View source for Avocado

{{Short description|Species of flowering plant in the laurel family}}
{{About|the tree and fruit}}
{{Pp|small=yes|}}
{{Use American English|date=January 2022}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2020}}
{{cs1 config|name-list-style=vanc|display-authors=3}}
{{Speciesbox
| fossil_range = 
| image = Persea americana fruit 2.JPG
| image_alt = Close-up picture of foliage and avocado fruit
| image_caption = Avocado fruit and foliage, [[Réunion|Réunion island]]
| image2 = Avocado Hass - single and halved.jpg
| image2_caption = Whole and halved [[Hass avocado]]s grown in Colombia
| genus = Persea
| species = americana
| status = LC
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref =<ref>Wegier, A., Lorea Hernández, F., Contreras, A., Tobón, W. & Mastretta-Yanes, A. 2017. Persea americana (errata version published in 2018). The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2017: e.T96986556A129765464. https://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2017-3.RLTS.T96986556A96986588.en. Downloaded on 01 May 2021.</ref>
| authority = [[Philip Miller|Mill.]]
| synonyms = 
{{collapsible list|bullets = true
 |title={{small|synonymy}}
|''Laurus persea''<br/> {{small|L.}}
|''Persea americana'' var. ''angustifolia''<br/> {{small|Miranda}} 
|''Persea americana'' var. ''drymifolia''<br/> {{small|(Cham. & Schltdl.) S.F. Blake }}
|''Persea americana'' var. ''nubigena''<br/> {{small|(L.O. Williams) L.E. Kopp}}
|''Persea drymifolia''<br/> {{small|Cham. & Schltdl.}} 
|''Persea edulis''<br/> {{small|Raf.}} 
|''Persea floccosa''<br/> {{small|Mez}} 
|''Persea gigantea''<br/> {{small|L.O. Williams}} 
|''Persea gratissima''<br/> {{small|C.F.Gaertn.}}
|''Persea gratissima'' var. ''drimyfolia''<br/> {{small|(Schltdl. & Cham.) Mez}}
|''Persea gratissima'' var. ''macrophylla''<br/> {{small|[[Carl Meissner|Meisn.]]}}
|''Persea gratissima'' var. ''oblonga''<br/> {{small|Meisn.}} 
|''Persea gratissima'' var. ''praecox''<br/> {{small|Nees}}
|''Persea gratissima'' var. ''vulgaris''<br/> {{small|Meisn.}}
|''Persea leiogyna''<br/> {{small|Blake}}
|''Persea nubigena''<br/> {{small|L.O. Williams}}
|''Persea nubigena'' var. ''guatemalensis''<br/> {{small|L.O. Williams}}
|''Persea paucitriplinervia''<br/> {{small|Lundell}} 
|''Persea persea''<br/> {{small|(L.) Cockerell}}
|''Persea steyermarkii''<br/> {{small|C.K. Allen}}
}}
| synonyms_ref =<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.worldfloraonline.org/taxon/wfo-0000465160|title=''Persea americana'' Mill.|website=World Flora Online|date=2022|publisher=The World Flora Online Consortium|access-date=25 May 2022}}</ref>
}}

The '''avocado''', '''alligator pear''' or '''avocado pear''' ('''''Persea americana''''') is an [[evergreen]] tree in the laurel family ([[Lauraceae]]). It is native to [[Americas|the Americas]] and was first domesticated in [[Mesoamerica]] more than 5,000 years ago. It was prized for its large and unusually [[Avocado oil|oily fruit]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-05-18 |title=Avocado History |url=https://avocadosfrommexico.com/avocados/history/ |access-date=2022-09-24 |website=Avocados From Mexico |language=en-US}}</ref> The tree likely originated in the highlands bridging south-central Mexico and [[Guatemala]].<ref name="morton">{{cite book|url= https://hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/avocado_ars.html|title=Avocado; In: Fruits of Warm Climates|author=Morton JF|pages=91–102|publisher=Center for New Crops and Plant Products, Department of Horticulture and Landscape Architecture, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN |date=1987|isbn=978-0-9610184-1-2}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://ucavo.ucr.edu/General/HistoryName.html |title=What's in a name? | publisher=University of California|access-date=27 March 2016}}</ref><ref name="chen">{{cite journal |doi=10.1093/jhered/esn068 |pmid=18779226 |title=Tracing the Geographic Origins of Major Avocado Cultivars |journal=Journal of Heredity |volume=100 |issue=1 |pages=56–65 |year=2008 |last1=Chen |first1=H |last2=Morrell |first2=PL |last3=Ashworth |first3=V |last4=de la Cruz |first4=M |last5=Clegg |first5=MT |doi-access=free|url=https://academic.oup.com/jhered/article/100/1/56/771306}}</ref> Avocado trees have a native growth range from Mexico to [[Costa Rica]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:325643-2|title= Persea Americana Avocado}}</ref> 

Its fruit, sometimes also referred to as an '''alligator pear''' or '''avocado pear''', is botanically a large [[Berry (botany)|berry]] containing a single large seed.<ref name="storey">{{cite journal|author=Storey, W. B. |url=http://ucavo.ucr.edu/General/FruitBerry.html |title=What kind of fruit is the avocado? |journal=California Avocado Society 1973–74 Yearbook |volume=57 |pages=70–71|year=1973}}</ref> Sequencing of its genome showed that the evolution of avocados was shaped by [[polyploidy]] events and that commercial varieties have a [[Hybrid (biology)|hybrid]] origin.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Rendón-Anaya |first1=Martha |last2=Ibarra-Laclette |first2=Enrique |last3=Méndez-Bravo |first3=Alfonso |last4=Lan |first4=Tianying |last5=Zheng |first5=Chunfang |last6=Carretero-Paulet |first6=Lorenzo |last7=Perez-Torres |first7=Claudia Anahí |last8=Chacón-López |first8=Alejandra |last9=Hernandez-Guzmán |first9=Gustavo |last10=Chang |first10=Tien-Hao |last11=Farr |first11=Kimberly M. |last12=Barbazuk |first12=W. Brad |last13=Chamala |first13=Srikar |last14=Mutwil |first14=Marek |last15=Shivhare |first15=Devendra |date=2019-08-20 |title=The avocado genome informs deep angiosperm phylogeny, highlights introgressive hybridization, and reveals pathogen-influenced gene space adaptation |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=116 |issue=34 |pages=17081–17089 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1822129116 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=6708331 |pmid=31387975 |bibcode=2019PNAS..11617081R |doi-access=free }}</ref> Avocado trees are partly [[Self-pollination|self-pollinating]], and are often [[Plant propagation|propagated]] through [[grafting]] to maintain consistent fruit output.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.agric.wa.gov.au/spring/growing-avocados-flowering-pollination-and-fruit-set|title=Growing avocados: flowering, pollination and fruit set|website=Government of Western Australia: Department of Primary Industries and Regional Development}}</ref> Avocados are presently cultivated in the tropical and [[Mediterranean climate]]s of many countries.<ref name="morton" /> {{as of|2023}}, [[Agriculture in Mexico|Mexico]] is the world's [[List of countries by avocado production|leading producer]] of avocados, supplying 29% of the global harvest of 10.5 million [[tonne]]s.<ref name="faostat" />

The fruit of domestic varieties have smooth, buttery, golden-green flesh when ripe. Depending on the [[cultivar]], avocados have green, brown, purplish, or black skin, and may be pear-shaped, egg-shaped, or spherical. For commercial purposes, the fruits are picked while unripe and ripened after harvesting. The nutrient density and high fat content of avocado flesh are advantages for various cuisines, including vegetarian diets.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Dreher |first1=Mark L. |last2=Davenport |first2=Adrienne J. |date=2013-01-01 |title=Hass Avocado Composition and Potential Health Effects |journal=Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition |volume=53 |issue=7 |pages=738–750 |doi=10.1080/10408398.2011.556759 |issn=1040-8398 |pmc=3664913 |pmid=23638933}}</ref>

In major production regions like [[Chile]], [[Mexico]] and [[California]], the water demands of avocado farms place strain on local resources.<ref name="footprint" /> Avocado production is implicated in other [[Externality|externalities]], including [[deforestation]] and human rights concerns associated with the partial control of their production in Mexico by [[Organized crime in Mexico|organized crime]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-05-17 |title=The Shocking Environmental Effects of Avocado Farming |url=https://www.voxnature.com/the-shocking-environmental-effects-of-avocado-farming/ |access-date=2022-04-26 |website=Vox Nature |language=en-US |archive-date=28 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220728175549/https://www.voxnature.com/the-shocking-environmental-effects-of-avocado-farming/ |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Avocado consumption: environmental and social considerations |url=https://www.canr.msu.edu/news/avocado_consumption_environmental_and_social_considerations |access-date=2022-04-26 |website=MSU Extension |date=24 August 2017 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Khan |first1=Nadeem |last2=Kakabadse |first2=Nada Korac- |last3=Skouloudis |first3=Antonis |date=2021-11-17 |title=Socio-ecological resilience and environmental sustainability: case of avocado from Mexico |journal=International Journal of Sustainable Development & World Ecology |volume=28 |issue=8 |pages=744–758 |doi=10.1080/13504509.2021.1902419 |bibcode=2021IJSDW..28..744K |s2cid=233607375 |issn=1350-4509|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>Bravo-Espinosa, M., Mendoza, M.E., Carlo ́n Allende, T., Medina, L., S ́aenz-Reyes, J.T., Pa ́ez, R., 2014. Effects of converting forest to avocado orchards on topsoil properties in the trans-Mexican volcanic system, Mexico. Land Degrad. Dev. 25 (5), 452–467. https://doi.org/10.1002/ldr.2163.</ref> Global warming is expected to result in [[Effects of climate change on agriculture|significant changes to the suitable growing zones]] for avocados, and place additional pressures on the locales in which they are produced due to [[heat wave]]s and drought.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-01-26 |title=What climate change means for the future of coffee, cashews, and avocados |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/article/what-climate-change-means-for-future-of-coffee-cashew-avocado |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220126205119/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/article/what-climate-change-means-for-future-of-coffee-cashew-avocado |url-status=dead |archive-date=26 January 2022 |access-date=2022-04-26 |website=National Geographic Environment |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Grüter |first1=Roman |last2=Trachsel |first2=Tim |last3=Laube |first3=Patrick |last4=Jaisli |first4=Isabel |date=2022-01-26 |title=Expected global suitability of coffee, cashew and avocado due to climate change |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=17 |issue=1 |pages=e0261976 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0261976 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=8791496 |pmid=35081123|bibcode=2022PLoSO..1761976G |doi-access=free }}</ref>

