[Liberal Arts]], and who had successfully passed examinations held by their master, would be admitted to the degree of [[Bachelor of Arts]]. The term "bachelor" comes from the Latin {{lang|la|baccalaureus}}, a term previously used to describe a squire (i.e., apprentice) to a [[knight]]. Further study and, in particular, successful participation in, and moderation of, [[disputation]]s would earn one the [[Master of Arts]] degree, from the [[Latin]] [[magister (degree)|magister]], "master" (typically indicating a teacher), entitling one to teach these subjects. Masters of Arts were eligible to enter study under the "higher faculties" of [[Law]], [[Medicine]] or [[Theology]] and earn first a bachelor's and then master's or doctor's degree in these subjects. Thus, a degree was only a step on the way to becoming a fully qualified master – hence the [[English language|English]] word "graduate", which is based on the [[Latin]] {{lang|la|gradus}} ("step").

=== Evolution of the terminology of degrees ===

The naming of degrees eventually became linked to the subjects studied. Scholars in the faculties of [[The arts|arts]] or [[grammar]] became known as "masters", but those in [[theology]], [[medicine]] and [[law]] were known as "doctors". As a study in the arts or grammar was a necessary prerequisite to study in subjects such as theology, medicine and law, the degree of doctor assumed a higher status than the [[master's degree]]. This led to the modern hierarchy in which the [[Doctor of Philosophy]] (Ph.D.), which in its present form as a degree based on [[research]] and [[Thesis|dissertation]] is a development from 18th- and 19th-century German universities, is a more advanced degree than the [[Master of Arts]] (M.A.). The practice of using the term ''doctor'' for PhDs developed within German universities and spread across the academic world.

The [[French language|French]] terminology is tied closely to the original meanings of the terms. The ''[[baccalauréat]]'' (cf. "bachelor") is conferred upon French students who have completed their [[secondary education]] and allows the student to attend university. When students graduate from university, they are awarded a ''licence'', much as the [[Middle Ages|medieval]] teaching guilds would have done, and they are qualified to teach in secondary schools or proceed to higher-level studies. [[Spain]] had a similar structure: the term ''"Bachiller"'' was used for those who finished the secondary or high-school level education, known as ''"Bachillerato"''. The standard Spanish university 5-year degree was ''"Licenciado"'', (although there were a few 3-year associate degrees called ''"diplomaturas"'', from where the ''"diplomados"'' could move to study a related ''licenciatura''). The highest level was "Doctor".

=== Degrees awarded by institutions other than universities ===
In the past, degrees have been directly issued by the authority of the monarch or by a bishop, rather than any educational institution. This practice has mostly died out. In [[Great Britain]], [[Lambeth degree]]s are still awarded by the [[Archbishop of Canterbury]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Lambeth Degrees|url=http://www.facultyoffice.org.uk/lambeth-degrees/|website=Facultyoffice.org.uk|access-date=18 August 2017}}</ref> The Archbishop of Canterbury's right to grant degrees is derived from the [[Peter's Pence Act 1533]], which empowered the Archbishop to grant dispensations previously granted by the Pope.<ref>{{cite web|title=Archbishop of Canterbury awards Lambeth Degrees |url=http://www.ox.ac.uk/media/news_stories/2008/080604b.html |website=Ox.ac.uk |date=4 June 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714202354/http://www.ox.ac.uk/media/news_stories/2008/080604b.html |archive-date=14 July 2014 }}</ref>

Among educational institutions, [[St David's College, Lampeter]], was granted limited degree awarding powers by [[royal charter]] in the nineteenth century, despite not being a university. The [[University College of North Staffordshire]] was also granted degree awarding powers on its foundation in 1949, despite not becoming a university (as the [[University of Keele]]) until 1962. Following the [[Education Reform Act 1988]], many educational institutions other than universities have been granted degree-awarding powers, including higher education colleges and colleges of the [[University of London]], many of which are now effectively universities in their own right.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.gov.uk/guidance/recognised-uk-degrees|title=Recognised UK degrees|date=11 December 2012|publisher=[[Department for Business, Innovation & Skills]]|access-date=3 August 2016}}</ref>

=== Academic dress ===
{{Main|Academic dress}}

In many countries, gaining an academic degree entitles the holder to assume distinctive academic dress particular to the awarding institution, identifying the status of the individual wearing them.

== Laws on granting and use of degrees ==
{{see also|Unaccredited institutions of higher education}}

In many countries, degrees may only be awarded by institutions authorised to do so by the national or regional government. Frequently, governments will also regulate the use of the word ''university'' in the names of businesses. This approach is followed, for example, by Australia,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.education.gov.au/guidelines-use-word-university|title=Guidelines for the use of the word 'university'|quote=Only registered higher education providers can offer Australian Higher Education Qualifications.|publisher=Australian Government|work=Department of Education and Training|access-date=18 June 2017}}</ref> the United Kingdom<ref>{{cite web |date=15 September 2015 |title=Recognised UK degrees |url=https://www.gov.uk/guidance/recognised-uk-degrees |access-date=18 June 2017 |publisher=[[Department for Business, Innovation and Skills]] and [[Department for Education]]}}</ref> and Israel.<ref>{{Cite web |date=14 November 2017 |title=About us |url=https://che.org.il/en/about-us/ |access-date=22 October 2023 |website=The Council for Higher Education |language=en-US}}</ref> The use of fake degrees by individuals, either obtained from a bogus institution or simply invented, is often covered by [[fraud]] laws.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.plymouthherald.co.uk/walter-mitty-builder-blagged-top-jobs-and-1m-in-wages-with-fake-cv/story-30183424-detail/story.html|title='Walter Mitty' builder blagged top jobs and £1m in wages with fake CV|work=Plymouth Herald|date=6 March 2017|access-date=19 June 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170306185516/http://www.plymouthherald.co.uk/walter-mitty-builder-blagged-top-jobs-and-1m-in-wages-with-fake-cv/story-30183424-detail/story.html|archive-date=6 March 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://cdn.prospects.ac.uk/pdf/HEDD%20degree%20fraud.pdf|title=Advice and Guidance on Degree Fraud|publisher=Higher Education Degree Datacheck|access-date=18 June 2017}}</ref>

== Indicating earned degrees ==

Depending on the culture and the degree earned, degrees may be indicated by a [[pre-nominal letters#Academic degrees|pre-nominal title]], [[Post-nominal letters#Etiquette for higher educational qualifications|post-nominal letters]], a choice of either, or not indicated at all. In countries influenced by the UK, post-nominal letters are the norm, with only doctorates granting a title, while titles are the norm in many northern European countries.

Depending on the culture and the purpose of the listing, only the highest degree, a selection of degrees, or all degrees might be listed. The awarding institution may be shown and it might be specified if a degree was at [[honours degree|honours]] level, particularly where the honours degree is a separate qualification from the ordinary bachelor's degree.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.massey.ac.nz/massey/fms/AVC%20Academic/documents/MU%20Stafflisting/StaffListingProtocols.doc|title=Protocols for Staff Listings in the University Calendar|publisher=[[Massey University]]|access-date=12 September 2011|date=2008}}</ref>

For member institutions of the [[Association of Commonwealth Universities]], there is a standard list of abbreviations for university names given in the Commonwealth Universities Yearbook. In practice, many variations are used and the Yearbook notes that the abbreviations used may not match those used by the universities concerned.<ref name=ACU>{{cite web|url=http://www.massey.ac.nz/massey/fms/AVC%20Academic/documents/MU%20Stafflisting/ACUGuide%20Abbrev.pdf|publisher=[[Massey University]]|title=ABBREVIATIONS: NAMES OF UNIVERSITIES, ETC|access-date=12 September 2016}}</ref> For some British universities it is traditional to use Latin abbreviations, notably 'Oxon' and 'Cantab' for the universities of [[University of Oxford|Oxford]] and [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge]] respectively,<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/oxon|title=Oxon|dictionary=[[Oxford English Dictionary]]|access-date=21 December 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/cantab|dictionary=[[Oxford English Dictionary]]|title=Cantab|access-date=21 December 2015}}</ref> in spite of these having been superseded by English 'Oxf' and 'Camb' in official university usage,<ref name=OxCalendar>{{cite book|url=https://www.ox.ac.uk/media/global/wwwoxacuk/localsites/gazette/documents/universitycalendar/Calendar_Style_Guide_2015.pdf|title=Calendar Style Guide 2015|publisher=[[University of Oxford]]|date=2015|access-date=3 September 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180820010016/https://www.ox.ac.uk/media/global/wwwoxacuk/localsites/gazette/documents/universitycalendar/Calendar_Style_Guide_2015.pdf|archive-date=20 August 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref> particularly in order to distinguish the [[Oxbridge MA]] from an earned MA.<ref>{{cite news|newspaper=[[The Guardian]]|date=18 October 1999|author=John Carvel|access-date=30 May 2016|url=https://www.theguardian.com/education/1999/oct/18/highereducation.news1|title=Oxbridge defends automatic MAs under threat from quality watchdog}}</ref> Other Latin abbreviations commonly used include 'Cantuar' for [[Lambeth degree]]s (awarded by the [[Archbishop of Canterbury]]),<ref name=OxCalendar/> 'Dunelm' for [[Durham University]],<ref>{{cite news|newspaper=Times of Malta|url=http://www.timesofmalta.com/articles/view/20120123/local/new-designation-for-university-of-malta-degrees.403528|title=New designation for University of Malta degrees|date=23 January 2012|access-date=20 December 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite book| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RYJMAQAAQBAJ&q=Dunelm|title=Independent Schools Yearbook 2012–2013|publisher=A&C Black|isbn=9781408181188|date=20 June 2013}}</ref> 'Ebor' for the [[University of York]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cs.york.ac.uk/people/mark|title=Dr Mark Nicholson|publisher=University of York, Department of Computer Science|access-date=20 December 2015}}</ref> and 'Exon' for the [[University of Exeter]].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RYJMAQAAQBAJ&q=Exon|title=Independent Schools Yearbook 2012–2013|publisher=A&C Black|isbn=9781408181188|date=20 June 2013}}</ref> The [[Ancient universities of Scotland]] and the [[University of London]] have abbreviations that are the same in English and Latin. (See {{Section link|Universities in the United Kingdom|Post-nominal abbreviations}} for a more complete list and discussion of abbreviations for British universities.)

Confusion can result from universities sharing similar names, e.g. the [[University of York]] in the UK and [[York University]] in Canada or [[Newcastle University]] in the UK and the [[University of Newcastle (Australia)|University of Newcastle]] in Australia. In this case, the convention is to include a country abbreviation with the university's name. For example, 'York (Can.)' and 'York (UK)' or 'Newc (UK)' and 'Newc (Aus.) are commonly used to denote degrees conferred by these universities where the potential for confusion exists,<ref>e.g. {{cite web|url=https://www.uoguelph.ca/registrar/calendars/undergraduate/2013-2014/c17/sec_d0e123667.shtml|title=XVII. Administration and Faculty: College of Social and Applied Human Sciences: Department of Sociology and Anthropology|work=2013–2014 Undergraduate Calendar|publisher=[[University of Guelph]]|access-date=12 September 2016}}</ref> and institution names are given in this form in the Commonwealth Universities Yearbook.<ref name=ACU/>

Abbreviations used for degrees vary between countries and institutions, e.g. MS indicates [[Master of Science]] in the US and places following American usage, but [[Master of Surgery]] in the UK and most Commonwealth countries, where the standard abbreviation for Master of Science is MSc. Common abbreviations include BA and MA for [[Bachelor of Arts|Bachelor]] and [[Master of Arts]], BS/BSc and MS/MSc for [[Bachelor of Science|Bachelor]] and [[Master of Science]], MD for [[Doctor of Medicine]] and PhD for [[Doctor of Philosophy]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/master-of-science?a=british|title=Master of Science|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|work=Cambridge Dictionary|access-date=12 September 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.tcd.ie/hr/assets/pdf/procedure08-emp_research.pdf|title=Commonwealth University Degree Abbreviations.|pages=17–42|publisher=[[Trinity College Dublin]]|access-date=12 September 2016}}</ref>

== Online degree ==
{{Main|Online degree}}

An online degree is an academic degree (usually a college degree, but sometimes the term includes high school diplomas and non-degree certificate programs) that can be earned primarily or entirely on a [[distance learning]] basis through the use of an Internet-connected computer, rather than attending college in a traditional campus setting. Improvements in technology, the increasing use of the Internet worldwide, and the need for people to have flexible school schedules that enable them to work while attending school have led to a proliferation of online colleges that award associate's, bachelor's, master's, and doctoral degrees.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Definition of an Online Degree|url=http://www.solveyourproblem.com/online-degrees/online-degree-definition.shtml|website=Solveyourproblem.com|date = 2007}}</ref>

== Degree systems by regions ==
{{more citations needed|section|date=July 2022}}

=== Asia ===

==== Bangladesh, India and Pakistan ====
Bangladesh and India mostly follow the [[Colonial India|colonial era]] [[United Kingdom|British]] system for the classification of degrees,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Roy |first1=Sudipta |last2=Huq |first2=Samia |last3=Rob |first3=Aisha Binte Abdur |date=1 November 2020 |title=Faith and education in Bangladesh: A review of the contemporary landscape and challenges |journal=International Journal of Educational Development |language=en |volume=79 |pages=102290 |doi=10.1016/j.ijedudev.2020.102290 |issn=0738-0593|doi-access=free |hdl=10822/1086347 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> however, Pakistan has recently switched{{when|date=October 2023}} to the US model of a two-year associate degree and a four-year bachelor's degree program. The arts, referring to the performing arts and literature, may confer a Bachelor of Arts (BA) and a Master of Arts (MA). Management degrees are also classified under 'arts' but are nowadays considered a separate stream, with degrees of Bachelor of Business Administration (BBA) and Master of Business Administration (MBA). Science refers to the basic sciences and natural science ([[Biology]], [[Physics]], [[Chemistry]], etc.); the corresponding degrees are Bachelor of Science (BSc) and Master of Science (MSc).

[[Information technology|Information Technology]] degrees are conferred specially in the field of [[computer science]], and include Bachelor of Science in Information Technology (B.Sc.IT.) and Master of Science in Information Technology (M.Sc.IT.). The engineering degree in India follows two nomenclatures, [[Bachelor of Engineering]] (B.Eng.) and [[Bachelor of Technology]] (B.Tech.). Both represent bachelor's degree in [[engineering]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Earnest|first1=Joshua|last2=Gupta|first2=S.K.|last3=Sthuthi|first3=Rachel|date=2018 |title=Need of Two Distinct Baccalaureate Engineering Programmes in India |journal=University News—A Weekly Journal of Higher Education, Pub: Association of Indian Universities. 12–18.}}</ref> In Pakistan, engineering degrees are [[Bachelor of Engineering]] (B.E.) and [[Bachelor of Science in Engineering]] (B.S./B.Sc. Engineering). Both are the same in [[curriculum]], duration and pattern, and differ only in nomenclature. The engineering degree in Bangladesh is a [[Bachelor of Science in Engineering]] (B.Sc. Engineering). Other degrees include the medical degree ([[Bachelor of Medicine & Bachelor of Surgery]] (MBBS)), dental degree ([[Bachelor of Dental Surgery]] (BDS)) and computer application degrees ([[Bachelor of Computer Application]] (BCA)) and [[Master of Computer Application]] (MCA).

==== Indonesia ====
Indonesia follows a higher education system that originated from the Dutch colonial period. However, over the years, Indonesia has transitioned from the Dutch degree classification system and developed its own academic distinctions by translating and adapting its degree structure.

All degrees in Indonesia follow standardized regulations. The duration of each program is specified by Regulation of the Minister of Education and Culture of the Republic of Indonesia Number 3 of 2020 on National Standards of Higher Education.<ref>https://peraturan.go.id/id/permendikbud-no-3-tahun-2020</ref> The regulation outlines the maximum duration and minimum credit requirements (Semester Credit Units or SKS) for each level of study without counting academic leave.
* Diploma 1 (D1): Usually and fastest 1 academic year, maximum 2 academic years, with a minimum of 36 SKS.
* Diploma 2 (D2): Usually 2 academic years, fastest 1.5 years, maximum 3 academic years, with a minimum of 72 SKS. Similar to US Associate degree.
* Diploma 3 (D3): Usually 3 academic years, fastest 2.5 years, maximum 5 academic years, with a minimum of 108 SKS. According to the Ministry of Higher Education, Science, and Technology,<ref>https://piln.kemdikbud.go.id/faq</ref> only a Bachelor (Hons)'s degree is considered equivalent to an Indonesian bachelor's degree (S1). A standard bachelor's degree without an internship, final project, or thesis is recognized as equivalent to an Indonesian senior associate degree (D3) instead.
* Bachelor's degree (Sarjana) & Applied bachelor's degree (Sarjana Terapan) usually denoted as Diploma 4 (D4): Usually 4 academic years, fastest 3.5 years, maximum 7 academic years, with a minimum of 144 SKS.
* Professional degree (Profesi): Usually 1–2 academic years, fastest 1 year, maximum 3 academic years after completing a bachelor's or applied bachelor's degree, with a minimum of 24 SKS.
* Master's degree (Magister), Applied master's degree (Magister Terapan), or Medical Specialist program (Spesialis): Usually 2 academic years, fastest 1.5 years, maximum 4 academic years for non-Medical Specialist after completing a bachelor's or applied bachelor's degree, with a minimum of 36 SKS.
* Doctorate (Doktor), Applied Doctorate (Doktor Terapan), or Subspecialist program (Subspesialis): Usually 3–4 academic years, fastest 2 years, maximum 7 academic years for non-Medical Subspecialist after completing a master's, applied master's, or specialist program, with a minimum of 42 SKS.

