View source for Mustafa Kemal Atatürk

{{Short description|President of Turkey from 1923 to 1938}}
{{Other people|Mustafa Kamal|Mustafa Kamal (disambiguation)}}
{{redirect|Atatürk|other uses}}{{pp-extended|small=yes}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2020}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name                = Mustafa Kemal Atatürk
| image               = Ataturk1930s.jpg
| caption             = Atatürk {{circa|1930}}
| order1              = 1st
| office1             = President of Turkey
| term_start1         = 29 October 1923
| term_end1           = 10 November 1938
| primeminister1      = {{ubl|[[İsmet İnönü]]|[[Fethi Okyar]]|[[Celâl Bayar]]}}
| predecessor1        = ''Office established''
| successor1          = [[İsmet İnönü]]
{{Collapsed infobox section begin|Other political positions|titlestyle=border: 1px dashed lightgrey;}}
| order2              = 1st
| office2             = Leader of the Republican People's&nbsp;Party
| term_start2         = 9 September 1923
| term_end2           = 10 November 1938
| predecessor2        = ''Office established''
| successor2          = İsmet İnönü
| office3             = [[Prime Minister of Turkey|Prime Minister of the Government of the Grand National Assembly]]
| term_start3         = 3 May 1920
| term_end3           = 24 January 1921
| deputy3             = [[Fevzi Çakmak]]
| predecessor3        = ''Office established''
| successor3          = Fevzi Çakmak
| office4             = [[Speaker of the Grand National Assembly]]
| term_start4         = 24 April 1920
| term_end4           = 29 October 1923
| predecessor4        = ''Office established''
| successor4          = Fethi Okyar
{{Collapsed infobox section end}}
| birth_name          = Ali Rıza oğlu Mustafa{{efn|{{langx|ota|علی رضا اوغلی مصطفی}}, meaning 'Mustafa, son of Ali Rıza'.}}
| birth_date          = {{circa|1881}}
| birth_place         = [[Thessaloniki|Salonica]], Ottoman Empire
| death_date          = {{death date and age|1938|11|10|1881|5|19|df=y}}
| death_place         = Istanbul, Turkey
| resting_place       = [[Anıtkabir]], [[Ankara]]<!--Use Ankara here as the city is known under that name today-->{{Efn|Previously interred at [[Ethnography Museum of Ankara]] until 10 November 1953}}
{{Collapsed infobox section begin|Political affiliations|titlestyle=border: 1px dashed lightgrey;}}
| party               = [[Republican People's Party]]
| otherparty          = {{ubl|[[Vatan ve Hürriyet|Motherland and Liberty]] (1906–1907)|[[Committee of Union and Progress]] (1907–1918)|[[Ottoman Liberal People's Party]] (1918–1919)|[[Association for Defence of National Rights|Association for the Defence of the Rights of Anatolia and Rumelia]] (1919–1923)}}{{Collapsed infobox section end}}{{Collapsed infobox section begin|Family|titlestyle=border: 1px dashed lightgrey;}}
| spouse              = [[Latife Uşaklıgil]] (1923–1925)
| father              = [[Ali Rıza Efendi]]
| mother              = [[Zübeyde Hanım]]
| relatives           = [[Makbule Atadan]] (sister){{Collapsed infobox section end}}
{{Collapsed infobox section begin|Military positions|titlestyle=border: 1px dashed lightgrey;}}
| allegiance          = {{ubli|[[Ottoman Empire]] {{nowrap|(1893–1919)}}|[[Government of the Grand National Assembly|State of Turkey]] {{nowrap|(1921–1923)}}|[[Republic of Turkey]] (1923–1927)}}
| branch              = {{ubl|[[Ottoman Army (1861–1922)|Ottoman Army]]|[[Turkish Land Forces#War of Independence|Army of the GNA]]|[[Turkish Land Forces|Turkish Army]]}}
| rank                = {{ubli|[[Mirliva|Brigadier General]] (Ottoman Army)|[[Mareşal (Turkey)|Marshal]] (Turkish Army)}}
| commands            = {{plainlist|
* [[19th Infantry Division (Ottoman Empire)|19th Division]]
* [[XVI Corps (Ottoman Empire)|16th Corps]]
* [[Second Army (Ottoman Empire)|2nd Army]]
* [[Seventh Army (Ottoman Empire)|7th Army]]
* [[Yildirim Army Group|Yıldırım Army Group]]
* [[Turkish Land Forces#War of Independence|Army of Grand National Assembly]]
}}
| battles             = {{collapsible list|title = {{nobold|''See list''}}|
{{Tree list}}
*[[Macedonian Struggle]]
*[[Young Turk Revolution]]
*[[31 March Incident]]
*[[Albanian Revolt of 1910]]
*[[Italo-Turkish War]]
**[[Battle of Tobruk (1911)|Battle of Tobruk]]
**[[Battle of Derna (1912)|Battle of Derna]]
*[[Balkan Wars]]
**[[First Balkan War]]
***[[Battle of Bulair]]
**[[Second Balkan War]]
***[[Siege of Adrianople (1913)]]
*[[World War I]]
**[[Middle Eastern theatre of World War I|Middle Eastern theatre]]
***[[Gallipoli Campaign]]
****[[Landing at Anzac Cove|Anzac Cove]]
****[[Battle for Baby 700|Baby 700]]
****[[Battle for No.3 Post|No. 3 Post]]
****[[Battle of the Nek|Nek]]
****[[Battle of Chunuk Bair|Chunuk Bair]]
****[[Battle of Scimitar Hill|Scimitar Hill]]
****[[Battle of the Nek|Kılıçbayır]]
****[[Battle of Hill 60 (Gallipoli)|Hill 60]]
****[[Landing at Suvla Bay|Suvla Bay]]
*****[[:tr: Birinci Anafartalar Muharebesi|Anafartalar I]]
*****[[:tr: İkinci Anafartalar Muharebesi|Anafartalar II]]
*****[[:tr: Kocaçimen Tepe Muharebesi| Kocaçimen tepe]]
****[[Battle of Sari Bair|Sari Bair]]
***[[Caucasus campaign]]
****[[Battle of Bitlis]]
****[[Battle of Muş|Ognot campaign]]
*****[[Battle of Çapakçur]]
***[[Sinai and Palestine Campaign]]
*****[[Stalemate in Southern Palestine|Southern Palestine]]
*****[[Third Transjordan attack|Transjordan III]]
*****[[Battle of Nablus (1918)|Nablus]]
*****[[Battle of Megiddo (1918)|Megiddo]]
*****[[Capture of Jisr ed Damieh|Jisr ed Damieh]]
*****[[Capture of Damascus (1918)|Damascus]]
*****[[Battle of Jisr Benat Yakub|Jisr Benat Yakub]]
*****[[Charge at Kiswe|Kiswe]]
*****[[Charge at Kaukab|Kaukab]]
*****[[Pursuit to Haritan|Haritan I]]
*****[[Charge at Khan Ayash|Khan Ayash]]
*****[[Battle of Aleppo (1918)|Aleppo]]
*****[[Charge at Haritan|Haritan II]]
*[[Turkish War of Independence]]
**[[Greco-Turkish War (1919–1922)|Greco-Turkish War]]
***[[Battle of the Sakarya|Sakarya]]
***[[Great Offensive]]
****[[Battle of Dumlupınar|Dumlupınar]]
**[[Turkish-Armenian War]]
**[[Revolts during the Turkish War of Independence|Revolts]]
**[[Anglo-Turkish War (1918–1923)|Anglo-Turkish War]]
* [[Assyrian rebellion]]
* [[Simko Shikak revolt (1918–1922)]]
*[[Kurdish–Turkish conflict]]
** [[Koçgiri rebellion]]
**[[Beytussebab rebellion]]
**[[Sheikh Said rebellion]]
**[[Ararat rebellion]]
***[[First Operation Ararat|Ararat I]] [[:tr: Birinci Ağrı Harekatı|[tr]]]
***[[Second Operation Ararat|Ararat II]] [[:tr: İkinci Ağrı Harekatı|[tr]]]
***[[Third Operation Ararat|Ararat III]]
**[[Dersim rebellion]]
{{Tree list/end}}
}}
{{Collapsed infobox section end}}
}}
{{Atatürk sidebar}}'''Mustafa Kemal Atatürk'''{{efn|{{IPAc-en|ˈ|m|ʊ|s|t|ə|f|ə|_|k|ə|ˌ|m|ɑː|l|_|ˈ|æ|t|ə|t|ɜr|k|audio=En-us-Mustafa Kemal Ataturk from Turkey pronunciation (Voice of America).ogg}} {{respell|MUUST|ə|fə|_|kə|MAHL|_|AT|ə|turk}}, {{IPA|tr|mustaˈfa ceˈmal aˈtatyɾc|lang|small=no}}.<br /> After the [[Surname Law (Turkey)|Surname Law of 1934]], he  [[:File:Atatürk'ün 993 814 seri numaralı nüfus cüzdanı.jpg|first]] appeared as '''Kemal Atatürk''' and [[:File:Atatürk'ün 993 815 seri numaralı nüfus cüzdanı.jpg|then]] as '''Kamâl Atatürk''' on his [[Turkish identity card|identity document]]s. See [[#Name|name section]]}}{{Efn|Also known as '''Mustafa Kemal Pasha'''{{efn|{{langx|ota|مصطفی كمال پاشا}}; {{langx|tr|Mustafa Kemal Paşa}}; in this Ottoman Turkish style name, the given name is ''Mustafa Kemal'', the title is ''[[Pasha]]'', and there is no family name.}} until 1921, and '''Ghazi Mustafa Kemal'''{{efn|{{langx|ota|غازی مصطفی كمال|links=no}}; {{langx|tr|Gazi Mustafa Kemal|links=no}}; in this Ottoman Turkish style name, the given name is ''Mustafa Kemal'', the title is ''[[Ghazi (warrior)|Ghazi]]'', and there is no family name.}} from 1921 until the [[Surname Law (Turkey)|Surname Law of 1934]]<ref>{{TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi|url=https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/mustafa-kemal-ataturk|title=II. ATATÜRK ve TÜRK DİLİ|author=Hasan Eren|quote=24 Kasım 1934’te Türkiye Büyük Millet Meclisi 2587 sayılı kanunla Gazi Mustafa Kemal’e Atatürk soyadını verdi.}}</ref>}} ({{circa}} 1881{{efn|His birthday is unknown. 19 May–the day he landed to Samsun in 1919 to start the nationalist resistance–is considered his symbolic birthday. It was also claimed that he was born in 1880. See [[Personal life of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk#Birth date|Personal life of Atatürk § Birth date]]}}&nbsp;– 10 November 1938) was a Turkish [[field marshal]] and revolutionary statesman who was the [[founding father]] of the [[Republic of Turkey]], serving as its first [[President of Turkey|president]] from 1923 until [[Death and state funeral of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk|his death]] in 1938. He undertook sweeping [[Atatürk's reforms|reforms]], which modernized Turkey into a [[secularism in Turkey|secular]], industrializing nation. Ideologically a [[Secularism|secularist]] and [[Turkish nationalism|nationalist]], [[Atatürk's reforms|his policies]] and socio-political theories became known as [[Kemalism]].

He came to prominence for his role in securing the Ottoman victory at the [[Battle of Gallipoli]] (1915) during [[World War I]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Zürcher |first=Erik Jan |url=https://psi424.cankaya.edu.tr/uploads/files/Zurcher,%20Turkey-A%20Mod%20Hist.PDF#page=395 |title=Turkey : a modern history |publisher=I.B. Tauris |year=1993 |isbn=9781850436140 |publication-place=London |page=384 |chapter=Biographical Notes  |oclc=29416622 |access-date=4 October 2023 |archive-date=27 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230227062237/https://psi424.cankaya.edu.tr/uploads/files/Zurcher,%20Turkey-A%20Mod%20Hist.PDF#page=395 |url-status=live }}</ref> During this time, the Ottoman Empire perpetrated genocides against its Greek, Armenian and Assyrian subjects; while never involved, Atatürk, went to condemn them and promised to hang many of the perpetrators in the mid-1920s to later grant immunity to remaining perpetrators.<ref name="wilsoncenter.org22">{{Cite web |date=17 January 2008 |title="Facing History: Denial and Turkish National Security." {{!}} Wilson Center |url=https://www.wilsoncenter.org/event/facing-history-denial-and-turkish-national-security |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220402001546/https://www.wilsoncenter.org/event/facing-history-denial-and-turkish-national-security |archive-date=2 April 2022 |access-date=2022-03-14 |website=[[Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars]] |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Akçam |first=Taner |title=Los Angeles Examiner 1926 |url=http://www.taraf.com.tr/taner-akcam/makale-los-angeles-examiner-1926.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209185432/http://www.taraf.com.tr:80/taner-akcam/makale-los-angeles-examiner-1926.htm |archive-date=9 February 2014 |website=[[Taraf]]}}</ref> Following the defeat of the Ottoman Empire after World War I, he led the [[Turkish National Movement]], which resisted the Empire's partition among the victorious [[Allies of World War I|Allied powers]]. Establishing a [[Government of the Grand National Assembly|provisional government]] in the present-day Turkish capital [[Ankara]], he defeated the forces sent by the Allies, thus emerging victorious from what was later referred to as the [[Turkish War of Independence]]. He subsequently proceeded to [[Abolition of the Ottoman sultanate|abolish the Ottoman sultanate]] in 1922 and [[Proclamation of the Republic of Turkey|proclaimed the foundation of the Turkish Republic]] in its place the following year.

As the president of the newly formed [[Turkey|Turkish Republic]], Atatürk initiated a rigorous program of political, economic, and cultural reforms with the ultimate aim of building a republican and secular nation-state. He made primary education free and compulsory, opening thousands of new schools all over the country. He also introduced the Latin-based [[Turkish alphabet]]. Turkish women received [[Women's rights|equal civil and political rights]] during his presidency. His government carried out a policy of [[Turkification]], trying to create a homogeneous, unified and above all [[secular nation]] under the Turkish banner. The [[Grand National Assembly of Turkey|Turkish Parliament]] granted him the surname Atatürk in 1934, which means "Father of the Turks", in recognition of the role he played in building the modern Turkish Republic. He died on 10 November 1938 at [[Dolmabahçe Palace]] in [[Istanbul]],<!--Use Istanbul here as since 1930 it was known by that name in English--> at the age of 57; he was succeeded as president by his long-time prime minister [[İsmet İnönü]].

In 1981, the centennial of Atatürk's birth, his memory was honoured by the [[United Nations]] and [[UNESCO]], which declared it ''The Atatürk Year in the World'' and adopted the [[Atatürk Centennial|Resolution on the Atatürk Centennial]], describing him as "the leader of the first struggle given against [[colonialism]] and [[imperialism]]".<ref name="ATATURK: Creator of Modern Turkey2">{{Cite web |last1=Kandogan |first1=Eser |last2=Seferoglu  |first2=Süleyman Sadi |date=12 January 1994 |editor-last= |editor-first= |title=Ataturk: Creator of Modern Turkey / Mustafa Kemal Atatürk |url=http://www.columbia.edu/~sss31/Turkiye/ata/hayati.html |access-date=22 November 2017 |website=Thousand Lakes Web Pages |publisher=New York: Columbia University |department=Türkiye On The Web: A Cultural Warehouse |archive-date=9 November 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151109083247/http://www.columbia.edu/~sss31/Turkiye/ata/hayati.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Landau 19842">{{Cite book |last=Landau |first=Jacob M. |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8_n93Kq5PwMC&q=1981+declared+ataturk+year&pg=PR13 |title=Atatürk and the Modernization of Turkey |publisher=Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, Inc. and Leiden, The Netherlands: E.J. Brill |year=1984 |isbn=978-9004070707 |series=A Westview Replica Edition |page=xiii |language=en |chapter=Atatürk's Achievement: Some Considerations |lccn=83-16872 |access-date=27 October 2020 |archive-date=1 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230801000322/https://books.google.com/books?id=8_n93Kq5PwMC&q=1981+declared+ataturk+year&pg=PR13 |url-status=live }}</ref> Atatürk was also credited for his [[Peace at Home, Peace in the World|peace-in-the-world]] oriented foreign policy and friendship with neighboring countries such as Iran, Yugoslavia, Iraq, and Greece, as well as the creation of the [[Balkan Pact]] that resisted the expansionist aggressions of [[Fascist Italy (1922–1943)|Fascist Italy]] and [[Third Bulgarian Empire|Tsarist Bulgaria]].

==Name==
Atatürk was born [[Mustafa]]. His second name [[Kemal (name)|Kemal]] (meaning 'perfection' or 'maturity' in [[Arabic]]) was given to him by his mathematics teacher, Captain Üsküplü Mustafa Efendi. According to [[Afet İnan]], his teacher gave this name "in admiration of [Atatürk's] capability and maturity".<ref>[[Afet İnan]], ''Atatürk hakkında hâtıralar ve belgeler'', Türk Tarih Kurumu Basımevi, 1959, [https://books.google.com/books?id=EWwaAAAAIAAJ&q=%22Matematik+%C3%B6%C4%9Fretmeni+Mustafa+Efendi%22 p. 8.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230408045133/https://books.google.com/books?id=EWwaAAAAIAAJ&q=%22Matematik+%C3%B6%C4%9Fretmeni+Mustafa+Efendi%22 |date=8 April 2023 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Mustafa Kemal Atatürk |url=http://www.turkishembassy.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=300&Itemid=317 |publisher=Turkish Embassy website |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927211519/http://www.turkishembassy.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=300&Itemid=317 |archive-date=27 September 2007 |access-date=7 August 2007}}</ref> According to other sources, his teacher wanted to distinguish Atatürk from another student who was also named Mustafa.<ref>[[Ali Fuat Cebesoy]], ''Sınıf arkadaşım Atatürk: okul ve genç subaylık hâtıraları'', İnkılâp ve Aka Kitabevleri, 1967, [https://books.google.com/books?id=-D4NAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Kemal+koyal%C4%B1m%22 p. 6.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230408045105/https://books.google.com/books?id=-D4NAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Kemal+koyal%C4%B1m%22 |date=8 April 2023 }} ''Benim adım Mustafa. Senin adın da Mustafa. Arada bir fark olmalı, ne dersin, senin adının sonuna bir de Kemal koyalım.''</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rustow|first=Dankwart A.|author-link=Dankwart Rustow|date=1968|title=Atatürk as Founder of a State|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20023842|journal=Daedalus|volume=97|issue=3|pages=793–828|jstor=20023842|issn=0011-5266|access-date=26 May 2021|archive-date=3 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220403165154/https://www.jstor.org/stable/20023842|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Andrew Mango]] suggests that he may have chosen the name himself as a tribute to the nationalist poet [[Namık Kemal]].<ref>Mango, ''Atatürk'', p. 37.</ref> According to Alkan, Atatürk seems to have embraced the name Kemal during his army years.<ref name=enis>{{cite book|title=Atatürk on Screen: Documentary Film and the Making of a Leader|year=2020|author=Enis Dinç|page=180}}</ref>

After receiving the [[surname]] Atatürk on his first ID card in 1934, his name appeared as Kemal Atatürk, while the [[given name]] Mustafa had disappeared altogether. In February 1935, Atatürk began to use the [[Old Turkic]]<ref>Murat Belge, Tanıl Bora, Murat Gültekingil. ''Milliyetçilik'' (2002), İletişim Yayınları, [https://books.google.com/books?id=YBI_AQAAIAAJ&q=Kam%C3%A2l p. 254] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120604114809/http://books.google.com.tr/books?ei=K4GtTd6-JsvEsgav_5nXDA&ct=result&id=YBI_AQAAIAAJ&dq=Atat%C3%BCrk+Kam%C3%A2l+isim+de%C4%9Fi%C5%9Ftirme&q=Kam%C3%A2l#search_anchor|date=4 June 2012}}</ref> name Kamâl. According to ''Tarama Dergisi'' (1934), {{lang|tr|kamal}} meant 'fortification', 'fortress', 'army', or 'shield'.<ref>''Tarama Dergisi'' (1934), volume 2, [https://books.google.com/books?id=8yU-AQAAIAAJ&q=tarama+dergisi+kamal p. 1064] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240416190117/https://books.google.com/books?id=8yU-AQAAIAAJ&q=tarama+dergisi+kamal&dq=tarama+dergisi+kamal&hl=nl&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjEnveRkd35AhWBr6QKHcybDBYQ6wF6BAgLEAE |date=16 April 2024 }}</ref> On 4 February 1935, the government's official news agency [[Anadolu Agency]] gave the following explanation:<ref>Niyazi Ahmet Banoğlu, ''Atatürk'ün İstanbul'daki Hayatı'', volume 2, Millî Eğitim Matbaası, 1974, p. 131. ''İstihbaratımıza nazaran, Atatürk'ün taşıdığı Kamâl adı Arapça bir kelime olmadığı gibi, Arapça Kemal kelimesinin delâlet ettiği manada da değildir. Atatürk'ün muhafaza edilen öz adı, Türkçe 'ordu ve kale' manasında olan Kamâl'dır. Son 'â' üstündeki tahfif işareti 'l'i yumuşattığı için, telâffuz hemen hemen Arapça 'Kemal' telâffuzuna yaklaşır.''</ref>

{{blockquote|According to our intelligence, the name 'Kamâl' that Atatürk bears is not an Arabic word, nor does it have the meaning by the Arabic word kemal ['maturity', 'perfection']. Atatürk's given name, which is being retained, is 'Kamâl', the Turkish meaning of which is army and fortress. As the circumflex accent on the final 'â' softens the 'l' the pronunciation closely approximates that of the Arabic 'Kemal'.|author=Anadolu Agency}}

However, Atatürk returned to the old spelling of Kemal from May 1937 and onwards. To make a soft transition, he avoided using the name as much as he could, either by not using it at all or by signing documents as 'K. Atatürk'. An official explanation was never given, but it is widely agreed that the issue with Atatürk's name was linked to the [[Turkish language reform]].<ref name=enis />

==Early life==
{{Further|Personal life of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk}}[[File:Turkishcon Salonika.jpg|thumb|upright|The house where Atatürk was born in the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] city of [[Thessaloniki|Salonica]], now a [[Atatürk Museum (Thessaloniki)|museum]]]]
Mustafa Kemal was born either in the Ahmet Subaşı neighbourhood or at a house (preserved as a museum) in Islahhane Street (now Apostolou Pavlou Street) in the Koca Kasım Pasha neighbourhood in [[Thessaloniki|Salonica]] ({{lang|tr|Selanik}}),<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Méropi Anastassiadou |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qSjAqaQTI7EC&pg=PA71 |title=Salonique, 1830–1912: une ville ottomane à l'âge des Réformes |last2=Méropi Anastassiadou-Dumont |publisher=Brill |year=1997 |isbn=978-90-04-10798-4 |page=71}}</ref> [[Ottoman Empire]]. His parents were [[Ali Rıza Efendi]], a military officer originally from [[Kodžadžik]] ({{lang|tr|Kocacık}}), title deed clerk and lumber trader, and [[Zübeyde Hanım]]. Only one of Mustafa's siblings, a sister named [[Makbule Atadan|Makbule (Atadan)]] survived childhood; she died in 1956.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Cemal Çelebi Granda |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hFcwAQAAIAAJ |title=Cemal Granda anlatıyor |publisher=Pal Medya ve Organizasyon |year=2007 |isbn=978-9944-203-01-2 |access-date=27 June 2015 |archive-date=1 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230801000815/https://books.google.com/books?id=hFcwAQAAIAAJ |url-status=live }} {{page needed|date=January 2016}}</ref>