== Description ==
''Persea americana'' is a tree that grows to {{convert|9|-|20|m|ft|abbr=on}} with a trunk diameter between {{convert|0.3|-|0.6|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}. The leaves are {{convert|8|-|25|cm|in|0|abbr=on}} long and alternately arranged.<ref name="Nandwani2014">{{cite book|author=Dilip Nandwani |year=2014 |title=Sustainable Horticultural Systems: Issues, Technology and Innovation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jurSBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA176 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-319-06904-3 |pages=176–}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Avocado General Information |url=http://www.extento.hawaii.edu/kbase/crop/crops/i_avocad.htm |access-date=2023-03-21 |website=www.extento.hawaii.edu}}</ref>

=== Flower ===
Panicles of flowers with deciduous bracts arise from new growth or the axils of leaves. The tree flowers thousands of blossoms every year. Avocado blossoms sprout from racemes near the leaf axils; they are small and inconspicuous {{convert|5|-|10|mm|in|frac=16|abbr=on}} wide. They have no petals but instead two whorls of three pale-green or greenish-yellow downy [[perianth]] lobes, each blossom has 9 stamens with 2 basal orange nectar glands.<ref name="Nandwani2014"/><ref name=morton/>

=== Fruit ===
[[File:Flower of Avocado 2.jpg|thumb|Avocado flower]]
[[File:Pollen grains of avocado plant.jpg|thumb|Pollen grains of avocado]]

The avocado fruit is a [[Climacteric (botany)|climacteric]],<ref name="Yahia2011">{{cite book|author=Elhadi M. Yahia|title=Postharvest Biology and Technology of Tropical and Subtropical Fruits: Açai to Citrus|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oO51AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA125|year=2011|publisher=Elsevier Science|isbn=978-0-85709-276-2|pages=125–}}</ref> single-seeded [[berry (botany)|berry]], due to the imperceptible [[endocarp]] covering the seed,<ref name=storey/><ref name="whiley">{{cite book|author=A. W. Whiley |author2=B. Schaffer |author3=B. N. Wolstenholme |title=The Avocado: Botany, Production, and Uses |date=2002 |publisher=CABI |isbn=978-0851999784 |page=30 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CxmvpAYkL54C&pg=PA30}}</ref> rather than a [[drupe]].<ref name="Essig2015">{{cite book|author=Frederick B. Essig|title=Plant Life: A Brief History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XvhzBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA162|year= 2015|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-026658-5|pages=162–}}</ref> The pear-shaped fruit is usually {{convert|7|-|20|cm|in|frac=2|abbr=on}} long, weighs between {{convert|100|and|1000|g|oz|frac=2|abbr=on}}, and has a large central [[seed]], {{convert|5|-|6.4|cm|in|frac=4|abbr=on}} long.<ref name=morton/> Early wild avocados prior to domestication had much smaller seeds around {{Convert|2.1-2.2|cm|in}} in diameter, likely corresponding to smaller fruit size.<ref name=":0" />

The species produces various cultivars with larger, fleshier fruits with a thinner [[exocarp]] because of [[plant breeding|selective breeding]] by humans.<ref name="Kole2011">{{cite book|author=Chittaranjan Kole|title=Wild Crop Relatives: Genomic and Breeding Resources: Tropical and Subtropical Fruits|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WY4zSqE8sdgC&pg=PA172|year=2011|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-3-642-20447-0|pages=172–}}</ref>

== Taxonomy and evolution ==
The species was scientifically named by the British botanist [[Philip Miller]] in 1768.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Parry |first=Katy |date=2023-01-16 |title=Persea americana |url=https://www.chelseaphysicgarden.co.uk/persea-americana/ |access-date=2024-11-17 |website=Chelsea Physic Garden |language=en-GB}}</ref> The genus ''[[Persea]]'' to which the avocado belongs is considered to have a North American origin, with ''Persea'' suggested to have diversified in Central America during the [[Pleistocene]] epoch.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Galindo-Tovar |first1=María Elena |last2=Ogata-Aguilar |first2=Nisao |last3=Arzate-Fernández |first3=Amaury M. |date=May 2008 |title=Some aspects of avocado (Persea americana Mill.) diversity and domestication in Mesoamerica |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10722-007-9250-5 |journal=Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution |language=en |volume=55 |issue=3 |pages=441–450 |doi=10.1007/s10722-007-9250-5 |bibcode=2008GRCEv..55..441G |issn=0925-9864|url-access=subscription }}</ref> The modern avocado is thought to have speciated from other ''Persea'' during the Pleistocene, estimated at around either 1.3 million or 430,000 years ago.<ref name="berd">{{cite journal |last1=Berdugo-Cely |first1=Jhon A |display-authors=etal |date=2023 |title=Pleistocene-dated genomic divergence of avocado trees supports cryptic diversity in the Colombian germplasm |journal=Tree Genetics & Genomes |volume=19 |issue=42 |doi=10.1007/s11295-023-01616-8 |doi-access=free}}</ref> A number of authors, including Connie Barlow in her 2001 book ''The Ghosts of Evolution'', have speculated that the avocado is an "[[evolutionary anachronism]]" with megafaunal dispersal syndrome (a concept originally proposed in the 1980s by [[Paul Schultz Martin|Paul S. Martin]] and [[Daniel H. Janzen]]<ref name="Janzen">{{cite journal |last1=Janzen |first1=D. H. |last2=Martin |first2=P. S. |year=1982 |title=Neotropical Anachronisms: The Fruits the Gomphotheres Ate |url=https://commonnaturalist.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/janzen-and-martin-1982.pdf |journal=Science |publisher=American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) |volume=215 |issue=4528 |pages=19–27 |bibcode=1982Sci...215...19J |doi=10.1126/science.215.4528.19 |issn=0036-8075 |pmid=17790450 |s2cid=19296719}}</ref>), arguing that the avocado likely [[coevolution|coevolved]] dispersal of its large seed by now-extinct [[megafauna]].<ref name="Barlow2001" /><ref>Wolstenholme, B.N.; Whiley, A.W. [http://209.143.153.251/WAC4/WAC4_p077.pdf Ecophysiology of the avocado (''Persea americana'' Mill.) tree as a basis for pre-harvest management.] ''Rev. Chapingo Ser. Hortic.'' '''1999''', ''5'', 77–88. </ref> Barlow proposed that the dispersers included the [[gomphothere]] (elephant relative) ''[[Cuvieronius]]'', as well as [[Ground sloth|ground sloths]], [[Toxodontidae|toxodontids]], and [[Glyptodont|glyptodonts]].<ref name="Barlow2001">{{cite book |last=Barlow |first=Connie |year=2001 |title=The Ghosts of Evolution: Nonsensical Fruit, Missing Partners, and Other Ecological Anachronisms |location=New York |publisher=Basic Books |isbn=978-0-465-00551-2}}</ref> The concept of evolutionary anachronisms/megafaunal dispersal syndrome has been criticised by some authors, who note that many large fruit are readily dispersed by non-megafaunal animals,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Blanco |first1=Guillermo |last2=Tella |first2=José L. |last3=Díaz-Luque |first3=José A. |last4=Hiraldo |first4=Fernando |date=2019-08-29 |title=Multiple External Seed Dispersers Challenge the Megafaunal Syndrome Anachronism and the Surrogate Ecological Function of Livestock |journal=Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution |volume=7 |page=328 |doi=10.3389/fevo.2019.00328 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2019FrEEv...7..328B |issn=2296-701X|hdl=10261/199258 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> with it being noted that living [[Agouti|agoutis]] disperse avocado seeds,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Mittelman |first1=Pedro |last2=Dracxler |first2=Caroline Marques |last3=Santos-Coutinho |first3=Pollyanna R. O. |last4=Pires |first4=Alexandra S. |date=December 2021 |title=Sowing forests: a synthesis of seed dispersal and predation by agoutis and their influence on plant communities |journal=Biological Reviews |language=en |volume=96 |issue=6 |pages=2425–2445 |doi=10.1111/brv.12761 |pmid=34156131 |issn=1464-7931|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>Peterson, Maria, "[https://digitalcommons.usf.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1550&context=tropical_ecology Seed toughness in Persea americana (Lauraceae) and Dioclea reflexa (Papilionaceae) and feeding behavior in agoutis (Dasyprocta punctata), 2007]" (2007). Tropical Ecology and Conservation [Monteverde Institute]. 551.</ref> with [[Spectacled bear|spectacled bears]] have also having been observed eating domestic avocados.<ref>{{Citation |last1=Velez-Liendo |first1=Ximena |title=Andean Bear ( Tremarctos ornatus ) |date=2020-11-26 |work=Bears of the World |pages=78–87 |editor-last=Penteriani |editor-first=Vincenzo |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/bears-of-the-world/andean-bear-tremarctos-ornatus/50CB3CCA93D6742E760E5B8A26F35F98 |access-date=2024-11-19 |edition=1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1017/9781108692571.008 |isbn=978-1-108-69257-1 |last2=Jackson |first2=David |last3=Ruiz-García |first3=Manuel |last4=Castellanos |first4=Armando |last5=Espinosa |first5=Santiago |last6=Laguna |first6=Andrés |editor2-last=Melletti |editor2-first=Mario|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

== History ==
[[File:Avocado firstInternationalShipment.jpg|thumb|First international air shipment of avocados from Los Angeles to Toronto for the [[Canadian National Exhibition]], 1927]]

The earliest known written account of the avocado in Europe is that of [[Martín Fernández de Enciso]] ({{circa|1470}}{{snd}}1528) in 1519 in his book, ''[[Suma de Geographia|Suma De Geographia Que Trata De Todas Las Partidas Y Provincias Del Mundo]]'', while describing the native settlement of Yaharo (present-day [[Dibulla, La Guajira|Dibulla]], Colombia).<ref name="IF">{{cite web |author=<!--Staff writer; no by-line.--> |year=2007 |title=Avocado History |url=http://www.indexfresh.com/avocado_history.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071225063117/http://www.indexfresh.com/avocado_history.htm |archive-date=25 December 2007 |access-date=29 December 2007 |work=IndexFresh.com |publisher=Index Fresh Avocado |location=[[Bloomington, CA]]}}</ref><ref name="WCA">{{cite web |last=Stradley |first=Linda |year=2004 |title=All About Avocados: History of the Hass Avocado |url=http://whatscookingamerica.net/avacado.htm <!--Staff writer; no by-line.--> |access-date=13 May 2008 |work=What'sCookingAmerica.net |publisher=self-published |location=[[Newberg, OR]]}}</ref> The first detailed account that unequivocally describes the avocado was given by [[Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés]] in his work ''Sumario de la natural historia de las Indias'' in 1526, while holding administrative Spanish colonial duties in [[Santo Domingo]] and visiting [[Castilla de Oro]].<ref name="Ayala SilvaLedesma2014">{{cite book |last1=Ayala Silva |first1=Tomas |title=Sustainable Horticultural Systems |last2=Ledesma |first2=Noris |year=2014 |isbn=978-3-319-06903-6 |series=Sustainable Development and Biodiversity |volume=2 |pages=157–205 |chapter=Avocado History, Biodiversity and Production |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-06904-3_8}}</ref> The first written record in English of the use of the word 'avocado' was by [[Hans Sloane]], who coined the term,<ref name="Ayala SilvaLedesma2014" /> in a 1696 index of Jamaican plants. 