According to the same regulation, one SKS credit consists of the minimum of:
* 50 minutes of classroom study,
* 60 minutes of assignments,
* 60 minutes of independent learning,
Totaling 170 minutes per week.

Since a semester consists of 14 or 15 weeks of coursework and 1 or 2 weeks of exams, one SKS translates to an average of 40 hours of study per semester. Comparatively, one European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System (ECTS) credit equals 28 hours of study, meaning that one Indonesian SKS is approximately equivalent to 1.5 ECTS. Therefore, a bachelor's degree in Indonesia (minimum 144 SKS) is roughly equivalent to 216 ECTS, which surpasses the standard European requirement of 180 ECTS for a bachelor's degree.

All degrees in Indonesia grant academic titles, which are often used in formal and social settings, including on unofficial documents such as marriage invitations. The titles conferred upon graduates are regulated by:
* Decree of the Director General of Higher Education, Research, and Technology of the Ministry of Education, Culture, Research, and Technology Number 163/E/Kpt/2022, which governs the naming of programs for academic and professional degrees (bachelor, master, doctorate, professional, and medical specialist and subspecialist degrees).<ref>https://pusatinformasi.sister.kemdikbud.go.id/hc/en-gb/article_attachments/32086493172633</ref>
* Decree of the Director General of Vocational Education of the Ministry of Education, Culture, Research, and Technology Number 27/D/M/2022, which regulates the vocational higher education programs, including one-year to three-year associate degrees, four year associate degrees or also known as applied bachelor's degrees, applied master's degrees, and applied doctorate degrees.<ref>https://lldikti3.kemdikbud.go.id/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/Kepdirjen-Diksi-No.-27-Tahun-2022-Tentang-Daftar-Nama-Profram-Studi-Jenis-Pendidikan-Tinggi-Vokasi.pdf</ref>

Indonesian academic degrees are denoted with specific abbreviations that indicate the field of study. The degree structure follows a standardized pattern, where XX represents the specific field of study:
* Diploma 1 (D1): Graduates receive the title A.P.XX (Ahli Pratama) or Junior/first Expert
* Diploma 2 (D2): Graduates receive the title A.Ma.XX (Ahli Muda) or Junior Expert
* Diploma 3 (D3): Graduates are awarded A.Md.XX (Ahli Madya) or Associate Expert
* Bachelor's Degree (S1/Sarjana): Denoted as S.XX (e.g., S.T. for Sarjana Teknik (Bachelor in engineering), and S.H. for Sarjana Hukum (Bachelor in Law).
* Applied bachelor's degree (D4/Sarjana Terapan): Uses the S.Tr.XX (Sarjana Terapan) designation.
* Master's Degree (S2/Magister): Uses M.XX (Magister) to represent the field of study, such as M.T. for Magister Teknik (Master of Engineering) and M.Hum. for Magister Humaniora (Master of Humanities).
* Applied master's degree (S2 Terapan/Magister Terapan): Uses M.Tr.XX (Magister Terapan) to represent the field of study, such as M.Tr.T. for Magister Terapan Teknik (Master of Applied Engineering).
* Doctorate (S3/Doktor): The title Dr. is used, making it the only current Indonesian academic degree with a pre-nominal title instead of post-nominal letters.
* Professional Degrees (Profesi): Various titles are used depending on the profession, such as Ir. (for engineers), Drs. (for social sciences before the 1990s), Ak. (for accountants), Apt. (for pharmacists), Sp.XX for medical specialists, and Subsp.XX for medical subspecialist.
Due to the numerous fields of study, there are hundreds of different academic degree abbreviations in Indonesia. By understanding these abbreviations, one can determine the graduate's field of expertise and their educational background.

=====Old System=====
Before Indonesia adopted its modern degree classification, the country used a system copied from the Dutch colonial academic structure, which in Netherlands remained extant to 2002. In this system, university students typically studied for five years before graduating. This structure was different from the modern four-year bachelor's (S1) degree, as it allowed graduates to proceed directly to a doctorate (S3) program without first obtaining a master's (S2) degree. This system included pre-nominal academic titles that have largely been phased out but are still recognized, for those who graduated before 1992. Some of these titles are still in limited use today.
* Ir. (Ingenieur, later Insinyur) – Originally awarded to graduates of engineering, agriculture, environment, and technical fields, equivalent to today's Master of Engineering (M.T.). While the title is still in use today, it now signifies a professional engineer rather than an academic degree. As a result, newer graduates who obtain this title typically hold both Ir. [Name], M.T.
* Drs. (Doctorandus, later Doktorandus) - Awarded to male graduates of natural and social sciences and humanities, equivalent to today's master's degree (S2).
* Dra. (Doctoranda, later Doktoranda) - The female equivalent of Drs., awarded in same fields.
* Dr. (Doctor, later Doktor) - A title for doctorate holders, which remains in use today as the only Indonesian academic title placed before a name.
* Mr. (Shortening of Meester in de Rechten) - A title for law graduates. It was the first academic title to be abolished and the only one required to be converted to another title (S.H. or Bachelor of Law) as it was in Dutch rather than Latin, under Presidential Decree No. 265 of 1962, as part of President Soekarno's broader efforts to eliminate the Dutch linguistic legacy in Indonesia.

Doktorandus (Drs.) and Doktoranda (Dra.) originated from Latin, meaning "one who is to become a doctor." These titles indicated that the degree holder only needed to complete a dissertation to obtain a doctorate. Until the 1960s, diplomas from Bandung Institute of Technology (ITB) explicitly stated that holders were entitled to pursue a doctorate upon defending a thesis. However, during the 1950s–1960s, Indonesia shortened undergraduate programs from 5–5.5 years to 4–4.5 years due to the need to increase the number of graduates, and differences in international education structures, with Indonesia later choosing to align with the Anglo-American education system due to U.S. influence.

After the 1970s, for example ITB replaced Doktorandus and Insinyur (Engineer) titles with Sarjana (Bachelor) degrees. However, these titles remained granted and used until 1992 in other universities or institutes. By aligning with Anglo education standards, Indonesia transitioned to the B.Sc. - M.Sc. - Ph.D. model, similar to the Bologna Process. Unlike the previous system, where five-year graduates could proceed directly to a Ph.D., students must now complete an S1 (Bachelor's) and S2 (Master's) before pursuing S3 (Doctorate).

Despite this transition, many pre-1992 graduates retained the use of their original titles granted upon their graduation, making formats such as Prof. Dr. Drs. [Name] common among senior academics and professionals.

==== Sri Lanka ====
[[Sri Lanka]], like many other commonwealth countries, follows the British system, but with its own distinctions. Degrees are approved by the [[University Grants Commission (Sri Lanka)|University Grants Commission]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nishath |first1=S. Shabnam |last2=Somaratna |first2=Sajeewanie D. |date=29 June 2021 |title=Application of Marketing Techniques in Library Services and Challenges Faced by University Librarians in Sri Lanka |journal=Journal of the University Librarians Association of Sri Lanka |language=en |volume=24 |issue=2 |pages=120–137 |doi=10.4038/jula.v24i2.8049 |issn=2579-2253|doi-access=free }}</ref>

=== Africa ===

==== Tunisia ====
Tunisia's educational grading system, ranging from elementary school to Ph.D. programs, operates on a scale of 0 to 20. The minimum score for passing is set at 10 out of 20. This numerical system exclusively evaluates a student's academic accomplishments, serving as the determinant for admission into advanced programs. For instance, a student's grades obtained for their bachelor's degree are considered when they apply for a Master's program. Level 4 courses, which include the first year of a Bachelor's program or a [[Higher National Certificate]] (HNC), may allow students to enter directly into the second year of a Bachelor's program, provided that the course they completed is the same as the one they are applying for.

==== South Africa ====
In South Africa, grades (also known as "marks") are presented as a percentage, with anything below 50% considered a failure. Students who receive a failing grade may have the opportunity to rewrite the exam, depending on the criteria established by their institution.

Degrees in almost any field of study can be pursued at one of the institutions in the country, with certain institutions being known for excelling in specific fields. Major fields of study across the country include [[Arts]], [[Commerce]], [[Engineering]], [[Law]], [[Medicine]], [[Science]], and [[Theology]].

The South African Qualifications Authority (SAQA)<ref>{{cite web |title=South African Qualifications Authority (SAQA) |url=https://nationalgovernment.co.za/units/view/178/south-african-qualifications-authority-saqa |date=2012–2023 |website=National Government of South Africa |access-date=4 November 2023}}</ref> has developed a credit-based system for degrees, with different levels of National Qualifications Framework (NQF) ratings corresponding to each degree level. For example, an undergraduate degree in Science is rated at NQF level 6, while an additional year of study in that discipline would result in an NQF level 8 (honours degree) rating.

==== Kenya ====
In Kenya, the first undergraduate degree is pursued after students have completed four years of secondary school education and attained at least a C+ (55–59%) on the Kenya Certificate of Secondary Education (KCSE). Students pursuing a degree in engineering, such as B.Sc. [[Mechanical Engineering]] or B.Sc. [[Electrical and Electronics Engineering]], are required to join programs that are accredited by the Engineers Board of Kenya and the Commission for University Education. The B.Sc. degree in engineering typically takes five years to complete. A degree in medicine or surgery may take six to seven years, while a degree in [[education]] or management takes around four years.

For students pursuing a master's degree, they must have completed an undergraduate degree and attained at least a second-class honours upper division (60–69%) or lower division plus at least two years of relevant experience. Most master's degree programs take two years to complete. In an engineering master's degree program, students are typically required to publish at least one [[scientific paper]] in a [[peer-reviewed journal]].

To pursue a doctor of philosophy degree, students must have completed a relevant master's degree. They are required to carry out a supervised scientific study for a minimum of three years and publish at least two scientific first-author papers in peer-reviewed journals relevant to their area of study.

Currently, Kenya is implementing a Competency Based Curriculum (CBC) that follows a 2–6–3–3 education system to replace the existing 8–4–4 system which allows confirmation of undergraduate degrees upon successful completion. The CBC system was introduced in 2017.<ref>{{Cite web |date=4 April 2021 |title=CBC New Kenya Education System |url=https://www.nexxushub.com/blog/CBC-New-Kenya-Education-System |access-date=23 August 2023 |website=NexxusHub Blog |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Amutabi |first=Maurice |date=2019 |title=Competency Based Curriculum (CBC) and the end of an Era in Kenya's Education Sector and Implications for Development: Some Empirical Reflections |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/350174401 |journal=Journal of Popular Education in Africa |volume=3 |issue=10 |pages=45–66 |via=ResearchGate}}</ref>

=== Europe ===
{{Main|Bologna process|European Higher Education Area|European Qualifications Framework}}
Since the [[Convention on the Recognition of Qualifications concerning Higher Education in the European Region]] in 1997 and the [[Bologna Declaration]] in 1999, higher education systems in Europe have been undergoing harmonisation through the [[Bologna Process]], which is based on a three-cycle hierarchy of degrees: ''[[Bachelor's]]/[[Licence]]'' – ''[[Master's]]'' – ''[[Doctorate]]''. This system is gradually replacing the two-stage system previously used in some countries and is combined with other elements such as the [[European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System]] (ECTS) and the use of [[Diploma Supplement]]s to make comparisons between qualifications easier.

The European Higher Education Area (EHEA) was formally established in 2010 and, as of September 2016, has 50 members.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ehea.info/members.aspx|title=Members|publisher=European Higher Education Area|access-date=12 September 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101018142934/http://www.ehea.info/members.aspx|archive-date=18 October 2010|url-status=dead}}</ref> The implementation of the various elements of the EHEA varies between countries. Twenty-four countries have fully implemented a national qualifications framework, and a further ten have a framework but have not yet certified it against the [[QF-EHEA|overarching framework]]. In 38 countries, [[European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System|ECTS credits]] are used for all higher education programmes, and 31 countries have fully implemented diploma supplements. Only 11 countries have included all the major points of the [[Lisbon Recognition Convention]] in national legislation.<ref>{{cite book|chapter= 2. DEGREES AND QUALIFICATIONS|pages=47–86|title=The European Higher Education Area in 2015: Bologna Process Implementation Report|chapter-url=http://bologna-yerevan2015.ehea.info/files/2015%20Implementation%20report_20.05.2015.pdf|access-date=12 September 2016|isbn=978-92-9201-847-4 |publisher=Publications Office of the European Union.|author=European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice|date=2015}}</ref>

Since 2008, the [[European Union]] has been developing the [[European Qualifications Framework]] (EQF). This is an eight-level framework designed to allow cross-referencing of the various national qualifications frameworks. While it is not specific to [[higher education]], the top four levels (5–8) correspond to the short cycle, first cycle, second cycle, and third cycle of the EHEA.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eqavet.eu/gns/policy-context/european-vet-initiatives/european-qualifications-framework.aspx|title=European Qualifications Framework for lifelong learning|access-date=13 September 2016|publisher= European Quality Assurance in Vocational Education and Training}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://ec.europa.eu/ploteus/en/content/descriptors-page|title=Descriptors defining levels in the European Qualifications Framework (EQF)|access-date=13 September 2016|publisher=[[European Commission]]}}</ref>

==== Austria ====
In [[Austria]], there are currently two parallel systems of academic degrees:
* the traditional two-cycle system of [[Magister degree|Magister]]/[[Diplom]] followed by the [[Doctorate]], and
* the three cycle system of [[Bachelor's degree|Bachelor]], [[Master's degree|Master]] and [[Doctorate]] as defined by the [[Bologna process]].

The two-cycle degree system was phased out by 2010, with a few exceptions. However, some of the established degree naming has been preserved, allowing universities to award the "Diplom-Ingenieur" (and for a while also the "Magister") to graduates of the new-style Master programmes.<ref>{{cite book|last2=Kasparovsky |first2=Heinz |last1=Wadsack |first1=Ingrid |title=Higher Education in Austria |place=[[Vienna]] |publisher=Austrian Federal Ministry of Education, Science and Culture |year=2004 |edition=2nd |url=http://www.fulbright.at/dokumente/us_citizens/general/hssystem_04e.pdf |isbn=3-85456-453-8 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070811023740/http://www.fulbright.at/dokumente/us_citizens/general/hssystem_04e.pdf |archive-date=11 August 2007 }}</ref>

==== Belgium ====
While higher education is regulated by the three [[Communities, regions and language areas of Belgium|communities of Belgium]], all have common and comparable systems of degrees that were adapted to the [[Bologna Process|Bologna structure]] during the 2000s. The primary 3-cycle structure is called BMD (Bachelor-Master-Doctorate; {{langx|fr|Bachelier-Master-Doctorat}} or {{langx|nl|Bachelor-Master-Doctoraat}}).

In the first cycle, the [[Bachelor's degree]] is issued after 180 [[ECTS grading scale|ECTS]] (3 years, [[European Qualifications Framework|EQF]] level 6). Other first cycle degrees include the one-year {{Ill|Advanced Bachelor's degree (Belgium)|lt=Advanced Bachelor's degree|fr|Bachelier de spécialisation|nl|Bachelor na bachelor}} degree ({{langx|fr|Bachelier de spécialisation|lit=Specialized Bachelor}}; {{langx|nl|Bachelor-na-bachelor|lit=Bachelor-after-bachelor}}) and the Brevet (in the French-speaking Community only) for short-cycle higher education programmes.

Bachelor's degrees are followed in the second cycle ([[European Qualifications Framework|EQF]] level 7) by {{Ill|Master's degree (Belgium)|lt=Master's degrees|fr|Master (Belgique)}} that last two years, completing an extra 120 [[ECTS grading scale|ECTS]] credits. The master's degree can be followed by an {{Ill|Advanced Master's degree (Belgium)|lt=Advanced Master's degree|fr|Master de spécialisation (Belgique)|nl|Master na master}} ({{langx|fr|Master de spécialisation|lit=Specialized Master}}; {{langx|nl|Master-na-master|lit=Master-after-master}}) that lasts one year (60 ECTS).

The third cycle of Belgium's higher education is covered by the {{Ill|Doctorate (Belgium)|lt=Doctorate|fr|Doctorat (Belgique)}} degree ({{langx|fr|Doctorat}}; {{langx|nl|Doctoraat}}) that covers a 3-to-7-year-long [[Doctor of Philosophy|PhD]], depending on whether the doctoral student has teaching responsibilities in addition to conducting research or not (typically 6 years for teaching assistants and 4 years for research-only mandates).

==== Czech Republic ====
The Czech Republic has implemented the Bologna process, and functionally has three degrees: Bachelor (3 years), Master (2 years after Bachelor) and Doctor (4 years after Master).

The Czech Republic also has voluntary academic titles called "small doctorates" (e.g. RNDr. for natural sciences, PhDr. for philosophy, JUDr. for law etc.) which are achieved after passing an additional exam. Medical students do not get bachelor's or master's degrees, but instead attend a six-year program and obligatory exam they achieve the title MUDr. {{clarify|text=(equivalent to [[Doctor of Medicine|MD]] degree in the United States of America)|reason="MD degree" in the US sense of a primary medical qualification or the UK sense of a research degree in medicine or a different meaning from somewhere else?|date=October 2016}}, or MDDr. for dentists and MVDr. for [[Veterinarian|veterinary physicians]]. They can also get a "big doctorate" ([[Doctor of Philosophy|Ph.D.]]) after another three or four years of study.