Claims and theories about Mustafa Kemal's ancestry are strikingly varied and contrasting.<ref name="Zadrozna" /> According to Andrew Mango, his family was Muslim, [[Turkish language|Turkish-speaking]] and precariously middle-class.<ref>Andrew Mango ''Atatürk: The Biography of the Founder of Modern Turkey'', Overlook Press, 2002, {{ISBN|978-1-58567-334-6}}, [https://books.google.com/books?id=nu68vd_AmuYC&q=Turkish+speaking+family+ pp. 25–27] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230423183734/https://books.google.com/books?id=nu68vd_AmuYC&q=Turkish+speaking+family+ |date=23 April 2023 }}, pp. 27ff. – "Feyzullah's family is said to have come from the country near Vodina (now Edhessa in western Greek Macedonia). The surname Sofuzade, meaning 'son of a pious man', suggests that the ancestors of Zübeyde and Ali Rıza had a similar background. Cemil Bozok, son of Salih Bozok, who was a distant cousin of Mustafa Kemal and, later, his ADC, claims to have been related to both Ali Rıza's and Zübeyde's families. This would mean that the families of Mustafa Kemal's parents were interrelated. Cemil Bozok also notes that his paternal grandfather, Safer Efendi, was of Albanian origin. This may have a bearing on the vexed question of Mustafa Kemal's ethnic origin. Mustafa Kemal's parents and relatives all used Turkish as their mother tongue. This suggests that some at least of their ancestors had originally come from Turkey, since local Muslims of Albanian and Slav origin who had no ethnic connection with Turkey spoke Albanian, Serbo-Croat or Bulgarian, at least so long as they remained in their native land.'' ''But in looks Atatürk resembled local Albanians and Slavs.[...] But there is no evidence that either Ali Riza or Zübeyde was descended from such Turkish nomads." page 28; "It is much more likely that Atatürk inherited his looks from his Balkan ancestors.[...] But Albanians and Slavs are likely to have figured among his ancestors."</ref> His father Ali Rıza is thought to have been of [[Albanians|Albanian]] origin by some authors;<ref>Mango, Andrew, ''Atatürk: the biography of the founder of modern Turkey'', (Overlook TP, 2002), p. 27.</ref><ref name="books.google.com.tr">Jackh, Ernest, ''The Rising Crescent'', (Goemaere Press, 2007), [https://books.google.com/books?id=Pxs-DAIVxqYC&q=Turkish+mother p. 31, ''Turkish mother and Albanian father''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230408045134/https://books.google.com/books?id=Pxs-DAIVxqYC&q=Turkish+mother |date=8 April 2023 }}</ref><ref name="p. 144">Isaac Frederick Marcosson, ''Turbulent Years'', Ayer Publishing, 1969, [https://books.google.com/books?id=399LkTqBLdAC&q=Ali+Riza p. 144.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230325103241/https://books.google.com/books?id=399LkTqBLdAC&q=Ali+Riza |date=25 March 2023 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=Yale |last=Richmond |title=From Da to Yes: Understanding the East Europeans |publisher=Intercultural Press Inc. |year=1995 |page=212}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |date=January 1939 |title=Ataturk |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/03068373908730899 |journal=Journal of the Royal Central Asian Society |language=en |volume=26 |issue=1 |pages=117–120 |doi=10.1080/03068373908730899 |issn=0035-8789|url-access=subscription }}</ref> however, according to [[Falih Rıfkı Atay]], [[Vamık Volkan|Vamık D. Volkan]], [[Norman Itzkowitz]], Müjgân Cunbur, Numan Kartal and Hasan İzzettin Dinamo, Ali Rıza's ancestors were [[Turkish people|Turks]], ultimately descending from [[Söke]] in [[Aydın Province]] of [[Anatolia]].<ref name="Çankaya17">Falih Rıfkı Atay, ''Çankaya: Atatürk'ün doğumundan ölümüne kadar'', İstanbul: Betaş, 1984, p. 17. {{in lang|tr}}</ref><ref>Vamık D. Volkan & Norman Itzkowitz, ''Ölümsüz Atatürk'' (''Immortal Atatürk''), Bağlam Yayınları, 1998, {{ISBN|975-7696-97-8}}, p. 37, dipnote no. 6 (Atay, 1980, s. 17)</ref><ref>Cunbur, Müjgân. ''Türk dünyası edebiyatçıları ansiklopedisi, 2. cilt'' (2004), Atatürk Kültür Merkezi Başkanlığı: "Babası Ali Rıza Efendi (doğ. 1839), annesi Zübeyde Hanımdır, baba dedesi Hafız Ahmet Efendi, 14–15. yy.da Anadolu'dan göç ederek Makedonya'ya yerleşen Kocacık Yörüklerindendir."</ref><ref>Kartal, Numan. ''Atatürk ve Kocacık Türkleri'' (2002), T.C. Kültür Bakanlığı: "Aile Selânik'e Manastır ilinin Debrei Bâlâ sancağına bağlı Kocacık bucağından gelmişti. Ali Rıza Efendi'nin doğum yeri olan Kocacık bucağı halkı da Anadolu'dan gitme ve tamamıyla Türk, Müslüman Oğuzların Türkmen boylarındandırlar."</ref><ref>Dinamo, Hasan İzzettin. ''Kutsal İsyan: Millî Kurtuluş Savaşı'nın Gerçek Hikâyesi, 2. cilt'' (1986), Tekin Yayınevi.</ref><ref name="Macedonia Travel Blog 2013">{{Cite web |title=Mustafa Kemal Ataturk – memorial museum in village Kodzadzik (Коџаџик) in Municipality Centar Zupa (Центар Жупа) |url=https://whereismacedonia.org/mustafa-kemal-ataturk-memorial-museum-in-village-kodzadzik-in-municipality-centar-zupa/ |date=24 May 2013 |website=Macedonia Travel Blog |access-date=23 April 2018 |archive-date=4 November 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141104163319/http://whereismacedonia.org/en/where-to-go-in-macedonia/museums-in-macedonia/327-mustafa-kemal-ataturk-memorial-museum-in-village-kodzadzik-in-municipality-centar-zupa |url-status=dead }}</ref> His mother Zübeyde is thought to have been of [[Turkish people|Turkish]] origin,<ref name="books.google.com.tr" /><ref name="p. 144" /> and according to [[Şevket Süreyya Aydemir]], she was of [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] [[Yörüks|Yörük]] ancestry.<ref>Şevket Süreyya Aydemir, ''Tek Adam: Mustafa Kemal'', Birinci Cilt (1st vol.): 1881–1919, 14th ed., Remzi Kitabevi, 1997, {{ISBN|975-14-0212-3}}, p. 31. {{in lang|tr}}</ref> According to some various claims, she descended from [[Albanians]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Fodor |first=Marcel William |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BxiHAAAAMAAJ&q=His+mother,+Subeida,+was+the+daughter+of+a+small+tenant+of+a+farm+in+Southern+Albania.+According+to+such+reliable+evidence+as+I+was+able+to+collect,+this+blonde-haired,+blue-eyed,+robust+woman+was+an+Albanian+whose+mother,+in+turn,+was+a+Macedonian.+Mus-tapha+Kemal.+with+his+blue+eves+and+blond+hair.+resembled+his |title=South of Hitler |publisher=Houghton Mifflin |year=1939 |location=United States, University of Wisconsin – Madison |pages=73 |language=English |quote=His mother, Subeida, was the daughter of a small tenant of a farm in Southern Albania. According to such reliable evidence as I was able to collect, this blonde-haired, blue-eyed, robust woman was an Albanian whose mother, in turn, was a Macedonian. Mustapha Kemal with his blue eyes and blond hair resembled his... |access-date=9 March 2024 |archive-date=9 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240309052849/https://books.google.com/books?id=BxiHAAAAMAAJ&q=His+mother,+Subeida,+was+the+daughter+of+a+small+tenant+of+a+farm+in+Southern+Albania.+According+to+such+reliable+evidence+as+I+was+able+to+collect,+this+blonde-haired,+blue-eyed,+robust+woman+was+an+Albanian+whose+mother,+in+turn,+was+a+Macedonian.+Mus-tapha+Kemal.+with+his+blue+eves+and+blond+hair.+resembled+his |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Macedonians (ethnic group)|Macedonian]] [[Torbeši]],<ref>{{Cite news |date=12 October 1953 |title=Turkey: The land a dictator turned into a democracy |work=Time Magazine |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,860057-2,00.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100522203055/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,860057-2,00.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=22 May 2010 |access-date=28 December 2023}}</ref> or [[Bulgarian Muslims|Muslim Bulgarians]].<ref name="Zadrozna">{{Cite journal|title=Reconstructing the past in a post-Ottoman village: Turkishness in a transnational context|first=Anna|last=Zadrożna|date=31 July 2017|journal=Nationalities Papers|volume=45|issue=4|pages=524–39|doi=10.1080/00905992.2017.1287690|s2cid=132176422 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Due to the large [[History of the Jews in the Ottoman Empire|Jewish]] community of Salonica in the Ottoman period, many of his [[Islamism|Islamist]] opponents who were disturbed by [[Atatürk's reforms|his reforms]] [[Conspiracy theories in Turkey|claimed]] that Mustafa Kemal had Jewish [[Dönmeh|Dönme]] ancestors.<ref>[[Gershom Scholem]], "Doenmeh", ''Encyclopaedia Judaica'', 2nd ed.; Volume 5: Coh-Doz, Macmillan Reference US, Thomson Gale, 2007, {{ISBN|0-02-865933-3}}, p. 732.</ref>

In his early years, his mother encouraged Mustafa Kemal to attend a religious school, something he did reluctantly and only briefly. Later, he attended the Şemsi Efendi School (a private school with a more secular curriculum) at the direction of his father. When he was seven years old, his father died.<ref>Bernd Rill: Kemal Atatürk. Rowohlt, Reinbek 1985</ref> His mother wanted him to learn a trade, but without consulting them, Mustafa Kemal took the entrance exam for the Salonica Military School (''Selanik Askeri Rüştiyesi'') in 1893. In 1896, he enrolled in the [[Monastir Military High School]] (in modern [[Bitola]], [[North Macedonia]]) where he excelled at mathematics.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Atatürk |first=Kemal |url= |title=Mustafa Kemal Ataturk |date=1998 |publisher=Akşit |pages=13 |language=en}}</ref> On 14 March 1899,<ref name="Genelkurmay1">T. C. Genelkurmay Harp Tarihi Başkanlığı Yayınları, ''Türk İstiklâl Harbine Katılan Tümen ve Daha Üst Kademelerdeki Komutanların Biyografileri'', Ankara: Genkurmay Başkanlığı Basımevi, 1972, p. 1. {{in lang|tr}}</ref> he enrolled at the [[Ottoman Military Academy]] in the neighbourhood of Pangaltı<ref name="Çankaya29">Falih Rıfkı Atay, ''Çankaya: Atatürk'ün doğumundan ölümüne kadar'', İstanbul: Betaş, 1984, p. 29. {{in lang|tr}}</ref> within the [[Şişli]] district of the Ottoman capital city [[History of Istanbul#Ottoman Empire|Constantinople]] (modern [[Istanbul]]) and graduated in 1902. He later graduated from the [[Ottoman Military College]] in Constantinople on 11 January 1905.<ref name="Genelkurmay1" />

==Military career==
{{Main|Military career of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk}}

===Early years===
{{See also|Vatan ve Hürriyet|Committee of Union and Progress|Young Turk Revolution}}[[File:Mustafa Kemal, 1905.jpg|thumb|upright|Mustafa Kemal on the day of graduation from the War Academy in 1905]]

Shortly after graduation, he was arrested by the police for his anti-monarchist activities. Following confinement for several months he was released only with the support of Rıza Pasha, his former school director.<ref name="Atay">Falih Rıfkı Atay: Çankaya, Pozitif Yayınları, İstanbul, 2004 {{ISBN|975-6461-05-5}}</ref> After his release, Mustafa Kemal was assigned to the [[Fifth Army (Ottoman Empire)|Fifth Army]] based in [[Damascus]] as a [[Staff (military)|Staff]] [[Captain (land and air)|Captain]]<ref name="Genelkurmay1" /> in the company of [[Ali Fuat Cebesoy|Ali Fuat]] (Cebesoy) and [[Lütfi Müfit Özdeş|Lütfi Müfit]] (Özdeş).<ref>Mango, ''ibid'', p. 37.</ref> He joined a small secret revolutionary society of reformist officers led by a merchant [[Mustafa Cantekin|Mustafa Elvan]] (Cantekin) called {{lang|tr|[[Vatan ve Hürriyet]]}} ('Motherland and Liberty'). On 20 June 1907, he was promoted to the rank of [[Senior Captain]] (''Kolağası'') and on 13 October 1907, was assigned to the headquarters of the [[Third Army (Ottoman Empire)|Third Army]] in [[Bitola|Manastır]].<ref name="Genelkurmay2">T.C. Genelkurmay Başkanlığı Yayınları, ''ibid'', p. 2.</ref> He joined the [[Committee of Union and Progress]], with membership number 322, although in later years he became known for his opposition to, and frequent criticism of, the policies pursued by the CUP leadership. On 22 June 1908, he was appointed the Inspector of the Ottoman Railways in [[Eastern Rumelia]] (''Doğu Rumeli Bölgesi Demiryolları Müfettişi'').<ref name="Genelkurmay2" /> 

Mustafa Kemal began his revolutionary career in the [[Ottoman Empire]] as a [[Young Turks|Young Turk]] when he joined the [[Committee of Union and Progress]],  playing an important part in the [[31 March incident|31 March Incident]], which seized power from Sultan [[Abdülhamid II]] and restored the [[Second Constitutional Era (Ottoman Empire)|constitutional monarchy]]. 

[[File:Mustafa Kemal, Picardie Manevraları’nda, Fransa, 28 Eylül 1910.png|thumb|Mustafa Kemal (front row, second from left) with the Ottoman Turkish observers at the [[Picardy|Picardie]] army manoeuvres in France, 28 September 1910]]

He proposed depoliticization in the army, a proposal which was disliked by the leaders of the CUP. As a result, he was sent away to [[Tripolitania Vilayet]] (present [[Libya]], then an Ottoman territory) under the pretext of suppressing a tribal rebellion towards the end of 1908.<ref name="Atay" /> According to Mikush however, he volunteered for this mission.<ref>D.V.Mikusch: Zwichen Europe und Asien (translation Esat Mermi Erendor), İkarus Yayınları, İstanbul, 1981 {{ISBN|978-605-5834-32-6}} p. 67</ref> He suppressed the revolt and returned to Constantinople in January 1909.

In April 1909 in Constantinople, a group of soldiers began a counter-revolution (see [[31 March Incident]]). Mustafa Kemal was instrumental in suppressing the revolt.<ref>Patrick Kinross: ''Rebirth of a Nation'' (translation Ayhan Tezel), Sander yayınları, İstanbul, 1972 p. 68</ref>

In 1910, he was called to the [[History of Ottoman Albania|Ottoman provinces in Albania]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=1910, Albania broke a major uprising. Minister of War, Shefqet Mahmut Pasha, was personally involved in its printing. For this purpose decided to call his war headquarters Qemali Mustafa who was known as one of the generals prepared and laid him drafting the plan of operations. Mustafa at this time was in the Fifth Army Headquarters in Salonica. |url=http://albania.dyndns.org/Presse/2004/01102004.htm |publisher=Albania.dyndns.org |access-date=10 November 2012 |archive-date=26 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110726010303/http://albania.dyndns.org/Presse/2004/01102004.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Mustafa Atatürk had assisted in the military operation in Albania in 1910 |url=http://www.zeriyt.com/mustafa-ataturku-krijuesi-i-turqise-moderne-t37510.0.html |publisher=Zeriyt.com |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110806013843/http://www.zeriyt.com/mustafa-ataturku-krijuesi-i-turqise-moderne-t37510.0.html |archive-date=6 August 2011 |access-date=10 November 2012}}</ref> At that time [[Isa Boletini]] was leading Albanian uprisings in [[Kosovo]], and there were [[Albanian Revolt of 1910|revolts in Albania]] as well.<ref>{{Cite web |title=1912 &#124; Aubrey Herbert: A Meeting with Isa Boletini |url=http://www.albanianhistory.net/texts20_1/AH1912_3.html |publisher=Albanianhistory.net |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121022231544/http://www.albanianhistory.net/texts20_1/AH1912_3.html |archive-date=22 October 2012 |access-date=29 October 2012 }}</ref><ref>Enstehung und Ausbau der Königsdiktatur in Albanien, 1912–1939 Von Michael Schmidt-Neke</ref> In 1910, Mustafa Kemal met with [[Eqrem Vlora]], the Albanian lord, politician, writer, and one of the delegates of the [[Albanian Declaration of Independence]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=I remember well the meeting very interesting, I had casually with Mustafa Qemali in 1910, at the time, still a mere lieutenant |url=http://www.albislam.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1137:prezantim-per-librin-kujtime-&catid=580:libri&Itemid=774 |publisher=Albislam.com |access-date=10 November 2012 |archive-date=26 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210226000429/http://www.albislam.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1137:prezantim-per-librin-kujtime-&catid=580:libri&Itemid=774 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>KUJTIME nga: Eqrem Bej Vlora. Ekrem Bey Vlora, Lebenserinnerungen – Teilband II: 1912–1925</ref>

Later, in the autumn of 1910, he was among the Ottoman military observers who attended the [[Picardy|Picardie]] army manoeuvres in France,<ref name=AnaBritannica/> and in 1911, served at the Ministry of War (''Harbiye Nezareti'') in Constantinople for a short time.

===Italo-Turkish War (1911–12)===
{{Main|Italo-Turkish War}}
{{See also|Battle of Tobruk (1911)}}
[[File:Kurmay Binbaşı Mustafa Kemal, Mücahit Bedevi Kuvvetleri önünde emirlerini yazdırırken.jpg|thumb|Mustafa Kemal (left) with an Ottoman military officer and Bedouin forces in [[Derna, Libya|Derna]], [[Tripolitania Vilayet]], 1912]]

In 1911, he volunteered to fight in the [[Italo-Turkish War]]<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Landau |first=Jacob M. |title=Atatürk and the Modernization of Turkey |publisher=Westview Press |year=1984 |isbn=0865319863 |location=Boulder, CO |page=17 |language=en}}</ref> in the Ottoman [[Tripolitania Vilayet]] (present-day [[Libya]]).<ref>Jacob M. Landau, (1984), p. 48</ref> He served mainly in the areas near [[Derna, Libya|Derna]] and [[Tobruk]].<ref name=":0" /> The invading Italian army had a strength of 150,000 men;<ref name="Italian-Turkish War page 96">William Henry Beehler, ''The History of the Italian-Turkish War'', page 96</ref> it was opposed by 20,000 Bedouins and 8,000 Turks.<ref name="Italian-Turkish War page 14">Beehler, p. 14</ref> A short time before [[Kingdom of Italy|Italy]] declared war, many of the Ottoman troops in Libya were sent to the Ottoman province of [[Yemen Vilayet]] to put down the rebellion there, so the Ottoman government was caught with inadequate resources to counter the Italians in Libya. Britain, which controlled the [[Khedivate of Egypt|Ottoman provinces of Egypt and Sudan]], did not allow additional Ottoman troops to reach Libya through Egypt. Ottoman soldiers like Mustafa Kemal went to Libya either dressed as Arabs (risking imprisonment if noticed by the British authorities in Egypt) or by the very few available ferries (the Italians, who had superior naval forces, effectively controlled the sea routes to [[Tripoli, Libya|Tripoli]]). However, despite all the hardships, Mustafa Kemal's forces in Libya managed to repel the Italians on a number of occasions, such as at the [[Battle of Tobruk (1911)|Battle of Tobruk]] on 22 December 1911.

During the Battle of Derna on 16–17 January 1912, while Mustafa Kemal was assaulting the Italian-controlled fortress of Kasr-ı Harun, two Italian planes dropped bombs on the Ottoman forces; a [[limestone]] splinter from a damaged building's rubble struck Mustafa Kemal's left eye, causing permanent tissue damage, but not total loss of sight. He received medical treatment for nearly a month; he attempted to leave the [[International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement|Red Crescent]]'s health facilities after only two weeks, but when his eye's situation worsened, he had to return and resume treatment. On 6 March 1912, Mustafa Kemal became the Commander of the Ottoman forces in Derna. He managed to defend and retain the city and its surrounding region until the end of the Italo-Turkish War on 18 October 1912. Mustafa Kemal, [[İsmail Enver|Enver Bey]], [[Fethi Okyar|Fethi Bey]], and the other Ottoman military commanders in Libya had to return to [[Ottoman territories in Europe|Ottoman Europe]] following the outbreak of the [[Balkan Wars]] on 8 October 1912. Having lost the war, the Ottoman government had to surrender [[Tripolitania]], [[Fezzan]], and [[Cyrenaica]] (three provinces forming present-day Libya) to the [[Kingdom of Italy]] in the [[Treaty of Ouchy|Treaty of Lausanne (1912)]] signed ten days later, on 18 October 1912. Since 1923, historians have preferred to name this treaty as the "Treaty of Ouchy", after the [[Château d'Ouchy]] in [[Lausanne]] where it was signed, to distinguish it from the later [[Treaty of Lausanne|Treaty of Lausanne (1923)]] signed between the [[Allies of World War I]] and the [[Grand National Assembly of Turkey]] in [[Ankara]] (at that time known as Angora).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Erik Goldstein |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KWWKAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA37 |title=Wars and Peace Treaties: 1816 to 1991 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=2005 |isbn=9781134899128 |page=37 |access-date=15 May 2018 |archive-date=1 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230801001336/https://books.google.com/books?id=KWWKAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA37 |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Balkan Wars (1912–13)===
{{Main|Balkan Wars}}
{{See also|First Balkan War|Second Balkan War}}
On 1 December 1912, Mustafa Kemal arrived at his new headquarters on the [[Gallipoli]] peninsula and, during the [[First Balkan War]], he took part in the amphibious landing at [[Bolayır|Bulair]] on the coast of [[Thrace]] under [[Binbashi|Binbaşı]] [[Fethi Okyar|Fethi Bey]], but this offensive was repulsed during the [[Battle of Bulair]] by [[Georgi Todorov (general)|Georgi Todorov]]'s 7th Rila Infantry Division<ref>Richard C. Hall, ''The Balkan Wars 1912–1913: Prelude to the First World War'', Routledge, 2002, [https://books.google.com/books?id=2-zAeObDX_gC&dq=Georgi+Todorov+Bulair&pg=PA81 p. 81.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230423183855/https://books.google.com/books?id=2-zAeObDX_gC&dq=Georgi+Todorov+Bulair&pg=PA81 |date=23 April 2023 }}</ref> under the command of [[Stiliyan Kovachev]]'s [[Fourth Army (Bulgaria)|Bulgarian Fourth Army]].<ref>Edward J. Erickson, ''Defeat in Detail: The Ottoman Army in the Balkans, 1912–1913'', Praeger, 2003, {{ISBN|0-275-97888-5}}, p. 255.</ref>

In June 1913, during the [[Second Balkan War]], he took part in the Ottoman Army forces<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Kemal Atatürk |language=en |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Kemal-Ataturk |access-date=21 November 2017 |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica |archive-date=21 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220921175512/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Kemal-Ataturk |url-status=live }}</ref> commanded by [[Kaymakam]] [[İsmail Enver|Enver Bey]] that recovered [[Dimetoka]] and [[Edirne]] (Adrianople, the capital city of the [[Ottoman Empire]] between 1365 and 1453, thus of utmost historic importance for the Turks) together with most of eastern [[Thrace]] from the Bulgarians.