=== Etymology ===
The word ''avocado'' comes from the Spanish {{lang|es|aguacate}}, which derives from the [[Nahuatl]] (Mexican) word {{lang|nci|āhuacatl}} {{IPA|nah|aːˈwakat͡ɬ|}},<ref>[http://whp.uoregon.edu/dictionaries/nahuatl/index.lasso Nahuatl Dictionary/Diccionario del náhuatl] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161203034759/http://whp.uoregon.edu/dictionaries/nahuatl/index.lasso |date=3 December 2016 }}. Whp.uoregon.edu. Retrieved on 25 July 2013. </ref> which goes back to the [[Proto-Nahuan language|proto-Aztecan]] {{lang|nah|*pa:wa}}.<ref>{{Cite book|author=Dakin, Karen |year=1982 |title=La evolución fonológica del Protonáhuatl |publisher=[[Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México]], Instituto de Investigaciones Filológicas |location=México D.F. |isbn=978-968-5802-92-5 |oclc=10216962|page=210|language=es}}</ref> In [[Vocabulario en lengua castellana y mexicana|Molina's Nahuatl dictionary]] "auacatl" is given also as the translation for ''compañón'' "testicle",<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/vocabulariodela00platgoog/page/n287/mode/2up?q=Auacatl|author=Molina Alonso de, Julius Platzmann |year=1880 |title=Vocabulario De La Lengua Méxicana. Edición facsimilaria |publisher= B.G. Teubner |location=Leipzig |oclc=11400907 |language=es}}</ref> and this has been taken up in popular culture where a frequent claim is that testicle was the word's original meaning. This is not the case, as the original meaning can be reconstructed as "avocado" – rather the word seems to have been used in Nahuatl as a euphemism for "testicle".<ref>{{cite journal|author=Pharao Hansen, Magnus|year=2021|volume=42|issue=3|pages=9–12|title=Avocado og testikelsovs:et internet meme og en aztekisk etymologi (Avocados and testicle sauce: an internet meme and an aztec etymology|journal=Mål og Mæle|url=https://magnuspharao.files.wordpress.com/2021/12/mom_42-3-m_pharao.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.snopes.com/fact-check/guacamole-means-testicle-sauce/|title=Does the Word 'Guacamole' Mean 'Testicle Sauce'?|website=Snopes |author=Brooke, Binkowski|date=February 9, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://nahuatlstudies.blogspot.com/2016/02/no-snopescom-word-guacamole-does-not.html|title=No Snopes.com, the word guacamole does not come from the Nahuatl word for "ground testicles or avocados"|website=Nahuatl Studies |type=Blog |author=Magnus Pharao Hansen |date=February 10, 2016}}</ref>

The modern English name comes from a rendering of the Spanish {{lang|es|aguacate}} as {{lang|es|avogato}}. The earliest known written use in English is attested from 1697 as ''avogato pear'', later ''avocado pear'' (due to its shape), a term sometimes corrupted to ''alligator pear''.<ref name="mw">{{cite web|url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/words-at-play/words-from-nahuatl-the-language-of-the-aztecs/tomato |title=8 Words from Nahuatl, the Language of the Aztecs |work=Merriam-Webster |access-date=April 7, 2022}}</ref><ref>''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'', second edition (1989), articles "avocado", "alligator, n.2"</ref><ref name="morton" />

==== Regional names ====
In Central American, Caribbean Spanish-speaking countries, and Spain<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|url=https://dle.rae.es/palta|dictionary=[[Diccionario de la lengua española]]|publisher=Real Academia Española|title=aguacate}}</ref> it is known by the Mexican Spanish name {{lang|es|aguacate}}, while South American Spanish-speaking countries Argentina, Chile, Perú and Uruguay use a [[Quechua languages|Quechua]]-derived word, {{lang|es-419|palta}}.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|url=https://dle.rae.es/palta|dictionary=[[Diccionario de la lengua española]]|publisher=Real Academia Española|title=palta}}</ref> In Portuguese, it is {{lang|pt|abacate}}. The Nahuatl {{lang|nah|āhuacatl}} can be compounded with other words, as in {{lang|nah|ahuacamolli}}, meaning avocado soup or sauce, from which the Spanish word {{lang|es|[[guacamole]]}} derives.<ref>{{Cite OED|guacamole|id=82081}}</ref>

In the United Kingdom the term ''avocado pear'', applied when avocados first became commonly available in the 1960s, is sometimes used.<ref name="Scotsman">{{cite news |url=http://www.scotsman.com/lifestyle/culture/twiggy-squares-up-to-sainsbury-s-in-the-avocado-wars-1-1352962 |title=Twiggy squares up to Sainsbury's in the avocado wars |date=23 May 2009 |work=[[The Scotsman]] |access-date=14 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170214181923/http://www.scotsman.com/lifestyle/culture/twiggy-squares-up-to-sainsbury-s-in-the-avocado-wars-1-1352962 |archive-date=2017-02-14 }}</ref>

Originating as a [[diminutive in Australian English]], a [[clipping (morphology)|clipped]] form, ''{{lang|en-AU|avo}}'', has since become a common colloquialism in South Africa and the United Kingdom.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-07-31 |title=From the Aztecs to avo, the scoop on 'avocado' and 'guacamole' |url=https://www.scmp.com/magazines/post-magazine/short-reads/article/3187052/aztecs-avo-scoop-avocado-and-guacamole-its |access-date=2023-03-21 |website=South China Morning Post |language=en}}</ref>

It is known as "butter fruit" in parts of India<ref>{{cite news | url =http://www.hindu.com/2010/04/16/stories/2010041656650300.htm | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20100421062158/http://www.hindu.com/2010/04/16/stories/2010041656650300.htm | archive-date =21 April 2010 | newspaper =[[The Hindu]] |title=Avocado holds promise for Wayanad farmers|date=16 April 2010}}</ref> and Hong Kong.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Conversation |first=The |date=2017-05-14 |title=What is China's role in the global avocado shortage? |language=en-GB |work=Hong Kong Free Press |url=https://hongkongfp.com/2017/05/14/chinas-role-global-avocado-shortage/ |access-date=2022-10-31}}</ref>

== Cultivation ==

=== History ===
Domestication, leading to genetically distinct cultivars, possibly originated in the [[Tehuacan Valley]]<ref name="Landon 2009">{{cite journal |last1=Landon |first1=Amanda J. |date=2009 |title=Domestication and Significance of Persea americana, the Avocado, in Mesoamerica |url=http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1046&context=nebanthro |journal=Nebraska Anthropologist |volume=47}}</ref> in the state of [[Puebla]], Mexico.<ref name="Harvard">{{Cite journal |author1=Galindo-Tovar, María Elena |author2=Arzate-Fernández, Amaury M. |author3=Ogata-Aguilar, Nisao |author4=Landero-Torres, Ivonne |year=2007 |title=The avocado (''Persea americana'', Lauraceae) crop in Mesoamerica: 10,000 years of history |url=http://www.uv.mx/personal/megalindo/files/2010/07/GalindoTovar_325_334_V21.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Harvard Papers in Botany |volume=12 |issue=2 |pages=325–334, [325] |doi=10.3100/1043-4534(2007)12[325:TAPALC]2.0.CO;2 |jstor=41761865 |s2cid=9998040 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151010145152/http://www.uv.mx/personal/megalindo/files/2010/07/GalindoTovar_325_334_V21.pdf |archive-date=10 October 2015}}</ref> There is evidence for three possible separate domestications of the avocado, resulting in the currently recognized Guatemalan (''quilaoacatl''), Mexican (''aoacatl'') and West Indian (''tlacacolaocatl'') [[landrace]]s.<ref name="Ayala SilvaLedesma2014" /><ref name="Schaffer 2013">{{cite book |last=Schaffer |first=B |title=The avocado: botany, production and uses |publisher=CABI |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-84593-701-0 |location=Wallingford, Oxfordshire, UK}}{{page needed|date=June 2018}}</ref> The Guatemalan and Mexican and landraces originated in the highlands of those countries, while the West Indian landrace is a lowland variety that ranges from Guatemala, Costa Rica, Colombia, Ecuador to Peru,<ref name="Ayala SilvaLedesma2014" /> achieving a wide range through human agency before the arrival of the Europeans.<ref name="Schaffer 2013" /> The three separate landraces were most likely to have already intermingled{{efn|Intermingled in a trade or cultural sense, but not necessarily a genetic one.}} in pre-Columbian America and were described in the [[Florentine Codex]].<ref name="Schaffer 2013" /> As a result of [[artificial selection]], the fruit and correspondingly the seeds of cultivated avocados became considerably larger relative to their earlier wild forebears millennia before the Columbian exchange.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Smith |first=C. Earle |date=April 1966 |title=Archeological evidence for selection in avocado |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/BF02904012 |journal=Economic Botany |language=en |volume=20 |issue=2 |pages=169–175 |doi=10.1007/BF02904012 |bibcode=1966EcBot..20..169S |issn=0013-0001|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