Bachelor's degrees, master's degrees and small doctorates in the form of letters (Bc., Mgr., Ing., ...) are listed before the person's name, and  Doctor's degrees (Ph.D.) are listed after name (e.g. MUDr. Jan Novák, Ph.D.). The Czech Republic previously had more [[Education in the Czech Republic#Tertiary education|degrees]] that were awarded.{{citation needed|date=July 2022}}

==== Denmark ====
Before the adoption of the Bologna Process, the lowest degree that would normally be studied at universities in [[Denmark]] was equivalent to a master's degree (''kandidatgrad''). Officially, a bachelor's degree was always obtained after 3 years' university studies.

Various medium-length (2–4 years) professional degrees have been adopted, so they now have status as professional bachelor's degrees of varying length. As opposed to academic bachelor's degrees, they are considered to be "applied" degrees. A professional bachelor's degree is 180, 210, or 240 ECTS-points.<ref name="ufm.dk">{{cite web|url=http://ufm.dk/en/education-and-institutions/higher-education/degrees-and-qualifications|title=Degrees and qualifications — Uddannelses – og Forskningsministeriet|website=Ufm.dk|access-date=18 August 2017}}</ref>

The academic degrees available at universities are:<ref name="ufm.dk"/>
* ''bachelor i <field of study>'' (bachelor's degree = 180 ECTS-points)
* ''cand. <Latin abbreviation of field of study>'' (master's degree = 120 ECTS-points, except Medicine, which is 180 ECTS-points and Veterinary Medicine, which is 150 ECTS-points)
* ''ph.d.'' (PhD degree = normally 180 ECTS-points)
* ''dr. <Latin abbreviation of field of study>'' (higher doctoral degree = normally after a minimum of 5 years of individual and original research)

==== Finland ====
Historically, the Finnish higher education system is derived from the German system. The current system of higher education comprises two types of higher education institutions, the universities and the [[Institute of technology|polytechnics]], many of whom refer to themselves as universities of applied sciences (UAS).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.okm.fi/OPM/Koulutus/yliopistokoulutus/?lang=en|title=Etusivu|website=Opetus- ja kulttuuriministeriö|access-date=18 August 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.okm.fi/OPM/Koulutus/ammattikorkeakoulutus/?lang=en|title=Etusivu|website=Opetus- ja kulttuuriministeriö|access-date=18 August 2017}}</ref> With the exception of a few fields, such as medicine and dentistry, the Finnish system of higher education degrees is in compliance with the Bologna process. Universities award bachelor's degrees (''kandidaatti / kandidat''), Master's degrees (''maisteri / magister'') and doctoral degrees (''lisensiaatin tutkinto / licentiat examen'' and ''tohtorin tutkinto / doktorexamen''). In most fields, the system of doctoral degrees is two-tier, the degree of licentiate is an independent academic degree but completing the degree of doctor does not require completion of a licentiate degree. The polytechnics (universities of applied sciences) have the right to award bachelor's and master's degrees; the degree titles are distinct from the titles used for university degrees.

In general, students who are admitted to bachelor studies at a university have the right to continue to studies at master level. At polytechnics, the right to continue to master-level studies has to be applied for separately and there is also a work experience requirement. The majority of master's degree holders have graduated from university.

The degrees awarded by the universities and polytechnics are at par by law, but the content and orientation of studies is different. A master's degree obtained at a polytechnic gives the same academic right to continue studies at doctoral level as a master's degree obtained at a university.

==== France ====
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Degree||colspan=10|Diploma
|-
!Doctorate
|colspan=10 style="text-align:center;" |Doctoral diploma
|-
! rowspan=3|Master||colspan=3 |Universities|| colspan="7" |'''''Grandes écoles''''' '''or colleges ''(écoles supérieures)'''''
|-
!General||Medical and Paramedical||Accounting||Art||Business||Engineering||Military||Public Affairs||Veterinary Science
!Others
|-
|style="text-align:center;" |[[Master's degree (France)|Master's diploma]]<br />''[[diplôme d'études approfondies|DEA]]''<br />''[[diplôme d'études supérieures spécialisées|DESS]]''<br /><small>(both diplomas phased out and no longer delivered)</small>
|style="text-align:center;" |''Diplôme de formation approfondie'' ([[medicine]], [[odontology]], [[pharmacy]]) and ''diplôme d'État de sage-femme''<ref name="D612-34">{{cite web |url=https://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/codes/article_lc/LEGIARTI000027864484/ |title=Article D612-34 du Code de l'éducation |website=Légifrance |access-date=6 January 2024}}</ref><br><br> ''Diplôme d'État de masseur-kinésithérapeute'' ([[physiotherapy]])
|style="text-align:center;" |''Diplôme supérieur de comptabilité et de gestion''<ref>Décret 2012-432 du 30 mars 2012 relatif à l'exercice de l'activité d'expertise comptable.</ref>
|style="text-align:center;" |Architect State Diploma<ref>Article D672-5 du code de l'éducation.</ref><br />''Diplôme national supérieur d'arts plastiques''<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.enseignementsup-recherche.gouv.fr/pid20536/rubrique-bo.html?cid_bo=53296|title=Arrêté du 23-8-2010, attribution du grade aux titulaires du diplôme national supérieur d'arts plastiques délivré par l'École nationale supérieure des beaux-arts|language=fr|website=Enseignemetsup-recherche.gouv.fr|access-date=18 August 2017}}</ref><br />Diploma of the [[École nationale supérieure des arts décoratifs]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.enseignementsup-recherche.gouv.fr/pid20536/rubrique-bo.html?cid_bo=53297|title=Arrêté du 23-8-2010, attribution du grade aux titulaires du diplôme délivré par l'École nationale supérieure des arts décoratifs|language=fr|website=Enseignemetsup-recherche.gouv.fr|access-date=18 August 2017}}</ref><br />''Diplôme national supérieur d'expression plastique''<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.enseignementsup-recherche.gouv.fr/pid20536/rubrique-bo.html?cid_bo=53299|title=Arrêté du 23-8-2010, attribution du grade aux titulaires du diplôme national supérieur d'expression plastique délivré par les établissements d'enseignement supérieur d'arts plastiques (formulation L. 75–10–1)|language=fr|website=Enseignemetsup-recherche.gouv.fr|access-date=18 August 2017}}</ref><br />Graduate diplomas of the [[conservatoire national supérieur de musique et de danse de Paris|Conservatoire de Paris]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://media.enseignementsup-recherche.gouv.fr//file/26/73/0/bulletin_officiel_esr_01-07-10_148730.pdf|title=Arrêté du 31-5-2010, Attribution du grade de master aux titulaires des diplômes de deuxième cycle|language=fr|website=Media.enseignementsup-recherche.gouv.fr|access-date=18 August 2017}}</ref>
|style="text-align:center;" |Diplomas of the [[Université Paris-Dauphine]]<ref>Article D612-34 du code de l'éducation</ref><br /><br />Diplomas of some business schools<ref>{{cite web|language=fr|url= http://cache.media.enseignementsup-recherche.gouv.fr/file/special_4_ESR/61/0/2_arrete_de_grade_255610.pdf|title=Ministère de l'Enseignement supérieur et de la Recherche, Bulletin officiel spécial 4 du 20 juin 2013, 2. Liste des diplômes des établissements d'enseignement supérieur technique privés et consulaires vises par le ministre charge de l'enseignement supérieur et conférant a leurs titulaires le grade de master|website=Cache.media.enseignemetsup-recherche.gouv.fr|access-date=18 August 2017}}</ref>
|style="text-align:center;" |[[Engineer's degree]]<br />''Diplôme de management et contrôle du trafic aérien'' and ''diplôme d'ingénierie des systèmes électroniques de la sécurité aérienne'' of the [[École nationale de l'aviation civile]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.enseignementsup-recherche.gouv.fr/pid20536/rubrique-bo.html?cid_bo=60802&cbo=1|title=Arrêté du 26 juin 2012, attribution du grade aux titulaires du diplôme de management et contrôle du trafic aérien délivré par l'École nationale de l'aviation civile|language=fr|website=Enseignemetsup-recherche.gouv.fr|access-date=18 August 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.enseignementsup-recherche.gouv.fr/pid20536/rubrique-bo.html?cid_bo=60803&cbo=1|title=Arrêté du 26 juin 2012, attribution du grade aux titulaires du diplôme d'ingénierie des systèmes électroniques de la sécurité aérienne délivré par l'École nationale de l'aviation civile|website=Enseignemetsup-recherche.gouv.fr|access-date=18 August 2017}}</ref>
|style="text-align:center;" |Diploma of the [[École spéciale militaire de Saint-Cyr]]<ref>Arrêté du 27 février 2014 relatif à l'attribution du grade de master aux officiers diplômés de l'Ecole spéciale militaire de Saint-Cyr</ref>
|style="text-align:center;" |Diploma of an [[institut d'études politiques]]
|style="text-align:center;" |''Diplôme d'études fondamentales vétérinaires''<ref name="D612-34" />
|Some ''grande école'' and college [[Accredited diploma (France)|accredited diplomas]] and [[Master's degree (France)|master's degrees]] ([[Communication studies|communication]], [[Journalism school|journalism]], [[Film studies|film]], etc.)
|-
!''Licence'' and bachelor
|style="text-align:center;" |[[Licence (France)|Licenciate's diploma]]
[[Bachelor of Technical Studies (France)|Bachelor of Technical Studies (BUT)]]
|style="text-align:center;" |''Diplôme de formation générale'' ([[medicine]], [[midwifery]], [[odontology]], [[pharmacy]])<ref name="D612-32-2">{{cite web |url=https://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/codes/id/LEGIARTI000031853272 |title=Article Article D612-32-2 du Code de l'éducation |website=Légifrance |access-date=6 January 2024}}</ref><br />Nurse State Diploma<br />[[Ergotherapy|Ergotherapist]] State Diploma<ref>Article D636-69 du code de l'éducation</ref>
|style="text-align:center;" |''Diplôme de comptabilité et de gestion''<ref>Décret 2012-432 du 30 mars 2012 relatif à l'exercice de l'activité d'expertise comptable</ref>
|style="text-align:center;" |''Diplôme d'études en architecture''<ref>Article D672-5 du code de l'éducation</ref><br />Undergraduate diplomas of the [[conservatoire national supérieur de musique et de danse de Paris|Conservatoire de Paris]]
|
|
|style="text-align:center;" |Diploma of the [[École militaire interarmes]]<ref>Article D675-19 du code de l'éducation</ref>
|
|
|Some ''grande école'' and college [[Accredited diploma (France)|accredited diplomas]] and [[Licentiate's degree|licenciate's degree]] ([[Communication studies|communication]], [[Journalism school|journalism]], [[Film studies|film]], etc.)
|-
!Baccalaureate
|style="text-align:center;" colspan=10|''Baccalauréat''<nowiki/>'s diploma
|}

The French national education system makes a distinction between a ''diplôme national'' ("national degree") and ''[[diplôme universitaire]]'' ("university degree"). The former, which are considered to have a higher status, are controlled by the state and issued by universities on behalf of the responsible ministry; the latter are controlled and granted by the universities themselves.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=muWXCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA112|pages=112–113|title=Higher Education in England and France Since the 1980s|author=C.M.A. Deer|publisher=Symposium Books Ltd. |date=1 January 2002|isbn=9781873927649}}</ref> Additionally, [[Private universities in France|private universities]] and schools may be recognised by the state with a ''diplôme visé'' ("recognised degree") and then, after five years of recognition, have their degrees validated by the state, the validation having to be renewed every six years.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://wenr.wes.org/2015/09/education-france|title=Education in France|website=World Education News and Reviews|publisher=[[World Education Services]]|access-date=6 September 2016|date=8 September 2015}}</ref>

Historically, academic degrees were orientated towards research, and the [[vocational education]] system awarded only diplomas. Since the implementation of the [[Bologna Process]] in France, the degree-granting system is being simplified: schools continue to grant their own diplomas, but the state's recognition in degree awarding is more important than before.

Diploma courses such as the university [[Bachelor of Technical Studies (France)|Bachelor of Technical Studies]] (''bachelor universitaire de technologie''; BUT) are recognised as [[Vocational education|vocational]] [[bachelor's degree]] qualifications worth 180 [[European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System|ECTS]] credits; the [[Brevet de technicien supérieur|Advanced Technician Certificate]] (''brevet de technician supérieur''; BTS) is now recognised as a "short cycle" qualification worth 120 [[European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System|ECTS]] credits, allowing progression from these to academic qualifications.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ec.europa.eu/ploteus/sites/eac-eqf/files/Report-FR-NQF-EQF-VF.pdf|title=Referencing of the national framework of French certification in the light of the European framework of certification for lifelong learning|author= French project working group |date=October 2010|page=13|publisher=Commission Nationale de la Certification Professionelle|access-date=5 September 2016}}</ref> However, in France there are diplomas that are not recognised as degrees, such as specific diplomas designed by colleges (''écoles supérieures''), like the ''[[mastère spécialisé]]'' (accredited by the ''[[Conférence des Grandes écoles|Conférence des Grandes Écoles]]'' but not automatically by the French Government). Since 2002, ''[[grande école]]'' diplomas have been able to award a university degree, such as the [[Sciences Po]] ''Bachelor'', which is a state-[[Accredited diploma (France)|accredited diploma]] that awards a bachelor's degree (''[[Licentiate (degree)|Licence]]'' in French).

The recognised degrees are in three levels, following the [[QF-EHEA|Qualifications Framework of the European Higher Education Area]]. These are the ''licence'' (first level), ''master'' (second level) and ''doctorat'' (third level). All licence degrees take 3 years (180 ECTS credits) and all master's degrees take 2 years (120 ECTS credits). There are also 5-year (300 ECTS credits) [[engineer's degree]]s, which are master's degrees. In addition to the doctorate, which is always a research degree, the ''Diplôme d'Etat de docteur en médicine'' and the ''Diplôme d'Etat de docteur vétérinaire'' are third level qualifications and recognized as level 7 in EQF.<ref>{{cite web|title=National Report regarding the Bologna Process implementation 2012–2015 France|url=http://www.ehea.info/Uploads/SubmitedFiles/5_2015/193215.pdf|publisher=[[EHEA]]|access-date=6 September 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307204624/http://www.ehea.info/Uploads/SubmitedFiles/5_2015/193215.pdf|archive-date=7 March 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==== Germany ====
Traditionally in Germany, students graduated after four-to-six years either with a ''[[Magister degree|Magister]]'' degree in [[social science]]s, [[humanities]], [[linguistics]] or the [[arts]], or with a ''[[Diplom]]'' degree in the [[natural science]]s, [[economics]], [[business administration]], [[political science]], [[sociology]], [[theology]] or [[engineering]]. Those degrees were the first, and at the same time highest, non-[[PhD]]/[[Doctorate]]-titles in many disciplines before their gradual replacement by other Anglo-Saxon-inspired master's and bachelor's degrees under the [[Bologna process]]. The ''Magister'' and ''Diplom'' awarded by universities, both of which require a final thesis, are considered equivalent to a master's degree, although the ''Diplom'' awarded by a [[Fachhochschule|''Fachhochschule'' (university of applied sciences)]] is at bachelor's degree level.<ref name="German education system">{{cite web|url=https://www.kmk.org/fileadmin/Dateien/pdf/Eurydice/Bildungswesen-engl-pdfs/tertiary.pdf|title=Higher education|work=The Education System in the Federal Republic of Germany|author=Secretariat of the Standing Conference of the Ministers of Education and Cultural Affairs|pages=171–172 }}</ref>

A special kind of examination is the ''[[Staatsexamen]]'' (State Examination). It is not an academic degree but a government [[licensure|licensing examination]] that future doctors, dentists, teachers, [[lawyer]]s (solicitors), judges, public prosecutors, patent attorneys and [[pharmacist]]s have to pass in order to be eligible to work in their profession. Students usually study at university for three to six years, depending on the field, before they take the first Staatsexamen. While this is normally at the master's level, a few courses (e.g. primary and lower secondary level teaching), which have a standard study period of three years, are assigned to the bachelor's level.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ec.europa.eu/ploteus/sites/eac-eqf/files/German_EQF_Referencing_Report.pdf|title=German EQF Referencing Report|date=13 June 2013|author=Bundesministerium für Building under Forcing|access-date=14 September 2016|page=216}}</ref> After the first Staatsexamen, teachers and lawyers go through a form of [[pupillage]], the ''Vorbereitungsdienst'', for two years, before they are able to take the second Staatsexamen, which tests their practical abilities in their jobs.<ref name="German education system"/> At some institutions pharmacists and jurists can choose whether to be awarded the first Staatsexamen or a master's degree (or formerly the ''Diplom'').

Since 1999, the traditional degrees have been replaced by [[Bachelor's degree|bachelor's]] (''Bachelor'') and [[Master's degree|master's]] (''Master'') degrees as part of the [[Bologna process#Germany|Bologna process]]. The main reasons for this change are to make degrees internationally comparable and to introduce degrees to the German system that take less time to complete (German students typically took five years or more to earn a ''Magister'' or ''Diplom''). Some universities were initially resistant to this change, considering it a displacement of a venerable tradition for the pure sake of globalization. However, universities had to fulfill the new standard by the end of 2007. Enrollment into ''[[Diplom]]'' and ''[[Magister (degree)|Magister]]'' programs is no longer possible at most universities, with a few exceptions. Programs leading to ''Staatsexamen'' did not usually make the transition to Bologna degrees.