In 1913, he was appointed the Ottoman military attaché to [[Balkans|all Balkan states]] (his office was in [[Sofia]], Bulgaria) and promoted to the rank of [[Kaymakam]] ([[Lieutenant Colonel]] / [[Colonel]]) on 1 March 1914.<ref name="Genelkurmay1" /> While in Bulgaria, he met with Dimitrina Kovacheva, the daughter of Bulgarian general [[Stiliyan Kovachev]] (against whose forces he had fought during the [[Balkan Wars]]), who had recently completed her education in [[Switzerland]], during a [[New Year's Eve]] ball in Sofia and fell in love with her.<ref name="DimitrinaKovacheva">{{Cite web |title=Atatürk'ün Bulgar aşkı belgesel oldu |url=https://www.hurriyet.com.tr/gundem/ataturkun-bulgar-aski-belgesel-oldu-4272436 |date=18 April 2006 |publisher=[[Hürriyet]] |access-date=15 March 2020 |archive-date=10 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220710134141/https://www.hurriyet.com.tr/gundem/ataturkun-bulgar-aski-belgesel-oldu-4272436 |url-status=live }}</ref> The two danced at the ball and started to secretly date in the following days.<ref name=DimitrinaKovacheva/> Mustafa Kemal twice asked Dimitrina's parents for their permission to marry her (the second time was in 1915, during [[World War I]]) and was twice refused, which left him with a lifelong sadness.<ref name=DimitrinaKovacheva/>

===First World War (1914–18)===
{{Main|World War I}}
{{See also|Gallipoli Campaign|Middle Eastern theatre of World War I}}
[[File:Tasviri Efkar Oct 29, 1915.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Cevat Çobanlı|Cevat Pasha]] and Mustafa Kemal on the daily ''[[Tasvîr-i Efkâr]]'' dated 29 October 1915]]

In 1914, the Ottoman Empire entered the [[European theatre of World War I|European]] and [[Middle Eastern theatre of World War I|Middle Eastern theatres]] of World War I allied with the [[Central Powers]]. Mustafa Kemal was given the task of organizing and commanding the 19th Division attached to the [[Fifth Army (Ottoman Empire)|Fifth Army]] during the [[Gallipoli Campaign|Battle of Gallipoli]]. He became the front-line commander after correctly anticipating where the Allies would attack, and held his position until they retreated. Following the Battle of Gallipoli, Mustafa Kemal served in [[Edirne]] until 14 January 1916. He was then assigned to the command of the [[XVI Corps (Ottoman Empire)|XVI Corps]] of the [[Second Army (Ottoman Empire)|Second Army]] and sent to the [[Caucasus Campaign]] after the massive Russian offensive had reached key Anatolian cities. On 7 August, he rallied his troops and mounted a counteroffensive.<ref name="lengyel68">Lengyel, ''They called him Atatürk'', 68</ref> Two of his divisions captured [[Battle of Bitlis|Bitlis]] and [[Muş]], upsetting the calculations of the Russian Command.<ref name="kinross100">Patrick Kinross, ''Atatürk: The Rebirth of a Nation'', 100</ref>

[[File:Ataturk13.JPG|thumb|upright|right|Mustafa Kemal with Ottoman military officers during the [[Battle of Gallipoli]], Çanakkale, 1915]]

Following this victory, the [[Committee of Union and Progress|CUP]] government in Constantinople proposed to establish a new army in [[Hejaz]] (''Hicaz Kuvve-i Seferiyesi'') and appoint Mustafa Kemal to its command, but he refused the proposal and this army was never established.<ref name="AnaBritannica">Ana Britannica (1987) Vol. 2 (Ami – Avr): ''Atatürk, Mustafa Kemal''. p. 490.</ref> Instead, on 7 March 1917, Mustafa Kemal was promoted from the command of the XVI Corps to the overall command of the Second Army, although the [[Russian Caucasus Army (World War I)|Czar's armies]] were soon withdrawn when the [[Russian Revolution of 1917|Russian Revolution]] erupted.<ref name=AnaBritannica/><ref name=lengyel68/>

In July 1917, he was appointed to the command of the [[Seventh Army (Ottoman Empire)|Seventh Army]], replacing [[Fevzi Çakmak|Fevzi Pasha]] on 7 August 1917, who was under the command of the German general [[Erich von Falkenhayn]]'s [[Yildirim Army Group]] (after the British forces of General [[Edmund Allenby]] captured [[Jerusalem]] in December 1917, Erich von Falkenhayn was replaced by [[Otto Liman von Sanders]] who became the new commander of the Yıldırım Army Group in early 1918.)<ref name=AnaBritannica/> Mustafa Kemal did not get along well with General von Falkenhayn and, together with [[İsmet İnönü|Miralay İsmet Bey]], wrote a report to [[Grand Vizier]] [[Talaat Pasha]] regarding the grim situation and lack of adequate resources in the Palestinian front. However, Talaat Pasha ignored their observations and refused their suggestion to form a stronger defensive line to the north, in [[Ottoman Syria]] (in parts of the [[Beirut Vilayet]], [[Syria Vilayet|Damascus Vilayet]], and [[Aleppo Vilayet]]), with Turks instead of Germans in command.<ref name="AnaBritannica" /> Following the rejection of his report, Mustafa Kemal resigned from the Seventh Army and returned to Constantinople.<ref name="AnaBritannica" /> There, he was assigned with the task of accompanying the crown prince (and future sultan) [[Mehmed VI|Mehmed Vahideddin]] during his train trip to [[Austria-Hungary]] and Germany.<ref name="AnaBritannica" /> While in Germany, Mustafa Kemal visited the German lines on the [[Western Front (World War I)|Western Front]] and concluded that the [[Central Powers]] would soon lose the war.<ref name="AnaBritannica" /> He did not hesitate to openly express this opinion to Kaiser [[Wilhelm II, German Emperor|Wilhelm II]] and his high-ranking generals in person.<ref name="AnaBritannica" /> During the return trip, he briefly stayed in [[Karlovy Vary|Karlsbad]] and [[Vienna]] for medical treatment between 30 May and 28 July 1918.<ref name=AnaBritannica/>

[[File:Mustafa Kemal Atatürk (1918).jpg|thumb|upright|right|Mustafa Kemal in 1918, the Commander of the Yıldırım Army Group and an [[Honorary title (award)|Honorary]] [[aide-de-camp]] of the Sultan]]

When [[Mehmed VI]] became the new Sultan of the Ottoman Empire in July 1918, he called Mustafa Kemal to Constantinople, and after several meetings in the months July and August 1918, reassigned him to the command of the Seventh Army in Palestine.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jäschke|first=Gotthard|date=1975|title=Mustafa Kemal und England in Neuer Sicht|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1569959|journal=Die Welt des Islams|volume=16|issue=1/4|page=169|doi=10.2307/1569959|jstor=1569959|issn=0043-2539|access-date=26 September 2021|archive-date=25 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210925074533/https://www.jstor.org/stable/1569959|url-status=live|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Mustafa Kemal arrived in [[Aleppo]] on 26 August 1918, then continued south to his headquarters in [[Nablus]]. The Seventh Army was holding the central sector of the front lines. On 19 September, at the beginning of the [[Battle of Megiddo (1918)|Battle of Megiddo]], the Eighth Army was holding the coastal flank but fell apart and Liman Pasha ordered the Seventh Army to withdraw to the north in order to prevent the British from conducting a short envelopment to the [[Jordan River]]. The Seventh Army retired towards the Jordan River but was [[Battle of Megiddo (1918)#Destruction of the Ottoman Seventh Army|destroyed by British aerial bombardment]] during its retreat from Nablus on 21 September 1918.<ref>{{Cite web |title=RAF History – Bomber Command 60th Anniversary |url=http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/h144.html |publisher=Raf.mod.uk |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121012161627/http://www.raf.mod.uk/bombercommand/h144.html |archive-date=12 October 2012 |access-date=29 October 2012 }}</ref> Nevertheless, Mustafa Kemal managed to form a defence line to the north of [[Aleppo]]. According to [[Patrick Balfour, 3rd Baron Kinross|Lord Kinross]], Mustafa Kemal was the only Turkish general in the war who never suffered a defeat.<ref>Patrick Kinross, ''Rebirth of a Nation'' (translation Ayhan Tezel), Sander yayınları, İstanbul, 1972 p. 210</ref>

The war ended with the [[Armistice of Mudros]] which was signed on 30 October 1918, and all German and Austro-Hungarian troops in the Ottoman Empire were granted ample time to withdraw. On 31 October, Mustafa Kemal was appointed to the command of the Yıldırım Army Group, replacing Liman von Sanders. Mustafa Kemal organized the distribution of weapons to the civilians in [[Antep]] in case of a defensive conflict against the invading Allies.<ref name=AnaBritannica/>

Mustafa Kemal's last active service in the Ottoman Army was organizing the return of the Ottoman troops left behind to the south of the defensive line. In early November 1918, the Yıldırım Army Group was officially dissolved, and Mustafa Kemal returned to an [[Occupation of Constantinople|occupied Constantinople]], the Ottoman capital, on 13 November 1918.<ref name=AnaBritannica/> For a period of time, he worked at the headquarters of the Ministry of War (''Harbiye Nezareti'') in Constantinople and continued his activities in this city until 16 May 1919.<ref name=AnaBritannica/> Along the established lines of the [[partitioning of the Ottoman Empire]], the [[Allies of World War I|Allies]] (British, Italian, French and Greek forces) occupied [[Anatolia]]. The occupation of Constantinople<!--Linked previously-->, followed by the [[occupation of Smyrna|occupation of İzmir]] (the two largest Ottoman cities at the time) sparked the establishment of the [[Turkish National Movement]] and the Turkish War of Independence.<ref>Mustafa Kemal Pasha's speech on his arrival in Angora (now Ankara) in November 1919{{where|date=June 2020}}<!--How does one read a copy?--></ref>

=== Ottoman genocides (1913–1922) and Mustafa Kemal ===
Mustafa Kemal was not directly involved in the [[Armenian genocide]] (during which around 1 million Armenians were killed by the CUP government, largely via direct killings and deportation to areas where survival of such large numbers of people was impossible) while it was occurring. Since then, the degree to which he was critical or supportive of the genocide has been debated.{{sfn|Ulgen|2010}} In speeches for domestic audiences, Mustafa Kemal presented Turks as innocent of any wrongdoing and as victims of horrific Armenian atrocities.{{sfn|Baer|2020|p=82}}{{sfn|Göçek|2011|pp=43–44}}{{sfn|Ulgen|2010|pp=384–386, 390}} He may have quietly voiced his disapproval of the events, according to later accounts. For instance, U.S. General [[James Harbord]], who oversaw an American inquiry into the Armenian crisis, visited with Atatürk in September 1919.<ref name=":222">{{Cite book |last=Akçam |first=Taner |title=[[A Shameful Act]] |year=1999 |isbn=9780805079326}}</ref> Atatürk denounced the deportations and characterized the genocide as the work of a minority faction within the CUP that had taken control, Harbord later recounted. Although such acknowledgements were not publicly stressed later in his leadership, Atatürk is reported to have called the events a "shameful act" in 1920 when addressing the Turkish parliament.<ref name=":222" /> In the postwar period, the Turkish nationalists relied on the support of perpetrators of the genocide and those who had profited from it,{{sfn|Zürcher|2011|p=316}}{{sfn|Cheterian|2015|p=155}} the return of Armenian survivors was seen as a mortal threat to nationalist ambitions and was therefore made impossible. Mustafa Kemal's followers were responsible for expelling or murdering many Christians from Anatolia.{{sfn|Bozarslan ''et al.''|2015|p=311}}{{sfn|Nichanian|2015|pp=229–230, 242}}<ref>{{cite web |title=The expulsion of non-Turkish ethnic and religious groups from Turkey to Syria during the 1920s and early 1930s {{!}} Sciences Po Mass Violence and Resistance - Research Network |url=https://www.sciencespo.fr/mass-violence-war-massacre-resistance/en/document/expulsion-non-turkish-ethnic-and-religious-groups-turkey-syria-during-1920s-and-early-1930s.html |website=www.sciencespo.fr |access-date=23 April 2025 |language=en |date=15 April 2019}}</ref> Turkish generals were ordered "to eliminate Armenia physically and politically".{{sfn|Kévorkian|2020|pp=164–165}}{{sfn|Nichanian|2015| p=238}} Nearly 100,000 Armenians were massacred in [[Transcaucasia]] by the Turkish army and another 100,000 fled from [[Cilicia]] during the [[Franco-Turkish War|French withdrawal]].{{sfn|Nichanian|2015| p=238}} After the foundation of the Republic of Turkey, CUP war criminals were granted immunity{{sfn|Dadrian|Akçam|2011|p=104}} and later that year, the [[Treaty of Lausanne]] established Turkey's current borders and provided for the [[Population exchange between Greece and Turkey|Greek population's expulsion]]. Its protection provisions for non-Muslim minorities had no enforcement mechanism and were disregarded in practice.{{sfn|Kieser|2018|p=28}}{{sfn|Suny|2015|pp=367–368}} Armenians who managed to avoid deportation and who lived outside the capital city continued to face forced Islamization and kidnapping of girls after 1923,{{sfn|Cheterian|2015|p=203}}{{sfn|Suciyan|2015|p=65}} while expulsions to Syria continued until 1929.{{sfn|Kévorkian|2020|p=161}}

===Turkish War of Independence (1919–1923)===
{{Main|Turkish War of Independence}}
{{See also|Military career of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk#War of Independence|Amasya Circular|Erzurum Congress|Sivas Congress|Amasya Protocol|Government of the Grand National Assembly|1st Parliament of Turkey}}
[[File:Ataturk25.JPG|thumb|upright|Mustafa Kemal (right) in [[Ankara]] with [[İsmet İnönü|İsmet Pasha]] (left)]]

By December 1918, the leaders of the underground CUP resistance organization [[Karakol]] had approached Mustafa Kemal to lead an anti-Entente resistance movement. Historian [[Erik-Jan Zürcher]] argued that Kemal was particularly qualified as he was "trusted as a Unionist and a patriot but not too closely involved either with the ruling clique of Enver and Talat or the Armenian massacres".{{sfn|Ulgen|2010|p=373}}

On 30 April 1919, {{lang|tr|Fahri Yaver-i Hazret-i Şehriyari}} ('Honorary Aide-de-camp to His Majesty Sultan') with the rank of [[Mirliva]], Mustafa Kemal was assigned as the inspector of the [[Ninth Army (Ottoman Empire)#After Mudros|Ninth Army Troops Inspectorate]] to reorganize what remained of the Ottoman military units and to improve internal security.<ref>Andrew Mango, ''Atatürk'', John Murray, 1999, {{ISBN|978-0-7195-6592-2}}, p. 214.</ref> On 19 May 1919, he reached [[Samsun]]. His first goal was the establishment of an organized [[Turkish National Movement|national movement]] against the occupying forces. In June 1919, he issued the [[Amasya Circular]], declaring the independence of the country was in danger. He resigned from the Ottoman Army on 8 July, and the Ottoman government issued a warrant for his arrest. But [[Kâzım Karabekir]] and other military commanders active in Eastern Anatolia followed Mustafa Kemal's lead and acknowledged him as their leader.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Findley|first=Carter V.|title=Turkey, Islam, Nationalism, and Modernity: A History, 1789-2007|date=2010-09-21|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0-300-15260-9|pages=222|language=en}}</ref>

On 4 September 1919, he assembled a [[Sivas Congress|congress]] in [[Sivas]]. Those who opposed the Allies in various provinces in Turkey issued a declaration named {{lang|tr|[[Misak-ı Millî]]}} ('National Pact'). Mustafa Kemal was appointed as the head of the executive committee of the Congress,<ref name=":1">[[Dankwart Rustow|Rustow, Dankwart A.]] (1968). pp.794–795</ref> which gave him the legitimacy he needed for his future politics.<ref>[[Patrick Kinross]]: ''Rebirth of a Nation'' (translation Ayhan Tezel), Sander yayınları, İstanbul, 1972 p.293</ref><ref name=":1" />

The [[1919 Ottoman general election|last election]] to the [[Parliament of the Ottoman Empire|Ottoman parliament]] held in December 1919 gave a sweeping majority to candidates of the "Association for Defence of Rights for Anatolia and Roumelia" ({{lang|tr|Anadolu ve Rumeli Müdafaa-i Hukuk Cemiyeti}}), headed by Mustafa Kemal, who himself remained in Angora<!--Pre-1923 name-->, now known as [[Ankara]]. The fourth (and last) term of the parliament opened in Constantinople on 12 January 1920. It was dissolved by British forces on 18 March 1920, shortly after it adopted the {{lang|tr|Misak-ı Millî}} ('National Pact'). Mustafa Kemal called for a national election to establish a new Turkish Parliament seated in Angora.<ref name="feroz50">Ahmad, ''The Making of Modern Turkey'', 50</ref> – the "[[Grand National Assembly of Turkey|Grand National Assembly]]" (GNA). On 23 April 1920, the GNA opened with Mustafa Kemal as [[List of Speakers of the Parliament of Turkey|the speaker]]; this act effectively created the situation of [[diarchy]] in the country.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Heper |first1=Metin |title=The Routledge Handbook of Modern Turkey |last2=Sayari |first2=Sabri |date=7 May 2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-30964-9 |pages=41 |language=en}}</ref> In May 1920, the power struggle between the two governments led to a death sentence in absentia for Mustafa Kemal by the [[Turkish courts-martial of 1919–1920|Turkish courts-martial]].<ref name=":02">{{Cite book|last1=Dadrian|first1=Vahakn N.|title=Judgment at Istanbul: The Armenian Genocide Trials|last2=Akçam|first2=Taner|date=2011|publisher=Berghahn Books|isbn=978-0-85745-251-1|pages=196, 199|language=en|author-link=Vahakn Dadrian|author-link2=Taner Akçam}}</ref> [[Halide Edib Adıvar|Halide Edib]] (Adıvar) and [[Ali Fuat Cebesoy|Ali Fuat]] (Cebesoy) were also sentenced to death alongside Mustafa Kemal.<ref name=":22">{{Cite book|last=Macfie|first=A.L.|title=Atatürk|publisher=[[Routledge]]|year=2014|isbn=978-1-138-83-647-1|pages=97|author-link=A. L. Macfie}}</ref>

[[File:The Abilene Daily Reporter (Abilene, Tex.), Vol. 24, No. 133, Ed. 1 Friday, October 13, 1922 - DPLA - 4f8cde42a03b2ac9f5ff0aa395b4babf (page 1) (cropped).jpg|thumb|left|''[[The Abilene Daily Reporter]]'' based in [[Texas]], called Mustafa Kemal "Turkey's [[George Washington]]" on 13 October 1922]]

On 10 August 1920, the Ottoman [[Grand Vizier]] [[Damat Ferid Pasha]] signed the [[Treaty of Sèvres]], finalizing plans for the [[partitioning of the Ottoman Empire]], including the regions that Turkish nationals viewed as their heartland. Mustafa Kemal insisted on the country's complete independence and the safeguarding of interests of the Turkish majority on "Turkish soil". He persuaded the GNA to gather a National Army. The GNA army faced the [[Kuva-yi Inzibatiye|Caliphate army]] propped up by the Allied occupation forces and had the immediate task of fighting the [[Democratic Republic of Armenia#Military|Armenian forces]] in the [[Turkish–Armenian War|Eastern Front]] and the [[Hellenic Army#History|Greek forces]] advancing eastward from [[Smyrna]] (today known as [[İzmir]]) that they [[Occupation of Smyrna|had occupied]] in May 1919, on the [[Greco-Turkish War (1919–22)|Western Front]].<ref>''Documents on British Foreign Policy'', vol. vii, p. 303.</ref>

The GNA military successes against the [[Democratic Republic of Armenia]] in the autumn of 1920 and later against the Greeks were made possible by a steady supply of gold and armaments to the Kemalists from the Russian [[Bolshevik]] government from the autumn of 1920 onwards.<ref>В. Шеремет. ''Босфор.'' Moscow, 1995, p. 241.</ref>

[[File:Atatürk askerî birlikleri denetlerken, İzmit, 18 Haziran 1922.png|thumb|Mustafa Kemal inspects the Turkish troops on 18 June 1922]]

After a series of battles during the [[Greco-Turkish War (1919-1922)|Greco-Turkish War]], the Greek army advanced as far as the [[Sakarya River]], just eighty kilometers west of Ankara. On 5 August 1921, Mustafa Kemal was promoted to [[commander in chief]] of the forces by the GNA.<ref name="AA">{{Cite web |title=A short history of AA |url=http://www.aa.com.tr/tarihce_en/   |publisher=Anadolu Ajansı Genel Müdürlüğü |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080109132901/http://www.aa.com.tr/tarihce_en/ |archive-date=9 January 2008 |access-date=1 January 2008 |quote=''Ikdam'' newspaper dated 9 August 1921, reproducing the dispatches of AA dated 5 August and 6th, 1921, announced that Mustafa Kemal was promoted to ''Chief Commander'' }}</ref> The ensuing [[Battle of the Sakarya]] was fought from 23 August–13 September 1921 and ended with the defeat of the Greeks. After this victory, Mustafa Kemal was given the rank of [[Mareşal (Turkey)|Mareşal]] and the title of [[Ghazi (warrior)|Gazi]] by the [[Grand National Assembly of Turkey|Grand National Assembly]] on 19 September 1921. The Allies, ignoring the extent of Mustafa Kemal's successes, hoped to impose a modified version of the Treaty of Sèvres as a peace settlement on Angora, but the proposal was rejected. In August 1922, Mustafa Kemal launched an all-out attack on the Greek lines at [[Afyonkarahisar]] in the [[Battle of Dumlupınar]], and Turkish forces regained control of İzmir on 9 September 1922.<ref>Greco-Turkish wars, Britannica CD 99</ref> On 10 September 1922, Mustafa Kemal sent a telegram to the [[League of Nations]] stating that the Turkish population was so worked up that the [[Government of the Grand National Assembly|Ankara Government]] would not be responsible for the [[Great fire of Smyrna|ensuing]] [[List of massacres during the Greco-Turkish War (1919–22)|massacres]].<ref>James, Edwin L. "[https://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=980DEED81039EF3ABC4952DFBF668389639EDE Kemal Won't Insure Against Massacres] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303214102/http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=980DEED81039EF3ABC4952DFBF668389639EDE |date=3 March 2016 }}," ''[[New York Times]]'', 11 September 1922.</ref>

===Establishment of the Republic of Turkey===
{{See also|Treaty of Lausanne (1923)}}
[[File:The Multiple Dictator - British propaganda against Mustafa Kemal Atatürk (7 November 1923).jpg|thumb|A British cartoon of 1923 satirising Mustafa Kemal's rule in Turkey]]
The [[Lausanne Conference of 1922–23|Conference of Lausanne]] began on 21 November 1922. Turkey, represented by [[İsmet İnönü]] of the GNA, refused any proposal that would compromise Turkish sovereignty,<ref>Shaw, ''History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey'', 365</ref> such as the control of Turkish finances, the [[Capitulations of the Ottoman Empire|Capitulations]], the [[Turkish Straits|Straits]] and other issues. Although the conference paused on 4 February, it continued after 23 April mainly focusing on the economic issues.<ref name="kinross100" /> On 24 July 1923, the [[Treaty of Lausanne (1923)|Treaty of Lausanne]] was signed by the Powers with the GNA, thus recognising the latter as the government of Turkey.