The earliest residents of northern coastal Peru were living in temporary camps in an ancient wetland and eating avocados, along with chilies, mollusks, sharks, birds, and sea lions.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dillehay |first1=Tom D |last2=Goodbred |first2=Steve |last3=Pino |first3=Mario |last4=Vásquez Sánchez |first4=Víctor F |last5=Tham |first5=Teresa Rosales |last6=Adovasio |first6=James |last7=Collins |first7=Michael B |last8=Netherly |first8=Patricia J |last9=Hastorf |first9=Christine A |last10=Chiou |first10=Katherine L |last11=Piperno |first11=Dolores |last12=Rey |first12=Isabel |last13=Velchoff |first13=Nancy |year=2017 |title=Simple technologies and diverse food strategies of the Late Pleistocene and Early Holocene at Huaca Prieta, Coastal Peru |journal=Science Advances |volume=3 |issue=5 |pages=e1602778 |bibcode=2017SciA....3E2778D |doi=10.1126/sciadv.1602778 |pmc=5443642 |pmid=28560337}}</ref> The oldest discovery of an avocado pit comes from [[Coxcatlan Cave]], dating from around 9,000 to 10,000 years ago.<ref name="Landon 2009" /><ref name="Schaffer 2013" /> Other caves in the [[Tehuacan Valley]] from around the same time period also show early evidence for the presence and consumption of avocado.<ref name="Landon 2009" /> There is evidence for avocado use at [[Norte Chico civilization]] sites in Peru by at least 3,200 years ago and at [[Caballo Muerto]] in Peru from around 3,800 to 4,500 years ago.<ref name="Landon 2009" />
[[File:Criollo avocados de Oaxaca.png|thumb|left|Native [[Oaxaca]] ''criollo'' avocados, the ancestral form of today's domesticated varieties]]The avocado tree also has a long history of cultivation in Central and South America, likely beginning as early as 5,000 BC.<ref name="Harvard" /> A water jar shaped like an avocado, dating to AD 900, was discovered in the pre-[[Inca]] city of [[Chan Chan]].<ref name="turtle">{{cite web |last=Barry |first=PC |date=7 April 2001 |title=Avocado: The Early Roots of Avocado History |url=http://www.turtletrack.org/Issues01/Co04072001/CO_04072001_Recipes.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071215142535/http://www.turtletrack.org/Issues01/Co04072001/CO_04072001_Recipes.htm |archive-date=15 December 2007 |access-date=29 December 2007 |url-status=usurped |publisher=Canku Ota}}</ref>

The plant was introduced to Spain in 1601, Indonesia around 1750, Mauritius in 1780, Brazil in 1809, the United States mainland in 1825, South Africa and Australia in the late 19th century, and the Ottoman Empire in 1908.<ref name="Schaffer 2013" /> In the United States, the avocado was introduced to Florida and Hawaii in 1833 and in California in 1856.<ref name="Schaffer 2013" />

The name ''avocado'' has been used in English since at least 1764, with minor spelling variants such as ''avogato'' attested even earlier.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.oed.com/dictionary/avocado_n |title=Oxford English Dictionary |date=1885 |publisher=Oxford University Press |chapter=''s.v.'' avocado}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Higgins |first1=J.E. |last2=Hunn |first2=C.J. |last3=Holt |first3=V.S. |date=April 1911 |title=The Avocado in Hawaii |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LMRBwSgL9r8C&dq=%22avocado%22&pg=RA2-PA36 |journal=Hawaii Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin |issue=24}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Popenoe |first=F.W. |date=February 1911 |title=The Avocado in Southern California |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QblGAQAAMAAJ |journal=Pomona Journal of Economic Botany |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=3–24}}</ref> The avocado was commonly referred to in California as ''ahuacate'' and in Florida as ''alligator pear'' until 1915, when the [[California Avocado Society|California Avocado Association]] popularized the term ''avocado.''<ref name="Schaffer 2013" />

=== Requirements ===
[[File:Avocado Seedling.jpg|thumb|upright|''Persea americana'', young avocado plant (seedling), complete with parted pit and roots]]

As a [[subtropical]] species, avocados need a climate without frost and with little wind. High winds reduce the humidity, dehydrate the flowers, and affect pollination.{{original research inline|date=December 2022}} When even a mild frost occurs, premature fruit drop may occur; although the '[[Hass avocado|Hass]]' [[cultivar]] can tolerate temperatures down to −1&nbsp;°C.{{original research inline|date=December 2022}} Several cold-hardy varieties{{specify|date=December 2022}}{{which|date=December 2022}} are planted in the region of [[Gainesville, Florida]], which survive temperatures as low as {{convert|-6.5|C|0}} with only minor leaf damage. The trees also need well-aerated soils, ideally more than 1 m deep.{{original research inline|date=December 2022}} However, Guatemalan varieties such as "MacArthur", "Rincon", or "Nabal" can withstand temperatures down to {{convert|-1.6|C|0}}.<ref>Hessong, Athena.
[https://homeguides.sfgate.com/much-coldness-can-avocado-trees-take-55142.html How Much Coldness Can Avocado Trees Take?]. [[SF Gate]]. Retrieved on Dec. 4, 2022</ref>

According to information published by the [[Water footprint#Water Footprint Network (WFN)|Water Footprint Network]], it takes an average of approximately {{convert|70|L|USgal impgal|0|abbr=off}} of applied fresh ground or surface water, not including rainfall or natural moisture in the soil, to grow one avocado ({{cvt|283|L/kg|USgal/lb impgal/lb|disp=sqbr}}). However, the amount of water needed depends on where it is grown; for example, in the main avocado-growing region of Chile, about {{convert|320|L|USgal impgal|abbr=on}} of applied water are needed to grow one avocado ({{cvt|1,280|L/kg|USgal/lb impgal/lb|disp=sqbr}}).<ref name="Danwatch2019">{{cite web |title=How much water does it take to grow an avocado? |url=https://old.danwatch.dk/en/undersogelseskapitel/how-much-water-does-it-take-to-grow-an-avocado/ |website=Danwatch.dk |access-date=7 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191007172453/https://old.danwatch.dk/en/undersogelseskapitel/how-much-water-does-it-take-to-grow-an-avocado/ |archive-date=7 October 2019 |date=2019}}</ref>

Increasing demand and production of avocados may cause [[Water scarcity|water shortages]] in some avocado production areas, such as the Mexican state of [[Michoacán]].<ref name="footprint">{{cite journal | last1=Sommaruga | first1=Ruben | last2=Eldridge | first2=Honor May | title=Avocado production: Water footprint and socioeconomic implications | journal=EuroChoices | date=2020-12-13 | volume=20 | issue=2 | pages=48–53 | issn=1478-0917 | doi=10.1111/1746-692x.12289 | s2cid=230594487 | url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/1746-692X.12289}}</ref><ref name="cbc">{{cite news |title=How green are avocados? (Yes, that's a trick question) |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/technology/what-on-earth-newsletter-avocados-road-salt-light-pollution-1.4991627 |access-date=11 April 2021 |work=CBC |date=25 January 2019 |quote=Producing avocados is very water-intensive. The Water Footprint Network estimates it takes an average of 2,000 litres of water to produce one kilogram of avocados}}</ref> Avocados may also cause environmental and [[Socioeconomics|socioeconomic]] impacts in major production areas, illegal [[deforestation]], and [[Water conflict|water disputes]].<ref name=footprint/><ref name=cbc/> Water requirements for growing avocados are three times higher than for apples, and 18 times higher than for tomatoes.<ref name=cbc/>

=== Harvest and postharvest ===
Commercial orchards produce an average of seven tonnes per hectare each year, with some orchards achieving 20 tonnes per hectare.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/x6902e/x6902e04.htm |title = Avocado Production in Australia |last = Whiley|first = A|publisher = [[Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations]]|date = 1 September 2000|access-date = 29 December 2007| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20080112135727/http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/x6902e/x6902e04.htm| archive-date= 12 January 2008 | url-status= live}}</ref> [[Biennial bearing]] can be a problem, with heavy crops in one year being followed by poor yields the next.

Like the banana, the avocado is a [[climacteric (botany)|climacteric]] fruit, which matures on the tree, but ripens off the tree. Avocados used in commerce are picked hard and green and kept in coolers at {{convert|3.3|to|5.6|C|F}} until they reach their final destination. Avocados must be mature to ripen properly. Avocados that fall off the tree ripen on the ground. Generally, the fruit is picked once it reaches maturity; Mexican growers pick 'Hass' avocados when they have more than 23% dry matter, and other producing countries have similar standards. Once picked, avocados ripen in one to two weeks (depending on the cultivar) at [[room temperature]] (faster if stored with other fruits such as apples or bananas, because of the influence of [[ethylene]] gas). Some supermarkets sell ripened avocados which have been treated with synthetic ethylene to hasten ripening.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mindfully.org/Plastic/Ethylene-Gas.htm |title=Ethylene gas and produce |publisher=Mindfully.org |date=1 June 1976 |access-date=12 May 2010| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20100526120225/http://www.mindfully.org/Plastic/Ethylene-Gas.htm| archive-date= 26 May 2010 | url-status= live}}</ref> The use of an ethylene gas "ripening room", which is now an industry standard, was pioneered in the 1980s by farmer Gil Henry of [[Escondido, California]], in response to footage from a hidden supermarket camera which showed shoppers repeatedly squeezing hard, unripe avocados, putting them "back in the bin", and moving on without making a purchase.<ref>{{Cite news
| author = Steve Chawkins
| title = Gil Henry dies at 88; revolutionized avocado industry; Henry pioneered the use of a 'ripening room' at his family's Escondido farm. The method, now an industry standard, allows markets to sell fruit that is ready to eat or close to it.
| work = Los Angeles Times
| access-date = 4 June 2013
| date = 3 June 2013
| url = http://www.latimes.com/news/obituaries/la-me-gil-henry-20130603,0,3688440.story
}}</ref> In some cases, avocados can be left on the tree for several months, which is an advantage to commercial growers who seek the greatest return for their crop, but if the fruit remains unpicked for too long, it falls to the ground.

===Breeding===
[[File:Seedless Avocado in Mexico.jpg|thumb|upright|A seedless avocado, or cuke, growing next to two regular Ettinger avocados]]

The species is only partially able to [[self-pollination|self-pollinate]] because of [[Sequential hermaphroditism|dichogamy]] in its flowering. This limitation, added to the long juvenile period, makes the species difficult to breed. Most cultivars are propagated by [[grafting]], having originated from random seedling plants or minor [[mutation]]s derived from cultivars. Modern breeding programs tend to use isolation plots where the chances of cross-[[pollination]] are reduced. That is the case for programs at the [[University of California, Riverside]], as well as the [[Agricultural research In Israel#Agricultural Research Organization (ARO)|Volcani Centre]] and the Instituto de Investigaciones Agropecuarias in Chile.