[[Doctorate]]s are issued with various designations, depending on the faculty: e.g., Doktor der Naturwissenschaften (Doctor of Natural Science); Doktor der Rechtswissenschaften (Doctor of Law); Doktor der Medizin (Doctor of Medicine); Doktor der Philosophie (Doctor of Philosophy), to name just a few. Multiple doctorates and [[Honorary degree|honorary doctorates]] are often listed, and even used in forms of address, in German-speaking countries. A Diplom, Magister, Master's or Staatsexamen student can proceed to a doctorate. Well-qualified bachelor's graduates can also enrol directly into PhD programs after a procedure to determine their aptitude is administered by the admitting university.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.kmk.org/fileadmin/Dateien/pdf/Eurydice/Bildungswesen-engl-pdfs/tertiary.pdf|title=Higher education|work=The Education System in the Federal Republic of Germany|author=Secretariat of the Standing Conference of the Ministers of Education and Cultural Affairs|pages=173–174 }}</ref> The doctoral degree—such as Dr. rer. nat., Dr. phil. and others—is the highest academic degree in Germany and is generally a research degree. The degree ''Dr. med.'' for [[medical doctor]]s has to be viewed differently; medical students usually write their doctoral theses right after they have completed studies, without any previously conducted scientific research, just as students in other disciplines write a ''Diplom'', ''Magister'' or ''Master's'' thesis.{{Citation needed|date=September 2016}} Higher doctorates, such as the D.Sc. degree in the UK, are not present in the German system.

However, sometimes incorrectly regarded as a degree, the [[Habilitation]] is a higher academic qualification—in Germany, Austria, Switzerland and the Czech Republic—that grants a further teaching and research endorsement after a doctorate. It is earned by writing a second thesis (the ''Habilitationsschrift'') or presenting a portfolio of first-author publications on an advanced topic. The exact requirements for satisfying a Habilitation depend on individual universities. The "habil.", as it is abbreviated, to indicate that a habilitation has been awarded after the doctorate, was traditionally the conventional qualification for serving at least as a ''Privatdozent'' (e.g. "PD Dr. habil.") (senior lecturer) in an academic professorship. Some German universities no longer require the Habilitation, although preference may still be given to applicants who have this credential in securing academic posts in the more traditional fields.

====Greece====
{{see also | Higher education in Greece}}

In Greece access to university is possible after national exams (Panhellenic Exams).
The Greek academic degrees are:
* Ptychio (EQL Level 6 or bachelor's degree)
* Diploma (EQL Level 7 or Integrated master's degree)
* Metaptychiako Diploma Eidikefsis (EQL Level 7 or master's degree)
* Didaktoriko Diploma (EQL Level 8 or Doctorate)

==== Ireland ====
[[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]] operates under a National Framework of Qualifications (NFQ). The school-leaving qualification attained by students is called the Leaving Certificate. It is considered as Level 4–5 in the framework. This qualification is the traditional route of entry into third-level education. There are also Level 5 qualifications in certain vocational subjects (e.g. Level 5 Certificate in Restaurant Operations) awarded by the Further Education and Training Awards Council (FETAC). Advanced Certificates at Level 6 are also awarded by FETAC.

The Higher Education and Training Awards Council (HETAC) awards the following: A [[higher certificate]] at Level 6; An [[ordinary bachelor]]'s degree at Level 7; An honours bachelor's degree or [[higher diploma]] at Level 8; A [[master's degree]] or [[postgraduate diploma]] at Level 9; A [[doctoral degree]] or [[higher doctorate]] at Level 10.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nfq.ie/nfq/en/about_NFQ/framework_levels_award_types.html |title=Framework Levels & Award Types – About the NFQ – National Framework of Qualifications |publisher=Nfq.ie |access-date=27 February 2013}}</ref> These are completed in [[institutes of technology]] or [[universities]].

==== Italy ====
{{see also | Higher education in Italy}}

In Italy access to university is possible after gaining the ''Diploma di Maturità'' at 19 years of age, following 5 years of study in a specific high school focused on certain subjects (e.g. ''liceo classico'' focused on classical subjects, including philosophy, ancient Greek and Latin; ''liceo scientifico'' focused on scientific subjects such as maths, chemistry, biology and physics but also including philosophy, ancient Latin and Italian literature; ''liceo linguistico'' focused on foreign languages and literature; ''istituto tecnico'' focused on practical and theoretical subjects such as mechanics, aerospace, shipbuilding, electronics, computer science, telecommunications, chemistry, biology, fashion industry, food industry, building technology, law and economics). After gaining the diploma one can enter university and enrol in any curriculum (e.g. physics, medicine, chemistry, engineering, architecture): all high school diplomas allow access to any university curriculum, although most universities have pre-admission tests.

In 2011, Italy introduced a qualifications framework, known as the ''Quadro dei Titoli Italiani'' (QTI), which tied together, in a three-level system, both the new qualifications introduced as part of the [[Bologna Process]] and the older, pre-Bologna qualifications and which covers qualifications from university institutions and higher-education institutions for fine arts, music and dance (AFAM institutions).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://hubmiur.pubblica.istruzione.it/alfresco/d/d/workspace/SpacesStore/488f990c-b3a7-43cb-8fac-9f1bc8b37ccd/TitoliItaliainglese.pdf|title=Italian Qualifications Framework|publisher=Ministry of Education, University and Research|access-date=25 September 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161010215701/http://hubmiur.pubblica.istruzione.it/alfresco/d/d/workspace/SpacesStore/488f990c-b3a7-43cb-8fac-9f1bc8b37ccd/TitoliItaliainglese.pdf|archive-date=10 October 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref> In addition to academic degrees, many professional qualifications are tied to the QTI at the different levels.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.quadrodeititoli.it/quadrotitoliprofessionali.aspx?IDL=2&qtp=182|title=Professional titles (licences)|access-date=25 September 2016|publisher=Ministero dell'Istruzione, dell'Università e della Ricerca}}</ref>

The first level, tied to the first cycle of the Bologna Process, covers the ''[[laurea]]'' (bachelor's degree) in universities and the ''Diploma accademico di primo livello'' in AFAM institutions.<ref name="QTI new quals">{{cite web|url=http://www.quadrodeititoli.it/Index.aspx?IDL=2|title=Italian Qualification Framework for the Higher Education|access-date=25 September 2016|publisher=Ministero dell'Istruzione, dell'Università e della Ricerca}}</ref> The older qualifications that map to this level are the ''Diploma universitario'' and the ''Diploma di scuole dirette a fini speciali (SDAFS)'' from universities, and the ''Diploma di Conservatorio'', ''Diploma di Istituto Musicale Pareggiato'', ''Diploma dell'Accademia di Belle Arti'', ''Diploma dell'Istituto Superiore delle Industrie Artistiche (ISIA)'', ''Diploma dell'Accademia Nazionale di Danza'' and ''Diploma dell'Accademia Nazionale di Arte Drammatica'' from AFAM institutions.<ref name="QTI old quals">{{cite web|url=http://www.quadrodeititoli.it/titolistudio.aspx?IDL=2|title=Framework of qualifications awarded under the previous system|access-date=25 September 2016|publisher=Ministero dell'Istruzione, dell'Università e della Ricerca}}</ref> The ''laurea'' is obtained after three years of study (180 ECTS credits) and confers the academic title of ''dottore'';<ref name="QTI new quals"/> the older university qualifications at this level took two to three years, with the three-year courses conferring the title of ''dottore''.<ref name="QTI old quals"/>

The second level, tied to the second cycle of the Bologna Process, covers the ''laurea magistrale'' and the ''laurea specialistica'' of university institutions, and the ''Diploma accademico di secondo livello'' of AFAM institutions.<ref name="QTI new quals"/> The old ''Diploma di laurea'' is mapped to this level.<ref name="QTI old quals"/> The ''Laurea magistrale'' and the ''laurea specialistica'' are obtained after two further years of study (120 ECTS credits) and give the academic title of ''dottore magistrale''.<ref name="QTI new quals"/> The old ''Diploma di laurea'' took four to six years but was accessed directly from school, with a possible reduction by one year for those with a related ''diploma'' and also granted the title of ''dottore magistrale''.<ref name="QTI old quals"/>

The third level, tied to the third cycle of the Bologna Process, covers the ''Dottorato di ricerca'' from university institutions and the ''Diploma accademico di formazione alla ricerca'' from AFAM institutions.<ref name="QTI new quals"/> The old ''Dottorato di ricerca'' and ''Diploma di specializzazione'' are tied to this level.<ref name="QTI old quals"/> The ''Dottorato di ricerca'', under both new and old systems, takes a minimum of three years after the ''laurea magistralie/specialistica'', and gives the academic titles of ''Dottore di Ricerca (Dott. Ric.)'' and PhD.<ref name="QTI new quals"/><ref name="QTI old quals"/> The old ''Diploma di specializzazione'' took two to six years and gave the academic title of ''Specialista''.<ref name="QTI old quals"/>

Universities in Italy offer a number of other qualifications, including the ''Master universitario di primo livello'' (1 year/60 ECTS credits, 2nd cycle qualification) and the ''Master universitario di secondo livello'' (1 year/60 ECTS credits, 3rd cycle qualification), continuing from the ''laurea'' and the ''laurea magistrale/specialistica'', respectively. These do not give access to the PhD. The ''Diploma di specializzazione'', which is offered in a few specific professions, takes two to six years and gives the title of ''specialista''. The ''Diploma di perfezionamento'' is a university certificate, aimed at professional training or in specific fields of study, which usually takes one year; it is not allocated a level in the framework.<ref name="QTI other quals">{{cite web|url=http://www.quadrodeititoli.it/altrititoli.aspx?IDL=2|title=Other qualifications|access-date=25 September 2016|publisher=Ministero dell'Istruzione, dell'Università e della Ricerca}}</ref>

AFAM institutions may offer the ''Diploma di perfezionamento o Master'' and ''Diploma accademico di specializzazione''. These are one-year and two-year qualifications, respectively, and may be offered at the second cycle or third cycle level, distinguished by adding ''(I)'' or ''(II)'' after the qualification name. Higher schools for language mediators offer the ''Diploma di mediatore linguistico'', a first-cycle degree that takes three years (180 ECTS credits), and which gives access to the ''laurea specialistica''. Specialisation institutes/schools in psychoterapy offer the ''Diploma di specializzazione in psicoterapia'', a third-cycle qualification that takes at least four years and requires a ''laurea magistrale/specialistica'' in either psychology or medicine and surgery, along with professional registration.<ref name="QTI other quals"/>

==== Netherlands ====
{{See also|Education in the Netherlands}}

In the [[Netherlands]], the structure of academic studies was altered significantly in 1982 when the "{{interlanguage link|Tweefasenstructuur|nl}}" (Two Phase Structure) was introduced by the Dutch Minister of Education, [[Wim Deetman]]. With this structure an attempt was made to standardise all the different studies and to have them conform to similar timetables. An additional effect was that students would be forced to produce results within a preset time-frame or otherwise discontinue their studies. The two-phase structure has been adapted to a bachelor-master structure as a result of the [[Bologna process]].

===== Admission =====
In order for a Dutch student to get access to a university education, the student must complete a six-year pre-university secondary education called ''[[voorbereidend wetenschappelijk onderwijs]]'' (VWO). There are other routes possible, but only if the educational level of the applicant is comparable to that at the end of the standard two levels is access to university education granted. For some studies, specific end levels or disciplines are required, e.g., graduating without having studied [[physics]], [[biology]] and [[chemistry]] will make it impossible to study [[medicine]]. People 21 years old, or older, who do not have the required entrance diplomas, may opt for an entrance exam to be admitted to a higher-educational curriculum. In this exam, they have to prove their command of disciplines considered necessary for pursuing such study. After 1 September 2002, they would be thus admitted to a Bachelor's curriculum, not to a Master's curriculum.

For some disciplines<ref>{{cite web|url=http://universitairebachelors.nl/?c=bacheloropleiding%20zoeken&numerusFixus=1&adv=1|title=Universitaire bachelors – alle 400+ bacheloropleidingen van de Nederlandse universiteiten|work=universitairebachelors.nl}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://universitairemasters.nl/?c=masteropleiding%20zoeken&numerusFixus=1&adv=1|title=Universitaire masters – alle 1200+ masteropleidingen van de Nederlandse universiteiten|work=universitairemasters.nl}}</ref> in the Netherlands, a governmentally determined [[Numerus clausus|limited access]] is in place (although under political review for abolishment, as of February 2011).<ref>{{cite web |author=ANP |url=http://vorige.nrc.nl/binnenland/article2470687.ece/RVZ_schaf_numerus_fixus_bij_geneeskunde_af |title=RVZ: 'schaf numerus fixus bij geneeskunde af' :: archief nrc.nl |publisher=Vorige.nrc.nl |date=28 January 2010 |access-date=27 February 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130517115202/http://vorige.nrc.nl/binnenland/article2470687.ece/RVZ_schaf_numerus_fixus_bij_geneeskunde_af |archive-date=17 May 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref> This limits the number of applicants to a specific course of study, thus trying to control the number of future graduates. The disciplines most renowned for their [[numerus clausus]] are medicine and dentistry. Every year a combination of the highest pre-university graduation grades and some additional conditions determine who can start such a [[numerus clausus]] course of study and who can not.

Almost all [[List of universities in the Netherlands|Dutch universities]] are government supported, with only a few privately owned universities in existence (i.e. one in [[Nyenrode Business Universiteit|business]] and all others in [[theology]]). [[Leiden University]] is the oldest, founded in 1575.

===== Pre-Bologna phases =====
{{more citations needed|section|date=July 2022}}
Before the introduction of the bachelor-master structure, almost all academic studies in the Netherlands had the same length of four years and had two phases:
* ''The "[[propaedeutics|propedeutische]] fase" (1–2 years):'' After finishing this phase, a student can follow another two years' study, which grants equivalents to the Anglo-Saxon BSc ([[Bachelor of Science]]), BA ([[Bachelor of Arts]]) or LLB ([[Bachelor of Laws]]).
* ''The "doctorale fase" (3–4 years):'' Completing the first phase successfully gives the student access to the second phase. Again, failure to finish within the time given will lead to discontinuation. This phase is concluded with the "{{interlanguage link|doctoraal examen|nl|Doctoraalexamen}}" (doctoral exam). This is not similar to any type of doctoral exam that would grant the student with any type of [[Doctor of Philosophy|PhD]] title. Successful completion, however, does grant the student the Dutch degree of "drs." "[[doctorandus]]", ir. ("ingenieur" – engineer) or "mr." ("Meester in de rechten" – master of law). Nowadays these Dutch titles have been largely replaced by the Anglo Saxon titles MSc ([[Master of Science]]), MA ([[Master of Arts]]) and LLM ([[Master of Laws]]), depending on the area of study.

For medical students the "[[doctorandus]]" degree is not equivalent to the European Anglo Saxon postgraduate research degree in medicine, of MD ([[Medical Doctor]]). Besides the title doctorandus, the graduates of the Curius curriculum may also bear the title ''arts'' (physician). The doctorandus in medicine title is granted after four years (nominal time) of the Curius curriculum, while the title physician is granted after six years (nominal time) of that curriculum. The Dutch physician title is equal to a MSc degree according to the Bologna process and can be compared with the MBBS in the UK degree system and the North American MD, but not the [[MD (Res)|UK MD degree]], which is a research degree. One-on-one equivalence or interchangeability of the Dutch medical title and MD is often suggested. However, officially the MD title is not known, nor legal to use, in the Netherlands. The correct notation for a Dutch physician who completed his or her medical studies, but did not pursue a doctoral ([[PhD]]-like) study is "drs." (e.g. ''drs. Jansen, arts'') and not "dr." in medicine, which is often used incorrectly. However, like in the United Kingdom, physicians holding these degrees are referred to as 'Doctor' by courtesy.

In the Netherlands, there is the informal title ''dokter'' for physicians, but not ''doctor'' (dr.), unless they also earn such  adegree by completing a PhD curriculum. Furthermore, the ''doctorandus'' degree does not give a medical student the right to treat patients; for this a minimum of two years of additional study (internship) is required. After obtaining a Medical Board registration, Dutch physicians must work an additional two to six years in a field of expertise to become a registered medical specialist. Dutch surgeons commonly are only granted access to surgical training and positions after obtaining a doctorate (PhD) successfully. In recent years, the six-year (nominal time) old Curius curriculum (which offered the titles doctorandus and physician) has been replaced with a three-year (nominal time) Bachelor Curius+ followed by a three-year (nominal time) Master Curius+. Those who had already begun their old-style Curius curriculum before that will still have to complete it as a six-year study (nominal time).