On 29 October 1923, the Republic of Turkey was [[Proclamation of the Republic of Turkey|proclaimed]].<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Turkey – Declaration of the Turkish republic {{!}} history – geography |language=en |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Turkey/Declaration-of-the-Turkish-republic |access-date=21 November 2017 |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica |archive-date=14 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200914215229/https://www.britannica.com/place/Turkey/Declaration-of-the-Turkish-republic |url-status=live }}</ref> Since then, [[Republic Day (Turkey)|Republic Day]] has been celebrated as a national holiday on that date.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Republic Day in Turkey |url=https://www.timeanddate.com/holidays/turkey/republic-day |website=www.timeanddate.com |language=en |access-date=21 November 2017 |archive-date=21 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220821012612/https://www.timeanddate.com/holidays/turkey/republic-day |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Presidency==
{{For|conceptual analysis|Kemalism|Atatürk's reforms}}
{{long|section|date=June 2024}}
{{overly detailed|section|date=June 2024}}
{{republicanism sidebar}}
With the establishment of the Republic of Turkey, efforts to modernise the country started. The new government analyzed the institutions and constitutions of Western states such as France, Sweden, Italy, and Switzerland and adapted them to the needs and characteristics of the Turkish nation. Highlighting the public's lack of knowledge regarding Mustafa Kemal's intentions, the public cheered: "We are returning to the days of the [[The first four Sunni Caliphs and the Sunnah|first caliphs]]."<ref>Mango, ''Atatürk'', 394</ref> Mustafa Kemal placed [[Fevzi Çakmak]], [[Kâzım Özalp]], and [[İsmet İnönü]] in political positions where they could institute his [[Atatürk's reforms|reforms]]. He capitalized on his reputation as an efficient military leader and spent the following years, up until his death in 1938, instituting political, economic, and social reforms. In doing so, he transformed Turkish society from perceiving itself as a Muslim part of a vast Empire into a modern, democratic, and secular nation-state. This had a positive influence on [[human capital]] because from then on, what mattered at school was science and education; Islam was concentrated in mosques and religious places.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Baten, Jörg |title=A History of the Global Economy. From 1500 to the Present. |date=2016 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9781107507180 |page=226}}</ref>

===Domestic policies===
[[File:Atatürk Samsun-Çarşamba tren hattı açılışında.jpg|thumb|Mustafa Kemal at the opening ceremony of the [[Samsun]]-[[Çarşamba]] railroad (1928)]]
Mustafa Kemal's driving goal was the complete independence of the country.<ref name="mango367">Mango, ''Atatürk'', 367</ref> He clarified his position:{{bquote|...by complete independence, we mean of course complete economic, financial, juridical, military, cultural independence and freedom in all matters. Being deprived of independence in any of these is equivalent to the nation and country being deprived of all its independence.<ref>Gerd Nonneman, Analyzing Middle East foreign policies and the relationship with Europe, Published 2005 Routledge, p. 204 {{ISBN|0-7146-8427-9}}</ref>}}

He led wide-ranging reforms in social, cultural, and economic aspects, establishing the new Republic's backbone of legislative, judicial, and economic structures. Though he was later idealized by some as an originator of sweeping reforms, many of his reformist ideas were already common in Ottoman intellectual circles at the turn of the 20th century and were expressed more openly after the [[Young Turk Revolution]].<ref name="Hanioglu2011p55">{{Cite book |last=M. Şükrü Hanioğlu |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dNFhZzug6tMC&pg=PA55 |title=Atatürk: An Intellectual Biography |date=9 May 2011 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-1-4008-3817-2 |page=55 |access-date=4 June 2013 |archive-date=1 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230801001821/https://books.google.com/books?id=dNFhZzug6tMC&pg=PA55 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Mustafa Kemal created a [[The Six Arrows|banner]] to mark the changes between the old Ottoman and the new republican rule. Each change was symbolized as an arrow in this banner. This defining ideology of the Republic of Turkey is referred to as the "Six Arrows", or [[Kemalism]]. Kemalism is based on Mustafa Kemal's conception of [[Realism (international relations)|realism]] and [[pragmatism]].<ref>Webster, ''The Turkey of Atatürk: social process in the Turkish reformation'', 245</ref> The fundamentals of nationalism, populism, and [[statism]] were all defined under the Six Arrows. These fundamentals were not new in world politics or, indeed, among the elite of Turkey. What made them unique was that these interrelated fundamentals were explicitly formulated for Turkey's needs. A good example is the definition and application of secularism; the Kemalist secular state significantly differed from predominantly Christian states.

====Emergence of the state, 1923–1924====
[[File:Mustafa Kemal and Mevlevi Order March 1923.png|thumb|left|Mustafa Kemal in 1923, with members of the [[Mevlevi Order]], before its institutional expression became illegal and their [[dervish]] lodge was changed into the [[Mevlana Museum]]. The Mevlevi Order managed to transform itself into a non-political organization which still exists.]]

Mustafa Kemal's private journal entries dated before the establishment of the republic in 1923 show that he believed in the importance of the sovereignty of the people. In forging the new republic, the Turkish revolutionaries turned their back on the perceived corruption and decadence of cosmopolitan Constantinople and its Ottoman heritage.<ref>Mango, ''Atatürk'', 391–392</ref> For instance, they made [[Ankara]] (as Angora has been known in English since 1930<!--1930 date is seen in https://books.google.com/books?id=Aw3wBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA299 -->), the country's new capital and reformed the [[Postage stamps and postal history of Turkey|Turkish postal service]]. Once a provincial town deep in Anatolia, the city was thus turned into the center of the independence movement. Mustafa Kemal wanted a "direct government by the Assembly"<ref name="Mango, Atatürk, 362">Mango, ''Atatürk'', 362</ref> and visualized a [[representative democracy]], [[parliamentary sovereignty]], where the National Parliament would be the ultimate source of power.<ref name="Mango, Atatürk, 362" />

In the following years, he altered his stance somewhat; the country needed an immense amount of reconstruction, and "direct government by the Assembly" could not survive in such an environment. The revolutionaries faced challenges from the supporters of the old Ottoman regime, and also from the supporters of newer ideologies such as [[communism]] and [[fascism]]. Mustafa Kemal saw the consequences of fascist and communist doctrines in the 1920s and 1930s and rejected both.<ref>Landau, ''Atatürk and the Modernization of Turkey'', 252</ref> He prevented the spread into Turkey of the [[totalitarian]] party rule which held sway in the Soviet Union, Germany, and Italy.<ref>Mango, ''Atatürk'', 501</ref> Some perceived his opposition and silencing of these ideologies as a means of eliminating competition; others believed it was necessary to protect the young Turkish state from succumbing to the instability of new ideologies and competing factions.<ref>{{cite magazine|last=Bozkurt |first=Gülnihal |date=2003 |title=Atatürk Dönemi Türk Dış Politikası |magazine=Atatürk Araştırma Merkezi Dergisi}}</ref> Under Mustafa Kemal, the arrest process known as the [[1927 Detentions]] (''1927 Tevkifatı'') was launched, and a widespread arrest policy was put in place against the [[Communist Party of Turkey (historical)|Communist Party of Turkey]] members. Communist political figures such as [[Hikmet Kıvılcımlı]], [[Nâzım Hikmet]], and Şefik Hüsnü were tried and sentenced to prison terms. Then, in 1937, a delegation headed by Mustafa Kemal decided to censor the writings of Kıvılcımlı as harmful communist propaganda.<ref>Demirci, Fatih ''Kadro Hareketi ve Kadrocular'', Dumlupınar Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 2006, sayı 15.</ref><ref>Ergüder, J. ''1927 Komünist Tevkifatı, "İstanbul Ağır Ceza Mahkemesindeki Duruşma"'', Birikim Yayınları, İstanbul, 1978</ref><ref>[http://www.wikisosyalizm.org/images/5/5f/K%C4%B1v%C4%B1lc%C4%B1m_yasak.jpg Başvekalet Kararlar Dairesi Müdürlüğü 15 Aralık 1937 tarih, 7829 nolu kararname] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160607200226/http://www.wikisosyalizm.org/images/5/5f/K%C4%B1v%C4%B1lc%C4%B1m_yasak.jpg |date=7 June 2016 }}. Erişim tarihi: 9 Şubat 2019. Ayrıca: [https://web.archive.org/web/20160607200226/http://www.wikisosyalizm.org/images/5/5f/K%C4%B1v%C4%B1lc%C4%B1m_yasak.jpg Arşiv bağlantısı].</ref>
[[File:Atatürk 1924'te Bursa halkına hitap ediyor.jpg|thumb|In 1924, during his speech in [[Bursa]]]]

The heart of the new republic was the GNA, established during the Turkish War of Independence by Mustafa Kemal.<ref name="single">Koçak, Cemil (2005) "Parliament Membership during the Single-Party System in Turkey (1925–1945)", ''European Journal of Turkish Studies''</ref> The elections were free and used an egalitarian electoral system that was based on a general ballot.<ref name="single" /> Deputies at the GNA served as the voice of Turkish society by expressing its political views and preferences. It had the right to select and control both the government and the Prime Minister. Initially, it also acted as a legislative power, controlling the executive branch and, if necessary, served as an organ of scrutiny under the [[Turkish Constitution of 1921]].<ref name="single" /> The [[Turkish Constitution of 1924]] set a loose [[separation of powers]] between the legislative and the executive organs of the state, whereas the separation of these two within the judiciary system was a strict one. Mustafa Kemal, then the President, occupied a dominant position in this political system.

The one-party regime was established ''de facto'' in 1925 after the adoption of the 1924 constitution. The only political party of the GNA was the "People's Party", founded by Mustafa Kemal on 9 September 1923. (But according to the party culture the foundation date was the opening day of Sivas Congress on 4 September 1919). On 10 November 1924, it was renamed ''Cumhuriyet Halk Fırkası'' or [[Republican People's Party]] (the word ''fırka'' was replaced by the word ''parti'' in 1935).

====Civic independence and the Caliphate, 1924–1925====
[[Image:Reisicumhur Mustafa Kemal Cumhuriyet Bayramı kutlamalarında, Ankara, 29 Ekim 1925.png|thumb|180px|Mustafa Kemal during the [[Republic Day (Turkey)|Republic Day]] celebrations on the second anniversary of the Turkish Republic, 29 October 1925]]
The abolition of the [[caliphate]] and other cultural reforms were met with fierce opposition. The conservative elements were not appreciative, and they launched attacks on the Kemalist reformists.<ref name="Calipinternational" /> This was an important dimension in Mustafa Kemal's drive to reform the political system and to promote national sovereignty. By the consensus of the Muslim majority in early centuries, the caliphate was the core political concept of [[Sunni Islam]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Review: Revivalism, Shi'a Style |url=http://www.nationalinterest.org/Article.aspx?id=13296 |date=3 January 2007 |publisher=The National Interest |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080213114848/http://www.nationalinterest.org/Article.aspx?id=13296 |archive-date=13 February 2008 |access-date=6 September 2013 }}</ref> Abolishing the sultanate was easier because the survival of the caliphate at the time satisfied the partisans of the sultanate. This produced a split system with the new republic on one side and an Islamic form of government with the Caliph on the other side, and Mustafa Kemal and İnönü worried that "it nourished the expectations that the sovereign would return under the guise of Caliph."<ref>Mango, ''Atatürk'', 403</ref> Caliph [[Abdülmecid II]] was elected after the abolition of the sultanate (1922).

The caliph had his own personal treasury and also had a personal service that included military personnel; Mustafa Kemal said that there was no "religious" or "political" justification for this. He believed that Caliph Abdülmecid II was following in the steps of the sultans in domestic and foreign affairs: accepting of and responding to foreign representatives and reserve officers, and participating in official ceremonies and celebrations.<ref name="Mango, Atatürk, 401">Mango, ''Atatürk'', 401</ref> He wanted to integrate the powers of the caliphate into the powers of the GNA. His initial activities began on 1 January 1924, when<ref name="Mango, Atatürk, 401" /> İnönü, Çakmak, and Özalp consented to the abolition of the caliphate. The caliph made a statement to the effect that he would not interfere with political affairs.<ref name="Calipinternational" /> On 1 March 1924, at the Assembly, Mustafa Kemal said:

{{bquote|The religion of Islam will be elevated if it will cease to be a political instrument, as had been the case in the past.<ref>Mango, ''Atatürk'', 404</ref>}}

On 3 March 1924, the caliphate was [[Ottoman Caliphate#Abolition|officially abolished]] and its powers within Turkey were transferred to the GNA. Other Muslim nations debated the validity of Turkey's unilateral [[Abolition of the Caliphate|abolition of the caliphate]] as they decided whether they should confirm the Turkish action or appoint a new caliph.<ref name="Calipinternational">Majid Khadduri (2006) War and peace in the law of Islam, The Lawbook Exchange, Ltd., {{ISBN|1-58477-695-1}}. pp. 290–91</ref> A "Caliphate Conference" was held in [[Cairo]] in May 1926 and a resolution was passed declaring the caliphate "a necessity in Islam", but failed to implement this decision.<ref name="Calipinternational" />

Two other Islamic conferences were held in [[Mecca]] (1926) and [[World Islamic Congress|Jerusalem]] (1931), but failed to reach a consensus.<ref name="Calipinternational" /> Turkey did not accept the re-establishment of the caliphate and perceived it as an attack to its basic existence. Meanwhile, Mustafa Kemal and the reformists continued their own way.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Eksi |first=Oktay |date=16 April 2008 |title=Paralardaki resimler |work=[[Hurriyet]] |url=http://hurarsiv.hurriyet.com.tr/goster/haber.aspx?id=8711441&yazarid=1 |access-date=24 April 2008 |quote=İsmet Paşa "kurumlaşma" ile neyi kastettiğini de şöyle anlattı:<br />Biz Cumhuriyeti kurduğumuz zaman onu yaşatıp yaşatamayacağımız en büyük sorun idi. Çünkü Saltanatın ve Hilafetin lağvına karşı olanların sayısı çoktu ve hedefleri de Cumhuriyetti. Cumhuriyetin 10 yaşına bastığını görmek o yüzden önemliydi. Nitekim büyük Atatürk'ün emriyle 10'uncu yıl kutlamaları çok büyük bir bayram oldu. Biz de Cumhuriyetin ve devletin kurumlaştığını göstermeye bundan sonra hep itina ettik... |archive-date=21 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111121170457/http://hurarsiv.hurriyet.com.tr/goster/haber.aspx?id=8711441&yazarid=1 |url-status=live }}</ref>

On 8 April 1924, [[sharia]] courts were abolished with the law "Mehakim-i Şer'iyenin İlgasına ve Mehakim Teşkilatına Ait Ahkamı Muaddil Kanun".<ref name="Hanioglu2011p158">{{Cite book |last=M. Şükrü Hanioğlu |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dNFhZzug6tMC&pg=PA158 |title=Atatürk: An Intellectual Biography |date=2011 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-1-4008-3817-2 |page=158 |access-date=5 June 2013 |archive-date=1 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230801001821/https://books.google.com/books?id=dNFhZzug6tMC&pg=PA158 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=1924 |url=http://www.kultur.gov.tr/TR,25259/1924.html |publisher=Ministry of Culture And Tourism |access-date=4 June 2013 |archive-date=3 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303221115/http://www.kultur.gov.tr/TR,25259/1924.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

====Educational reform====
The removal of the caliphate was followed by an extensive effort to establish the separation of governmental and religious affairs. Education was the cornerstone in this effort. In 1923, there were three main educational groups of institutions. The most common institutions were [[medrese]]s based on Arabic, the Qur'an, and memorization. The second type of institution was idadî and sultanî, the reformist schools of the [[Tanzimat]] era. The last group included colleges and minority schools in foreign languages that used the latest teaching models in educating pupils. The old medrese education was modernized.<ref name=dew/> Mustafa Kemal changed the classical Islamic education for a vigorously promoted reconstruction of educational institutions.<ref name=dew/> He linked educational reform to the liberation of the nation from [[dogma]], which he believed was more important than the Turkish War of Independence. He declared:

{{bquote|Today, our most important and most productive task is the national education [unification and modernization] affairs. We have to be successful in national education affairs and we shall be. The liberation of a nation is only achieved through this way."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Atatürk's views on education |url=http://www.meb.gov.tr/Stats/apk2001ing/Section_0/AtaturksViewon.htm |last=Republic of Turkey Ministry of National Education |publisher=T.C. Government |access-date=20 November 2007 |archive-date=28 October 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071028090833/http://www.meb.gov.tr/Stats/apk2001ing/Section_0/AtaturksViewon.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref>}}

In the summer of 1924, Mustafa Kemal invited American educational reformer [[John Dewey]] to Ankara to advise him on how to reform Turkish education.<ref name="dew">Wolf-Gazo, ''John Dewey in Turkey: An Educational Mission'', 15–42.</ref> His [[public education]] reforms aimed to prepare citizens for roles in public life through increasing public literacy. He wanted to institute compulsory primary education for both girls and boys; since then this effort has been an ongoing task for the republic. He pointed out that one of the main targets of [[education in Turkey]] had to be raising a generation nourished with what he called the "public culture". The state schools established a common curriculum which became known as the "unification of education".

Unification of education was put into force on 3 March 1924 by the Law on Unification of Education (No. 430). With the new law, education became inclusive, organized on a model of the civil community. In this new design, all schools submitted their curriculum to the "[[Ministry of National Education (Turkey)|Ministry of National Education]]", a government agency modeled after other countries' ministries of education. Concurrently, the republic abolished the two ministries and made clergy subordinate to the [[Presidency of Religious Affairs|department of religious affairs]], one of the foundations of [[secularism in Turkey]]. The unification of education under one curriculum ended "clerics or clergy of the Ottoman Empire", but was not the end of religious schools in Turkey; they were moved to higher education until later governments restored them to their former position in secondary after Mustafa Kemal's death.

====Western attire====
[[File:Ataturk-hatreform.jpg|thumb|Mustafa Kemal with his [[Panama hat]] just after [[s:tr:Atatürk'ün Kastamonu Nutku|the Kastamonu speech]] in 1925]]
Beginning in the fall of 1925, Mustafa Kemal encouraged the Turks to wear [[1920s in Western fashion|modern European attire]].<ref name="UNESCO">İğdemir, ''Atatürk'', 165–70</ref> He was determined to force the abandonment of the sartorial traditions of the Middle East and finalize a series of dress reforms, which were originally started by [[Mahmud II]].<ref name=UNESCO/> The [[Fez (hat)|fez]] was established by Sultan Mahmud II in 1826 as part of the Ottoman Empire's modernization effort. The [[Hat Revolution|Hat Law of 1925]] introduced the use of Western-style hats instead of the fez. Mustafa Kemal first made the hat compulsory for civil servants.<ref name=UNESCO/> The guidelines for the proper dressing of students and state employees were passed during his lifetime; many civil servants adopted the hat willingly. In 1925, Mustafa Kemal wore a [[Panama hat]] during a public appearance in [[Kastamonu]], one of the most conservative towns in Anatolia, to explain that the hat was the headgear of civilized nations. The last part of reform on dress emphasized the need to wear modern Western suits with neckties as well as [[Fedora]] and Derby-style hats instead of antiquated religion-based clothing such as the veil and turban in the [[s:tr:Bazı Kisvelerin Giyilemiyeceğine Dair Kanun|Law Relating to Prohibited Garments of 1934]].

Even though he personally promoted modern dress for women, Mustafa Kemal never made specific reference to women's clothing in the law, as he believed that women would adapt to the new clothing styles of their own free will. He was frequently photographed on public business with his wife [[Lâtife Uşaklıgil]], who covered her head in accordance with Islamic tradition. He was also frequently photographed on public business with women wearing modern Western clothes. But it was Mustafa Kemal's adopted daughters, [[Sabiha Gökçen]] and [[Afet İnan]], who provided the real role model for the Turkish women of the future. He wrote: "The religious covering of women will not cause difficulty ... This simple style [of headcovering] is not in conflict with the morals and manners of our society."<ref>Quoted in Atatürkism, Vol. 1 (Istanbul: Office of the Chief of General Staff, 1982), 126.</ref>

====Religious insignia====

On 30 August 1925, Mustafa Kemal's view on religious insignia used outside places of worship was introduced in his [[s:tr:Atatürk'ün Kastamonu Nutku|Kastamonu speech]]. This speech also had another position. He said: {{bquote|In the face of knowledge, science, and of the whole extent of radiant civilization, I cannot accept the presence in Turkey's civilized community of people primitive enough to seek material and spiritual benefits in the guidance of sheiks. The Turkish republic cannot be a country of sheiks, dervishes, and disciples. The best, the truest order is the order of civilization. To be a man it is enough to carry out the requirements of civilization. The leaders of dervish orders will understand the truth of my words, and will themselves close down their lodges [tekke] and admit that their disciplines have grown up.<ref name="mango435">Mango, ''Atatürk'', 435</ref><ref>[[s:tr:Atatürk'ün Kastamonu Nutku|Kastamonu Nutku]]</ref>}}

On 2 September 1925, the government issued a decree closing down all [[Sufism|Sufi]] orders, the [[Zawiyya|tekkes]] and other religious ideological lodges. Mustafa Kemal ordered the [[dervish]] lodges to be converted to museums, such as [[Mevlana Museum]] in Konya. The institutional expression of religious ideologies became illegal in Turkey; a politically neutral form of any religious ideology, functioning as social associations, was permitted to exist.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://arsiv.sabah.com.tr/2005/10/28/gun107.html|title=SABAH – 28/10/2005 – Mevlevi Alayı ile Atatürk'e destek oldular|website=arsiv.sabah.com.tr|access-date=10 February 2019|archive-date=21 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191221090908/http://arsiv.sabah.com.tr/2005/10/28/gun107.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

====Opposition to Mustafa Kemal in 1924–1927====
[[File:Gazi Mustafa Kemal Büyükada'da (14 Temmuz 1927).png|thumb|Mustafa Kemal is greeted by marines in [[Büyükada]] (14 July 1927).]]

In 1924, while the "[[Mosul question|Issue of Mosul]]" was on the table, [[Sheikh Said]] began to organize the [[Sheikh Said Rebellion]]. Sheikh Said was a wealthy Kurdish [[tribal chief]] of a local [[Naqshbandi]] order in [[Diyarbakır Province|Diyarbakır]]. He emphasized the issue of religion; he not only opposed the abolition of the Caliphate, but also the adoption of civil codes based on Western models, the closure of religious orders, the ban on polygamy, and the new obligatory civil marriage. Sheikh stirred up his followers against the policies of the government, which he considered anti-Islamic. In an effort to restore Islamic law, Sheik's forces moved through the countryside, seized government offices and marched on the important cities of [[Elazığ]] and [[Diyarbakır]].<ref>Patrick Kinross, ''Atatürk: The Rebirth of a Nation'', 397</ref> Members of the government saw the Sheikh Said Rebellion as an attempt at a counter-revolution. They urged immediate military action to prevent its spread. With the support of Mustafa Kemal, the acting prime minister [[Fethi Okyar|Ali Fethi (Okyar)]] was replaced with [[İsmet İnönü|İsmet Pasha (İnönü)]], who on 3 March 1925 ordered the invocation of the "Law for the Maintenance of Order" in order to deal with the rebellion. It gave the government exceptional powers and included the authority to shut down subversive groups.<ref name=":022">{{Cite web|last=Üngör|first=Umut|title=Young Turk social engineering : mass violence and the nation state in eastern Turkey, 1913–1950|url=https://pure.uva.nl/ws/files/867135/65687_13.pdf|access-date=8 April 2020|website=University of Amsterdam|pages=235–36|archive-date=3 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201103062815/https://pure.uva.nl/ws/files/867135/65687_13.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> The law was repealed in March 1927.<ref name=":023">{{Cite web|last=Üngör|first=Umut|title=Young Turk social engineering : mass violence and the nation state in eastern Turkey, 1913–1950|url=https://pure.uva.nl/ws/files/867135/65687_13.pdf|access-date=8 April 2020|website=University of Amsterdam|pages=258|archive-date=3 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201103062815/https://pure.uva.nl/ws/files/867135/65687_13.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>

There were also parliamentarians in the GNA who were not happy with these changes{{who|date=September 2015}}. So many members were denounced as opposition sympathizers at a private meeting of the [[Republican People's Party]] (CHP) that Mustafa Kemal expressed his fear of being among the minority in his own party.<ref name="PRP">Mango, Atatürk, 418</ref> He decided not to purge this group.<ref name="PRP" /> After a [[Censure|censure motion]] gave the chance to have a breakaway group, [[Kâzım Karabekir]], along with his friends, established such a group on 17 October 1924. The censure became a confidence vote at the CHP for Mustafa Kemal. On 8 November, the motion was rejected by 148 votes to 18, and 41 votes were absent.<ref name="PRP" /> The CHP held all but one seat in the parliament. After the majority of the CHP chose him,<ref name="PRP" /> Mustafa Kemal said, "the Turkish nation is firmly determined to advance fearlessly on the path of the republic, civilization and progress".<ref name="PRP" />

On 17 November 1924, the breakaway group established the [[Progressive Republican Party (Turkey)|Progressive Republican Party]] (PRP) with 29 deputies and the first multi-party system began. Some of Mustafa Kemal's closest associates who had supported him in the early days of the War of Independence such as [[Rauf Orbay|Rauf Bey]] (later Rauf Orbay), [[Refet Bele|Refet Pasha]], and [[Ali Fuat Cebesoy|Ali Fuat Pasha]] (later Ali Fuat Cebesoy) were among the members of the new party. The PRP's economic program suggested liberalism, in contrast to the [[statism]] of the CHP, and its social program was based on conservatism in contrast to the [[modernism]] of the CHP. Leaders of the party strongly supported the Kemalist revolution in principle, but had different opinions on the cultural revolution and the principle of [[secularism]].<ref>Weiker, ''Book Review of Zürcher's "Political Opposition in the Early Turkish Republic: The Progressive Republican Party, 1924–1925"'', 297–98</ref> The PRP was not against Mustafa Kemal's main positions as declared in its program; they supported establishing secularism in the country and the civil law, or as stated, "the needs of the age" (article 3) and the uniform system of education (article 49).<ref name="Mango 419">Mango, Atatürk, 419</ref> These principles were set by the leaders at the onset. The only legal opposition became a home for all kinds of differing views.