The avocado is unusual in that the timing of the male and female flower phases differs among cultivars. The two flowering types are A and B. A-cultivar flowers open as female on the morning of the first day and close in late morning or early afternoon. Then they open as male in the afternoon of the second day. B varieties open as female on the afternoon of the first day, close in late afternoon and reopen as male the following morning.
* A cultivars: 'Hass', 'Gwen', 'Lamb Hass', 'Pinkerton', 'Reed'
* B cultivars: 'Fuerte', 'Sharwil', 'Zutano', 'Bacon', 'Ettinger', 'Sir Prize', 'Walter Hole'<ref>{{cite web|url = http://ceventura.ucdavis.edu/Agriculture265/Avocado_Handbook.htm|title = Agriculture Handbook|publisher = [[University of California]]|access-date = 29 December 2007|year = 2007|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20071217095028/http://ceventura.ucdavis.edu/Agriculture265/Avocado_Handbook.htm|archive-date = 17 December 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url = http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/MG213|title = Avocado Growing in the Florida Home Landscape|publisher = [[University of Florida]]|first = JH|last = Crane|author2=Balerdi CF|author3=Maguire I|access-date = 29 December 2007|date = 1 August 2007| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20080113011328/http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/MG213| archive-date= 13 January 2008 | url-status= live}}</ref>

Certain cultivars, such as the 'Hass', have a tendency to bear well only in alternate years. After a season with a low yield, due to factors such as cold (which the avocado does not tolerate well), the trees tend to produce abundantly the next season. In addition, due to environmental circumstances during some years, seedless avocados may appear on the trees.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.soilzone.com/Library/Crops/Avocado/Phenology/Avocado%20fruit%20growth.pdf|title=Development of Seeded and Seedless Avocado Fruit|work=Agricultural Research Organization, Volcani Center, Bet-Dagan, Israel|author1=Blumenfeld, Amos|author2=Gazit, Shmuel|access-date=21 September 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140125180713/http://soilzone.com/Library/Crops/Avocado/Phenology/Avocado%20fruit%20growth.pdf|archive-date=25 January 2014}}</ref> Known in the avocado industry as "cukes", they are usually discarded commercially due to their small size.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.avocadosource.com/CAS_Yearbooks/CAS_33_1948/CAS_1948_PG_113-116.pdf|journal=California Avocado Society 1948 Yearbook|author1=Stewart, W.S. |author2=Smoyer, K.M. |author3=Puffer, R.E. |title=Progress Report on Effects of Plant Growth Regulator Sprays on Avocados|access-date=21 September 2010|volume=33|pages=113–116}}</ref>

===Propagation and rootstocks===
[[File:GrowingAvocadoFromSeed.JPG|thumb|A common technique to germinate avocados at home is to use toothpicks poked into the avocado pit to suspend the pit partially in water.]]
[[File:Persea americana (Avocado) Sprout 08May2010.JPG|thumb|upright|Young avocado sprout]]

Avocados can be propagated by seed, taking roughly four to six years to bear fruit, although in some cases seedlings can take 10 years to come into bearing.<ref>{{cite book|last=Boning|first=Charles|title=Florida's Best Fruiting Plants: Native and Exotic Trees, Shrubs, and Vines|year=2006|publisher=Pineapple Press, Inc.|location=Sarasota, Florida|page=33}}</ref> The offspring is unlikely to be identical to the parent cultivar in fruit quality. Prime quality varieties are therefore propagated by grafting to [[rootstock]]s that are propagated by seed (seedling rootstocks) or by [[layering]] (clonal rootstocks). After about a year of growing in a greenhouse, the young rootstocks are ready to be grafted. Terminal and lateral grafting is normally used. The [[scion (grafting)|scion]] cultivar grows for another 6–12 months before the tree is ready to be sold. Clonal rootstocks are selected for tolerance of specific soil and disease conditions, such as poor soil aeration or resistance to the soil-borne disease (root rot) caused by ''[[Phytophthora cinnamomi]]''. Advances in cloning techniques that can produce up to 500 new plants from a single millimetre of tree cutting have the potential to increase the availability of rootstocks.<ref>Hughes, Megan [https://www.abc.net.au/news/rural/2021-06-07/innovation-smashes-avocado-wait-times/100184924 Avocado tree wait times smashed thanks to world-first rootstock trial] ''ABC News'', 7 June 2021. Retrieved 5 October 2020.</ref>

Commercial avocado production is limited to a small fraction of the vast genetic diversity in the species. Conservation of this genetic diversity has relied largely on field collection, as avocado seeds often do not survive storage in seed banks. This is problematic, as field preservation of living cultivars is expensive, and habitat loss threatens wild cultivars. More recently, an alternate method of conservation has been developed based on cryopreservation of avocado somatic embryos with reliable methods for somatic embryogenesis and reconstitution into living trees.<ref>O'Brien, Christopher, Jayeni CA Hiti-Bandaralage, Alice Hayward, and Neena Mitter. "Avocado (Persea americana Mill.)." In Step Wise Protocols for Somatic Embryogenesis of Important Woody Plants, pp. 305–328. Springer, Cham, 2018.</ref><ref>Nichols, Jennifer [https://www.abc.net.au/news/rural/2020-09-10/avocados-preservation-science-cryopreservation/12643822 Avocadoes of the future look secure thanks to Queensland student Chris O'Brien's cryogenics work] ''ABC News'', 10 September 2020. Retrieved 5 October 2020.</ref>

===As a houseplant===
[[File:20cm avocado leaf.JPG|thumb|Avocado houseplant leaf with ruler to indicate size]]

The avocado tree can be grown domestically and used as a decorative [[houseplant]]. The pit germinates in normal soil conditions or partially submerged in a small glass (or container) of water. In the latter method, the pit sprouts in four to six weeks, at which time it is planted in standard houseplant potting soil. The plant normally grows large enough to be prunable; it does not bear fruit unless it has ample sunlight. Home gardeners can [[Grafting|graft]] a branch from a fruit-bearing plant to speed maturity, which typically takes four to six years to bear fruit.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.garden.eco/avocado-houseplant|title = Avocado Houseplant » Top Tips for Lush Indoor Foliage|date = 11 November 2017}}</ref>

===Pests and diseases===
{{main|List of avocado diseases}}
[[File:Persea americana.jpg|thumb|''P. americana'', avocado plant flowers]]

Avocado trees are vulnerable to bacterial, [[virus|viral]], [[fungus|fungal]], and nutritional diseases (excesses and deficiencies of key minerals). Disease can affect all parts of the plant, causing spotting, rotting, cankers, pitting, and discoloration.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.apsnet.org/publications/commonnames/Pages/Avocado.aspx |first1=H. D. |last1=Ohr |first2=M. D. |last2=Coffer |first3=R. T. |last3=McMillan |title=Diseases of Avocado (Persea americana Miller) |date=8 April 2003 |publisher=The American Phytopathological Society |access-date=20 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180621015622/https://www.apsnet.org/publications/commonnames/Pages/Avocado.aspx |archive-date=21 June 2018 }}</ref> The [[Protopulvinaria pyriformis|pyriform scale insect]] (''Protopulvinaria pyriformis'') is known from Australia, South Africa, Israel, Italy, France, Spain, Cuba, Florida,<ref name=CABI>{{cite web |url=https://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/44552 |title=''Protopulvinaria pyriformis'' (pyriform scale) |date=2021 |publisher=CABI |doi=10.1079/cabicompendium.44552 |access-date=26 February 2020}}</ref> and Peru. It is normally found on avocado, and in Peru it is said to be the worst insect pest of the fruit. Certain cultivars of avocado seem more susceptible to attack by the scale than others.<ref name=Sharp>{{cite book|author1=Peña, Jorge E. |author2=Sharp, Jennifer L. |author3=Wysoki, M.|title=Tropical Fruit Pests and Pollinators: Biology, Economic Importance, Natural Enemies, and Control |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t_BSs0hrAPAC&pg=PA232 |year=2002 |publisher=CABI |isbn=978-0-85199-976-0 |page=232}}</ref>

===Cultivation by location===
====Cultivation in Mexico====
{{main|Avocado production in Mexico}}
Mexico is by far the world's largest avocado growing country, producing several times more than the second largest producer.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.novagrim.com/Pages/2000_2011_avocado_statistics_EN.aspx |title=2001–2013 World avocado production, 2000–2011 World Avocado Exports, 2002–2013 French avocado imports |publisher=Novagrim.com |access-date=1 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140223071153/http://www.novagrim.com/Pages/2000_2011_avocado_statistics_EN.aspx |archive-date=23 February 2014 }}</ref> In 2013, the total area dedicated to avocado production was {{convert|188,723|ha|acre|abbr=off}}, and the harvest was 2.03&nbsp;million tonnes in 2017.<ref name=faostat/> The states that produce the most are [[State of Mexico|México]], [[Morelos]], [[Nayarit]], [[Puebla]], and Michoacan, accounting for 86% of the total. In Michoacán, the cultivation is complicated by the existence of [[drug cartel]]s that extort protection fees from cultivators. They are reported to exact 2,000 Mexican [[peso]]s per hectare from avocado farmers and 1 to 3 pesos/kg of harvested fruit.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://aristeguinoticias.com/3010/mexico/templarios-ganan-2000-mdp-al-ano-extorsionando-a-aguacateros-en-michoacan/ |title=Templarios ganan 2,000 mdp al año extorsionando a aguacateros en Michoacán |trans-title=Templars earn 2,000 pesos a year extorting avocado in Michoacan |language=es |publisher=Aristegui Noticias |date=29 October 2013 |access-date=1 February 2014}}</ref> It is such a problem that the phrase ''blood guacamole'' has been adopted to describe the social effects in Mexico of the vast worldwide demand for its fruits.<ref name=nymag/>

====Cultivation in California====
Avocados were introduced to California from [[Nicaragua]] in the early 1850s, when avocado trees imported from the [[Central American]] country were observed and reported growing near San Gabriel.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://avocado.ucr.edu/early-history-avocado-california|title= Early History of the Avocado in California}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://www.cabidigitallibrary.org/doi/pdf/10.5555/20083015144|title= The Avocado|journal= CABI Databases}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.californiaavocadogrowers.com/sites/default/files/documents/13-World-Avocado-Production-Prospects-California-In-Transition-Fall-2020.pdf|title= World avocado production prospects in California}}</ref> The avocado has since become a successful [[cash crop]]. About {{convert|59000|acre|ha|order=flip|abbr=off}} – as of 2015, some 80% of United States avocado production – is located in [[Southern California]].<ref name="nymag">Sternbergh, Adam, "Avocados Are Toast", [[New York (magazine)|New York magazine]], April 20 – May 3, 2015</ref> 

Avocado is the official fruit of the state of California.<ref>{{Cite web|title=California State Foods Named By Gavin Newsom|publisher=Huffington Post, San Francisco|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/04/24/california-state-foods_n_3150928.html|date = 25 April 2013|access-date = 15 April 2015}}</ref> [[Fallbrook, California]], claims, without official recognition, the title of "Avocado Capital of the World" (also claimed by the town of [[Uruapan]] in Mexico<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.uruapaninteractivo.com/uruapan.htm |title=::Uruapan:: Uruapan, Michoacan, México |publisher=Uruapaninteractivo.com |access-date=1 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140203004605/http://www.uruapaninteractivo.com/uruapan.htm |archive-date=3 February 2014 }}</ref>), and both it and [[Carpinteria, California]], host annual avocado festivals.

The [[California Avocado Commission]] and the [[California Avocado Society]] are the two major grower organizations and [[Calavo Growers]] is a major distributor.