A doctorandus in law uses the title ''meester'' (master, abbreviated as ''mr. Jansen'') instead of drs., and some courses of study, such as in technology and agriculture< grant the title ''ingenieur'' (engineer, noted as ''ir. Jansen'') instead of drs. These titles as equivalent to an LL.M (the title mr.) and to a MSc (the title ir.) and if gotten before 1 September 2002, from a recognized Dutch university, may be rendered as M (from Master) behind one's name, instead of using the typical Dutch honorifics before one's name. Since 1 September 2002, Dutch universities offer specific BSc, BA or LLB studies followed by MSc, MA or LLM studies, thus integrating into the international scientific community, offering lectures, other classes, seminars or complete curricula in English instead of Dutch. According to their field of study, MSc graduates may use either ir. or drs. before their names; MA graduates may use drs. before their name; LLM graduates may use mr. before their names, but only if they received such degrees from recognized Dutch universities. Not uncommonly, the Dutch "drs." abbreviation can cause much confusion in other countries, since it is perceived as a person who has a [[Doctor of Philosophy|PhD]] in multiple disciplines. In the Netherlands, the degree [[MPhil]] was not awarded after 2009 as the [[Universiteiten van Nederland]] refused to recognize the MPhils awarded by [[Leiden University]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=26 July 2009 |title=De MPhil graad wordt niet meer verleend – Masteropleidingen – Aanstaande Studenten |url=http://www.aanstaande-studenten.leidenuniv.nl/masteropleidingen/masteropleidingen/mphil-graad-niet-meer-verleend.html |access-date=9 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090726114420/http://www.aanstaande-studenten.leidenuniv.nl/masteropleidingen/masteropleidingen/mphil-graad-niet-meer-verleend.html |archive-date=26 July 2009 }}</ref>

After successfully obtaining a "drs.", "ir." or "mr." degree, a student has the opportunity to follow a further, promotional course of study (informally called [[Doctor of Philosophy|PhD]]) to eventually obtain a doctorate and subsequently the title "doctor". Promotion studies are ideally structured according to a preset time schedule of 4 to 6 years, during which the student has to be mentored by at least one [[professor]]. The promotion study has to be concluded with at least a scientific thesis, which has to be defended to "a gathering of his/her peers", in practice the board of the [[Faculty (division)|faculty]] with guest professors from other faculties or universities added. More and more common—and, in some disciplines, even mandatory—is that the student write, and have accepted for publication by peer-reviewed journals, original scientific work. The number of publications required is often debated and varies considerably between the various disciplines. However, in all disciplines the student is obligated to produce and publish a dissertation or thesis in book form.

===== Bachelor/master structure =====
All current Dutch academic programs are offered under the Anglo-Saxon bachelor/master structure. It takes three years to earn a bachelor's degree and another one or two years to earn a master's degree. There are three official academic bachelor titles (BA, BSc and LLB) and three official master titles (MA, MSc and LLM). These academic titles are protected by the Dutch government.

===== Using academic titles =====
After obtaining a doctorate, Dutch doctors may bear either the title dr. (lower case) before, or the letter D following, their name, but not both simultaneously.<ref name="rijksoverheid">{{Cite web|url=https://www.rijksoverheid.nl/onderwerpen/hoger-onderwijs/vraag-en-antwoord/onderwerpen/hoger-onderwijs/vraag-en-antwoord/welke-titel-mag-ik-voeren-als-ik-ben-afgestudeerd-of-gepromoveerd|title=Welke titel mag ik voeren als ik ben afgestudeerd? – Rijksoverheid.nl|first=Ministerie van Algemene|last=Zaken|date=19 April 2011|website=www.rijksoverheid.nl}}{{Dead link|date=July 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> There is no notation signifying the specific discipline in which the doctorate is obtained. As of 1 January 2021, the title 'PhD' and post-nominal degree 'PhD' can also be used, and these are also legally protected. Stacking of titles, as seen in countries such as Germany (Prof. Dr. Dr. Dr. Gruber), is highly uncommon in the Netherlands and not well received culturally. Those who have multiple doctoral titles may use dr.mult. before their name, but this is seldom seen in practice.<ref name="rijksoverheid" /> The ''honoris causa'' doctors may use dr.h.c. before their name.<ref name="rijksoverheid" /> Combining different Dutch titles, especially in different disciplines, is allowed, however, (e.g. mr. dr. Jansen, dr. mr. Jansen, dr. ir. Jansen, mr. ir. drs. Jansen, mr. ir. Jansen). The use of the combination ir. ing. is frequent, indicating one holds a [[Education in the Netherlands#Hbo|HBO]], vocational, or professional engineering degree, together with an academic engineering degree.<ref name="onzetaal.nl">{{cite web|author=Aleid Fokma |url=http://www.onzetaal.nl/advies/titulatuur3.php |title=Bachelor-mastertitulatuur: titels combineren |publisher=Onzetaal.nl |date=16 June 2010 |access-date=8 July 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110808024651/http://www.onzetaal.nl/advies/titulatuur3.php |archive-date=8 August 2011 }}</ref> What is not allowed is, after obtaining a doctorate, using dr. drs. Jansen; dr. Jansen should be used instead. A combination of a Dutch title with an international title is not allowed, except for some limited number of international professional titles.<ref name="onzetaal.nl" /> Thus, one should choose either one's classical Dutch title or use the shortcut provided by the law following one's name (since 1 September 2002 it is the other way around: those who hold Dutch degrees as MSc, LLM or MA may optionally use the old-style shortcuts before their names).<ref name="onzetaal.nl" /><ref name=burgervragen>{{cite web|url=http://members.home.nl/icnl/burgervragen.pdf|title=Citizens' questions letter from Dutch Department of Education, Culture and Science|publisher=Members.home.nl|access-date=28 November 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110607172828/http://members.home.nl/icnl/burgervragen.pdf|archive-date=7 June 2011|date=8 September 2009}}</ref>

"''Doctors''" (dr.) can proceed to teach at universities as "{{interlanguage link|universitair docent|nl}}" (UD – [[assistant professor]]). With time, experience and achievement, this can evolve to a position as "{{interlanguage link|universitair hoofddocent|nl}}" (UHD – [[associate professor]]). Officially an UHD still works under the supervision of a "{{interlanguage link|hoogleraar|nl}}" ([[professor]]), the head of the department. However, this is not a given; it is also possible that a department is headed by a "plain" doctor, based on knowledge, achievement and expertise. The position of "hoogleraar" is the highest possible scientific position at a university and equivalent to the US "full" professor. The Dutch [[professor]]'s title, noted as ''prof. Jansen'' or ''professor Jansen'', is connected to one's employment. This means that, should the [[professor]] leave the [[university]], he or she also loses the privilege to use the title of [[professor]]. Retired professors are an exception and may continue to note the title in front of their name, or use the title emeritus professor (em. prof.). People who switch to a non-university job lose their professorial title and are only allowed to use the "dr." abbreviation.

Unlike some other European countries, such as Germany, Dutch academic titles are used rarely outside academia, hold no value in everyday life, and typically are not listed on official documentation (e.g. passport, drivers license, (governmental) communication). Dutch academic titles, however, are legally protected and can only be used by graduates from Dutch institutions of higher education. Illegal use is considered a misdemeanor and is subject to legal prosecution.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://wetten.overheid.nl/BWBR0001854/DerdeBoek/TitelII/Artikel435/geldigheidsdatum_21-10-2009 |title=Art. 435 Sr |language= nl |publisher=Wetten.overheid.nl |date=21 October 2009 |access-date=8 July 2010| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20100718053759/http://wetten.overheid.nl/BWBR0001854/DerdeBoek/TitelII/Artikel435/geldigheidsdatum_21-10-2009| archive-date= 18 July 2010 | url-status= live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://translate.google.nl/translate?prev=hp&hl=nl&js=y&u=http://wetten.overheid.nl/BWBR0001854/DerdeBoek/TitelII/Artikel435/geldigheidsdatum_21-10-2009&sl=nl&tl=en&history_state0=&swap=1 |title=Art. 435 Sr (translated by Google) |language= nl |publisher=Translate.google.nl |access-date=8 July 2010}}</ref> Holders of foreign degrees, therefore, need special permission before being able to use a recognised Dutch title, but they are free to use their own foreign title (untranslated).<ref>Article 7.23, paragraph 3 of the Dutch Higher Education and Scientific Research Act provides the Informatie Beheer Groep (now called DUO, i.e. the Service for Implementing the Education) with the possibility to grant such a permission</ref><ref>[http://www.ibgroep.nl/International_visitors/Welcome.asp Informatie Beheer Groep (IB-Groep) is a service (now called DUO) of the Dutch Ministry of Education, Culture and Science] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929124118/http://www.ibgroep.nl/International_visitors/Welcome.asp |date=29 September 2007 }}</ref><ref>More information on legislation on {{cite web|url=http://www.ibgroep.nl/International_visitors/Diploma_assessment/diploma_assessment.asp |title=DUO – IB-Groep/Diploma assessment |access-date=5 January 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719050200/http://www.ibgroep.nl/International_visitors/Diploma_assessment/diploma_assessment.asp |archive-date=19 July 2011 }}</ref><ref>[http://www.ib-groep.nl/Images/5263_tcm7-13935.pdf Application for a recognized Dutch title (in Dutch)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100714121456/http://www.ib-groep.nl/Images/5263_tcm7-13935.pdf |date=14 July 2010 }} and [http://www.ib-groep.nl/Images/5263E_tcm7-13910.pdf Application for a recognized Dutch title (in English)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101124103810/http://ib-groep.nl/Images/5263E_tcm7-13910.pdf |date=24 November 2010 }}</ref> In practice, the Public Department does not prosecute the illegal use of a protected title (the Netherlands applies [[prosecutorial discretion#The Netherlands|prosecutorial discretion]], so some known criminal uses are not prosecuted).<ref>[http://www.newsabah.com/ar/1069/26/11078/dipl-mafia.htm?tpl=21 The Diploma Mafias – with a list of diploma factories worldwide Newsabah] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111001010620/http://www.newsabah.com/ar/1069/26/11078/dipl-mafia.htm?tpl=21 |date=1 October 2011 }}</ref>

==== Norway ====
Prior to 1980, there were around 50 different degrees and corresponding educational programs within the Norwegian higher education system.
Degrees had titles that included the gender based Latin term ''candidatus/candidata''. The second part of the title usually consisted of a Latin word corresponding to the profession or training. For example, Cand. Mag. (Candidatus Magisterii) required 4 to 5 years, Cand. Real.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.retsinformation.dk/Forms/R0710.aspx?id=160853#Kap5:Link|title=Overview (table of contents)|website=Retsinformation.dk|access-date=18 August 2017}}</ref> (Candidatus Realium) required 6 years of study and a scientific thesis in a select set of scientific disciplines (realia). Over the years these were replaced gradually with degrees that were more and more internationally comparable programs and corresponding titles. For example, the degree Cand. Scient. replaced Cand. Real. in the period 1985 to 2003. These degrees were all retired in 2003 in favour of an international system.

The reform of higher education in Norway, ''Kvalitetsreformen'' ("The Quality Reform"), was passed in the Norwegian Parliament, the [[Stortinget|Storting]], in 2001 and carried out during the 2003/2004 academic year. It introduced standard periods of study and the titles ''master'' and ''bachelor ([[baccalaureus]])''. The system differentiates between a free master's degree and a master's degree in [[technology]]. The latter corresponds to the former ''sivilingeniør'' degree (not to be confused with a degree in [[civil engineering]], which is but one of many degrees linked to the title ''sivilingeniør'', which is still in use for new graduates who can choose to also use the old title). All pre-2001 doctoral degree titles were replaced with the title "Philosophical Doctor degree", written ''philosophiæ doctor'' (instead of the traditional ''doctor philosophiæ''). The title [[Dr. philos. (Norwegian degree)|dr. philos.]] is a substantially higher degree than the PhD{{Citation needed|date=December 2015}} and is reserved for those who qualify for such a degree without participating in an organized doctoral degree program.

==== Poland ====
In [[Poland]], the system is similar to the German one.
* ''{{lang|pl|licencjat}}'' title – given by a [[university]]; the equivalent of [[Bachelor of Arts]] degree or [[Bachelor of Science]] degree (depending on [[academic major]]); granted after at least 3 years of study.
* ''{{lang|pl|inżynier}}'' ({{lang|pl|inż.}}) title – [[engineer's degree#Poland, Czech Republic and Slovakia|Engineer's degree]] given by a [[technical university]]; granted after at least about 3.5 years of study.
* ''{{lang|pl|magister}}'' ({{lang|pl|mgr}}) title – the equivalent of a [[Master of Arts]] or [[Master of Science]] degree, granted after 5–6 years of study or 2 years of additional study by holders of a [[bachelor's degree]] with classification of [[Honours Degree]].
* ''{{lang|pl|magister inżynier}}'' ({{lang|pl|mgr inż.}}) title – the equivalent of a [[Master of Engineering]], granted after about 2 years of additional study by holders of a degree of [[Bachelor of Engineering]].
* ''{{lang|pl|doktor}}'' ({{lang|pl|dr}}) degree – the equivalent of [[Doctor of Philosophy]].
* ''{{lang|pl|doktor habilitowany}}'' ({{lang|pl|dr hab.}}) degree – Polish [[Habilitation]] degree, requires approval by an external ministerial body.
* ''{{lang|pl|profesor}}'' ({{lang|pl|prof.}}) degree – the highest title, officially conferred by the [[president of Poland]].

==== Russia, Ukraine and some other former USSR republics{{anchor|Russia}} ====
{{Unreferenced section|date=April 2010}}

Since 1992, Russian higher education has introduced a multilevel system, enabling higher education institutions to award and issue Bachelor of Science and Master of Science degrees.<ref>{{cite journal|title=RUSSIAN SYSTEM OF HIGHER EDUCATION |url=http://www.en.spbstu.ru/system_of_education/ |journal=En.spbstu.ru |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140713073903/http://www.en.spbstu.ru/system_of_education/ |archive-date=13 July 2014 }}</ref>

In [[Russia]], [[Ukraine]] and some other [[former USSR republic]]s educational degrees are awarded after finishing a college education. There are several levels of education that one must choose in the 2nd and 3rd year of college, usually in the 3rd year of study.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Russian System of Higher Education|url=http://www.en.sibsau.ru/index.php/academic-programs/russian-system-of-higher-education|journal=En.sibsau.ru|access-date=10 July 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714115516/http://www.en.sibsau.ru/index.php/academic-programs/russian-system-of-higher-education|archive-date=14 July 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref>

# A [[bachelor's degree]] usually takes 4 years of college (minimum level to be recognized as having a higher education).
# A [[specialist degree]] is awarded after 5 years of college (4 + 1).
# A Master's (Magister) degree is awarded after 6 years of college (4 + 2).<ref>{{cite journal |title=Higher Education in Russia|url=http://www.hse.ru/en/rus-ed.html|journal=Hse.ru}}</ref>

But a Specialist degree can appear equivalent to Magister degree by reason of taking an equivalent amount of time. Usually Specialist or Magister degrees incorporate the bachelor's degrees in them, but only the high-level degree is given on the final diploma. Specialist and Magister degrees require taking final state exams and producing written work on practical application of studied skills or research thesis (usually 70–100 pages) and is roughly equivalent to a [[master's degree]].<ref name="Guidelines for the recognition of Russian qualifications in the">{{cite web|last=Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation|title=Guidelines for the recognition of Russian qualifications in the other European countries|url=http://en.russia.edu.ru/edu/inostr/prizn/900/#sthash.PGmRhUMv.dpuf|access-date=19 July 2013|archive-date=20 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191220114131/http://en.russia.edu.ru/edu/inostr/prizn/900/#sthash.PGmRhUMv.dpuf|url-status=dead}}</ref>

The first-level academic degree is called ''[[Candidate of Sciences]]'' ("Kandidat Nauk"). This degree requires extensive research, taking some classes, publications in peer-reviewed academic journals (not less than 5 publications in Ukraine or 3 publications in Russia), taking 3 or more exams (one or more in their speciality, one in a foreign language and one in the history and philosophy of science) and writing and defending an in-depth thesis (80–200 pages) called a "dissertation".

Finally, there is a ''[[Doctor of Sciences]]'' ("Doktor Nauk") degree in Russia and some former USSR academic environments. This degree is granted for contributions in a certain field (formally – who established new direction or new field in science). It requires discovery of new phenomenon or development of new theory or essential development of new direction, etc. There is no equivalent of this "doctor of sciences" degree in the US academic system. It is roughly equivalent to [[Habilitation]] in Germany, France, Austria and some other European countries.

In countries with a two-tier system of doctoral degrees, the degree of ''Candidate of Sciences'' should be considered for recognition at the level of the first doctoral degree. According to ''Guidelines for the recognition of Russian qualifications in the other countries'',<ref>{{cite web|url=http://en.russia.edu.ru/edu/inostr/prizn/900/|title=Education in Russia for foreign citizens: Recognition and equivalence of documents of education and scientific degrees|work=russia.edu.ru|access-date=19 February 2012|archive-date=20 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191220114131/http://en.russia.edu.ru/edu/inostr/prizn/900/|url-status=dead}}</ref> in countries with a two-tier system of doctoral degrees, the degree of ''Doktor Nauk'' should be considered for recognition at the level of the second doctoral degree. In countries in which only one doctoral degree exists, the degree of ''Doktor Nauk'' should be considered for recognition at the level of this degree.

According to [[International Standard Classification of Education]] (ISCED) UNESCO 2011,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unesco.org/ulis/cgi-bin/ulis.pl?catno=211619&set=4F3F2872_2_352&database=gctd&gp=0&lin=1&ll=1|title=Revision of the International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED); UNESCO. General Conference; 36th; 2011|work=unesco.org}}</ref> par.262, for purposes of international educational statistics:

# DPhil to ''Candidate of Sciences/Philosophy'';
# D.Lit. to ''Candidate of Sciences in Literature'';
# D.Sc. to ''Candidate of Sciences of Natural Science'';
# LL.D. to ''Candidate of Sciences of Legal Science''.

==== Spain ====
Spain's higher-education legal framework includes official and accredited education, as well as non-official education.

'''1.1 Official and accredited education'''

In Spain, accreditation of official university study programmes is regulated by law and monitored by governmental agencies responsible for verifying their quality and suitability for official approval and accreditation.