During 1926, a [[Attempted assassination of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk|plot to assassinate Mustafa Kemal]] was uncovered in Smyrna (İzmir)<!--Names in English changed in 1930, and it was still 1926-->. It originated with a former deputy who had opposed the abolition of the Caliphate. What originally was an inquiry into the planners shifted to a sweeping investigation. Ostensibly, its aims were to uncover subversive activities, but in truth, the investigation was used to undermine those disagreeing with Mustafa Kemal's cultural reforms. The investigation brought a number of political activists before the tribunal, including Karabekir, the leader of the PRP. A number of surviving leaders of the [[Committee of Union and Progress]], including [[Mehmet Cavit Bey|Mehmet Cavid]], Ahmed Şükrü, and İsmail Canbulat, were found guilty of treason and hanged.<ref>Touraj Atabaki, Erik Jan Zürcher, 2004, Men of Order: authoritarian modernization under Atatürk and Reza Shah, I.B. Tauris, {{ISBN|1-86064-426-0}}, page 207</ref> Because the investigation found a link between the members of the PRP and the Sheikh Said Rebellion, the PRP was dissolved following the outcomes of the trial. The pattern of organized opposition was broken; this action was to be the only broad political purge during Mustafa Kemal's presidency. His statement – "My mortal body will turn into dust, but the Republic of Turkey will last forever" – was regarded as a will after the assassination attempt.<ref>[http://www.tsk.mil.tr/eng/Anitkabir/p24.html The Tomb Room]. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080505055349/http://www.tsk.mil.tr/eng/Anitkabir/p24.html |date=5 May 2008 }}</ref>

====Modernization efforts, 1926–1930====
[[File:Ataturk opens Ankara Museum of Fine Arts and Sculpture.gif|thumb|upright|Mustafa Kemal at the 1927 opening of the [[State Art and Sculpture Museum]]]]

In the years following 1926, Mustafa Kemal introduced a radical departure from previous reformations established by the Ottoman Empire.<ref name="Daisy" /> For the first time in history, Islamic law was separated from secular law and restricted to matters of religion.<ref name="Daisy">Daisy Hilse Dwyer, (1990), "Law and Islam in the Middle East", p. 77, {{ISBN|978-0-89789-151-6}}</ref> He stated:

{{bquote|We must liberate our concepts of justice, our laws and our legal institutions from the bonds which, even though they are incompatible with the needs of our century, still hold a tight grip on us.<ref>Atillasoy, Atatürk : The First President and Founder of the Turkish Republic, 13.</ref>}}

[[File:Ataturk at Cankaya Library 16 July 1929.jpg|thumb|upright|Mustafa Kemal at the library of the [[Çankaya Köşkü|Çankaya Presidential Residence]] in Ankara, on 16 July 1929]]

On 1 March 1926, the Turkish [[Criminal law|penal code]], modelled after the Italian penal code, was passed. On 4 October 1926, [[Sharia|Islamic courts]] were closed. Establishing the civic law needed time, so Mustafa Kemal delayed the inclusion of the principle of [[laïcité]] (the constitutional principle of secularism in France) until 5 February 1937.

[[File:Atatürk in Istanbul University Faculty of Law.jpg|thumb|upright|Mustafa Kemal attending a class at the Law School of the [[Istanbul University|Istanbul House of Multiple Sciences]]<!--Use Istanbul here as the US State Department already began using Istanbul in place of Constantinople--> in 1930]]

In keeping with the Islamic practice of [[sex segregation and Islam|sex segregation]], Ottoman practice discouraged social interaction between men and women. Mustafa Kemal began developing social reforms to address this issue very early, as was evident in his personal journal. He and his staff discussed issues such as abolishing the [[Hijab|veiling of women]] and integrating women into the outside world. His plans to surmount the task were written in his journal in November 1915:

{{bquote|The social change can come by (1) educating capable mothers who are knowledgeable about life; (2) giving freedom to women; (3) a man can change his morals, thoughts, and feelings by leading a common life with a woman; as there is an inborn tendency towards the attraction of mutual affection.<ref name="mango164">Mango, ''Atatürk'', 164</ref>}}

[[File:The Incredible Turk.webm|thumb|upright|''The Incredible Turk'', a documentary film about Mustafa Kemal and the modernization of the Turkish Republic.]]

Mustafa Kemal needed a new civil code to establish his second major step of giving freedom to women. The first part was the education of girls, a feat established with the unification of education. On 4 October 1926, the new [[Turkish civil code (1926)|Turkish civil code]], modelled after the [[Swiss Civil Code]], was passed.<!--Possible contradiction: the Wikipedia page for the Turkish civil code states that the code was "enacted" in February, but this article states the code was not passed until October (clarification needed on this matter)--> Under the new code, women gained equality with men in such matters as inheritance and divorce, since Mustafa Kemal did not consider gender a factor in social organization. According to his view, society marched towards its goal with men and women united. He believed that it was scientifically impossible for Turkey to achieve progress and become civilized if Ottoman gender separation persisted.<ref>Tüfekçi, ''Universality of Atatürk's philosophy''</ref> During a meeting he declaimed:

{{bquote|''To the women'': Win for us the battle of education and you will do yet more for your country than we have been able to do. It is to you that I appeal.<br /> ''To the men'': If henceforward the women do not share in the social life of the nation, we shall never attain to our full development. We shall remain irremediably backward, incapable of treating on equal terms with the civilizations of the West.<ref>Kinross, ''Atatürk: The Rebirth of a Nation'', p. 343</ref>}}

Additionally, the Kemalist [[One-party period of the Republic of Turkey|one-party period of Turkey]]'s labor participation rate was as high as 70%. The participation rate continued to decline after the democratization of Turkey due to the backlash of conservative norms in Turkish society.<ref>{{cite journal | url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0277539513000721 | doi=10.1016/j.wsif.2013.04.006 | title=Female labor force participation in Turkey: The role of conservatism | year=2013 | last1=Göksel | first1=İdil | journal=Women's Studies International Forum | volume=41 | pages=45–54 | url-access=subscription }}</ref>

In 1927, the [[State Art and Sculpture Museum]] (''Ankara Resim ve Heykel Müzesi'') opened its doors. The museum highlighted [[sculpture]], which was rarely practised in Turkey due to the Islamic tradition of avoiding idolatry. Mustafa Kemal believed that "culture is the foundation of the Turkish Republic",<ref name="atillasoy15">Atillasoy, ''Atatürk : first president and founder of the Turkish Republic'', 15</ref> and described modern Turkey's ideological thrust as "a creation of patriotism blended with a lofty humanist ideal". He included both his own nation's creative legacy and what he saw as the admirable values of global civilization.<!--Clarification needed, included in what?--> The pre-Islamic [[Turkic peoples|culture of the Turks]] became the subject of extensive research, and particular emphasis was placed on the widespread Turkish culture before the [[Seljuq dynasty|Seljuk]] and [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] civilizations. He instigated study of [[History of Anatolia|Anatolian civilizations]] – [[Phrygians]], [[Lydians]], [[Sumerians]], and [[Hittites]]. To attract public attention to past cultures, he personally named the banks "[[Sümerbank]]" (1932) after the Sumerians and "[[Etibank]]" (1935) after the Hittites. He also stressed the folk arts of the countryside as a wellspring of Turkish creativity.

At the time, the republic used the [[Ottoman Turkish language]] written in the [[Arabic script]] with Arabic and [[Persian language|Persian]] loan vocabulary.<ref name=dew/> However, as little as 10% of the population was literate. Furthermore, the American reformer [[John Dewey]], invited by Mustafa Kemal to assist in educational reform, found that learning how to read and write Turkish in the traditional Arabic script took roughly three years.<ref name=dew/> In the spring of 1928, Mustafa Kemal met in Ankara with several linguists and professors from all over Turkey to unveil his plan to implement a new alphabet for the written [[Turkish language]], based on a modified [[Latin alphabet]]. The new [[Turkish alphabet]] would serve as a replacement for the old Arabic script and a solution to the literacy problem, since the new alphabet did not retain the complexities of the Arabic script and could be learned within a few months.<ref name="ATATURK: Creator of Modern Turkey2"/> When Mustafa Kemal asked the language experts how long it would take to implement the new alphabet into the Turkish language, most of the professors and linguists said between three and five years. Mustafa Kemal was said to have scoffed and openly stated: "We shall do it in three to five months".<ref>Falih Rıfkı Atay (1969). ''Çankaya''. Istanbul. p. 440</ref>

[[File:Ataturk-20 September 1928.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Mustafa Kemal introducing [[Turkish alphabet|the new Turkish alphabet]] to the people of [[Kayseri]] on 20 September 1928]]

Over the next several months, Mustafa Kemal pressed for the introduction of the new Turkish alphabet and made public announcements of the upcoming overhaul. The creation of the alphabet was undertaken by the Language Commission (''Dil Encümeni'') with the initiative of Mustafa Kemal.<ref name=dew/> On 1 November 1928, he introduced the new Turkish alphabet and abolished the use of the Arabic script. The first [[Turkish newspapers|Turkish newspaper]] using the new alphabet was published on 15 December 1928. Mustafa Kemal himself travelled the countryside in order to teach citizens the new alphabet. After vigorous campaigns, the literacy rate more than doubled from 10.6% in 1927 to 22.4% in 1940.<ref>Landau, ''Atatürk and the Modernization of Turkey'', 190</ref> To supplement the literacy reform, a number of congresses were organized on scientific issues, education, history, economics, arts and language.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kayadibi |first=Fahri |date=2006 |title=Atatürk Döneminde Eğitim ve Bilim Alanında Gelişmeler |journal=Istanbul University Journal of the Faculty of Theology |language=tr |issue=13 |pages=1–21}}</ref> Libraries were systematically developed, and mobile libraries and book transport systems were set up to serve remote districts.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Encyclopedia of Library History |date=1994 |publisher=Routledge |editor-last=Wiegand |editor-first=Wayne A. |page=462 |editor-last2=Davis |editor-first2=Donald G.}}</ref> Literacy reform was also supported by strengthening the private publishing sector with a new law on copyrights.

Mustafa Kemal promoted modern [[teaching method]]s at the primary education level, and Dewey proved integral to the effort.<ref name=dew/> Dewey presented a paradigmatic set of recommendations designed for developing societies moving towards modernity in his "Report and Recommendation for the Turkish educational system".<ref name=dew/> He was interested in [[adult education]] with the goal of forming a [[Skill (labor)|skill base]] in the country. Turkish women were taught not only child care, dress-making, and household management but also skills necessary for joining the economy outside the home. Mustafa Kemal's unified education program became a state-supervised system, which was designed to create a skill base for the social and economic progress of the country by educating responsible citizens as well as useful and appreciated members of society.<ref>Özelli, ''The Evolution of the Formal Educational System and Its Relation to Economic Growth Policies in the First Turkish Republic'', 77–92</ref><ref name=dew/> In addition, Turkish education became an integrative system, aimed to alleviate poverty and used [[female education]] to establish [[gender equality]]. Mustafa Kemal himself put special emphasis on the education of girls and supported [[coeducation]], introducing it at university level in 1923–24 and establishing it as the norm throughout the educational system by 1927.<ref>Landau, ''Atatürk and the Modernization of Turkey'', 191</ref> Mustafa Kemal's reforms on education made it significantly more accessible: between 1923 and 1938, the number of students attending primary schools increased by 224% (from 342,000 to 765,000), the number of students attending middle schools increased by 12.5 times (from around 6,000 to 74,000), and the number of students attending high schools increased by almost 17 times (from 1,200 to 21,000).<ref>{{Citation |last=Kapluhan |first=Erol |title=Türkiye Cumhuriyeti'nde Atatürk Dönemi Eğitim Politikaları (1923–1938) ve Coğrafya Eğitimi |pages=203–5 |year=2011 |type=PhD thesis |publisher=[[Marmara University]] |language=tr}}</ref>

[[File:Atatürk TBMM'den çıkarken.jpg|thumb|In 1930, leaving the [[Turkish Parliament|parliament]] after the 7th-year celebration meeting]]

Mustafa Kemal generated media attention to propagate modern education during this period. He instigated official education meetings called "Science Boards" and "Education Summits" to discuss the quality of education, training issues, and certain basic educational principles. He said, "our [schools' curriculum] should aim to provide opportunities for all pupils to learn and to achieve." He was personally engaged with the development of two textbooks. The first one, ''Vatandaş İçin Medeni Bilgiler'' (Civic knowledge for the citizens, 1930), introduced the science of comparative government and explained the means of administering public trust by explaining the rules of governance as applied to the new state institutions.<ref>{{Citation |last=Gürses |first=Fatma |title=Kemalizm'in Model Ders Kitabı: Vatandaş İçin Medeni Bilgiler |url=http://dergipark.gov.tr/download/article-file/73971 |work=Akademik Bakış |volume=4 |issue=7 |pages=233–49 |year=2010 |access-date=29 May 2020 |archive-date=9 April 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170409111102/http://dergipark.gov.tr/download/article-file/73971 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The second, ''Geometri'' (Geometry, 1937), was a text for high schools and introduced many of the terms currently used in Turkey to describe [[geometry]].<ref>Landau, ''Atatürk and the Modernization of Turkey'', 204–05</ref>

====Opposition to Mustafa Kemal in 1930–1931====
On 11 August 1930, Mustafa Kemal decided to try a multiparty movement once again and asked [[Fethi Okyar]] to establish a new party. Mustafa Kemal insisted on the protection of secular reforms. The brand-new [[Liberal Republican Party (Turkey)|Liberal Republican Party]] succeeded all around the country. However, without the establishment of a real political spectrum, the party became the center to opposition of Mustafa Kemal's reforms, particularly in regard to the role of religion in public life. On 23 December 1930, a chain of violent incidents occurred, instigated by the rebellion of Islamic fundamentalists in [[Menemen]], a small town in the [[Aegean Region]]. The [[Menemen Incident]] came to be considered a serious threat against secular reforms.

[[File:Ataturk and Fethi Okyar.jpg|thumb|Mustafa Kemal with the [[Liberal Republican Party (Turkey)|Liberal Republican Party]] leader [[Fethi Okyar]] and his daughter in [[Yalova]], on 13 August 1930]]

In November 1930, Ali Fethi Okyar dissolved his own party. A more lasting [[multi-party period of the Republic of Turkey]] began in 1945. In 1950, the CHP ceded the majority position to the [[Democratic Party (Turkey, historical)|Democratic Party]]. This came amidst arguments that Mustafa Kemal's single-party rule did not promote [[direct democracy]]. The reason experiments with [[Pluralism (political philosophy)|pluralism]] failed during this period was that not all groups in the country had agreed to a minimal consensus regarding shared values (mainly secularism) and shared rules for conflict resolution. In response to such criticisms, Mustafa Kemal's biographer [[Andrew Mango]] writes: "between the two wars, democracy could not be sustained in many relatively richer and better-educated societies. Mustafa Kemal's enlightened authoritarianism left a reasonable space for free private lives. More could not have been expected in his lifetime."<ref>Mango, ''Atatürk'', 536</ref> Even though, at times, he did not appear to be a democrat in his actions, Mustafa Kemal always supported the idea of building a [[civil society]]: a system of voluntary civic and social organizations and institutions as opposed to the force-backed structures of the state. In one of his many speeches about the importance of democracy, Mustafa Kemal said in 1933:

{{bquote|Republic means the democratic administration of the state. We founded the Republic, reaching its tenth year. It should enforce all the requirements of democracy as the time comes.<ref>İnan, ''Atatürk Hakkında Hatıralar ve Belgeler'', 260</ref>}}

====Modernization efforts, 1931–1938====
[[File:Mustafa Kemal and establishment of Turkish History Institution.png|thumb|In 1931, during the establishment ceremony of the [[Turkish Historical Society|Turkish History Institution]]. Atatürk is standing with [[Afet İnan]] (on his left) and [[Yusuf Akçura]] (first from the left).]]
[[File:Atatürk Etimesgut Türkkuşu Tesislerinin açılışında, Ankara, 3 Mayıs 1935.png|thumb|Atatürk at the opening of the Türkkuşu flight school in [[Etimesgut]] on 3 May 1935]]

In 1931, Atatürk established the [[Turkish Language Association]] (''Türk Dil Kurumu'') for conducting research works in the [[Turkish language]]. The [[Turkish Historical Society]] (''Türk Tarih Kurumu'') was established in 1931, and began maintaining archives in 1932 for conducting research works on the [[history of Turkey]].<ref name="TED">{{Cite web |title=About Us |url=http://www.ted.org.tr/EN/BelgeGoster.aspx?17A16AE30572D313AAF6AA849816B2EF01E9BE68C047FEF5 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071117232115/http://www.ted.org.tr/EN/BelgeGoster.aspx?17A16AE30572D313AAF6AA849816B2EF01E9BE68C047FEF5 |archive-date=17 November 2007 |access-date=1 February 2008}}</ref> On 1 January 1928, he established the [[Turkish Education Association]],<ref name="TED" /> which supported intelligent and hard-working children in financial need, as well as material and scientific contributions to the educational life. In 1933,<!--Now use Istanbul and Ankara as the Western practice changed by then--> Atatürk ordered the reorganization of [[Istanbul University]] into a modern institution and later established [[Ankara University]] in the capital city.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Saikal |first1=Amin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7oLorPxb3GEC&q=Ankara |title=Democratization in the Middle East: Experiences, Struggles, Challenges |last2=Schnabel |first2=Albrecht |date=2003 |publisher=United Nations University Press |isbn=978-92-808-1085-1 |page=95 |language=en |lccn=2002155283 |orig-date=Digitized 13 July 2023 |access-date=4 October 2023 |archive-date=5 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231005174847/https://books.google.com/books?id=7oLorPxb3GEC&q=Ankara |url-status=live }}</ref>

Atatürk dealt with the translation of scientific [[terminology]] into Turkish.<ref name="Geoffrey">Geoffrey L. Lewis (1999), The Turkish Language Reform: A Catastrophic Success, [[Oxford University Press]] {{ISBN|0-19-823856-8}}. p. 66</ref> He wanted the Turkish language reform to be methodologically based. Any attempt to "cleanse" the Turkish language of foreign influence without modelling the integral structure of the language was inherently wrong to him. He personally oversaw the development of the [[Sun Language Theory]] (''Güneş Dil Teorisi''), which was a [[linguistics|linguistic]] theory which proposed that all human languages were descendants of one [[Central Asian]] primal language. His ideas could be traced to the work by the French scientist [[Hilaire de Barenton]] titled ''L'Origine des Langues, des Religions et des Peuples'', which postulates that all languages originated from [[hieroglyph]]s and [[cuneiform]] used by Sumerians,<ref>{{Cite news |date=9 February 1936 |title=Turks Teach New Theories |work=[[The New York Times]] |location=Istanbul}}</ref> and the paper by Austrian linguist [[Hermann Feodor Kvergiç|Hermann F. Kvergić]] of [[Vienna]] titled "{{lang|fr|La psychologie de quelques éléments des langues Turques|italics=no}}" ('The Psychology of Some Elements of the [[Turkic Languages]]').<ref>Laut (2002)</ref> Atatürk formally introduced the Sun Language Theory into Turkish political and educational circles in 1935, although he did later correct the more extremist practices.<ref name="Geoffrey" />

[[Saffet Arıkan]], a politician who was the head of the [[Turkish Language Association]], said "{{lang|tr|Ulu Önderimiz Ata Türk Mustafa Kemal|italics=no}}" ('Our Great Leader Ata Türk Mustafa Kemal') in the opening speech of the 2nd Language Day on 26 September 1934. Later, the surname "{{lang|tr|Atatürk|italics=no}}" ('father of the Turks') was accepted as the surname of Mustafa Kemal after the adoption of the [[Surname Law (Turkey)|Surname Law]] in 1934.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120320030651/http://www.haberturk.com/yasam/haber/592222-gazi-onerilen-14-soyadini-kabul-etmis "Gazi, önerilen 14. soyadını kabul etmiş!"]. ''Habertürk''. Retrieved 18 December 2017.</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Mustafa Kemal Atatürk'ün Nüfus Hüviyet Cüzdanı. (24.11.1934) |url=https://isteataturk.com/Kronolojik/Tarih/1934/11/24/Mustafa-Kemal-Ataturkun-Nufus-Huviyet-Cuzdani-24111934/1 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231005174851/https://isteataturk.com/Kronolojik/Tarih/1934/11/24/Mustafa-Kemal-Ataturkun-Nufus-Huviyet-Cuzdani-24111934/1 |archive-date=5 October 2023 |access-date=3 October 2023 |website=İşte Atatürk {{!}} Atatürk Hakkında Bilmek İstediğiniz Herşey |publisher=www.isteataturk.com}}</ref>

Beginning in 1932, several hundred "[[Halkevleri|People's Houses]]" ({{lang|tr|Halkevleri}}) and "[[People's Room]]s" ({{lang|tr|Halkodaları}}) across the country allowed greater access to a wide variety of artistic activities, sports, and other cultural events. Atatürk supported and encouraged the visual and the [[plastic arts]], which had been suppressed by Ottoman leaders, who regarded depiction of the human form as [[idolatry]]. Many museums opened, architecture began to follow modern trends, and [[Classical period (music)|classical Western music]], opera, ballet, and theatre took greater hold in the country. Book and magazine publications increased as well, and the film industry began to grow.