====Cultivation in Peru====
'Hass' avocado production in Peru encompasses thousands of hectares in central and western Peru.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.freshplaza.com/article/129650/Peru-Record-avocado-production-saturated-the-markets-in-2014|title=Peru: Record avocado production saturated the markets in 2014|work=freshplaza.com|date=23 October 2014 }}</ref> Peru has now become the largest supplier of avocados imported to the [[European Union]] and the second largest supplier to Asia and the United States.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.producebluebook.com/2019/01/10/peru-jumps-to-no-2-avocado-exporter-to-the-u-s/|title=Peru jumps to No.2 avocado exporter to the U.S.|date=10 January 2019|website=Produce Blue Book|language=en-US|access-date=3 February 2019}}</ref> The country's location near the [[equator]] and along the Pacific Ocean creates consistently mild temperatures all year.

'Hass' avocados from Peru are seasonally available to consumers from May through September and are promoted under the auspices of the Peruvian Avocado Commission, headquartered in Washington, D.C.

====Cultivation in Chile====
{{see also|Petorca water crisis|Laguna de Aculeo}}
Chile has produced avocados for over 100 years with production increasing dramatically in the early 1980s due to global demand. [[New York (magazine)|''New York'' magazine]] reported in 2015 that "Large avocado growers are draining the country's [[groundwater]] and rivers faster than they can replenish themselves."<ref name=nymag/> 88% of total production and 99% of exported avocados from Chile are Hass avocados. Avocados are a staple fruit in Chile with 30% of production destined for the domestic market. No import tariffs are imposed on Chilean avocados by China, the United States, or the European Union due to free trade agreements.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Gonzalez |first1=Sergio |title=Avocado Annual 2018 |url=https://apps.fas.usda.gov/newgainapi/api/report/downloadreportbyfilename?filename=Avocado%20Annual_Santiago_Chile_11-15-2018.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Avocados|url=https://fruitsfromchile.com/fruit/avocados/#:~:text=Chile%20has%20been%20growing%20commercial%20varieties%20of%20avocados,most%20production%20has%20shifted%20to%20the%20Hass%20variety. |website=Fruits From Chile}}</ref>

===Cultivars===
{{globalize|date=May 2022}}

====A cultivars====

* [[Choquette avocado|'Choquette']]: [[File:Avocado cv Choquette.jpg|thumb|upright|right|Avocado 'Choquette' grafted]] A seedling from Miami, Florida. 'Choquette' bore large fruit of good eating quality in large quantities and had good disease resistance, and thus became a major cultivar. Today 'Choquette' is widely propagated in south Florida both for commercial growing and for home growing.<ref>{{Cite web|last1=Crane|first1=Jonathan H.|last2=Balerdi|first2=Carlos F.|last3=Maguire|first3=Ian|date=2018|title=Avocado Growing in the Florida Home Landscape|url=https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/mg213|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201125190514/https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/mg213|archive-date=2020-11-25|access-date=2021-01-10|website=edis.ifas.ufl.edu|language=English}}</ref>
* 'Gwen': A seedling bred from 'Hass' x 'Thille' in 1982, 'Gwen' is higher yielding and more dwarfing than 'Hass' in California. The fruit has an oval shape, slightly smaller than 'Hass' ({{convert|100|-|200|g|oz|frac=2|abbr=on|disp=or}}), with a rich, nutty flavor. The skin texture is more finely pebbled than 'Hass', and is dull green when ripe. It is frost-hardy down to {{convert|-1|°C|°F|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Sidnam|first=Bill|date=1992-04-26|title=Gwen Avocado Produces More in Less Space|url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1992-04-26-re-1139-story.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210110224857/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1992-04-26-re-1139-story.html|archive-date=2021-01-10|access-date=2021-01-10|website=Los Angeles Times|language=en-US}}</ref>
* [[Hass avocado|'Hass']]: [[File:Hass avocado -white background.jpg|thumb|right|Two 'Hass' avocados]] The 'Hass' is the most common cultivar of avocado. It produces fruit year-round and accounts for 80% of cultivated avocados in the world.<ref name="WCA" /><ref name="Avocado.org 1">{{cite web|url=http://www.avocado.org/about/avocado-history/mother-tree|author=<!--Staff writer; no by-line.-->|title=The Hass Mother Tree: 1926–2002|work=Avocado.org|pages='About Avocados: History' section|publisher=[[California Avocado Commission]]|location=[[Irvine, CA]]|date=2008|access-date=27 September 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080913165316/http://www.avocado.org/about/avocado-history/mother-tree|archive-date=13 September 2008}}</ref> All 'Hass' trees are descended from a single "mother tree" raised by a mail carrier named [[Rudolph Hass]], of [[La Habra Heights, California]].<ref name="IF" /><ref name="Avocado.org 1" /> Hass patented the productive tree in 1935. The "mother tree", of uncertain subspecies, died of [[root rot]] and was cut down in September 2002.<ref name="WCA" /><ref name="Avocado.org 1" /><ref name=lat-2003sep07>[https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2003-sep-07-me-avocado7-story.html "Avocado Tree's Demise Is the Pits for Growers; Fitting farewell sought for 'mother'"]. [[Los Angeles Times]], 7 September 2003.</ref> 
* [[Lula (avocado)|'Lula']]: A seedling reportedly grown from a 'Taft' avocado planted in Miami on the property of George Cellon, it is named after Cellon's wife, Lula. It was likely a cross between Guatemalan and Mexican types. 'Lula' was recognized for its flavor and high oil content and propagated commercially in Florida.
* [[Maluma (avocado)|'Maluma']]: A relatively new cultivar, it was discovered in South Africa in the early 1990s by Mr. A.G. (Dries) Joubert. It is a chance seedling of unknown parentage.
* 'Pinkerton': First grown on the Pinkerton Ranch in [[Saticoy, California]], in the early 1970s, 'Pinkerton' is a seedling of 'Hass' x 'Rincon'. The large fruit has a small seed, and its green skin deepens in color as it ripens. The thick flesh has a smooth, creamy texture, pale green color, good flavor, and high oil content. It shows some cold tolerance, to {{convert|-1|°C|°F|abbr=on}} and bears consistently heavy crops. A hybrid Guatemalan type, it has excellent peeling characteristics.{{citation needed|date=July 2020}}
* 'Reed': Developed from a chance seedling found in 1948 by James S. Reed in California, this cultivar has large, round, green fruit with a smooth texture and dark, thick, glossy skin. Smooth and delicate, the flesh has a slightly nutty flavor. The skin ripens green. A Guatemalan type, it is hardy to {{convert|-1|°C|°F|abbr=on}}. Tree size is about {{convert|5|by|4|m|ft|frac=2|abbr=on}}.{{citation needed|date=July 2020}}

====B cultivars====

* [[Fuerte avocado|'Fuerte']]: Commercialized in the U.S. from budwood imported from [[Atlixco]], Mexico in 1911,<ref name="CAS25-26">{{cite web |last1=Popenoe |first1=Wilson |title=California Avocado Society 1925-26 Yearbook: The Parent Fuerte Tree at Atlixco, Mexico |url=https://www.avocadosource.com/cas_yearbooks/cas_11_1925-26/cas_1925-26_pg_24-34.pdf |access-date=1 March 2023}}</ref> Fuerte was the dominant commercial variety in the U.S. for the first half of the 20th century.<ref name="cooksInfo">{{cite web |title=Fuerte Avocado |url=https://www.cooksinfo.com/fuerte-avocado |website=Cook's Info |access-date=28 February 2023}}</ref>
* 'Sharwil': Developed by James Cockburn Wilson (died 1990) with Frank Victor Sharpe in [[Tamborine Mountain]], Queensland, Australia, in the 1950s, a [[portmanteau]] of Sharpe and Wilson.<ref>{{cite web |title=Talking avocados |url=https://avocado.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2016/10/TalkingAvocadosWinter1990Vol1No2scanned_001.pdf |website=Avocados Australia |publisher=Australian Avocado Growers' Federation |access-date=16 January 2022 |date=June 1990}}</ref> Wilson also developed the Willard variety (Wilson and Hazzard), imported the Reed variety into Australia, and developed the Shepard variety. Sharpe {{post-nominals|OBE}} was later awarded a [[Order of St Michael and St George|CMG]] in [[1972 Birthday Honours#Companion of the Order of St Michael and St George (CMG) 2|1972]] for services to the avocado industry. The variety originated in Guatemala.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article214554727 |title=Research plants stolen |newspaper=Hamersley News |volume=X |issue=17 |location=Western Australia |date=8 September 1977 |access-date=16 January 2022 |page=2 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref>

====Other cultivars====
Other avocado cultivars include [[William A. Spinks#Spinks avocado|'Spinks']]. Historically attested varieties (which may or may not survive among [[horticulture|horticulturists]]) include the 'Challenge', 'Dickinson', 'Kist', 'Queen', 'Rey', 'Royal', 'Sharpless', and 'Taft'.<ref name="CAA 1924-25">{{cite journal|url=http://www.avocadosource.com/CAS_Yearbooks/CAS_10_1924-25/CAS_1924-25_PG_32-40.pdf |title=Cold Storage Behavior of Avocados |first=E. L. |last=Overholser |journal=California Avocado Association Annual Report |publisher=California Avocado Association |location=San Diego, California |date=1924–1925 |volume=10 |pages=32–40 |access-date=19 August 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130730110709/http://www.avocadosource.com/CAS_Yearbooks/CAS_10_1924-25/CAS_1924-25_PG_32-40.pdf |archive-date=30 July 2013 }}</ref>

====Stoneless avocado====
A stoneless avocado, marketed as a "cocktail avocado", which does not contain a pit, is available on a limited basis. They are five to eight centimetres long; the whole fruit may be eaten, including the skin. It is produced from an unpollinated blossom in which the seed does not develop.<ref>[https://www.independent.ie/life/food-drink/the-holy-grail-of-avocados-stoneless-hits-shops-for-a-limited-time-only-36387772.html The holy grail of avocados – stoneless – hits shops for a limited time only] [[Sunday Independent (Ireland)|The Sunday Independent]], 10 December 2017.</ref> Seedless avocados regularly appear on trees.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.soilzone.com/Library/Crops/Avocado/Phenology/Avocado%20fruit%20growth.pdf|title=Development of Seeded and Seedless Avocado Fruit|work=Agricultural Research Organization, Volcani Center, Bet-Dagan, Israel|author1=Blumenfeld, Amos|author2=Gazit, Shmuel|access-date=21 September 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140125180713/http://soilzone.com/Library/Crops/Avocado/Phenology/Avocado%20fruit%20growth.pdf|archive-date=25 January 2014}}</ref> Known in the avocado industry as "cukes", they are usually discarded commercially due to their small size.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.avocadosource.com/CAS_Yearbooks/CAS_33_1948/CAS_1948_PG_113-116.pdf|journal=California Avocado Society 1948 Yearbook|author1=Stewart, W.S. |author2=Smoyer, K.M. |author3=Puffer, R.E. |title=Progress Report on Effects of Plant Growth Regulator Sprays on Avocados|access-date=21 September 2010|volume=33|pages=113–116}}</ref>