Official professional study programmes lead to degree qualifications (''Títulos'') with full academic and professional rights. The degrees awarded in accordance with the latest higher-education system are:

1. Bachelor's Degree (''Grado'') – 240 ECTS Credits in 4 years.

2. Master's Degree (''Master Universitario'') – 60 to 120 ECTS Credits in 1–2 years.

3. Doctoral degree PhD (''Doctorado'') – in 3–4 years.

Accredited bachelor's degrees and master's degrees qualifications will always be described as ''Grado'' and ''Master Universitario''. These qualifications comply with the European Higher Education Area (EHEA)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ehea.info/|title=European Higher Education Area website 2010-2020- EHEA|work=ehea.info}}</ref> framework. Officially approved and accredited university study programmes by law must implement this framework in order to attain and retain accreditation in Spain.

[[File:Spanish Official University Education Legal Framework 02.jpg|thumb|Official Spanish University Education Legal Framework 02]]

'''1.2 Non-official education'''

Not all EHEA-compliant study programmes in Spain are officially approved or accredited by government agencies. Some universities offer proprietary study programmes as alternatives for a variety of reasons: serving the continuing education market for individual self-advancement and also providing higher education to individuals who have failed to acquire bachelor's degree qualifications. The main reason for offering these alternative studies, though, is the complex bureaucratic process required to receive the approval of specific titles, in particular when it refers to new studies or studies about matters that do not fit with the official studies. For historical reasons, the academic system has been very much under the control of the state, and private universities are still regarded with as a threat to the state system.

These programmes fall within the category of "non officially approved and accredited" or ''estudios no oficiales'', and they confer no academic or professional rights. This means that they do not entitle the bearer to claim to have any specific academic or professional qualifications, as far as the Spanish authorities are concerned. However, there may be private agreements to recognize the titles.

[[File:Spanish Official University Education Legal Framework 01.jpg|thumb|Official Spanish University Education Legal Framework 01]]

Universities offering non-official study programmes are legally bound to clearly differentiate between officially-approved and non-officially-approved qualifications. Non-accredited master's degrees will be described as just ''Master'', without the accompanying ''Universitario''.

Certain non-officially approved and accredited study programmes may acquire a positive reputation. However, neither professional associations, government agencies, judiciary authorities, nor universities – other than the study programme provider – are obliged to recognize non-official qualifications in any way.

'''2. Accreditation system'''

University-taught study programme accreditation is granted through the [[National Agency for Quality Assessment and Accreditation]] (ANECA),<ref name="aneca.es">{{cite web|url=http://www.aneca.es/eng|title=Home|work=aneca.es}}</ref> a government-dependent quality assurance and accreditation provider for the Spanish higher education system that ensures that the data held in the Register of Universities, Centres and Qualifications (RUCT),<ref name="educacion.gob.es">{{cite web|url=https://www.educacion.gob.es/ruct/home |title=Registro de Universidades, Centros y Títulos (RUCT) – Ministerio de Educación, Cultura y Deporte |access-date=26 October 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130714234544/https://www.educacion.gob.es/ruct/home |archive-date=14 July 2013 }}</ref> a national registry for universities and qualifications, is correct and up to date. All study programmes must be accredited by ANECA<ref name="aneca.es" /> prior to their inclusion in the RUCT.<ref name="educacion.gob.es" /> The RUCT<ref name="educacion.gob.es" /> records all officially approved universities and their bachelor's degrees, master's degrees and PhDs and each and every one of the officially approved and accredited study programmes. Universities are assigned a specific number Code (''Código'') by the RUCT. The same study programme may acquire different codes as it progresses through various stages of official approval by local and central governments.

Prospective students should check the RUCT Code awarded to the study programme of their interest at every stage of their enquiries concerning degrees in Spain.<ref name="educacion.gob.es" />

ANECA makes recommendations regarding procedures, staffing levels, quality of teaching, resources available to students and continuity or loss of accreditation. The ANECA Registry<ref>{{cite web|url=http://srv.aneca.es/ListadoTitulos/en|title=Welcome to Buscador de Títulos Universitarios – ANECA – Buscador de Títulos Universitarios – ANECA|work=aneca.es}}</ref> records all events in the life of an officially approved and accredited study programme or a university. The ANECA Registry Search Facility<ref>{{cite web|url=http://srv.aneca.es/ListadoTitulos/en/search/site/paisajismo|title=Search – Buscador de Títulos Universitarios – ANECA|work=aneca.es}}</ref> may be the simplest and safest way to verify the status of all officially approved and accredited study programmes in Spain.

It is also possible to track qualifications by using the search facility that several Autonomous Communities' own accreditation agencies offer. These agencies work within the ANECA framework and generally show more detailed information about the study programmes available in each territory (e.g., Catalonia, Madrid, etc.)

'''3. Qualifications framework for higher education'''

The qualifications framework for higher education [[QF-EHEA|MECES]] is the reference framework adopted in Spain in order to structure degree levels.

Not all universities offer degrees named exactly the same, even if they have similar academic and professional effects. Each university may present proposals for the study programme considered to meet professional and academic demand. The proposal will consist of a report linking the study programme being considered and the proposed qualification to be awarded. This report will be assessed by ANECA and sent for the Consejo de Universidades Españolas.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mecd.gob.es/ministerio-mecd/organizacion/organismos/consejo-universidades.html|title=Página no encontrada – Ministerio de Educación, Cultura y Deporte|website=Mecd.gob.es|access-date=18 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161218135740/http://www.mecd.gob.es/ministerio-mecd/organizacion/organismos/consejo-universidades.html|archive-date=18 December 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref> If the ''Consejo'' agrees with ANECA's approval, it will be included in the RUCT and ANECA registries.

'''4. Spanish qualifications and their professional effects.'''

All bachelor's and master's degrees accredited by ANECA bestow full academic and professional rights in accordance with new and previous laws. Professional-practice law in Spain is currently under revision.

==== Sweden ====
{{See also|Bologna process#Sweden}}
{{Expand section|date=May 2008}}

==== Switzerland ====
Before the [[Bologna Process]], the academic degree of a [[Licentiate (degree)|Licentiate]] was reached after 4 or 5 years of study.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.crus.ch/information-programme/anerkennung-swiss-enic/universitaetsqualifikationen/abschlusstypen.html|title=Rectors' Conference of the Swiss Universities |publisher=[[Crus.ch]] |date=25 August 2009 |access-date=25 July 2013}}</ref> Depending on the official language of the university, it was called ''Lizentiat'' (German), ''Licence'' (French) or ''licenza'' (Italian) and, according to the Bologna reform, is today considered equivalent to a [[master's degree]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.admin.ch/opc/de/classified-compilation/20040878/index.html#a6a|title=Official regulation on the Bologna Process|publisher=Admin.ch|date=1 February 2006|access-date=25 July 2013}}</ref> A Licentiate with a predefined qualification gave access to the last stage of a further two or more years of studies (depending on the field) for a [[doctorate|doctoral degree]].

Apart from this, most universities offered a [[postgraduate diploma]] requiring up to two years of study. French-speaking universities called them ''diplôme d'études approfondies'' [[DEA (former French degree)|DEA or DESS]], the Italian-speaking university ''post laurea'' and German-speaking universities mostly ''Nachdiplomstudium'' (NDS). Today the federal legislation defines these postgraduate diplomas (60 ECTS credits) as [[Master of Advanced Studies]] (MAS) or Executive Master of Business Administration (EMBA) degrees. Universities may also offer the possibility to gain a diploma in advanced studies (DAS, less than 60 ECTS credits).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.crus.ch/die-crus/dokumente-publikationen/regelungen-und-empfehlungen.html|title=Rectors' Conference of the Swiss Universities; unification of degree names |publisher=Crus.ch |date=2 February 2012 |access-date=25 July 2013}}</ref> These degrees do not normally give access to a doctoral programme.

==== United Kingdom ====

===== England, Wales and Northern Ireland =====
[[File:King's College London Medical School Graduates.png|thumb|upright=1.15|The newly conferred bachelor's degree holders after graduation at [[King's College London]], one of the founding colleges of the [[University of London]]]]

An academic degree is protected under UK law. All valid UK degrees are awarded by universities or other degree-awarding bodies whose powers to do so are recognised by the UK government; hence they are known as "recognised bodies".<ref>{{citation | author = ((Department of Business, Innovation and Skills)) | url =https://www.gov.uk/check-a-university-is-officially-recognised/recognised-bodies | title = UK government's list of recognised bodies | access-date=12 March 2014}}</ref>

The standard [[Undergraduate degree|first degree]] in England, Northern Ireland and Wales is the [[bachelor's degree]] conferred with honours. Usually this is a Bachelor of Arts (BA) or a Bachelor of Science (BSc) degree. Other variants exist: for example, Bachelor of Education or [[Bachelor of Laws]]. It usually takes three years to read for a bachelor's degree.

The honours are usually categorised into four classes:
* First class honours (1st).
* Second class honours, divided into:
** Upper division or upper second (2:1).
** Lower division or lower second (2:2).
* Third class honours (3rd).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.dayjob.com/degree-classification-708/|title=Degree classification, grade, honours, first class, second class, two two, university, jobs|date=15 November 2018}}</ref>

Candidates who have not achieved the standard for the award of honours may be admitted without honours to the "ordinary" bachelor's degree if they have met the required standard for this lesser qualification (also referred to as a "pass degree"). Standard levels for each of these classes are 70%+ for a first, 60–69% for a 2:1, 50–59% for a 2:2, 40–49% for a 3rd and 30%+ for a pass degree, although this can vary by institution (e.g. the [[Open University]]).<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.document-centre.co.uk/blog/10072014151234-bachelor-degree-grades-explained/|title=Bachelor Degree Grades Explained {{!}} Blog|website=Document-centre.co.uk|access-date=13 January 2017}}</ref>

The [[foundation degree]]<ref>{{citation | url =http://www.qaa.ac.uk/Publications/InformationAndGuidance/Pages/Foundation-Degree-qualification-benchmark-May-2010.aspx | title =Foundation degree qualification benchmark | website =Qaa.ac.uk | access-date =12 March 2014 | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20140312224644/http://www.qaa.ac.uk/Publications/InformationAndGuidance/Pages/Foundation-Degree-qualification-benchmark-May-2010.aspx | archive-date =12 March 2014 | url-status =dead }}</ref> is a qualification, lower than bachelor's level, awarded following a two-year programme of study that is usually vocational in nature. The foundation degree can be awarded by a university or college of higher education that has been granted foundation-degree-awarding powers by the UK government. This degree is comparable to an [[associate degree]] in the United States.

The universities of Oxford and Cambridge award honorary Master of Arts (MA) degrees to graduates of their bachelor's programmes, following a specified period of time. This is comparable to the practice of the ancient universities in Scotland awarding an MA for a first degree and arguably reflects the rigorous standards expected of their graduates.

[[Master's degrees]]<ref>{{citation | url=http://www.qaa.ac.uk/Publications/InformationAndGuidance/Pages/Masters-degree-characteristics.aspx | title=Master's degree characteristics | access-date=12 March 2014 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140312224510/http://www.qaa.ac.uk/Publications/InformationAndGuidance/Pages/Masters-degree-characteristics.aspx | archive-date=12 March 2014 | url-status=dead }}</ref> such as Master of Arts or Master of Science are typically awarded to students who have undertaken at least a year of full-time [[Postgraduate education|postgraduate study]], which may require study and involve an element of research. Degrees such as Master of Philosophy (MPhil) or Master of Letters/Literature (MLitt) are likely to be awarded for postgraduate study involving original research. A student undertaking a master's would normally be expected to already hold a bachelor's degree in a relevant subject, hence the possibility of reaching the master's level in one year.

Some universities award a master's as a first degree following an integrated programme of study (an 'integrated master's degree'). These degrees are usually designated by the subject, such as [[Master of Engineering]] for engineering, [[Master of Physics]] for physics, [[Master of Mathematics]] for mathematics and so on; it usually takes four years to read for them. Graduation to these degrees is always with honours. Master of Engineering in particular has now become the standard first degree in engineering at the top UK universities, replacing the older Bachelor of Engineering.

Master's degrees are often graded as:
* Distinction
* Merit
* Pass

The Master of Business Administration (MBA) degree is highly valued by those seeking to advance in business as managers and decision makers.

Doctoral degrees or [[doctorate]]s,<ref>{{citation | last = Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education | url = http://www.qaa.ac.uk/Publications/InformationAndGuidance/Pages/Doctoral_characteristics.aspx | title = doctoral degree characteristics | website = Qaa.ac.uk | access-date = 12 March 2014 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140312213520/http://www.qaa.ac.uk/Publications/InformationAndGuidance/Pages/Doctoral_characteristics.aspx | archive-date = 12 March 2014 | url-status = dead }}</ref> such as the Doctor of Philosophy degree (PhD or DPhil) or Doctor of Education (EdD or DEd), are awarded following a programme of original research that contributes new knowledge within the context of the student's discipline. Doctoral degrees usually take three years full-time. Therefore, in the UK it may only take seven years to progress from undergraduate to earning a doctorate – in some cases six, since having a master's is not always a precondition for embarking on a doctoral degree. This contrasts with nine years in the United States, reflecting differences in the educational systems.

Some doctorates, such as the Doctor of Clinical Psychology (DClinPsy) qualification, confirm competence to practice in particular professions. There are also higher doctorates – Doctor of Science (DSc) and Doctor of Letters/Literature (DLitt) — that are typically awarded to experienced academics who have demonstrated a high level of achievement in their academic career; for example, they may have published widely on their subject or become professors in their fields.

UK post-secondary qualifications are defined at different levels, with levels 1–3 denoting further education and levels 4–8 denoting higher education. Within this structure, a foundation degree is at level 5; a bachelor's degree at level 6; a master's degree at level 7; and a doctoral degree at level 8.<ref>{{citation | url =http://www.qaa.ac.uk/Publications/InformationAndGuidance/Pages/The-framework-for-higher-education-qualifications-in-England-Wales-and-Northern-Ireland.aspx | title =The framework for higher education qualifications in England, Wales and Northern Ireland (FHEQ) | website =Qaa.ac.uk | access-date =12 March 2014 | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20140320051738/http://www.qaa.ac.uk/publications/informationandguidance/pages/the-framework-for-higher-education-qualifications-in-england-wales-and-northern-ireland.aspx | archive-date =20 March 2014 | url-status =dead }}</ref> Full information about the expectations for different types of UK degrees is published by the [[Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education]].<ref>{{citation| url =http://www.qaa.ac.uk/Publications/InformationAndGuidance/Pages/quality-code-A1.aspx| title =Quality Code, Chapter A1: The national level| website =Qaa.ac.uk| access-date =12 March 2014| archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20140312224401/http://www.qaa.ac.uk/Publications/InformationAndGuidance/Pages/quality-code-A1.aspx| archive-date =12 March 2014| url-status =dead}}</ref>

See also [[graduate certificate]], [[graduate diploma]], [[postgraduate certificate]], [[postgraduate diploma]] and [[British degree abbreviations]].

===== Scotland =====
The standard [[Undergraduate degree|first degree]] for students studying arts or humanities in [[Scotland]] is either a [[Bachelor of Arts]] or a [[Master of Arts (Scotland)|Master of Arts]] (the latter traditionally awarded by the [[Ancient Universities of Scotland]] for a first degree in an arts/humanities subject). The standard undergraduate degree for natural and social science subjects is the [[Bachelor of Science]].<ref>{{citation | last = Scottish qualifications framework, forming part of the Scottish Credit and Qualifications Framework | url = http://www.qaa.ac.uk/Publications/InformationAndGuidance/Pages/FHEQ-Scotland.aspx | title = The framework for qualifications of higher education institutions in Scotland (FHQEIS) | website = Qaa.ac.uk | access-date = 12 March 2014 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20121118091832/http://www.qaa.ac.uk/Publications/InformationAndGuidance/Pages/FHEQ-Scotland.aspx | archive-date = 18 November 2012 | url-status = dead }}</ref>

Students can work towards a first degree at either ordinary or honours level. A general or ordinary degree (BA/MA or BSc) takes three years to complete; an honours degree (BA/MA Hons or BSc Hons) takes four years. The ordinary degree need not be in a specific subject, but can involve study across a range of subjects within (and sometimes beyond) the relevant faculty, in which case it may also be called a general degree. If a third year or junior honours subject is included, the ordinary degree in that named discipline is awarded. The honours degree involves two years of study at a sub-honours level in which a range of subjects within the relevant faculty are studied and then two years of study at honours level which is specialised in a single field (for example classics, history, chemistry, biology, etc.). Not all universities in Scotland adhere to this; in some, one studies in several subjects within a faculty for three years and can then specialise in two areas and attain a joint honours degree in fourth year.

This also reflects the broader scope of the final years of [[Education in Scotland|Scottish secondary education]], where traditionally five [[Higher (Scottish)|Highers]] are studied, compared to (typically) three English or Welsh [[Advanced Level (UK)|A-Levels]]. The Higher is a one-year qualification, as opposed to the two years of A-Levels, which accounts for Scottish honours degrees being a year longer than those in England. [[Advanced Higher (Scottish)|Advanced Highers]] add an optional final year of secondary education, bringing students up to the level of their A-Level counterparts – students with strong A-Levels or Advanced Highers may be offered entry directly into the second year at Scottish universities.

Honours for MA or bachelor's degrees are classified into three classes:
* First class honours
* Second class honours, divided into:
** Division one (2:1) [Upper Second Class Honours]
** Division two (2:2) [Lower Second Class Honours]
* Third class honours
Students who complete all the requirements for an honours degree, but who do not receive sufficient merit to be awarded third-class honours, may be awarded a ''Special Degree'' (ordinary degree – bachelor's level SCQF Level 9).