Almost all Qur'ans in Turkey before the 1930s were printed in Old Arabic. However, in 1924, three Turkish translations of the Qur'an were published in Istanbul, and several renderings of the [[List of translations of the Qur'an#Turkish|Qur'an in the Turkish language]] were read in front of the public, creating significant controversy.<ref name="cleveland178">Cleveland, ''A History of the Modern Middle East'', 181</ref> These Turkish Qur'ans were fiercely opposed by members of the religious community, and the incident impelled many leading Muslim modernists to call upon the Turkish Parliament to sponsor a Qur'an translation of suitable quality.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Wilson |first=M. Brett |year=2009 |title=The First Translations of the Qur'an in Modern Turkey (1924–1938) |journal=International Journal of Middle East Studies |volume=41 |issue=3 |pages=419–35 |doi=10.1017/s0020743809091132|s2cid=73683493 }}</ref> With the support of Atatürk, the Parliament approved the project and the Directorate of Religious Affairs appointed Mehmet Akif (Ersoy) to compose a [[Qur'an translation]], and the Islamic scholar [[:tr:Elmalılı Hamdi Yazır|Elmalılı Hamdi Yazır]] to author a Turkish language Qur'anic commentary ([[tafsir]]) titled ''[[Hak Dīni Kur'an Dili|Hak Dini Kur'an Dili]]'' (The Qur'an: the Tongue of the Religion of Truth).<ref>Ünal, ''The Qur'an with Annotated Interpretation in Modern English'', xxxix</ref> However, it was only in 1935 that the version of Yazır's work read in public found its way to print.<ref>Elmalılı Hamdi Yazır, (1935), "Hak dini Kur'an dili: Yeni mealli Türkçe tefsir" 9 volumes, printed in Istanbul<!--Now use Istanbul as the Western practice changed by then--></ref> In 1932, Atatürk justified the translation of the Qur'an by stating how he wanted to "teach religion in Turkish to Turkish people who had been practising Islam without understanding it for centuries." Atatürk believed that the understanding of religion and its texts was too important to be left to a small group of people. Thus, his objective was to make the Qur'an accessible to a broader demographic by translating it into modern languages.<ref name="Radu">Michael Radu, (2003), "Dangerous Neighborhood: Contemporary Issues in Turkey's Foreign Relations", p. 125, {{ISBN|978-0-7658-0166-1}}</ref>

In 1934, Atatürk commissioned the first Turkish operatic work, ''[[Özsoy]]''. The opera, staged at the People's House in Ankara,<!--Now use Ankara as the Western practice changed by then--> was composed by [[Adnan Saygun]] and performed by soprano [[Semiha Berksoy]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Paydak |first=Selda |date=January 2000 |title=Interview with Semiha Berksoy |publisher=Representation of the European Commission to Turkey |url=http://www.deltur.cec.eu.int/english/guncel/ghaber-jan00_18.html |access-date=11 February 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030418082022/http://www.deltur.cec.eu.int/english/guncel/ghaber-jan00_18.html |archive-date=18 April 2003}}</ref>

[[File:First female MPs of the Turkish Parliament (1935).jpg|thumb|Eighteen female MPs joined the Turkish Parliament with the 1935 general elections.|259x259px]]

On 5 December 1934, Turkey moved to grant full political rights to women. The equal rights of women in marriage had already been established in the earlier Turkish civil code.<ref>Omur, ''[http://www.theturkishtimes.com/archive/02/12_01/c_women.html Modernity and Islam: Experiences of Turkish Women] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071007232154/http://www.theturkishtimes.com/archive/02/12_01/c_women.html |date=7 October 2007 }}''</ref> The role of women in Atatürk's cultural reforms was expressed in the civic book prepared under his supervision.<ref>Atatürk, ''Vatandaş İçin Medeni Bilgiler''</ref> In it, he stated:

{{bquote|There is no logical explanation for the political disenfranchisement of women. Any hesitation and negative mentality on this subject is nothing more than a fading social phenomenon of the past. ...Women must have the right to vote and to be elected; because democracy dictates that, because there are interests that women must defend, and because there are social duties that women must perform.<ref>İnan, ''Medeni bilgiler ve M. Kemal Atatürk'ün el yazıları''</ref>}}

The [[1935 Turkish general election|1935 general elections]] yielded 18 female MPs out of a total of 395 representatives, compared to nine out of 615 members in the [[1935 United Kingdom general election|British House of Commons]] and six out of 435 in the [[1934 United States House of Representatives elections|US House of Representatives]] inaugurated that year.<ref name="commonslibraryblog.com 2013">{{Cite web |title=commonslibraryblog.com |url=http://commonslibraryblog.com/2013/11/18/the-history-and-geography-of-women-mps-since-1918-in-numbers |date=18 November 2013 |website=commonslibraryblog.com |language=sl |access-date=23 April 2018 |archive-date=23 April 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180423232505/http://commonslibraryblog.com/2013/11/18/the-history-and-geography-of-women-mps-since-1918-in-numbers |url-status=dead }}</ref>

====Unification and nationalisation efforts====
[[File:Onur_Anıtı_dökümhanede.jpg|thumb|Statue of Atatürk in Samsun]]
When the modern [[Turkey|Republic of Turkey]] was founded in 1923, nationalism and secularism were two of the founding principles.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Findley |first=Carter Vaughn |title=Turkey, Islam, nationalism, and modernity : a history, 1789–2007 |publisher=Yale University Press |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-300-15260-9 |location=New Haven, CT}}{{page needed|date=January 2014}}</ref> Atatürk aimed to create a nation state (''ulus devlet'') from the Turkish remnants of the Ottoman Empire. Kemalism defines the "Turkish People" as "those who protect and promote the moral, spiritual, cultural and humanistic values of the Turkish Nation."<ref name="TurkishNational">{{Cite web |title=Turkish National Education System |url=http://www.meb.gov.tr/Stats/apk2001ing/Section_1/1Generalprincipals.htm |last=Republic Of Turkey Ministry Of National Education |publisher=T.C. Government |access-date=19 January 2018 |archive-date=7 February 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080207000723/http://www.meb.gov.tr/Stats/apk2001ing/Section_1/1Generalprincipals.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> One of the goals of the establishment of the new Turkish state was to ensure "the domination of Turkish national identity in every aspect of social life from the language that people speak in the streets to the language to be taught at schools, from the education to the industrial life, from the trade to the cadres of state officials, from the civil law to the settlement of citizens to particular regions."<ref>Ayhan Aktar, "Cumhuriyet'in İlk Yıllarında Uygulanan 'Türkleştirme' Politikaları," in Varlık Vergisi, ve 'Türkleştirme' Politikaları, 2nd ed. (Istanbul: İletişim, 2000), 101.</ref> The process of unification through [[Turkification]] continued and was fostered under Atatürk's government with such policies as [[Citizen speak Turkish!]] (''Vatandaş Türkçe konuş!''), an initiative created in the 1930s by law students but sponsored by the government. This campaign aimed to put pressure on non-Turkish speakers to speak Turkish in public.<ref name="Turkey beyond nationalism: towards post-nationalist identities2">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VKVSHjjUT2UC |title=Turkey beyond nationalism: towards post-nationalist identities |publisher=Tauris |year=2006 |isbn=9781845111410 |editor-last=Kieser |editor-first=Hans-Lukas |edition=[Online-Ausg.] |location=London |page=45 |access-date=7 January 2013}}</ref><ref name="Grammatology and literary modernity in Turkey">{{Cite book |last=Ertürk |first=Nergis |title=Grammatology and literary modernity in Turkey |date= 2011 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-974668-2 |location=Oxford, UK}}</ref><ref name="Citizenship and Minorities: A Historical Overview of Turkey2">{{Cite journal |last=Toktaş |first=Şule |year=2005 |title=Citizenship and Minorities: A Historical Overview of Turkey's Jewish Minority |url=https://www.academia.edu/761586 |url-status=live |journal=Journal of Historical Sociology |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=394–429 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-6443.2005.00262.x |issn=0952-1909 |s2cid=59138386 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200503083439/https://www.academia.edu/761586/Citizenship_and_Minorities_A_Historical_Overview_of_Turkey_s_Jewish_Minority |archive-date=3 May 2020 |access-date=7 January 2013|hdl=11729/2016 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Tormented by history: nationalism in Greece and Turkey2">{{Cite book |last=Sofos |first=Umut Özkırımlı & Spyros A. |title=Tormented by history: nationalism in Greece and Turkey |publisher=Columbia University Press |year=2008 |isbn=9780231700528 |location=New York |page=167}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |editor1=Sibel Bozdoǧan|editor2=Gülru Necipoğlu|editor3=Julia Bailey|title=Muqarnas : an annual on the visual culture of the Islamic world. |publisher=Brill |year=2007 |isbn=9789004163201 |location=Leiden}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Aslan |first=Senem |date=April 2007 |title="Citizen, Speak Turkish!": A Nation in the Making |journal=Nationalism and Ethnic Politics |volume=13 |issue=2 |pages=245–72 |doi=10.1080/13537110701293500|s2cid=144367148 }}</ref><ref name="Suny">{{Cite book |title=A question of genocide : Armenians and Turks at the end of the Ottoman Empire |date=23 February 2011 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-539374-3 |editor-last=Suny |editor-first=Ronald Grigor |location=Oxford |editor-last2=Göçek |editor-first2=Fatma Müge |editor-last3=Naimark |editor-first3=Norman M.}}</ref> However, the campaign went beyond the measures of a mere policy of speaking Turkish to an outright prevention of any other language.<ref name="Turkey beyond nationalism: towards post-nationalist identities2"/><ref name="Grammatology and literary modernity in Turkey" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Bali |first=Rifat N. |title=Cumhuriyet yıllarında Türkiye Yahudileri bir türkleştirme serüveni; (1923–1945) |publisher=İletişim |year=1999 |isbn=9789754707632 |edition=7 |location=İstanbul |pages=137–47 |language=tr}}</ref><ref name="Citizenship">{{Cite book |last=İnce |first=Başak |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ydpiawe35DwC |title=Citizenship and identity in Turkey : from Atatürk's republic to the present day |date=2012 |publisher=I.B. Tauris |isbn=9781780760261 |location=London |page=61 |access-date=19 January 2018 |archive-date=7 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231207090520/https://books.google.com/books?id=Ydpiawe35DwC |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>Vryonis, Speros (2005). The Mechanism of Catastrophe: The Turkish Pogrom of 6–7 September 1955, and the Destruction of the Greek Community of Istanbul. New York: Greekworks.com, Inc. {{ISBN|0-9747660-3-8}}.</ref>

Another example of nationalisation was the [[Surname Law (Turkey)|Surname Law]], which obligated the Turkish people to adopt fixed, hereditary surnames and forbade names that contained connotations of foreign cultures, nations, tribes, and religions.<ref name="Citizenship and Minorities: A Historical Overview of Turkey2"/><ref name="Suny" /><ref>{{Cite journal |title=The Social Life of the State's Fantasy: Memories and Documents on Turkey's Surname Law of 1934 |url=http://repository.upenn.edu/dissertations/AAI3125908/ |last=Turkoz |first=Meltem |date=2004 |website=ScholarlyCommons |pages=1–226 |publisher=[[University of Pennsylvania]] |access-date=28 May 2020 |archive-date=8 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200608051637/https://repository.upenn.edu/dissertations/AAI3125908/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Basak">{{Cite book |last=İnce |first=Başak |title=Citizenship and identity in Turkey : from Atatürk's republic to the present day |date=15 June 2012 |publisher=I.B. Tauris |isbn=978-1-78076-026-1 |location=London}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Aslan |first=Senem |date=29 December 2009 |title=Incoherent State: The Controversy over Kurdish Naming in Turkey |url=http://ejts.revues.org/index4142.html |journal=European Journal of Turkish Studies. Social Sciences on Contemporary Turkey |issue=10 |doi=10.4000/ejts.4142 |quote=the Surname Law was meant to foster a sense of Turkishness within society and prohibited surnames that were related to foreign ethnicities and nations |doi-access=free |access-date=22 July 2017 |archive-date=26 July 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120726111611/http://ejts.revues.org/index4142.html |url-status=live }}</ref> As a result, many ethnic Armenians, Greeks, and Kurds changed their surnames.<ref name=Basak /> Non-Turkish surnames ending with "{{lang|tr|yan, of, ef, viç, is, dis, poulos, aki, zade, shvili, madumu, veled, bin|italics=no}}" could not be registered and were replaced by "{{lang|tr|-oğlu|italics=no}}".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ekmekcioglu |first=Lerna |title=Improvising Turkishness: Being Armenian in post-Ottoman Istanbul (1918–1933) |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-124-04442-2 |location=Ann Arbor |publisher=New York University |page=169}}</ref> Furthermore, the [[Geographical name changes in Turkey|geographical name changes]] initiative by the Turkish government replaced non-Turkish geographical and topographic names within the [[Turkey|Turkish Republic]] with [[Turkish language|Turkish]] names.<ref name="Adını unutan ülke : Türkiye">{{Cite book |last=Nişanyan |first=Sevan |title=Adını unutan ülke: Türkiye'de adı değiştirilen yerler sözlüğü |publisher=Everest Yayınları |year=2010 |isbn=978-975-289-730-4 |edition=1. basım. |location=İstanbul |language=tr}}</ref><ref name="Norşin">{{Cite news |last=Halis |first=Mujgan |date=30 July 2011 |title=Norşin'den Potamya'ya hayali coğrafyalarımız |language=tr |work=Sabah |url=http://www.sabah.com.tr/Cumartesi/2011/07/30/norsinden-potamyaya-hayali-cografyalarimiz |access-date=19 January 2018 |archive-date=6 January 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140106040226/http://www.sabah.com.tr/Cumartesi/2011/07/30/norsinden-potamyaya-hayali-cografyalarimiz |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Social relations in Ottoman Diyarbekir, 1870-19152">{{Cite book |title=Social relations in Ottoman Diyarbekir, 1870–1915 |date=3 August 2012 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-22518-3 |editor-last=Jongerden |editor-first=Joost |location=Leiden |page=300 |editor-last2=Verheij |editor-first2=Jelle}}</ref><ref name="Turkification of the Toponyms">{{Cite book |last=Sahakyan |first=Lusine |url=http://www.ararat-center.org/upload/files/Toponym_Lusine.pdf |title=Turkification of the Toponyms in the Ottoman Empire and the Republic of Turkey |publisher=Arod Books |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-9699879-7-0 |location=Montreal |access-date=19 January 2018 |archive-date=26 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130526060554/http://www.ararat-center.org/upload/files/Toponym_Lusine.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="The Hemshin: history, society and identity in the highlands of northeast Turkey">{{Cite book |last=Simonian |first=Hovann H. |url=http://hemshin.org/books/TheHemshin-Full.pdf |title=The Hemshin: history, society and identity in the highlands of northeast Turkey |publisher=Routledge |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-7007-0656-3 |edition=Repr. |location=London |page=161 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130503043711/http://hemshin.org/books/TheHemshin-Full.pdf |archive-date=3 May 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="The settlement issue in Turkey and the Kurds">{{Cite book |last=Jongerden |first=Joost |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ME5oLvCd088C |title=The settlement issue in Turkey and the Kurds : an analysis of spatial policies, modernity and war |publisher=Brill |year=2007 |isbn=978-90-04-15557-2 |edition=[Online-Ausg.]. |location=Leiden, the Netherlands |page=354}}</ref> The main proponent of the initiative had been a Turkish homogenization social-engineering campaign which aimed to assimilate geographical or topographical names that were deemed foreign and divisive against Turkish unity. The names that were considered foreign were usually of Armenian, Greek, [[Laz language|Laz]], Bulgarian, Kurdish, Assyrian, or Arabic origin.<ref name="Adını unutan ülke : Türkiye" /><ref name="Social relations in Ottoman Diyarbekir, 1870-19152" /><ref name="The Hemshin: history, society and identity in the highlands of northeast Turkey" /><ref name="The settlement issue in Turkey and the Kurds" /><ref name="Names of 12,211 Villages Were Changed in Turkey">{{Cite news |last=Korkut |first=Tolga |date=14 May 2009 |title=Names of 12,211 Villages Were Changed in Turkey |work=Bianet |url=http://www.bianet.org/english/minorities/114491-names-of-12-211-villages-were-changed-in-turkey |access-date=19 January 2018 |archive-date=20 July 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090720005719/http://bianet.org/english/minorities/114491-names-of-12-211-villages-were-changed-in-turkey |url-status=live }}</ref>

The [[1934 Turkish Resettlement Law|1934 Resettlement Law]] was a policy adopted by the Turkish government which set forth the basic principles of immigration.<ref>Çağatay, Soner 2002 'Kemalist dönemde göç ve iskan politikaları: Türk kimliği üzerine bir çalışma' (Policies of migration and settlement in the Kemalist era: a study on Turkish identity), Toplum ve Bilim, no. 93, pp. 218–41.</ref> The law, however, is regarded by some as a policy of assimilation of non-Turkish minorities through a forced and collective resettlement.<ref name="Joost">{{Cite book |last=Jongerden |first=Joost |title=The settlement issue in Turkey and the Kurds : an analysis of spatial policies, modernity and war |publisher=Brill |year=2007 |isbn=9789004155572 |edition=[Online-Ausg.]. |location=Leiden, the Netherlands}}{{page needed|date=January 2014}}</ref>

====Social policy reforms and economic progress====
Atatürk was also credited for his transformational change in Turkish agriculture and ecological development. The Kemalist government planted four million trees, modernized the Turkish agricultural mechanism, implemented flood controls, opened schools in rural areas with rural institutions such as agricultural banks, and implemented land reform that removed heavy taxes on peasants of the Ottoman era. He was described as the "Father of Turkish Agriculture".<ref>{{cite web |url=https://globalmediajournaltr.yeditepe.edu.tr/sites/default/files/10_derya_nil_budak.pdf |title=Atatürk, The National Agricultural Leader, Father of Modern Turkish Agriculture and The National Development: A Review From the Perspective of Agricultural Communications and Leadership |last=Budak |first=Derya Nil |access-date=9 October 2022 |archive-date=4 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210804051122/https://globalmediajournaltr.yeditepe.edu.tr/sites/default/files/10_derya_nil_budak.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://businessturkeytoday.com/factories-established-by-great-ataturk-founder-of-turkey-in-first-15-years-of-republic.html | title=Factories established by Atatürk, the founder of Turkey, in first 15 years of Republic | date=23 November 2020 | access-date=9 October 2022 | archive-date=15 December 2021 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211215172234/https://businessturkeytoday.com/factories-established-by-great-ataturk-founder-of-turkey-in-first-15-years-of-republic.html | url-status=live }}</ref> Atatürk also massively boomed the Turkish economy with heavy industrial production increased by 150% and GDP per capita rose from 800 USD to around 2000 USD by late 1930s, on par with Japan.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Turkish-GDP-per-capita-and-GDP-growth-1923-1990-Source-Compiled-and-drawn-based-on_fig1_256014311 |title=Turkish GDP per capita and GDP growth, 1923–1990 |via=[[ResearchGate]] |access-date=9 October 2022 |archive-date=2 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220902213702/https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Turkish-GDP-per-capita-and-GDP-growth-1923-1990-Source-Compiled-and-drawn-based-on_fig1_256014311 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Atatürk's regime also passed the 1936 Labor Law, which gave substantial wage increases and improved the working conditions of workers in Turkish enterprises.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Singer |first1=Morris |title=Atatürk's Economic Legacy |journal=Middle Eastern Studies |date=July 1983 |volume=19 |issue=3 |pages=301–11 |doi=10.1080/00263208308700552 |jstor=4282948 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4282948 |access-date=12 September 2023 |archive-date=18 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230918070458/https://www.jstor.org/stable/4282948 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref>

===Foreign policies===
[[File:Atatürk ve Amanullah Han.jpg|thumb|right|Atatürk with [[King of Afghanistan|King]] [[Amānullāh Khān]] of [[Kingdom of Afghanistan|Afghanistan]] in [[Ankara]], 1928. King Amānullāh attempted to emulate many of Atatürk's reforms in Afghanistan, but was overthrown.]]

Atatürk's foreign policy followed his motto "[[Peace at home, peace in the world]]",<ref name=mango526/> a perception of peace linked to his project of civilization and modernization.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Peace at home and peace in the world |url=http://www.atam.gov.tr/index.php?Page=DergiIcerik&IcerikNo=72 |last=Hamza Eroğlu |language=tr |access-date=1 January 2008 |quote='Yurtta Sulh' herşeyden önce ülkede, o insanın, insanca yaşamasını, insanlık tıynetinin gereğinin tanınmasını ifade eder. |archive-date=30 January 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080130162240/http://www.atam.gov.tr/index.php?Page=DergiIcerik&IcerikNo=72 |url-status=live }}</ref> The outcomes of Atatürk's policies depended on the power of the parliamentary sovereignty established by the Republic.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Enver Ziya Karal |title=Atatürk'ten Düşünceler |page=123 |language=tr |quote=Haricî siyaset bir heyet-i içtimaiyenin teşekkülü dahilisi ile sıkı surette alâkadardır. Çünkü teşekkül-ü dahiliyeye istinat etmeyen haricî siyasetler daima mahkûm kalırlar. Bir heyet-i içtimaiyenin teşekkül-ü dahilisi ne kadar kuvvetli olursa, siyaset-i hariciyesi de o nisbette kavi ve rasin olur.}}</ref> The Turkish War of Independence was the last time Atatürk used his military might in dealing with other countries. Foreign issues were resolved by peaceful methods during his presidency.

====Issue of Mosul====
{{See also|Mosul Question}}
The Issue of Mosul, a dispute with the United Kingdom over control of [[Mosul Vilayet]], was one of the first foreign affairs-related controversies of the new Republic. During the [[Mesopotamian campaign]], [[Lieutenant General]] [[William Marshall (British Army officer)|William Marshall]] followed the British War Office's instruction that "every effort was to be made to score as heavily as possible on the Tigris before the whistle blew", capturing Mosul three days after the signature of the [[Armistice of Mudros]] (30 October 1918).<ref name="britainsoil">Peter Sluglett, "The Primacy of Oil in Britain's Iraq Policy", in the book "Britain in Iraq: 1914–1932" London: Ithaca Press, 1976, pp. 103–16</ref> In 1920, the ''[[Misak-ı Milli]]'', which consolidated the "Turkish lands", declared that Mosul Vilayet was a part of the historic Turkish heartland. The British were in a precarious situation with the Issue of Mosul and were adopting almost equally desperate measures to protect their interests. For example, the [[Iraqi revolt against the British]] was suppressed by the [[RAF Iraq Command]] during the summer of 1920. From the British perspective, if Atatürk stabilized Turkey, he would then turn his attention to Mosul and penetrate Mesopotamia, where the native population would likely join his cause. Such an event would result in an insurgent and hostile Muslim nation in close proximity to British territory in India.

[[File:Atatürk Belediye İl Binası'ndan çıkarken, Kastamonu, 24 Ağustos 1925.png|thumb|Atatürk in the days of the Mosul question, 1925]]

In 1923, Atatürk tried to persuade the GNA that accepting the arbitration of the [[League of Nations]] at the [[Treaty of Lausanne (1923)|Treaty of Lausanne]] did not signify relinquishing Mosul, but rather waiting for a time when Turkey might be stronger. Nevertheless, the artificially drawn border had an unsettling effect on the population on both sides. Later, it was claimed that Turkey began where the oil ends, as the border was drawn by the British geophysicists based on locations of oil reserves. Atatürk did not want this separation.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Atatürk yaşasaydı |url=http://www.candundar.com.tr/index.php?Did=766 |last=Can Dündar |language=tr |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071120110906/http://www.candundar.com.tr/index.php?Did=766 |archive-date=20 November 2007 |access-date=1 January 2008 |quote=... Ata'nın öncelikli dış politika sorununun Musul olduğunu söylüyor. Musul'u bırakmama konusunda aktif bir politika izlenmesinden yana olduğunu belirtiyor... }}</ref> To address Atatürk's concerns, the [[British Foreign Secretary]] [[George Curzon, 1st Marquess Curzon of Kedleston|George Curzon]] attempted to disclaim the existence of oil in the Mosul area. On 23 January 1923, Curzon argued that the existence of oil was no more than hypothetical.<ref name="britainsoil" /> However, according to the biographer [[Harold Courtenay Armstrong|H. C. Armstrong]], "England wanted Mosul and its oil. The Kurds were the key to Mosul and the oil of Irak."{{sfn|Armstrong|1972|p=225}}

While three inspectors from the League of Nations Committee were sent to the region to oversee the situation in 1924, the [[Sheikh Said rebellion]] (1924–1927) set out to establish a new government positioned to cut Turkey's link to Mesopotamia. The relationship between the rebels and Britain was investigated. In fact, British assistance was sought after the rebels decided that the rebellion could not stand by itself.<ref>Olson, Robert W. (1989) The Emergence of Kurdish Nationalism and the Sheikh Said Rebellion, 1880–1925, p. 45</ref>

In 1925, the League of Nations formed a three-member committee to study the case while the Sheikh Said Rebellion was on the rise. Partly because of the continuing uncertainties along the northern frontier (present-day northern Iraq), the committee recommended that the region should be connected to Iraq with the condition that the UK would hold the [[British Mandate of Mesopotamia]]. By the end of March 1925, the necessary troop movements were completed, and the whole area of the Sheikh Said rebellion was encircled.<ref>Kinross, 401</ref> As a result of these manoeuvres, the revolt was put down. Britain, Iraq, and Atatürk made a treaty on 5 June 1926, which mostly followed the decisions of the League Council. The agreement left a large section of the Kurdish population and the [[Iraqi Turkmen]] on the non-Turkish side of the border.<ref>ASD: Speeches and statements by Atatürk, volume I pages 361–63 published by Atatürk Culture, language and history Higher Institute, Ankara 1989</ref><ref name="mangokurds20">Andrew Mango, ''Atatürk and the Kurds'', Middle Eastern Studies, Vol. 35, No. 4, 1999, 20</ref>

====Relations with the Russian SFSR/Soviet Union====
{{See also|Russia–Turkey relations#Turkey and the Soviet Union}}
[[File:Diplomatic reception held in the Soviet Embassy in Ankara 1927 cropped.jpg|thumb|During a reception at the [[USSR]] Embassy in Ankara, on 7 November 1927]]
[[File:Mustafa Kemal and Voroshilov on 29 October 1933.jpg|thumb|Exchanges on the concept of a Balkan Federation during the visit of [[Kliment Voroshilov|Voroshilov]], a vision of Atatürk's which was never achieved]]

In his 26 April 1920 message to [[Vladimir Lenin]], the Bolshevik leader and head of the [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Russian SFSR]]'s government, Atatürk promised to coordinate his military operations with the Bolsheviks' "fight against [[Imperialism|imperialist]] governments" and requested 5 million [[Turkish lira|lira]] in gold as well as armaments "as first aid" to his forces.<ref name="LetterLenin">''Международная жизнь'' (the Soviet [[Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Soviet Union)|Foreign Ministry]]'s magazine). Moscow, 1963, № 11, pp. 147–48. The first publication of Atatürk's letter to Lenin in excerpts, in Russian.</ref> In 1920 alone, the Lenin government supplied the Kemalists with 6,000 [[rifle]]s, over 5 million [[rifle cartridge]]s, 17,600 projectiles as well as 200.6&nbsp;kg of gold [[bullion]]. In the subsequent two years, the amount of aid increased.<ref name="AidInfo">''Международная жизнь''. Moscow, 1963, № 11, p. 148.</ref>

In March 1921, the GNA representatives in Moscow signed the [[Treaty of Moscow (1921)|Treaty of Moscow ("Friendship and Brotherhood" Treaty)]] with Soviet Russia, which was a major diplomatic breakthrough for the Kemalists. The Treaty of Moscow, followed by the identical [[Treaty of Kars]] in October the same year, gave Turkey a favourable settlement of its north-eastern frontier at the expense of the [[Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic]], then nominally an independent state.