=== Production ===
{{main|List of countries by avocado production}}
{| class="wikitable" style="float:right;clear:right; width:12em; text-align:center;"
|+ Avocado production <br> <small> 2023, millions of tonnes</small>
|-
| {{MEX}} || 2.97
|-
| {{COL}} || 1.09
|-
| {{DOM}} || 1.02
|-
| {{PER}} || 0.98
|-
| {{IDN}} || 0.87
|-
| {{KEN}} || 0.54
|-
| '''World''' || '''10.47'''
|-
|colspan=2|{{small|Source: [[FAOSTAT]] of the United Nations}}<ref name=faostat>{{cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QC |title= Crops/World regions/Production quantity (pick lists) of avocados for 2023|date=2025|publisher=[[Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations]], Statistical Division (FAOSTAT)|access-date=27 February 2025}}</ref>
|}

In 2023, world production of avocados was 10.5&nbsp;million tonnes, led by Mexico with 29% (3&nbsp;million tonnes) of the total (table). Other major producers were [[Colombia]], [[Dominican Republic]], [[Peru]], and [[Indonesia]].<ref name=faostat/>

===International market===
A 2024 market analysis indicated that avocado exports will increase over the next five years with as many as 30 countries producing avocados, possibly becoming the world's most traded fruit by 2030.<ref name="ajot24">{{cite web |last1=Meadows |first1=Andrew |title=Avocados will continue strong surge in 2025 and beyond |url=https://www.ajot.com/insights/full/ai-avocados-will-continue-strong-surge-in-2025-and-beyond |publisher=American Journal of Transportation |access-date=27 February 2025 |date=31 December 2024}}</ref>

==Toxicity==
===Allergies===
Some people have [[allergic]] reactions to avocado. There are two main forms of allergy: those with a tree-pollen allergy develop local symptoms in the mouth and throat shortly after eating avocado; the second, known as latex-fruit syndrome,<ref name="pmid9188921">{{cite journal |vauthors=Brehler R, Theissen U, Mohr C, Luger T |date=April 1997 |title="Latex-fruit syndrome": frequency of cross-reacting IgE antibodies |journal=Allergy |volume=52 |issue=4 |pages=404–410 |doi=10.1111/j.1398-9995.1997.tb01019.x |pmid=9188921 |s2cid=27995880}}</ref> is related to [[latex allergy]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Latex allergy |url=http://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/bhcv2/bhcarticles.nsf/pages/Latex_allergy |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111227025420/http://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/bhcv2/bhcarticles.nsf/pages/Latex_allergy |archive-date=27 December 2011 |access-date=26 December 2011 |work=Better Health Channel}}</ref> and symptoms include generalised [[urticaria]], abdominal pain, and vomiting and can sometimes be life-threatening.<ref>{{cite web |date=18 October 2006 |title=Avocado – allergy information (InformAll: Communicating about Food Allergies – University of Manchester) |url=http://research.bmh.manchester.ac.uk/informall/allergenic-food/?FoodId=4 |access-date=14 February 2017 |publisher=Inflammation-repair.manchester.ac.uk}}</ref>

===Toxicity to animals===
Avocado leaves, [[Bark (botany)|bark]], skin, or [[Endocarp|pit]] are documented to be harmful to animals; cats, dogs, cattle, goats, rabbits,<ref>{{cite web |author=Appleman, D. |year=1944 |title=Preliminary Report on Toxicity of Avocado Leaves |url=http://www.avocadosource.com/CAS_Yearbooks/CAS_29_1944/CAS_1944_PG_037.pdf |access-date=9 October 2012}}</ref> rats, guinea pigs, birds, fish, and horses<ref>{{cite web |date=30 June 2006 |title=Notes on poisoning: avocado |url=http://www.cbif.gc.ca/pls/pp/ppack.info?p_psn=238&p_type=all&p_sci=comm&p_x=px |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080114023756/http://www.cbif.gc.ca/pls/pp/ppack.info?p_psn=238&p_type=all&p_sci=comm&p_x=px |archive-date=14 January 2008 |access-date=29 December 2007 |publisher=Canadian Biodiversity Information Facility}}</ref> can be severely harmed or even killed when they consume them. The avocado fruit is poisonous to some birds, and the [[American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals]] (ASPCA) lists it as toxic to horses.<ref>{{cite web |title=Avocado |url=http://www.aspca.org/pet-care/poison-control/plants/avocado.html |work=ASPCA Animal Poison Control Center}}</ref>

Avocado leaves contain a toxic fatty acid derivative, [[persin]], which in sufficient quantity can cause [[colic in horses]] and without veterinary treatment, death.<ref name="pmid8581318">{{cite journal |last1=Oelrichs |first1=Peter B |last2=Ng |first2=Jack C |last3=Seawright |first3=Alan A |last4=Ward |first4=Annemarie |last5=Schäffeler |first5=Lothar |last6=MacLeod |first6=John K |year=1995 |title=Isolation and identification of a compound from avocado (Persea americana) leaves which causes necrosis of the acinar epithelium of the lactating mammary gland and the myocardium |journal=Natural Toxins |volume=3 |issue=5 |pages=344–349 |doi=10.1002/nt.2620030504 |pmid=8581318}}</ref> The symptoms include gastrointestinal irritation, vomiting, diarrhea, respiratory distress, congestion, fluid accumulation around the tissues of the heart, and even death. Birds also seem to be particularly sensitive to this toxic compound.

The leaves of the Guatemalan variety of ''P. americana'' are toxic to goats, sheep, and horses.<ref>{{cite web |date=November 2010 |title=Livestock – Poisoning Plants of California, Publication 8398 |url=http://alfalfa.ucdavis.edu/-files/pdf/LivestockPoisoningPlantsNov2010.pdf |access-date=26 February 2018 |publisher=Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of California}}</ref>

==Uses==
=== Nutrition ===
{{nutritional value
| name = Avocados, raw
| water = 73.23 g
| kJ = 670
| protein = 2 g
| fat = 14.66 g
| satfat = 2.13 g
| monofat = 9.80 g
| polyfat = 1.82 g
| carbs = 8.53 g
| fiber = 6.7 g
| sugars = 0.66 g
| calcium_mg = 12
| iron_mg = 0.55
| magnesium_mg = 29
| phosphorus_mg = 52
| potassium_mg = 485
| sodium_mg = 7
| zinc_mg = 0.64
| manganese_mg = 0.142
| opt1n = [[Fluoride]]
| opt1v = 7 µg
| opt2n = [[Beta-sitosterol]]
| opt2v = 76 mg
| vitC_mg = 10
| thiamin_mg = 0.067
| riboflavin_mg = 0.13
| niacin_mg = 1.738
| pantothenic_mg = 1.389
| vitB6_mg = 0.257
| folate_ug = 81
| vitA_ug = 7
| betacarotene_ug = 62
| lutein_ug = 271
| vitE_mg = 2.07
| vitK_ug = 21
| source_usda = 1
| note = [https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/fdc-app.html#/food-details/1102652/nutrients Link to USDA Database entry]
}}

Raw avocado flesh is 73% water, 15% fat, 9% [[carbohydrate]]s, and 2% [[protein]] (table). In a 100-gram reference amount, avocado supplies {{convert|670|kJ|kcal|0|abbr=off}}, and is a rich source (20% or more of the [[Daily Value]], DV) of several [[B vitamins]] (such as 28% DV in [[pantothenic acid]]) and [[vitamin K]] (20% DV), with moderate contents (10–19% DV) of [[vitamin C]], [[vitamin E]], and [[potassium]]. Avocados also contain [[phytosterols]] and [[carotenoids]], such as [[lutein]] and [[zeaxanthin]].<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Dreher ML, Davenport AJ |year=2013 |title=Hass avocado composition and potential health effects |journal=Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr |volume=53 |issue=7 |pages=738–750 |doi=10.1080/10408398.2011.556759 |pmc=3664913 |pmid=23638933}}</ref>

====Fat composition====
Avocados have diverse fats.<ref name="ND">{{cite web |year=2013 |title=Avocados, raw, all commercial varieties, per 100 grams |url=http://nutritiondata.self.com/facts/fruits-and-fruit-juices/1843/2 |access-date=17 April 2013 |publisher=NutritionData.com}}</ref> For a typical one:

* About 75% of an avocado's energy comes from fat, most of which (67% of total fat) is [[monounsaturated fat]] as [[oleic acid]] (table).<ref name="ND" />
* Other predominant fats include [[palmitic acid]] and [[linoleic acid]].<ref name="ND" />
* The [[saturated fat]] content amounts to 14% of the total fat.<ref name="ND" /> 
* Typical total fat composition is roughly: 1%&nbsp;[[omega-3 fatty acid|ω-3]], 14%&nbsp;[[omega-6 fatty acid|ω-6]], 71%&nbsp;[[omega-9 fatty acid|ω-9]] (65% oleic and 6% palmitoleic), and 14% [[saturated fat]] (palmitic acid).<ref name="ND" />

Although costly to produce, nutrient-rich avocado oil has a multitude of uses for salads or cooking and in cosmetics and soap products.<ref name="morton" />

====Research====
In 2022, a [[prospective cohort study]] following 110,487 people for 30 years found that eating two servings of avocado per week reduced the risk of developing [[cardiovascular disease]]s by 16–22%.<ref name="jama">{{cite journal |last1=Pacheco |first1=Lorena S. |last2=Li |first2=Yanping |last3=Rimm |first3=Eric B. |last4=Manson |first4=JoAnn E. |last5=Sun |first5=Qi |last6=Rexrode |first6=Kathryn |last7=Hu |first7=Frank B. |last8=Guasch-Ferré |first8=Marta |date=5 April 2022 |title=Avocado Consumption and Risk of Cardiovascular Disease in US Adults |journal=Journal of the American Heart Association |volume=11 |issue=7 |pages=e024014 |doi=10.1161/jaha.121.024014 |issn=2047-9980 |pmc=9075418 |pmid=35352568 |doi-access=free}}</ref> The study involved replacing half a daily serving of saturated fat sources, including margarine, butter, egg, yogurt, cheese, or processed meats, with an equivalent amount of avocado.<ref name="jama" />

=== Culinary ===
{{Cookbook}}{{See also|List of avocado dishes}}

The fruit of horticultural cultivars has a markedly higher fat content than most other fruit, mostly [[monounsaturated fat]], and as such serves as an important staple in the diet of consumers who have limited access to other fatty foods (high-fat meats and fish, dairy products). Having a high [[smoke point]], [[avocado oil]] is expensive compared to common [[salad oil|salad]] and [[cooking oil]]s, and is mostly used for salads or [[dip (food)|dips]].