In most respects, the criteria for awarding qualifications at honours level and above are the same as in the rest of the UK (see above under England, Wales and Northern Ireland). Postgraduate qualifications are not designated Master of Arts, as in the rest of the UK, as this is an undergraduate degree. Postgraduate degrees in arts and humanities subjects are usually designated [[Master of Letters]] (M.Litt.) or, in natural and social sciences, [[Master of Science]] (M.Sc.). Non-doctoral postgraduate research degrees are usually designated [[Master of Philosophy]] (M.Phil.) or [[Master of Research]] (M.Res.). The postgraduate teaching qualification is the Postgraduate Diploma in Education (PGDE).

Postgraduate qualifications are classified into four classes:
* Distinction
* Credit
* Merit
* Pass

=== North America ===

==== Canada ====

In Canada, education is the responsibility of the provinces and territories, rather than the federal government. However, all of Canada follows the three-level bachelor's-master's-doctorate system common to the Anglophone world, with a few variations. A common framework for degrees was agreed between the provinces and territories in 2007.<ref name="Canada Framework">{{cite web|url=http://www.cmec.ca/Publications/Lists/Publications/Attachments/95/QA-Statement-2007.en.pdf|title=Canadian Degree Qualifications Framework|work=Ministerial Statement on Quality Assurance of Degree Education in Canada|publisher=[[Council of Ministers of Education, Canada]]|pages=2–7|access-date=4 September 2016}}</ref>

Bachelor's degrees take normally three to four years, more commonly three years in Quebec (where they follow on from college courses rather than directly from secondary education). Outside Quebec, three-year bachelor's degrees are normally ordinary degrees, while four-year bachelor's degrees are [[honours degree]]s; an honours degree is normally needed for further study at the master's level.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://futurestudents.yorku.ca/thinking/def-bachelor|title=Bachelors Degree|publisher=[[York University]]|access-date=4 September 2016}}</ref> Master's degrees take one to three years (in Quebec they normally take one and a half to two years). Doctorates take a minimum of three years. Alone among Canadian provinces and territories, British Columbia offers two-year [[associate degree]]s, allowing credit to be transferred into a four-year bachelor's program.<ref>{{cite web|title=Academic credentials in Canada|url=http://www.cicic.ca/1149/Academic-credentials/index.canada|publisher=The Canadian Information Centre for International Credentials|access-date=4 September 2016}}</ref>

In Canada, [[first professional degree]]s such as [[Doctor of Dental Surgery|DDS]], [[Doctor of Medicine|MD]], [[Doctor of Pharmacy|PharmD]] and [[LLB]] or [[Juris Doctor|JD]] are considered bachelor's level qualifications, despite their often being named as if they were doctorates.<ref name="Canada Framework"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.med.ualberta.ca/education/ume/admissions/dofm_require.cfm |title=UA Medical School |publisher=Med.ualberta.ca |access-date=8 July 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101214065853/http://www.med.ualberta.ca/education/ume/admissions/dofm_require.cfm |archive-date=14 December 2010 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.md.utoronto.ca/site5.aspx |title=UToronto Medical School |publisher=Md.utoronto.ca |access-date=8 July 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100618225429/http://www.md.utoronto.ca/site5.aspx |archive-date=18 June 2010 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.yorku.ca/web/futurestudents/programs/template.asp?id=467 |title=Osgoode Hall Law School |publisher=Yorku.ca |access-date=8 July 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.uwindsor.ca/jdllb/ |title=University of Windsor Law School |publisher=Uwindsor.ca |access-date=8 July 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110612092701/http://www.uwindsor.ca/jdllb/ |archive-date=12 June 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://pharm.umontreal.ca/etudes/premier-cycle/doctorat-de-premier-cycle-en-pharmacie-pharm-d/ |title=Faculté de pharmacie de l'Université de Montréal |publisher={{Lang|fr|[[Université de Montréal]]|italic=no}} |access-date=7 October 2014}}</ref>

===== Quebec =====
In the province of [[Quebec]], the majority of students must attend [[college education in Quebec|college]] prior to entering university. Upon completion of a two-year pre-university program, such as in sciences or humanities, or a three-year technical program, such as nursing or computer science, college graduates obtain a ''[[Quebec College Diploma|college diploma]]'', which is a prerequisite for access to university-level studies. Although these college programs are typical, they are not offered in every institution in the province. Moreover, while a few other pre-university programs with various concentrations exist, many other technical/career programs are available, depending on the college of choice. For example, [[Dawson College]] in [[Montreal]] has nearly sixty different programs leading to a college diploma.

Special programs, such as [[Physical rehabilitation|physical rehabilitation therapy]], are offered in some colleges as well. These programs allow students to enter professional university programs, such as [[physiotherapy]] (which consists of an integrated [[Bachelor of Science in Physiotherapy]] and [[Master of Physical Therapy]]), without having to meet the usual grade and course prerequisites required from students holding a pre-university science diploma. A similar option is offered for college nursing graduates as they can pursue their studies in university to obtain a [[Bachelor of Nursing]] in two years (rather than the usual three or four years, depending on whether the student has completed a college diploma in Quebec). Additionally, whereas aspiring medical students are usually required to complete an [[undergraduate degree]] before applying to medical schools, Quebec college graduates have the option to enter:
* a "medical preparatory" year at [[McGill University]] or {{Lang|fr|[[Université de Montréal]]|italic=no}} and then pursue medical studies for the following four years;
* directly into the undergraduate medical education program at [[Université Laval]] (4 to 5 years in duration) or {{Lang|fr|[[Université de Sherbrooke]]|italic=no}} (4 years in duration).

==== Mexico ====
Education in [[Mexico]] follows a three-degree system similar to that of Canada and the US. The pre-university academic level is the ''bachillerato'' (also called ''preparatoria''), similar to [[High school (upper secondary)|high school]]. Students typically leave preparatoria at the age of 18 for university, at which point they choose to specialize in a specific academic area (a ''carrera''), such as economics, business administration, sciences, law, engineering or medicine, for 8–10 semesters of full-time study, which typically takes 4–5 years. They study for a ''técnico superior universitario'' (associate degree, only half of the ''licenciatura'', with the possibility of finishing a full bachelor's degree later, mainly in fields such as engineering and computer sciences),<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.sep.gob.mx/es/sep1/Requisitos_Nivel_Tecnico_Superior_Universitario|title=Secretaría de Educación Pública :: Requisitos Nivel Técnico Superior Universitario|date=28 September 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100928005426/http://www.sep.gob.mx/es/sep1/Requisitos_Nivel_Tecnico_Superior_Universitario|archive-date=28 September 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.profesionistas.org.mx/por-que-estudiar-una-licenciatura-o-carrera-tecnica/|title=¿ Por qué estudiar una licenciatura o carrera técnica ? |website=Profesionistas.org.mx|date=13 February 2014|access-date=18 August 2017}}</ref> or a ''licenciatura'' (bachelor), then a ''maestría'' (master), then a ''doctorado'' (doctorate). They can also get the degree of "ingenieria" or "medico" as an engineer or MD, respectively.

After receiving the ''licenciatura'', students may take extra courses called ''diplomados'' (similar to a [[certification]] but issued by a university). These courses last 4–12 months and are a means to further study without continuing to the next degree level, and are usually to demonstrate that students are staying up-to-date in their fields. Most students stay at this level, but some choose to continue to the ''maestría'', equivalent to the [[master's degree]]. Study at the ''maestría'' level takes 1–3 years and mandates completion of a [[thesis]]. Post-graduate students in Mexico typically enter a master's program after a few years in the workforce and often continue working while studying.

Traditionally, students who have completed the ''maestria'' may continue on to the ''doctorado'' or the [[doctorate]]. Doctoral study typically lasts 3–4 years. In recent years this schemes has become flexible such that in some PhD programmes, students are accepted before, or not completing, the course of study for a master's.

==== United States ====
In the United States, since the late 19th century, the threefold degree system of bachelor's, master's, and doctorate has been in place but has evolved into a slightly different pattern from the European equivalent. The [[U.S. Department of Education]] now classifies degrees in six categories: [[associate degree]]s, [[bachelor's degree]]s, [[first professional degree]]s, [[master's degrees]], intermediate graduate qualifications and [[doctorate|research doctorate]]s.<ref>{{cite web|title=Structure of U.S. Education|url=http://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ous/international/usnei/us/edlite-structure-us.html|publisher=[[US Department of Education]]|access-date=4 September 2016}}</ref>

The standard academic progression remains bachelor's—master's—(research) doctorate. Most standard ''academic'' programs are based on the four-year bachelor's degree, most often [[Bachelor of Arts]] (B.A.) or [[Bachelor of Science]] (B.S.), a one- or two-year master's degree (most often [[Master of Arts]] (M.A.) or [[Master of Science]] (M.S.); either of these programs might be as long as three years in length) and a further two to five years of coursework and research, culminating in "comprehensive" examinations in one or more fields, plus perhaps some teaching experience and then the writing of a dissertation for the doctorate, for a total of ten or more years from starting the bachelor's degree (which is usually begun around age 18) to the awarding of the doctorate. This timetable is only approximate, however, as students in accelerated programs can sometimes earn a bachelor's degree in three years or, on the other hand, a particular dissertation project might take four or more years to complete. In addition, a graduate may wait an indeterminate time between degrees before candidacy in the next level or even an additional degree at a level already completed. Therefore, there is no time limit on the accumulation of academic degrees.

By far the most common research doctorate is the [[Doctor of Philosophy]] (Ph.D.), comprising 98.1% of research doctorates in 2014. The [[Doctor of Education]] (Ed.D.) made up 1.1% (not including Ed.D.s classified as professional degrees rather than research doctorates) and all other research doctorates were less than 1% in total.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nsf.gov/statistics/2016/nsf16300/technotes.cfm|title=Technical Notes|work=Doctorate Recipients from U.S. Universities: 2014|date=December 2015|access-date=4 September 2016|publisher=[[National Science Foundation]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nsf.gov/statistics/2016/nsf16300/data/taba1.pdf|title=Types of research doctoral degrees recognized by the Survey of Earned Doctorates: 2014|work=Doctorate Recipients from U.S. Universities: 2014|date=December 2015|access-date=4 September 2016|publisher=[[National Science Foundation]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nsf.gov/statistics/2016/nsf16300/data/taba2.pdf|title=Research degrees included in the Survey of Earned Doctorates: 2010–14|work=Doctorate Recipients from U.S. Universities: 2014|date=December 2015|access-date=4 September 2016|publisher=[[National Science Foundation]]}}</ref>

Some schools, mostly [[junior college]]s and [[community college]]s and some four-year schools, offer an [[associate degree]] that takes two full years of study. These may be in professional or academic fields, and the most common awards are the Associate of Arts (A.A.) and Associate of Science (A.S.) degrees. [[Articulation (education)|Articulation]] agreements may allow credit earned on an associate degree to be counted toward the completion of a bachelor's degree.<ref>{{cite web |date=February 2008 |title=Structure of the U.S. Education System: Associate Degrees |url=http://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ous/international/usnei/us/associate.doc |url-status=dead |access-date=4 September 2016 |publisher=[[US Department of Education]]}}</ref>

The "[[first professional degree]]" is a graduate-level degree program designed to prepare graduates for professional practice in various fields other than academic scholarship and research. First professional degrees require a minimum of two years of college-level education prior to entering the program and a minimum of six years of total college-level education (including that undertaken prior to entry) to complete the program.<ref name="US Department of Education">{{cite web|url=http://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ous/international/usnei/us/professional.doc|date=February 2008|title=Structure of the U.S. Education System: First-Professional Degrees|publisher=[[US Department of Education]]|access-date=4 September 2016}}</ref> Most professional degree programs require a prior bachelor's degree for admission and many require seven or eight years of total study. Many first professional degrees, e.g. [[Doctor of Medicine|M.D.]], [[Juris Doctor|J.D.]] or [[Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine|D.O.]] are named as doctorates but should not be confused with research doctorates such as the Ph.D. (or, in law, the [[Doctor of Juridical Science|S.J.D.]]).<ref name=" US Department of Education"/><ref>Association of American Universities Data Exchange. [http://www.pb.uillinois.edu/aaude/documents/graded_glossary.doc Glossary of Terms for Graduate Education]  {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090304031242/http://www.pb.uillinois.edu/aaude/documents/graded_glossary.doc |date=4 March 2009 }}. Accessed 26 May 2008; National Science Foundation (2006). "[https://www.nsf.gov/statistics/infbrief/nsf06312/nsf06312.pdf Time to Degree of U.S. Research Doctorate Recipients]  {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160308130032/http://spellmirelaw.com/ |date=2016-03-08 }}," ''InfoBrief, Science Resource Statistics'' NSF 06-312, 2006, p. 7. (under "Data notes" mentions that the J.D. is a professional doctorate); San Diego County Bar Association (1969). [https://archive.today/20070807073217/http://www.sdcba.org/ethics/ethicsopinion69-5.html ''Ethics Opinion 1969-5'']. Accessed 26 May 2008. (under "other references" discusses differences between academic and professional doctorate and statement that the J.D. is a professional doctorate); University of Utah (2006). [http://www.gradschool.utah.edu/catalog/degree.php University of Utah – The Graduate School – Graduate Handbook]  {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080626081148/http://www.gradschool.utah.edu/catalog/degree.php |date=26 June 2008 }}. Accessed 28 May 2008. (the J.D. degree is listed under doctorate degrees); German Federal Ministry of Education. [http://www.blk-bonn.de/papers/hochschulsystem_usa.pdf ''U.S. Higher Education / Evaluation of the Almanac Chronicle of Higher Education'']  {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080413192035/http://www.blk-bonn.de/papers/hochschulsystem_usa.pdf |date=13 April 2008 }}. Accessed 26 May 2008. (report by the German Federal Ministry of Education analyzing the Chronicle of Higher Education from the U.S. and stating that the J.D. is a professional doctorate); Encyclopædia Britannica. (2002). ''Encyclopædia Britannica'', 3:962:1a. (the J.D. is listed among other doctorate degrees).</ref> First professional degrees should also not be confused with professional master's degrees such as the [[Master of Architecture|M.Arch.]] and [[M.B.A.]], which are classified as master's degrees,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ous/international/usnei/us/master.doc|title=Structure of the U.S. Education System: Master's Degrees|date=February 2008|publisher=[[US Department of Education]]|access-date=4 September 2016}}</ref> or with intermediate graduate qualifications that also bear the title of doctor, such as [[Doctor of Ministry|D.Min.]] or [[Doctor of Psychology|D.Psy.]]<ref name="Intermediate Graduate Qualifications">{{cite web|url=http://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ous/international/usnei/us/grad.doc|title=Structure of the U.S. Education System: Intermediate Graduate Qualifications|date=February 2008|publisher=[[US Department of Education]]|access-date=4 September 2016}}</ref>

Intermediate graduate qualifications lie between the master's level and doctorate. They include awards such as the [[Certificate of Advanced Study]], [[Graduate Diploma]]s, [[Professional Engineer]] status, and Professional Diplomas, as well as [[specialist degree]]s such as [[Education Specialist]], [[Doctor of Ministry]], [[Doctor of Psychology]] and the [[Licentiate in Sacred Theology]].<ref name="Intermediate Graduate Qualifications"/>

In 21 US jurisdictions, religious institutions can be authorized to grant religious-exempt (rel. exmpt., rel. expt., etc.) degrees without accreditation or government oversight.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.osac.state.or.us/oda/religious_exempt.aspx|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110221105944/http://www.osac.state.or.us/oda/religious_exempt.aspx|url-status=dead|title=Oregon Student Assistance Commission Office of Degree Authorization (ODA): Religious Exempt Schools|archivedate=21 February 2011}}</ref> Such degrees are used primarily to attain church-related employment.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dailyemerald.com/2.2358/bill-addresses-degrees-from-unaccredited-institutions-1.207136 |website=Dailyemerald.com |title=Bill addresses degrees from unaccredited institutions |date=29 July 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101115125617/http://www.dailyemerald.com/2.2358/bill-addresses-degrees-from-unaccredited-institutions-1.207136 |archive-date=15 November 2010 }}</ref>

===== Current levels of attainment of degrees =====
Traditionally, more men than women attended and earned degrees at the world's universities. A milestone was reached in the United States, according to the 2010 census, as women surpassed men in attaining master's degrees, for the first time.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/in-a-first-women-surpass-men-in-college-degrees/|title=In a first, women surpass men in college degrees|date=26 April 2011|work=cbsnews.com}}</ref> The U.S. census reports that 10.5 million men have master's degrees or higher, compared with 10.6 million women. The first year that women surpassed men in earning bachelor's degrees was 1996.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.timesunion.com/default/article/Women-surpassing-men-by-degrees-1354014.php#ixzz1L9AUAydV|title=Women surpassing men by degrees|work=Times Union|date=27 April 2011}}</ref>

===== Perceptions of the value of a degree in the US =====
Students, the media, and the general public have shown much concern over the value of getting a higher degree in the US ever since the Great Recession of 2007. A 2015 survey of 2,000 adults (900 of which were graduates), implemented by the education technology company Greenwood Hall, reported that more than half of the graduates surveyed believe those getting their degree now will be receiving a lower return on their investment than their counterparts 10–15 years ago.<ref name=":0">{{cite journal|url = http://silk.library.umass.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=100996548&site=ehost-live&scope=site|title = Placing a Value on Education|last = Bidwell|first = Allie|date = 13 February 2015|journal = US News Digital Weekly|access-date = 13 October 2015|issue = 7|volume = 7}}</ref>{{update inline|date=July 2022}}