Relations between the two countries were friendly but were based on the fact that they were against a common enemy: Britain and the West.<ref name="Yılmaz" /> In 1920, Atatürk toyed with the idea of using a state-controlled [[Turkish Communist Party (official)|Turkish Communist Party]] to forestall the perceived spread of communist ideas in the country and gain access to the [[Comintern]]'s financing.

Despite his relations with the Soviet Union, Atatürk was not willing to commit Turkey to communism. "Friendship with Russia," he said, "is not to adopt their ideology of communism for Turkey."<ref name="Yılmaz">Yılmaz Altuğ, Foreign Policy of Atatürk, Atatürk arastirma merkezi dergisi, Vol. VI, No. 16, November 1989</ref> Moreover, Atatürk declared, "Communism is a social issue. Social conditions, religion, and national traditions of our country confirm the opinion that Russian Communism is not applicable in Turkey."<ref>Yılmaz Altuğ, Türk Devrim Tarihi Dersim, 1919–1938, 1980 s. p. 136.</ref> And in a speech on 1 November 1924, he said, "Our amicable relations with our old friend the Soviet Russian Republic are developing and progressing every day. As in past our Republican Government regards genuine and extensive good relations with Soviet Russia as the keystone of our foreign policy."<ref name="Yılmaz" />

After the Turks withdrew their delegation from [[Geneva]] on 16 December 1925, they left the League of Nations Council to grant a mandate for the Mosul region to Britain without their consent. Atatürk countered<ref>Patrick Kinross. ''Atatürk: a biography of Mustafa Kemal, father of modern Turkey''. New York, 1965, p. 464.</ref> by concluding a [[non-aggression pact]] with the USSR on 17 December.<ref>[[Great Soviet Encyclopedia|БСЭ]], 1st edition, Moscow, Vol. 55, 1947, column 374.</ref> In 1935, the pact was prolonged for another 10 years.<ref>[[Great Soviet Encyclopedia|БСЭ]], 1st edition, Moscow, Vol. 55, 1947, column 377.</ref>

In 1933, the [[Soviet Defence Minister]] [[Kliment Voroshilov]] visited Turkey and attended the tenth year celebrations of the Republic.<ref name="BalkanFed">{{Cite news |date=6 November 1933 |title=Oh, What Happiness! |pages=37–39 |work=Time Magazine |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,746241-1,00.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081113142927/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,746241-1,00.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=13 November 2008 |access-date=7 August 2007}}</ref> Atatürk explained his position regarding the realization of his plan for a [[Balkan Federation]] economically uniting Turkey, Greece, Romania, Yugoslavia and Bulgaria.<ref name="BalkanFed" />

During the second half of the 1930s, Atatürk tried to establish a closer relationship with Britain and other major Western powers, which caused displeasure on the part of the Soviets. The second edition of the [[Great Soviet Encyclopedia]] (Volume 20, 1953) was unequivocally critical of Atatürk's policies in the last years of his rule, calling his domestic policies "anti-popular" and his foreign course as aimed at [[rapprochement]] with the "imperialist powers".<ref>[[Great Soviet Encyclopedia|БСЭ]], 2nd edition, Moscow, Vol. 20, 1953, p. 504.</ref>

====Turkish-Greek alliance====

The post-war leader of Greece, [[Eleftherios Venizelos]], was also determined to establish normal relations between his country and Turkey. The war had devastated [[Aegean Region|Western Anatolia]], and the financial burden of [[Population exchange between Greece and Turkey|Ottoman Muslim refugees]] from Greece blocked rapprochement. Venizelos moved forward with an agreement with Turkey, despite accusations of conceding too much on the issues of naval armaments and the properties of Ottoman Greeks from Turkey.<ref>Karamanlis, 1995, pp. 95–97</ref> In spite of Turkish animosity against the Greeks, Atatürk resisted the pressures of historic enmities and was sensitive towards past tensions; at one point, he ordered the removal of a painting showing a Turkish soldier plunging his bayonet into a Greek soldier by stating, "What a revolting scene!"<ref>Soysal, İsmail, 1983, "Turkey's Diplomatic treaties", TTK, Ankara p. 29</ref>

Greece renounced all its claims over Turkish territory, and the two sides concluded an agreement on 30 April 1930. On 25 October, Venizelos visited Turkey and signed a treaty of friendship.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Clogg |first=Richard |url=https://archive.org/details/concisehistoryof00clog_0 |title=A Concise History of Greece |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-521-00479-4 |url-access=registration}} p. 107</ref> Venizelos even forwarded Atatürk's name for the 1934 [[Nobel Peace Prize]].<ref name="nobel">Nobel Foundation. ''The Nomination Database for the [[Nobel Peace Prize|Nobel Prize in Peace]], 1901–1955''.[https://web.archive.org/web/20070510211631/http://nobelprize.org/nomination/peace/nomination.php?action=show&showid=2046]</ref> Even after Venizelos' fall from power, Greco-Turkish relations remained cordial. Indeed, Venizelos' successor [[Panagis Tsaldaris]] came to visit Atatürk in September 1933 and signed a more comprehensive agreement called the ''Entente Cordiale'' between Greece and Turkey, which was a stepping stone for the [[Balkan Pact]].<ref>"[https://www.sosyalarastirmalar.com/articles/balkan-pact-and-turkey.pdf Balkan Pact and Turkey] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221005015819/https://www.sosyalarastirmalar.com/articles/balkan-pact-and-turkey.pdf|date=5 October 2022}}" by Esra S. Değerli</ref>

Greek Premier [[Ioannis Metaxas]] once stated, with regard to Atatürk, that "...Greece, which has the highest estimation of the renowned leader, heroic soldier, and enlightened creator of Turkey. We will never forget that President Atatürk was the true founder of the Turkish-Greek alliance based on a framework of common ideals and peaceful cooperation. He developed ties of friendship between the two nations which it would be unthinkable to dissolve. Greece will guard its fervent memories of this great man, who determined an unalterable future path for the noble Turkish nation."<ref>[https://neoskosmos.com/en/29861/ataturk-on-a-gallipoli-pedestal/ "Atatürk on a Gallipoli pedestal"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200602080231/https://neoskosmos.com/en/29861/ataturk-on-a-gallipoli-pedestal/ |date=2 June 2020 }}. ''Neos Kosmos''. 27 April 2015. Retrieved 29 May 2020.</ref>

====Neighbours to the east====
[[File:Reza Shah Mustafa Kemal Ataturk.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Atatürk (right) with [[Reza Shah]] [[Pahlavi dynasty|Pahlavi]] (left) of [[Iran]], during the [[Shah of Iran|Shah]]'s visit to Turkey]]

From 1919, Afghanistan was in the midst of a [[reforms of Amanullah Khan and civil war|reformation period]] under [[Amānullāh Khān|Amanullah Khan]]. Afghan Foreign Minister [[Mahmud Tarzi]] was a follower of Atatürk's domestic policy. Tarzi encouraged Amanullah Khan in social and political reform but urged that reforms should built on a strong government. During the late 1920s, Anglo-Afghan relations soured over British fears of an Afghan-Soviet friendship. On 20 May 1928, Anglo-Afghan politics gained a positive perspective, when Amanullah Khan and his wife, Queen [[Soraya Tarzi]], were received by Atatürk in Istanbul.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Meanwhile: Dressing to rule in Afghanistan |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2002/06/18/opinion/IHT-meanwhile-dressing-to-rule-in-afghanistan.html |last=Datta-Ray |first=Sunanda |date=18 June 2002 |website=[[The New York Times]] |access-date=29 May 2020 |archive-date=4 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210204010653/https://www.nytimes.com/2002/06/18/opinion/IHT-meanwhile-dressing-to-rule-in-afghanistan.html |url-status=live }}</ref> This meeting was followed by a Turkey-Afghanistan Friendship and Cooperation pact on 22 May 1928. Atatürk supported Afghanistan's integration into international organizations. In 1934, Afghanistan's relations with the international community improved significantly when it joined the League of Nations.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Jentleson |first1=Bruce W. |title=The American Journal of International Law |last2=Paterson, Thomas G. |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-19-511055-5 |page=24}}</ref> Mahmud Tarzi received Atatürk's personal support until he died on 22 November 1933 in Istanbul.

Atatürk and [[Reza Shah]], leader of Iran, had a common approach regarding [[British imperialism]] and its influence in their countries, resulting in a slow but continuous rapprochement between Ankara and Tehran. Both governments sent diplomatic missions and messages of friendship to each other during the Turkish War of Independence.<ref>Narlı, Nilüfer (1993): "Turco-Iranian Relations from the Islamic Revolution to Gulf War and Beyond: Co-operation or Competition in the Muslim World". CEMOTI. (15): 265–95</ref> The policy of the Ankara government in this period was to give moral support in order to reassure Iranian independence and territorial integrity.<ref name="iran">Gokhan Cetinsaya "Essential friends and natural enemies: the historical roots of Turkish-Iranian relations." ''Middle East Review of International Affairs'' Vol. 7, No. 3 – September 2003</ref> The relations between the two countries were strained after the abolishment of the Caliphate. Iran's [[Shi'a clergy]] did not accept Atatürk's stance, and Iranian religious power centres perceived the real motive behind Atatürk's reforms was to undermine the power of the clergy.<ref name="iran" /> By the mid-1930s, Reza Shah's efforts had upset the clergy throughout Iran, thus widening the gap between religion and government.<ref>Rajaee, Farhang, ''[http://webstorage1.mcpa.virginia.edu/library/mc/forums/published/americanvalues13.pdf Islamic Values and World View: Farhang Khomeyni on Man, the State and International Politics, Volume XIII] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090326213807/http://webstorage1.mcpa.virginia.edu/library/mc/forums/published/americanvalues13.pdf |date= 2009 }}'' (PDF), University Press of America. {{ISBN|0-8191-3578-X}}</ref> As Russia and Great Britain strengthened their holds in the Middle East, Atatürk feared the occupation and dismemberment of Iran as a multi-ethnic society by these European powers.<ref name="iran" /> Like Atatürk, Reza Shah wanted to secure Iran's borders, and in 1934, the Shah visited Atatürk.

In 1935, the draft of what would become the [[Treaty of Saadabad]] was paragraphed in Geneva, but its signing was delayed due to the [[Iran-Iraq border|border dispute between Iran and Iraq]]. On 8 July 1937, Turkey, Iraq, Iran and Afghanistan signed the [[Treaty of Saadabad|Saadabad Pact]] at [[Tehran]]. The signatories agreed to preserve their common frontiers, to consult together in all matters of common interest, and to commit no aggression against one another's territory. The treaty united the Afghan King [[Zahir Shah]]'s call for greater Oriental-Middle Eastern cooperation, Reza Shah's goal in securing relations with Turkey that would help free Iran from Soviet and British influence, and Atatürk's foreign policy of ensuring stability in the region. The treaty's immediate outcome, however, was deterring Italian leader [[Mussolini]] from interfering in the Middle East.<ref>Mango, ''Atatürk'', 510</ref>

====Turkish Straits====
[[File:Atatürk askerî tatbikatta askerleri izliyor.jpg|thumb|left|280px|Atatürk observes the Turkish troops during the military exercise on 28 May 1936.]]

On 24 July 1923, the [[Treaty of Lausanne (1923)|Treaty of Lausanne]] included the Lausanne Straits Agreement. The Lausanne Straits Agreement stated that the [[Dardanelles]] should remain open to all commercial vessels: seizure of foreign military vessels was subject to certain limitations during peacetime, and, even as a neutral state, Turkey could not limit any military passage during wartime. The Lausanne Straits Agreement stated that the waterway was to be demilitarised and its management left to the Straits Commission. The demilitarised zone heavily restricted Turkey's domination and sovereignty over the Straits, and the defence of [[Istanbul]] was impossible without sovereignty over the water that passed through it.

In March 1936, Hitler's [[Remilitarization of the Rhineland|reoccupation of the Rhineland]] gave Atatürk the opportunity to resume full control over the Straits. "The situation in Europe", Atatürk declared "is highly appropriate for such a move. We shall certainly achieve it".<ref>Soysal, İsmail, 1983, "Turkey's Diplomatic treaties", TTK, Ankara p. 493</ref> [[Tevfik Rüştü Aras]], Turkey's foreign minister, initiated a move to revise the Straits' regime. Aras claimed that he was directed by Atatürk, rather than the Prime Minister, İsmet İnönü. İnönü was worried about harming relations with Britain, France, and Balkan neighbors over the Straits. However, the signatories of the Treaty of Lausanne agreed to join the conference, since unlimited military passage had become unfavourable to Turkey with the changes in world politics. Atatürk demanded that the members of the Turkish Foreign Office devise a solution that would transfer full control of the waterway to Turkey.

On 20 July 1936, the [[Montreux Convention Regarding the Regime of the Turkish Straits|Montreux Convention]] was signed by Bulgaria, Great Britain, Australia, France, Japan, Romania, the Soviet Union, Turkey, Yugoslavia and Greece. It became the primary instrument governing the passage of commercial and war vessels through the Dardanelles Strait. The agreement was ratified by the [[Grand National Assembly of Turkey|GNAT]] on 31 July 1936 and went into effect on 9 November 1936.<ref>''League of Nations Treaty Series'', vol. 173, pp. 214–41.</ref>

====Balkan Pact====
{{more citations needed|section|date=November 2020}}
[[File:Alexander I of Yugoslavia and Mustafa Kemal in 1933.jpg|thumb|During the visit of King [[Alexander I of Yugoslavia]] in 1931]]

Until the early 1930s, Turkey followed a neutral foreign policy with the West by developing joint friendship and neutrality agreements. These bilateral agreements aligned with Atatürk's worldview. By the end of 1925, Turkey had signed fifteen joint agreements with Western states.

In the early 1930s, changes and developments in world politics required Turkey to make multilateral agreements to improve its security. Atatürk strongly believed that close cooperation between the Balkan states based on the principle of equality would have an important effect on European politics. These states had been ruled by the Ottoman Empire for centuries and had proved to be a powerful force. While the origins of the Balkan agreement may date as far back as 1925, the Balkan Pact came into being in the mid-1930s. Several important developments in Europe helped the original idea materialise, such as improvements in the Turkish-Greek alliance and the rapprochement between Bulgaria and Yugoslavia. The most important factor in driving Turkish foreign policy from the mid-1930s onwards was the fear of Italy. [[Benito Mussolini]] had frequently proclaimed his intention to place the entire [[Mare Nostrum|Mediterranean under Italian control]]. Both the Turks and the various Balkan states felt threatened by Italian ambitions.

The [[Balkan Pact]] was negotiated by Atatürk with Greece, Romania, and Yugoslavia. This mutual-defence agreement intended to guarantee the signatories' territorial integrity and political independence against attack from another Balkan state such as Bulgaria or Albania. It countered the increasingly aggressive foreign policy of fascist Italy and the effect of a potential Bulgarian alignment with Nazi Germany. Atatürk thought of the Balkan Pact as a medium of balance in Turkey's relations with the European countries.<ref>Yilmaz Altuð, "Atatürk'ün Dis Politikasý," B.Ü. Uluslararasi Atatürk Konferansý Tebligleri, 10–11 November 1980, Vol. II, Istanbul 1981, p. 486.</ref> He was particularly anxious to establish a region of security and alliances to the west of Turkey in Europe, which the Balkan Pact helped achieve.<ref>Şevket Süreyya Aydemir, Tek Adam, Vol. 3, Ýstanbul 1988, p. 331.</ref>

The Balkan Pact provided for regular military and diplomatic consultations. The importance of the agreement is best seen in a message Atatürk sent to the Greek Premier [[Ioannis Metaxas]]:

{{bquote|The borders of the allies in the Balkan Pact are a single border. Those who covet this border will encounter the burning beams of the sun. I recommend avoiding this. The forces that defend our borders are a single and inseparable force.<ref>Atatürk'ün Milli Dış Politikası, Vol. 2, p. 355</ref>}}

The Balkan Pact was signed by the GNA on 28 February. The Greek and Yugoslav Parliaments ratified the agreement a few days later. The unanimously ratified Balkan pact was formally adopted on 18 May 1935 and lasted until 1940.{{Citation needed|date=May 2020}}<!--These dates are very similar to those for the Balkan Pact of 1953, which is not what this article section is about. Dates need to be changed in order to accurately describe the signing of the Balkan Pact of 1930-->

The Balkan Pact turned out to be ineffective for reasons that were beyond Atatürk's control. The pact failed when Bulgaria attempted to raise the [[Dobruja]] issue, only to end with the [[Italian invasion of Albania]] on 7 April 1939. These [[Causes of World War II|conflicts]] spread rapidly, eventually triggering World War II. The goal of Atatürk to protect southeast Europe failed with the dissolution of the pact. In 1938, the [[Turkish Armed Forces|Turkish Army]] at peacetime strength consisted of 174,000 soldiers and 20,000 [[Officer (armed forces)|officers]] forming 11 [[army corps]], 23 [[Division (military)|division]]s, one armoured [[brigade]], 3 [[cavalry]] brigades, and 7 frontier commands.<ref>Douglas Arthur Howard: [https://books.google.com/books?id=Ay-IkMqrTp4C&q=%22at+that+time%2C+the+turkish+army+at+peacetime%22 ''The history of Turkey''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230408045135/https://books.google.com/books?id=Ay-IkMqrTp4C&q=%22at+that+time,+the+turkish+army+at+peacetime%22 |date=8 April 2023 }}, Greenwood Publishing Group, 2001, {{ISBN|0313307083}}, page 111.</ref><ref>Selim Deringil: [https://books.google.com/books?id=XEMaQZjfAOoC&q=%22primarily+equipped+with+world+war%22 ''Turkish Foreign Policy During the Second World War: An 'Active' Neutrality''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230408045134/https://books.google.com/books?id=XEMaQZjfAOoC&q=%22primarily+equipped+with+world+war%22 |date=8 April 2023 }}, Cambridge University Press, 2004, {{ISBN|9780521523295}}, p. 33.</ref>

====Issue of Hatay====
[[File:Kemal Ataturk congratulation of the Hatay's decision.png|thumb|Telegram sent by Atatürk after the local legislative assembly accepted his proposal for the [[Hatay State]]'s flag]]

During the second half of the 1930s, Atatürk tried to form a closer relationship with Britain. The risks of this policy change put the two men at odds. The Hatay issue and the Lyon agreement were two important developments in foreign policy that played a significant role in severing relations between Atatürk and İnönü.

In 1936, Atatürk raised the "Issue of Hatay" at the League of Nations. [[Hatay State|Hatay]] was based on the old administrative unit of the Ottoman Empire called the [[Sanjak of Alexandretta]]. On behalf of the League of Nations, the representatives of France, the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, Belgium, and Turkey prepared a constitution for Hatay, which established it as an autonomous [[sanjak]] within Syria. Despite some inter-ethnic violence, an election was conducted in 1938 by the local legislative assembly. The cities of [[Antakya]] (Antioch) and [[İskenderun]] (Alexandretta) joined Turkey in 1939.<ref name="hatay">[http://www.avrasyad.com/Makaleler/1074150981_122.pdf ''Hatay'ın Anavatana Katılma Süreci''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190825114919/http://www.avrasyad.com/Makaleler/1074150981_122.pdf |date=25 August 2019 }}. AVRASYA Uluslararası Araştırmalar Dergisi, Volume: IV, Issue: 7, July 2015. {{in lang|tr}}</ref> <!--The Lyon agreement has yet to be elaborated on-->

===Economic policies===
{{For|conceptual analysis|Atatürk's reforms#Economic reforms}}
Atatürk instigated economic policies to develop small and large scale businesses, but also to create social strata (i.e. industrial bourgeoisie coexisting with the peasantry of Anatolia) that were virtually non-existent during the Ottoman Empire. The primary problem faced by the politics of his period was the lag in the development of political institutions and social classes which would steer such social and economic changes.<ref>Huntington, ''Political Order in Changing Societies'', 347–57</ref> Atatürk's vision regarding early Turkish economic policy was apparent during the [[İzmir Economic Congress]] of 1923. The initial choices of Atatürk's economic policies reflected the realities of his time. After World War I, due to the lack of any real potential investors to fund private sector industry, Atatürk established many state-owned factories for agriculture, machinery, and textile industries.

====State intervention, 1923–1929====
[[File:Atatürk Nazilli Basma Fabrikası'nın açılışında (1937).jpg|thumb|Atatürk and [[Celâl Bayar]] visiting the Sümerbank Nazilli Cotton Factory, which was established as a part of the cotton-related industry]]

Atatürk and [[İsmet İnönü]]'s pursuit of state-controlled economic policies was guided by a national vision; their goal was to knit the country together, eliminate foreign control of the economy, and improve communications within Turkey. Resources were channeled away from Istanbul, a trading port with international foreign enterprises, in favor of other, less developed cities in order to achieve a more balanced economic development throughout the country.<ref name="mango470">Mango, ''Atatürk'', 470</ref>

For Atatürk and his supporters, tobacco remained wedded to his pursuit of economic independence. [[Turkish tobacco]] was an important industrial crop, but its cultivation and manufacture had been under French monopolies granted by [[capitulations of the Ottoman Empire]]. The tobacco and cigarette trade was controlled by two French companies: the [[Regie Company]] and Narquileh Tobacco.<ref>Shaw, ''History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey'', 232–33.</ref> The Ottoman Empire had given the tobacco monopoly to the [[Ottoman Bank]] as a limited company under the [[Ottoman Public Debt Administration|Council of the Public Debt]]. Regie, as part of the council, had control over tobacco production, storage, and distribution (including export) with unchallenged price control. Consequently, Turkish farmers were dependent on the company for their livelihoods.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Aysu |first=Abdullah |date=29 January 2003 |title=Tütün, İçki ve Tekel |language=tr |publisher=BİA Haber Merkezi |url=http://www.bianet.org/2003/01/30/16340.htm |url-status=dead |access-date=10 October 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071015212242/http://bianet.org/2003/01/30/16340.htm |archive-date=15 October 2007 }}</ref> In 1925, Regie was taken over by the state and named [[Tekel]]. Government control of tobacco was one of the greatest achievements of the Kemalist political machinery's "[[nationalization]]" of the economy for a country that did not produce [[Nationalization of oil supplies|oil]]. Kemalists accompanied this achievement with the development of the country's cotton industry, which peaked during the early 1930s.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hisa |first=Yuko |date=2006 |title=The cotton improvement project in Turkey : the case of Adana from the 1930s to 1940s |url=https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/sehs/72/4/72_KJ00005697966/_article/-char/en |journal=Socio-Economic History |volume=72 |issue=4 |pages=421–440 |doi=10.20624/sehs.72.4_421}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Journal |first=Middle East Textile |date=2020-06-05 |title=The History of Textile Production in Turkey - textile production in Turkey |url=https://kohantextilejournal.com/the-history-of-textile-production-in-turkey/ |access-date=2025-06-19 |website=Middle East Africa Textile News - Kohan Textile Journal |language=en-US}}</ref> Cotton was the second most important industrial crop in Turkey at the time.