A ripe avocado yields to gentle pressure when held in the palm of the hand and squeezed. The flesh is prone to [[enzymatic browning]], quickly turning brown after exposure to air.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Encyclopedia of Fruit & Nuts|year=2008|publisher=CABI|location=Oxfordshire, England|isbn=978-0-85199-638-7|page=440|editor=Jules Janick}}</ref> To prevent this, [[lime (fruit)|lime]] or lemon juice can be added to avocados after peeling.

The fruit is not sweet, but distinctly and subtly flavored, with smooth texture.<ref name="morton" /> It is used in both savory and sweet dishes, though in many countries not for both. The avocado is common in [[vegetarian cuisine]] as a substitute for meats in sandwiches and salads because of its high fat content.

Generally, avocado is served raw, though some cultivars, including the common 'Hass', can be cooked for a short time without becoming bitter. The flesh of some avocados may be rendered inedible by heat. Prolonged cooking induces this chemical reaction in all cultivars.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2621.1970.tb00962.x |title=Heat-Induced Off-Flavor in Avocado Flesh |journal=Journal of Food Science |volume=35 |issue=4 |pages=478–482 |year=1970 |last1=Bates |first1=Robert P }}</ref>

It is used as the base for the Mexican dip known as [[guacamole]],<ref name="morton" /> as well as a spread on [[corn tortillas]] or toast, served with spices. Avocado is a primary ingredient in [[avocado soup]]. Avocado slices are frequently added to hamburgers and ''[[tortas]]'' and is a key ingredient in [[California roll]]s and other ''[[makizushi]]'' ("maki", or rolled [[sushi]]).

<gallery mode="packed">
File:Sliced avocado.jpg|Sliced avocado
File:Guacomole.jpg|A [[guacamole]] mix (right) used as a dip for [[tortilla chip]]s (left)
File:2014 avocado salad tomato salsa toasted baguette.jpg|[[Avocado toast]]
File:Avocado lamaw (Avocado in milk and sugar, chilled or with ice), Philippines 04.jpg|[[Avocado and milk in ice|Avocado in milk and sugar]], a traditional dish from the Philippines where avocados are regarded as a dessert fruit, rather than savory
File:IndonesianFood JusAlpokat.JPG|[[Indonesian cuisine|Indonesian-style]] avocado milkshake with chocolate syrup
File:2015-08-08 09.11.34 unusual avocado (the fertility testicle fruit) variety from Cebu Philippines 2.jpg|Unusual avocado variety from Cebu, Philippines
File:Mocha almond fudge avocado cake (4673005762).jpg|A mocha almond fudge avocado layer cake. Avocado is present within the layers of the cake.
</gallery>

===International===
In Mexico and Central America, avocados are served mixed with white rice, in soups, salads, or on the side of chicken and meat. They are also commonly added to ''[[pozole]]''. In Peru, they are consumed with ''[[tequeño]]s'' as mayonnaise, served as a side dish with ''[[Asado|parrillas]]'', used in salads and sandwiches, or as a whole dish when filled with tuna, shrimp, or chicken. In Chile, it is used as a puree-like sauce with chicken, [[hamburger]]s, and [[hot dog]]s; and in slices for [[celery]] or lettuce salads. The Chilean version of [[Caesar salad]] contains large slices of mature avocado.{{citation needed|date=February 2023}}

Avocados in savory dishes, often seen as exotic, are a relative novelty in Portuguese-speaking countries, such as Brazil, where the traditional preparation is mashed with sugar and lime, and eaten as a dessert or snack. This contrasts with Spanish-speaking countries such as Chile, Mexico, or [[Argentina]], where the opposite is true and sweet preparations are rare. With the exception of the Philippines, a former Spanish colony where avocados are traditionally used in sweet preparations and savory uses are seen as exotic.<ref name="malasig">{{cite news |last1=Malasig |first1=Jeline |title=Is this the best way to eat avocado westerners aren't aware of? |url=https://interaksyon.philstar.com/lifestyle/2018/05/22/127241/viral-tweet-avocado-different-culture/ |access-date=1 January 2023 |work=Interaksyon |date=22 May 2018}}</ref>

In the [[Philippines]] (where avocados were introduced from [[Mexico]] since before the 1700s),<ref name="malasig" /> Brazil, Indonesia, [[Vietnam]], and southern India (especially the coastal [[Kerala]], Tamil Nadu and [[Karnataka]] region), avocados are frequently used for milkshakes and occasionally added to [[ice cream]] and other desserts.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.avoseedo.com/around-the-world-culinary-tour-with-avocados/|title = Around the world culinary tour with avocados – AvoSeedo|date = 20 October 2015}}</ref> In Brazil, the Philippines<ref name="zeldes">{{cite web|last = Zeldes|first = Leah A.|title = Eat this! The 'Hass' avocado, black and green and creamy|work = Dining Chicago|publisher = Chicago's Restaurant & Entertainment Guide, Inc.|date = 2 June 2010|url = http://www.diningchicago.com/blog/2010/06/02/eat-this-the-hass-avocado-black-and-green-and-creamy/|access-date = 20 June 2010|archive-date = 21 September 2015|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150921212023/http://www.diningchicago.com/blog/2010/06/02/eat-this-the-hass-avocado-black-and-green-and-creamy/}}</ref> Vietnam, and Indonesia, a dessert drink is made with sugar, milk or water, and pureed avocado. [[Chocolate syrup]] is sometimes added. In [[Morocco]], a similar chilled avocado and milk drink is sweetened with [[confectioner's sugar]] and flavored with a touch of [[orange flower water]].

In [[Ethiopia]], avocados are made into juice by mixing them with sugar and milk or water, usually served with [[Vimto]] and a slice of lemon. It is also common to serve layered multiple fruit juices in a glass (locally called ''Spris'') made of avocados, mangoes, bananas, guavas, and papayas. Avocados are also used to make salads. In [[Kenya]] and Nigeria, the avocado is often eaten as a fruit alone or mixed with other fruits in a fruit salad, or as part of a vegetable salad. In [[Ghana]], they are often eaten alone on sliced bread as a sandwich. In [[Sri Lanka]], their well-ripened flesh, thoroughly mashed or pureed with milk and ''kitul'' treacle (a liquid [[jaggery]] made from the sap of the inflorescence of [[Caryota urens|jaggery palms]]), is a common dessert.<ref name="K.2012">{{cite book|author=Lim T. K.|title=Edible Medicinal And Non Medicinal Plants: Volume 3, Fruits|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=32rWbxUtjeMC&pg=PA82|year= 2012|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-94-007-2534-8|page=82}}</ref> In [[Haiti]], they are often consumed with [[cassava]] or regular bread for breakfast.

In the United Kingdom, the avocado became available during the 1960s when introduced by [[Sainsbury's]] under the name 'avocado pear'.<ref name="Scotsman" /> Much of the success of avocados in the UK is attributed to a long-running promotional campaign initiated by South African growers in 1995.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Saner |first1=Emine |title=Ripe and ready: how 'evil geniuses' got us hooked on avocados |url=https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2015/nov/02/avocados-ripe-ready-evil-geniuses-hooked |access-date=3 October 2020 |work=The Guardian |date=2 November 2015}}</ref> In Australia and New Zealand, avocados are commonly served on sandwiches, sushi, toast, or with chicken.

===Leaves===
[[File:Green avocado foliage (Persea americana).jpg|thumb|Avocado has elliptical-shaped [[leaves]].]]
In addition to the fruit, the leaves of Mexican avocados (''Persea americana'' var. ''drymifolia'') are used in some cuisines as a spice, with a flavor somewhat reminiscent of [[anise]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Thomas E. Weil|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4EVGAAAAMAAJ|title=Area Handbook for Chile (Area handbook series) |journal = Pamphlet|volume =550|issue =77 |issn=0892-8541|publisher=U.S. Government Printing Office (Digitized: 16 August 2007)|year=1969|location=United States|pages=104|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200721120131/https://books.google.com.my/books/about/Area_Handbook_for_Chile.html?id=4EVGAAAAMAAJ&redir_esc=y|archive-date = 21 July 2020}}</ref> They are sold both dried and fresh, toasted before use, and either crumbled or used whole, commonly in bean dishes.<ref>{{Cite book|author=Diana Kennedy|title=Oaxaca Al Gusto: An Infinite Gastronomy|publisher=University of Texas Press|year=2010|page=426|isbn=978-0-292-72266-8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vY4j3OIDMeoC&pg=PA426}}</ref>

==See also==
{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
* [[California Avocado Commission]]
* [[California Avocado Society]]
* ''[[Florida Lime & Avocado Growers, Inc. v. Paul]]''
* [[Guacamole]]
* [[List of avocado dishes]]
* [[Plant propagation]]
* [[Recalcitrant seed]]
{{div col end}}

== Explanatory notes==
{{notelist}}
{{Clear}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
* {{Cite book |editor=Bruce Shaffer |editor2=B. Nigel Wolstenhome |editor3=Anthony W. Whiley |year=2012 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=r0hpRJca3zEC |title=The Avocado: Botany, Production and Uses |publisher=CABI |isbn=9781845937010}}

==External links==
{{Sister project links |auto=no |c=yes |cookbook=yes |n=no |q=no |s=1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Avocado Pear |species=Persea americana |v=no |wikt=yes}}
* [http://www.ucavo.ucr.edu/AvocadoVarieties/VarietyFrame.html#Anchor-47857 Definitive illustrated list of avocado varieties] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210309191347/http://www.ucavo.ucr.edu/AvocadoVarieties/VarietyFrame.html#Anchor-47857 |date=9 March 2021 }}
* [https://www.californiaavocado.com/ California Avocado Commission]
* [http://www.crfg.org/pubs/ff/avocado.html Avocados beyond ''Persea americana''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061107033301/http://www.crfg.org/pubs/ff/avocado.html |date=7 November 2006 }}, California Rare Fruit Growers

{{Avocados}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q37153}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Avocado| ]]
[[Category:Crops originating from Mexico]]
[[Category:Crops originating from South America]]
[[Category:Crops originating from the Americas]]
[[Category:Fruit trees]]
[[Category:Persea]]
[[Category:Trees of Belize]]
[[Category:Trees of Costa Rica]]
[[Category:Trees of Guatemala]]
[[Category:Trees of Honduras]]
[[Category:Trees of Northern America]]
[[Category:Trees of Nicaragua]]
[[Category:Tropical agriculture]]
[[Category:Tropical fruit]]
[[Category:Cloud forest flora of Mexico]]