Media coverage of the rising costs of higher education and increased student debt have also affected the public's perceptions of whether higher degrees are still worthwhile. Statistics citing that college graduates make around $1 million more in their lifetimes than those who did not attend college and live longer, healthier lives work in favor of those who argue the continued value of higher degrees.<ref name=":0" /> Studies like the 2011 Learning Gains study by Arum and Roksa, on the other hand, reported that only 55% of students had any learning gains during their first two years of college, which favors the argument that investing in higher education may not still be worth it.<ref>{{cite journal|title = The Value of a College Degree|last = Rose|first = Stephen|date = November 2013|journal = Change|doi = 10.1080/00091383.2013.842101|issue = 6|volume = 45|pages = 24–33|s2cid = 143986876}}</ref>

=== Oceania ===

==== Australia ====
{{Main|Australian Qualifications Framework}}

The [[Australian Qualifications Framework]] (AQF) covers 10 levels, of which levels 6–10 correspond to academic degrees. These are: the ''[[associate degree]]'' (level 6), which normally takes 2 years; the ''[[bachelor degree]]'' (level 7), which normally takes 3 years; the ''[[honours degree|bachelor honours degree]]'' (level 8), which normally takes 1 year after the bachelor's degree and is mostly taken as an optional extension year, depending on the discipline; the ''master degree'' <!-- note lack of apostrophe in the official title - this is not a typo! --> (level 9), which normally takes 1–2 years for "research" or "coursework" degrees and 3–4 years for an "extended" degree and follows on from either a bachelor or honours degree; and the ''[[doctorate|doctoral degree]]'' (level 10), which normally takes 3–4 years following on from a master's degree or a Class I or IIa honours qualification. Also included within the higher education system are: diplomas at level 5 (first year of a degree course); advanced diplomas, at level 6 (associate degree level); and [[graduate certificate]]s and [[graduate diploma]]s, both of which are at level 8 (honours degree level).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.studyinaustralia.gov.au/global/australian-education/universities-and-higher-education/higher-education-qualifications|title=Higher education qualifications|publisher=[[Australian Government]]|access-date=4 September 2016}}</ref><ref name=AQF>{{cite web
 |url=http://www.aqf.edu.au/wp-content/uploads/2013/05/AQF-2nd-Edition-January-2013.pdf
 |title=Australian Qualifications Framework Second Edition
 |date=January 2013
 |publisher=Australian Qualifications Framework Council
 |access-date=4 September 2016 |url-status=dead
 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160910151628/http://www.aqf.edu.au/wp-content/uploads/2013/05/aqf-2nd-edition-january-2013.pdf
 |archive-date=10 September 2016 }}</ref> In Australia, most degrees are issued ungraded, with bachelor's degrees with honours being the exception.

Categories of honours degrees are:
* First Class Honours (H1 or I; overall mark of 80% and above);
* Second Class Honours – A Division (H2A or IIA; overall mark of 74% to 79%);
* Second Class Honours – B Division (H2B or IIB; overall mark of 70% to 74%);
* Third Class Honours (H3 or III; overall mark of 65% to 69%).
Lower marks do not qualify for honours, but yield a bachelor's degree at:
* Pass (P: overall mark of 50% to 64%);
* Fail (N or Failed: overall mark of 49% and below).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ozstudies.com/blog/study-australia/complete-guide-to-the-australian-grading-system|title=Australian Grading System Explained: A Complete Guide &#124; Study in Australia • OzStudies|website=Ozstudies.com}}</ref>

Doctorates in Australia may be research doctorates (normally titled [[PhD]]s), professional doctorates (normally titled to refer to the field of practice, e.g. [[Doctor of Engineering]]) or higher doctorates (also normally titled to refer to the field of practice). Extended master's degrees are also allowed to have the word 'doctor' in their title if they are in certain fields, but they are not doctoral degrees.<ref name=AQF/>

==== New Zealand ====
{{main| Tertiary education in New Zealand}}

Like Australia, New Zealand has a 10-level qualifications framework (the New Zealand Qualifications Framework – NZQF) and a referencing exercise has found a one-to-one correspondence between the levels of the two frameworks.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nzqa.govt.nz/about-us/our-role/our-role-in-international-education/country-specific-recognition-arrangements/australia/|title=Australia|publisher=New Zealand Qualifications Authority|access-date=4 September 2016}}</ref> However, the names given to qualifications at different levels are not the same and New Zealand does not have associate degrees, thus only levels 7–10 correspond to academic degrees. These are the [[bachelor's degree]] (level 7), [[honours degree|bachelor honours degree]] (level 8), [[master's degree]] (level 9) and the [[doctorate|doctoral degree]] (level 10). In addition to these, the NZQF has certificates across levels 1–6, diplomas at levels 5 and 6, [[graduate certificate]]s and [[graduate diploma]]s at level 7 (bachelor's), and [[postgraduate certificate]]s and [[postgraduate diploma]]s at level 8 (honours).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nzqa.govt.nz/studying-in-new-zealand/understand-nz-quals/|title=Understanding New Zealand qualifications|publisher=New Zealand Qualifications Authority|access-date=4 September 2016}}</ref> Another referencing exercise, comparing the NZQF to the 10-level Irish National Framework for Qualifications, found that degrees were comparable but that further work was needed to improve compatibility at the sub-degree levels (1–6). Non-degree qualifications at levels 7–9 were not included in the study.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nzqa.govt.nz/about-us/our-role/our-role-in-international-education/country-specific-recognition-arrangements/ireland/|title=Ireland|publisher=New Zealand Qualifications Authority|access-date=5 September 2016}}</ref> In New Zealand, master's degrees may be awarded with classified honours (1st, 2:1, 2:2, 3rd) or with distinction or merit.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aut.ac.nz/being-a-student/current-postgraduates/academic-information/award-of-honours-and-distinction|title=Award of honours and distinction|publisher=[[Auckland University of Technology]]|access-date=13 September 2016}}</ref>

=== South America ===

==== Argentina ====
{{Main|Education in Argentina}}

==== Brazil ====
Undergraduate students in Brazilian universities graduate either with a bachelor's degree, a licentiate degree or a technologist degree. Bachelor degrees in Brazil normally take four or five years of full-time study to complete, with the exception of the human medicine course, which requires six years. Licentiate degrees normally take four-years, and are for students who want to qualify as [[secondary school|school]] teachers. ''Licenciatura'' courses exist mostly in mathematics, humanities and natural sciences. The technologist degree is available in technology-related fields and can be normally obtained in three years. These degrees are for entry into industry.

Admission as an undergraduate student to most top public or private universities in Brazil requires that the applicant pass a competitive entrance examination known as the [[Vestibular]]. Contrary to what happens in the United States, candidates must declare their intended university major when they register for the Vestibular. Although it is theoretically possible to switch majors afterwards (in a process known within the universities as ''transferência interna''), that is actually quite rare in Brazil. Undergraduate curricula tend to be more rigid than in the United States and there is little room to take classes outside one's major.

Individuals who hold either a bachelor's degree, licentiate or technologist are eligible for admission into [[Graduate School|graduate]] courses leading to advanced [[master's degree|master]]'s or doctor's degrees. Criteria for admission into master's and doctor's programs vary in Brazil. Some universities require that candidates take entrance exams; others make admission decisions based solely on undergraduate transcripts, letters of recommendation and possibly oral interviews. In most cases, however, especially for the doctorate, the candidate is required to submit a research plan, and one faculty member must agree to serve as supervisor before the candidate can be admitted into the program. The exceptions are the [[natural sciences]] post-graduate programs, which accept students with very broad or vague research prospects that sometimes the prospect is given ''in promptu'' during the interview, preferring to let the students define their study program and advisor in the course of the first year of studies.

There are two types of post-graduate programs: ''lato sensu'' (specialization and MBAs) and ''stricto sensu'' (professional master's, master's, and doctorate).

Specializations or MBAs are courses that include taking a minimum number of graduate classes (minimum of 360 hours) but with no need to do research nor defend a thesis, only to present final work showing knowledge acquired. It is a professional level where theory and practice are focused broadly.

Professional master's or master's degrees usually take one to two years of full-time study. Requirements for an academic master's degree include taking a minimum number of advanced graduate classes (typically between five and eight) and submitting a research thesis, which is examined orally by a panel of at least two examiners (three is the preferred number), sometimes including one member from another university or research institute. The emphasis of the thesis must be in adding some value to knowledge, but not necessarily in being original.

Doctoral degrees normally take four additional years of full-time study to complete. Requirements for obtaining a doctor's degree include taking additional advanced courses, passing an oral qualifying exam, and submitting a longer doctoral dissertation which must represent a significant original contribution to knowledge in the field to which the dissertation topic is related. That contrasts with master's thesis, which, in addition to being usually shorter than doctoral dissertations, are not required to include creation of new knowledge or revision/reinterpretation of older views/theories. The doctoral dissertation is examined in a final oral exam before a panel of at least two members (in the state of São Paulo the preferred number is five, while the other regions prefer three members), usually including one or two external examiners from another university or research institute.

Finally, a small number of Brazilian universities, most notably the public universities in the state of [[São Paulo (state)|São Paulo]], still award the title of {{interlanguage link|Livre-Docente|pt|Livre-docência}} (''free [[docent]]''), which is of higher standing than a doctorate and is obtained, similar to the German [[Habilitation]], by the submission of a second (original or cumulative) thesis and approval in a ''Livre-Docência'' examination that includes giving a public lecture before a panel of full professors.

''See also [[Universities and Higher Education in Brazil]]''

==== Colombia ====
In Colombia, the system of academic degrees is based in the British model, similar to the U.S. model. After completing their "bachillerato" (high school), students can take one of three options. The first one is called a {{lang|es|profesional}} (professional career), which is similar to a bachelor's degree requiring from four to 6 years of study according to the chosen program. The other option is called a {{lang|es|técnico}} (technician); this degree consists of two and a half years of study and prepares the student for technical or mechanical labors. Finally, the third option is called a {{lang|es|tecnólogo}} (equivalent to associate degree) and consists of three years of study.

After this, students, now called {{lang|es|profesional}} (professionals), {{lang|es|técnicos}} (technicians) or {{lang|es|tecnólogos}} (associates), can opt for higher degrees. Formal education after the bachelor's degree leads to the master's degree with the title of {{lang|es|maestro}} and doctorate degrees, known as {{lang|es|doctorado}} (doctorate). The master's degree normally takes two years.

Students also can take a specialization course, {{lang|es|especialización}}, equivalent to a graduate certificate degree, after their bachelor's degree. These programs, like in the U.S., are very popular, because it requires only one to two years of study.

In Colombia, similar to the U.S. system, the students may not go directly to the {{lang|es|doctorado}} without having the "master" degree first.

==== Chile ====
After completing {{lang|es|enseñanza media}} (high school), students receive a {{lang|es|Licenciatura de Enseñanza Media}} (high school diploma), which is a requirement for higher education.

In Chile, there is a distinction between academic degrees and professional titles:
* {{lang|es|Grado académico}} is the denomination given to an academic degree granted by a higher education institution recognized by the Chilean Mineduc (Ministry of Education).
* {{lang|es|Titulo profesional}} is the denomination given to a professional title. Some professional titles are required for occupations such as physicians, attorneys and as civil/commercial engineers. A professional title may or may not require a {{lang|es|grado académico}}, additional examination or work experience. For example, the {{lang|es|abogado}} (attorney) professional title is granted by the Chilean Supreme Court and requires an examination, academic degree and 6 months of pro-bono work experience.

Among {{lang|es|grado académico}} degrees, there are the following levels:
* {{lang|es|Bachiller}}, undergraduate degree obtained by completing a 2-year {{lang|es|bachillerato}}.
* {{lang|es|Licenciado}}, undergraduate degree obtained as a 4+ year {{lang|es|licenciatura}}. Equivalent to a bachelor's degree.
* {{lang|es|Magister}}, graduate degree, requiring a {{lang|es|licenciado}} degree or equivalent. Equivalent to a master's degree.
* {{lang|es|Doctorado}}, a doctoral degree, often requiring a {{lang|es|magister}} degree or equivalent.

Higher-education programs that provide a professional title but not an academic degree are referred to as {{lang|es|carreras técnicas}}, which are similar in duration and scope to associate degree programs. These are often granted by educational institutions of the type {{lang|es|instituto profesional}} (IP) or {{lang|es|centro de formación técnica}} (CFT).

==== Venezuela ====
Academic degrees in Venezuela start with the ''Certificado de Educación Básica'' (Certificate of Basic Education), awarded upon completing the 9th grade. The next degree is earned upon completing the 11th grade and confers the title of ''Bachiller en Ciencias'' (High School Graduate of Science), ''Bachiller en Humanidades'' (High School Graduate of Humanities) or ''Técnico en Ciencias'' (Science Technician). The reason for this diversity is because some schools provide vocational education as part of their high school curriculum (thereby allowing them to hand out "technician" titles), while elsewhere the student is required to decide whether to study science or the humanities for the last two years of secondary school.

Titles at the higher-education level usually depend on the institution handing them out. Technical schools award the student with the title of ''Técnico Superior Universitario'' (university higher technician, to distinguish from science technician). Universities award the student with the title of ''ingeniero'' (engineer) or with the title ''licenciado'' (licentiate) after completing a five-year program. The ingeniero degree requires more physics than the licenciado degree, but both take five years. Some higher-education institutions may award ''diplomados'' (diploma), but the time necessary to obtain one varies. Medical doctors are awarded the title "Médico Cirujano" after completing a 6-year course of study.

Postgraduate education in Venezuela follows the conventions of the United States (being named "master's" and "doctorate" after the programs there).

== Pontifical universities ==
[[Pontifical university|Pontifical universities]] around the world—such as the Pontifical University, St Patrick's College, Maynooth, in Ireland; the [[University of Santo Tomas|Pontifical and Royal University of Santo Tomas]] in [[Manila]];<ref>The direct competence of the Holy See applies only to the Ecclesiastical Faculties of Theology, Philosophy and Canon Law. The other sciences and arts degrees are under the competence of the Department of Education of the Philippine Republic.</ref> [[Catholic University of America]], the [[Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas]], ''Angelicum'', in Rome; the [[Université catholique de Louvain|University of Louvain]] (UCLouvain) in Belgium, and the [[Pontifical Catholic University of Peru]] depend for their status as pontifical universities, and for the nature of their academic degrees, on the [[Pope]], through the [[Congregation for Catholic Education]]. The nature of academic degrees from ecclesiastical institutions of education is outlined in the [[apostolic constitution]] ''Sapientia Christiana''.<ref name="vatican.va">{{cite web|url=https://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/apost_constitutions/documents/hf_jp-ii_apc_15041979_sapientia-christiana_en.html|title=Sapientia Christiana (April 15, 1979) – John Paul II|website=Vatican.va|access-date=18 August 2017}}</ref>

In distinction to secular or Catholic universities, which are academic institutions for the study and teaching of a broad range of disciplines, ecclesiastical or [[Pontifical university|pontifical universities]] "are usually composed of three principal ecclesiastical faculties: theology, philosophy, and canon law, as well as at least one other faculty. A pontifical university specifically addresses Christian revelation and disciplines correlative to the evangelical mission of the Church as set out in ''Sapientia christiana''."<ref name="vatican.va" /><ref name="avepro.va">{{cite web|url=http://www.avepro.va/|title=AVEPRO|work=avepro.va|access-date=1 November 2012}}</ref>

The core of degrees granted by pontifical universities consists of three levels: the first is the [[bachelor's degree|baccalaureate]]; the second is the [[Licentiate (degree)|licentiate]]; the third is the [[doctorate]]. From this core pontifical universities confer specific degrees, including:

Theology
* Baccalaureate in Sacred Theology, ''Sacrae Theologiae Baccalaureatus'' (S.T.B.)
* Licentiate in Sacred Theology, ''Sacrae Theologiae Licentiatus'' (S.T.L.)
* Doctorate in Sacred Theology, ''Sacrae Theologiae Doctoratus'' (S.T.D.)

Philosophy
* Baccalaureate in Philosophy, ''Philosophiae Baccalaureatus'' (Ph.B.)
* Licentiate in Philosophy, ''Philosophiae Licentiatus'' (Ph.L.)
* Doctorate in Philosophy, ''Philosophiae Doctoratus'' (Ph.D.)

Canon Law
* Baccalaureate in Canon Law, ''Juris Canonici Baccalaureatus'' (J.C.B.)
* Licentiate in Canon Law, ''Juris Canonici Licentiatus'' (J.C.L.)
* Doctorate in Canon Law, ''Juris Canonici Doctoratus'' (J.C.D.)

== See also ==
{{wikiquote}}
{{Div col|colwidth=22em}}
* [[Academic Awards in Spain]]
* [[Academic Inflation]]
* [[Academic stole]]
* [[Ad eundem degree]]
* [[Credential evaluation]]
* [[Degrees of the University of Oxford]]
* [[Degrees offered by unaccredited institutions of higher education]]
* [[Diploma mill]]
* [[Educational devaluation]]
* [[External degree]]
* [[Grade inflation]]
* [[Higher education]]
* [[Honorary degree]]
* [[Lambeth degree]]
* [[Lisbon Recognition Convention]]
* [[List of fields of doctoral studies]]
* [[Mickey Mouse degree]]
* [[Pontifical university]]
* [[Positional good]]
* [[Postgraduate education]]
* [[Thesis]]
* [[Validation of foreign studies and degrees]]
{{div col end}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Academic degrees}}
{{Named academic degrees}}
{{Personal names}}
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[[Category:Academic degrees| ]]