In 1924, with the initiative of Atatürk, the first Turkish bank [[İş Bankası]] was established, with Atatürk as the bank's first member. The bank's creation was a response to the growing need for a truly national establishment and a banking system which was capable of backing up economic activities, managing funds accumulated through policies of savings incentives, and offering resources where necessary to trigger industrial impetus.<ref>Cemal Kutay, "Celal Bayar", Volume I, Istanbul, 1939, p. 25; Cemal Kutay, "Celal Bayar: Bir Türk'ün Biyografisi", Istanbul, Onan Matbaası, t.y., p. 82</ref>

In 1927, [[Turkish State Railways]] was established. Because Atatürk considered the development of a national [[Rail transport|rail network]] as another important step in industrialisation, railways were given high priority. The Turkish State Railway developed an extensive railway network in a very short time{{Weasel inline|date=January 2024}}.{{Cn|date=January 2024}}

The Turkish government under Atatürk developed many economic and infrastructure projects within the first decade of the republic. However, the Turkish economy was still largely agrarian, with primitive tools and methods. Roads and transportation facilities were still far from sufficient, and management of the economy was inefficient.{{Citation needed|date=May 2020}} The [[Great Depression]] brought many changes to this picture.

====Great Depression, 1929–1931====
[[File:Mustafa Kemal surveying the model of the quarter of Ministries.jpg|thumb|Atatürk supported large-scale government subsidized industrial complexes, such as [[Sümerbank]], increasingly after the [[Great Depression]].]]
The young republic, like the rest of the world, found itself in a deep economic crisis during the [[Great Depression]]. Atatürk reacted to conditions of this period by moving toward integrated economic policies and establishing a central bank to control exchange rates. However, Turkey could not finance essential imports; its currency was shunned, and zealous revenue officials seized the meagre possessions of peasants who could not pay their taxes.<ref name=mango470/>

In 1929, Atatürk signed a treaty that resulted in the [[debt restructuring|restructuring of Turkey's debt]] with the [[Ottoman Public Debt Administration]]. At the time, Atatürk not only had to deal with the payment of the [[Ottoman public debt]] but also the turbulent economic issues of the Great Depression. For example, until the early 1930s, Turkish private business could not acquire exchange credits. It was impossible to integrate the Turkish economy without a solution to these problems.{{Cn|date=January 2024}}

In 1931, the [[Central Bank of the Republic of Turkey]] was established.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Our History |url=https://www.tcmb.gov.tr/wps/wcm/connect/EN/TCMB+EN/Main+Menu/About+The+Bank/History/ |website=[[Central Bank of the Republic of Turkey]] |access-date=29 May 2020 |archive-date=4 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200604150218/https://www.tcmb.gov.tr/wps/wcm/connect/EN/TCMB+EN/Main+Menu/About+The+Bank/History/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The bank's primary purpose was to control the exchange rate and [[Ottoman Bank]]'s role during its initial years as a central bank was phased out.{{Cn|date=January 2024}} Later specialized banks such as the [[Sümerbank]] (1932) and the [[Etibank]] (1935) were founded.

From the [[political economy]] perspective, Atatürk faced the problem of political upheaval. The establishment of a new party with a different economic perspective was necessary; he asked Ali Fethi Okyar to meet this end. The [[Liberal Republican Party (Turkey)|Liberal Republican Party]] (August 1930) was founded with a liberal program and proposed that state monopolies should be ended, foreign capital should be attracted, and state investment should be curtailed. Nevertheless, Atatürk maintained the view that "it is impossible to attract foreign capital for essential development," and state capitalism became the dominant agenda during the depression era. In 1931, Atatürk proclaimed: "In the economic area ...the programme of the party is statism."<ref>İbrahim Kaya, Social Theory and Later Modernities, p. 90</ref> However, the effect of free republicans was felt strongly and state intervention became more moderate and more akin to a form of [[state capitalism]]. One of Atatürk's radical left-wing supporters, [[Yakup Kadri Karaosmanoğlu]] from the [[Kadro]] (The Cadre) movement, claimed that Atatürk found a third way between capitalism and socialism.<ref>Mango, ''Atatürk'', 478</ref>
<!--Some parts of this section are very similar to Stavros Boinodiris' book here: https://books.google.com/books?id=4-IjiIeCImkC; can somebody look into this, especially on page 250 of the book, because I'm not sure if editors were copying from Boinodiris or vice versa?-->

====Liberalization and planned growth, 1931–1939====
[[File:Nazilli Cotton Factory.jpg|thumb|Atatürk and [[İsmet İnönü]] at Nazilli Cotton Factory (1937)]]

The first (1929–1933) and second five-year economic plans were enacted under the supervision of Atatürk. The first five-year economic plan promoted consumer substitution industries. However, these economic plans changed drastically with the death of Atatürk and the rise of World War II. Subsequent governments took measures that harmed the economic productivity of Turkey in various ways.<ref name="etatism">Barlas, ''Etatism and Diplomacy in Turkey: Economic and Foreign Policy Strategies in an Uncertain World, 1929–1939''</ref> The achievements of the 1930s were credited to early 1920s implementations of the economic system based on Atatürk's national policies.<ref>Emrence, ''Turkey in economic crisis (1927–1930): a panoramic vision. Journal Middle Eastern Studies''</ref>

In 1931, Atatürk watched the development of the first national aircraft, MMV-1. He realised the important role of aviation and stated, "the future lies in the skies".<ref>{{Cite web |title=Skylife |url=http://www.thy.com/en-INT/skylife/archive/en/2000_1/konu10.htm#1 |access-date=26 November 2007 |archive-date=24 August 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060824210219/http://www.thy.com/en-INT/skylife/archive/en/2000_1/konu10.htm#1 |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[Turkish Aeronautical Association]] was founded on 16 February 1925 by his directive.<ref>{{Cite web |title=History of Turkish Aeronautical Association |url=http://www.thk.org.tr/yeni/tarihce/tarihceeng.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071219112235/http://www.thk.org.tr/yeni/tarihce/tarihceeng.htm |archive-date=19 December 2007 |access-date=26 November 2007 }}</ref> He also ordered the establishment of the Turkish Aircraft Association Lottery. Instead of the traditional raffle prizes, this new lottery paid money prizes. Most of the lottery income was used to establish a new factory and fund aviation projects.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Tayyare Piyangosu 1926 - 1939 /İlk İlan/ |url=https://www.mpi.gov.tr/ilkilan |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250124124551/https://www.mpi.gov.tr/ilkilan |archive-date=24 January 2025 |website=[[Milli Piyango]]}}</ref> However, Atatürk did not live to see the flight of the first Turkish military aircraft built at that factory. Operational American [[Curtiss Hawk]] fighters were being produced in Turkey soon after his death and before the onset of World War II.{{Cn|date=January 2024}}
[[File:Atatürk ve Bayar.jpg|thumb|left|Atatürk and Celâl Bayar]]

In 1932, liberal economist [[Celâl Bayar]] became the Minister of Economy at Atatürk's request and served until 1937.<ref>Dilek Barlas, Etatism and Diplomacy in Turkey: Economic and Foreign Policy Strategies p. 61</ref> During this period, the country moved toward a mixed economy with its first private initiatives. Textile, sugar, paper, and steel factories (financed by a loan from Britain) were the private sectors of the period. Besides these businesses, government-owned power plants, banks, and insurance companies were established. In this period, Atatürk promoted public-private sector cooperation and the expansion of private businesses with private shareholders firms allowed to purchase shares in state-owned enterprises. 

In 1935, the first Turkish cotton print factory "Nazilli [[Calico (textile)|Calico]] print factory" opened. As part of the industrialization process, cotton planting was promoted to furnish raw material for future factory settlements.<ref>Webster, ''The Turkey of Atatürk: Social Process in the Turkish Reformation'', 260</ref> By 1935, [[Nazilli]] became a major industrial center beginning with the establishment of [[cotton mill]]s followed by a calico print factory.<ref>Doğan, ''Formation of factory settlements within Turkish industrialization and modernization in 1930s: Nazilli printing factory''</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Aydın – Historical Ruins |url=http://www.kultur.gov.tr/EN/BelgeGoster.aspx?17A16AE30572D313679A66406202CCB09837F9A3538A2623 |last=Republic of Turkey, Ministry of Culture and Tourism |publisher=T.C. Government |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070907003309/http://www.kultur.gov.tr/EN/BelgeGoster.aspx?17A16AE30572D313679A66406202CCB09837F9A3538A2623 |archive-date=7 September 2007 |quote=Nazilli cotton print factory was established over an area of 65.000 m2 on the Nazilli Bozdoğan highway. It is the "first Turkish cotton print factory" the foundation of which was laid on 25 August 1935 and which was opened by Atatürk with great ceremony. }}</ref>
[[File:Nuri Demirag Nu.D.36.jpg|thumb|The [[Nuri Demirağ Nu D.36|Nu D.36]] built by the [[Nuri Demirağ|Nuri Demirağ Aircraft Works]] in Istanbul]]

In 1936, Turkish industrialist [[Nuri Demirağ]] established the first Turkish aircraft factory in the [[Beşiktaş]] district of [[Istanbul]].<ref name="Demirag">{{Cite web |title=Nuri Demirağ Aircraft Factory |url=http://www.nuridemirag.com/fotograf.asp |publisher=Nuridemirag.com |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120721214917/http://www.nuridemirag.com/fotograf.asp |archive-date=21 July 2012 |access-date=10 November 2012 }}</ref> The first Turkish airplanes, [[Nuri Demirağ Nu D.36|Nu D.36]] and [[Nuri Demirağ Nu D.38|Nu D.38]], were produced in this factory.<ref name=Demirag/>

On 25 October 1937, Atatürk appointed [[Celâl Bayar]] as the prime minister of the 9th government. Integrated economic policies reached their peak with the signing of the 1939 Treaty with Britain and France.<ref name=etatism/> The treaty signaled a turning point in Turkish history since it was the first step towards an alliance with the West.<ref name=etatism/> After İsmet İnönü became president in 1938, the differences between İnönü (who promoted state control) and Bayar (who was liberal) came to the forefront. On 25 January 1939, Prime Minister Bayar resigned.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ismetinonu.org.tr/tarihte-bugun-25-ocak/ |title=Tarihte Bugün – 25 Ocak |publisher=İnönü Vakfı |quote=Refik Saydam başbakan oldu – İstifa eden Celal Bayar’ın yerine Refik Saydam, 25 Ocak 1939’da Türkiye Cumhuriyeti’nin 11. hükümetini kurdu.}}</ref>

Atatürk also supported the establishment of the automobile industry. The [[Turkish Automobile Association]] was founded in 1923,<ref>{{Cite web |title=History |url=https://www.turing.org.tr/tarihce/ |website=[[Touring and Automobile Club of Turkey]] |language=tr |access-date=29 May 2020 |archive-date=31 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160331092346/https://www.turing.org.tr/tarihce/ |url-status=live }}</ref> and its motto was: "The Turkish driver is a man of the most exquisite sensitivities."<ref>Stone, Norman "Talking Turkey". National Interest, Fall2000, Issue 61.</ref>

In 1935, Turkey was becoming an industrial society based on the Western European model set by Atatürk.<ref name="5year">Eastham, ''The Turkish Development Plan: The First Five Years'', 132–36</ref> However, the gap between Atatürk's goals and the achievements of the socio-political structure of the country had not yet been closed.<ref name=5year/>

==Personal life==
{{Main article|Personal life of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk}}
[[File:Latife Hanım ve Mustafa Kemal.jpg|thumb|Kemal Atatürk and his wife [[Latife Uşşaki|Latife Uşakizâde]] during a trip to [[Bursa]], 1924]]

Atatürk's name is associated with four women: [[Eleni Karinte]], [[Fikriye|Fikriye Hanım]], Dimitrina Kovacheva,<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=ZSUDaIwQ0UQC&dq=Dimitrina+Kovaceva+Ataturk&pg=PA327 Atatürk: Eine Biographie, Klaus Kreiser, C.H. Beck, 2011] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230407172744/https://books.google.com/books?id=ZSUDaIwQ0UQC&dq=Dimitrina%20Kovaceva%20Ataturk&pg=PA327 |date=7 April 2023 }}, {{ISBN|3406619789}}, p. 80, (Ger.)</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-02-23 |title=Love story of Atatürk and Bulgarian girl to be on big screen - Türkiye News |url=https://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/love-story-of-ataturk-and-bulgarian-girl-to-be-on-big-screen-171715 |access-date=2024-11-10 |website=Hürriyet Daily News |language=en}}</ref> and [[Latife Uşaki]]. After the Turkish army entered İzmir in 1922, Atatürk met Latife while staying at the house of her father, the shipping magnate Muammer Uşakizade (later Uşaklı). Latife fell in love with Atatürk; again the extent to which this was reciprocated is unknown, but Atatürk was impressed by Latife's intellect: she was a graduate of the [[University of Paris|Sorbonne]] and was studying English in London when the war broke out. On 29 January 1923, they were married. Latife was jealous of Fikriye and demanded that she leave the house in Çankaya; Fikriye was devastated and immediately left in a carriage. According to official accounts, she shot herself with a pistol Atatürk had given her as a present.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Atatürk'ün Özel Hayatı |url=http://atam.webnode.com/anasayfa/biografi/ataturk%E2%80%99un%20ozel%20hayat%C4%B1%20/ |year=2008 |website=Atatürk |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121231222800/http://atam.webnode.com/anasayfa/biografi/ataturk%E2%80%99un%20ozel%20hayat%C4%B1%20/ |archive-date=31 December 2012 |access-date=12 November 2012 }}</ref>

The triangle of Atatürk, Fikriye, and Latife became the subject of a manuscript by Atatürk's close friend, Salih Bozok, though the work remained unpublished until 2005.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bozdağ |first=İsmet |title=Latife ve Fikriye İki Aşk Arasında Atatürk |publisher=Truva Yayınları |year=2005 |location=Istanbul}}</ref> Latife was briefly and literally the face of the new Turkish woman, appearing in public in Western clothing with her husband.<ref name="latife1">{{Cite news |last=Turgut |first=Pelin |date=1 July 2006 |title=Turkey in the 21st century: The Legacy Of Mrs Ataturk |work=The Independent |location=UK |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/turkey-in-the-21st-century-the-legacy-of-mrs-ataturk-6096702.html |access-date=29 September 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060718072149/http://news.independent.co.uk/europe/article1152032.ece |archive-date=18 July 2006}}</ref> However, their marriage was not happy; after frequent arguments, the two were divorced on 5 August 1925.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Akhtar |first=Salman |title=The Crescent and the Couch: Cross-Currents Between Islam and Psychoanalysis |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-7657-0574-7 |page=68}}</ref>

During his lifetime, Atatürk adopted thirteen children: a boy and twelve girls. Of these, the most famous is [[Sabiha Gökçen]], Turkey's first female pilot and the world's first female fighter pilot.<ref>[http://www.ctie.monash.edu.au/hargrave/gokcen.html Sabiha Gokcen biography] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180309090908/http://www.ctie.monash.edu.au/hargrave/gokcen.html |date=9 March 2018 }}, Hargrave Pioneers of Aviation</ref>

Atatürk's religious beliefs became a subject of debate.<ref>''Political Islam in Turkey: Running West, Heading East?'' G. Jenkins, Publisher Springer, 2008, {{ISBN|0230612458}}, p. 84.</ref> Some researchers have emphasized that his discourses about religion are periodic and that his positive views related to this subject are limited in the early 1920s.<ref>Düzel, Neşe (6 February 2012). "[https://web.archive.org/web/20140520220406/http://www.taraf.com.tr/yazilar/nese-duzel/taha-akyol-ataturk-yargi-bagimsizligini/19831/ Taha Akyol: Atatürk yargı bağımsızlığını reddediyor]"</ref> Some Turkish sources claim he was a devout [[Muslim]].<ref>Prof. Utkan Kocatürk, ''Atatürk'ün Fikir ve Düşünceleri'' (Atatürk ve Din Eğitimi, A. Gürtaş, p. 26), Atatürk Research Center, 2007; {{ISBN|9789751611741}}</ref><ref>Prof. Ethem Ruhi Fığlalı, "Atatürk'ün Din ve Laiklik Anlayışı", Atatürk Research Center, 2012; {{ISBN|978-975-16-2490-1}}, p. 86</ref><ref>Atatürk'ün Söylev ve Demeçleri, Ankara 1959, 2. Baskı, II, 66–67; s. 90. III, 70</ref> However, according to other sources, Atatürk himself was an agnostic, i.e. non-doctrinaire [[Deism|deist]],<ref>Reşat Kasaba, "Atatürk", ''The Cambridge history of Turkey: Volume 4: Turkey in the Modern World'', Cambridge University Press, 2008; {{ISBN|978-0-521-62096-3}} [{{Google books|plainurl=yes |id=iOoGH4GckQgC|page=163}} p. 163]. Retrieved 27 March 2015.</ref><ref>[{{Google books|plainurl=yes|id=kdXGAAAAQBAJ|page=84}} ''Political Islam in Turkey'' by Gareth Jenkins, Palgrave Macmillan, 2008, p. 84]; {{ISBN|0230612458}}</ref> or even an [[Atheism|atheist]],<ref>[{{Google books|plainurl=yes|id=DUal7eYmEnEC|page=106}} ''Atheism'', Brief Insights Series by Julian Baggini, Sterling Publishing Company, Inc., 2009] {{ISBN|1402768826}}<span>, p. 106.</span></ref><ref>[{{Google books|plainurl=yes|id=2gAjMuLivlQC|page=19}} Islamism: A Documentary and Reference Guide, John Calvert John, Greenwood Publishing Group, 2008] {{ISBN|0313338566}}<span>, p. 19.</span></ref><ref>...Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, founder of the secular Turkish Republic. He said: ''"I have no religion, and at times I wish all religions at the bottom of the sea..."'' [{{Google books|plainurl=yes|id=oXxXxBXewzgC|page=146}} The Antipodean Philosopher: Interviews on Philosophy in Australia and New Zealand, Graham Oppy, Lexington Books, 2011] {{ISBN|0739167936}}<span>, p. 146.</span></ref> who was antireligious and anti-Islamic in general.<ref>Phil Zuckerman, John R. ''Shook'', The Oxford Handbook of Secularism, Oxford University Press, 2017, {{ISBN|0199988455}}, p. 167.</ref><ref>Tariq Ramadan, Islam and the Arab Awakening, Oxford University Press, 2012, {{ISBN|0199933731}}, p. 76.</ref>

==Illness and death==
{{See also|Death and state funeral of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk}}
[[File:Atatürk'ün cenazesi.png|thumb|right|A view from the state funeral of Atatürk, November 1938]]
Throughout most of his life, Atatürk was a moderate-to-heavy drinker, often consuming half a litre of [[rakı]] a day; he also smoked tobacco, predominantly in the form of [[cigarette]]s.<ref>Aydıntaşbaş, Aslı (7 December 2008). [https://www.forbes.com/2008/12/05/turkey-ataturk-movie-oped-cx_aa_1207aydintasbas.html#25ff7ccb3b64 "Why I Love Turkey's Smoking, Drinking Founding Father."] ''[[Forbes]]''. Retrieved 25 April 2020.</ref><ref>Kenyon, Peter (7 June 2013). [https://www.npr.org/sections/thesalt/2013/06/07/187334924/not-everyone-cheers-turkeys-move-to-tighten-alcohol-rules "Not Everyone Cheers Turkey's Move To Tighten Alcohol Rules."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210430121816/https://www.npr.org/sections/thesalt/2013/06/07/187334924/not-everyone-cheers-turkeys-move-to-tighten-alcohol-rules |date=30 April 2021 }} ''[[NPR]]''. Retrieved 26 April 2020.</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Macfie |first=Alexander Lyon |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8wKtAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA6 |title=Ataturk |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=2014 |isbn=9781317897354 |page=6 |access-date=31 December 2018}}</ref> During 1937, indications that Atatürk's health was worsening started to appear. In early 1938, while on a trip to [[Yalova]], he suffered from a serious illness. He went to Istanbul for treatment, where he was diagnosed with [[cirrhosis]]. During his stay in Istanbul, he made an effort to keep up with his regular lifestyle, but eventually succumbed to his illness. He died on 10 November 1938, at the age of 57,<ref>{{Cite web |date=10 November 2016 |title=Turkey commemorates Atatürk on 78th anniversary of his passing |url=http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/turkey-commemorates-ataturk-on-78th-anniversary-of-his-passing-105951 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211211010956/https://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/turkey-commemorates-ataturk-on-78th-anniversary-of-his-passing-105951 |archive-date=11 December 2021 |access-date=21 November 2017 |website=Hürriyet Daily News |place=Ankara |language=en |department=News > Türkiye > Local}}</ref> in the [[Dolmabahçe Palace]].<ref>[http://www.turizm.gov.tr/TR/Genel/BelgeGoster.aspx?F6E10F8892433CFFAAF6AA849816B2EF62979E318A6960C3 Atatürk'ün Hayatı] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190401000157/http://www.turizm.gov.tr/TR/Genel/BelgeGoster.aspx%3FF6E10F8892433CFFAAF6AA849816B2EF62979E318A6960C3 |date=1 April 2019 }} (Atatürk's Life). [[Ministry of Culture and Tourism (Turkey)]] {{in lang|tr}}.</ref> He was succeeded by İsmet İnönü as president.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Jayapalan |first=N. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=twi8hGdcwoUC&q=mustafa+kemal+ataturk+succeeded+by+ismail+inonu&pg=PA133 |title=Modern Asia Since 1900 |publisher=Atlantic Publishers & Distributors (P) Ltd. |year=1999 |isbn=9788171567515 |publication-place=Vishal Enclave, New Delhi |page=133 |language=en}}</ref> 

Atatürk's funeral called forth both sorrow and pride in Turkey, and 17 countries sent special representatives, while nine contributed armed detachments to the [[cortège]].<ref name="mango526">Mango, ''Atatürk'', 526</ref> Atatürk's remains were originally laid to rest in the [[Ethnography Museum of Ankara]], but they were transferred on 10 November 1953 (15 years after his death) in a 42-ton [[sarcophagus]] to a mausoleum overlooking Ankara, [[Anıtkabir]].<ref>{{Cite magazine|date=23 November 1953|title=The Burial of Ataturk|language=en-US|magazine=Time|publisher=[[Time Magazine]]|url=https://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,860125,00.html|access-date=2021-05-26|issn=0040-781X|archive-date=26 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210526211704/http://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,860125,00.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

In his [[Will and testament|will]], Atatürk donated all of his possessions to the Republican People's Party, provided that the yearly interest of his funds<ref>{{Cite web|title=Atatürk's Last Will|url=https://www.ktb.gov.tr/EN-104075/ataturks-last-will.html|access-date=2021-05-26|website=www.ktb.gov.tr|archive-date=26 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210526211707/https://www.ktb.gov.tr/EN-104075/ataturks-last-will.html|url-status=live}}</ref> would be used to look after his sister Makbule and his adopted children, and fund the higher education of İsmet İnönü's children.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|last=Macfie|first=A.L.|title=Atatürk|publisher=[[Routledge]]|year=2014|isbn=978-1-138-83-647-1|page=182|author-link=A. L. Macfie}}</ref> The remainder was willed to the [[Turkish Language Association]] and the [[Turkish Historical Society]].<ref>[[Can Dündar]], ''Sarı Zeybek'', ''[[Milliyet]]'', 1994, p. 103</ref><ref name=":2" />

==Legacy==

===Turkey===
{{further|Mustafa Kemal Atatürk's cult of personality}}
[[File:Protect Your Republic Protest - 6 (2007-04-14) edit.jpg|thumb|right|[[Anıtkabir]], the mausoleum of Atatürk in [[Ankara]], is visited by large crowds every year during national holidays such as Republic Day on October 29.]]

Kemal Atatürk is commemorated by many memorials throughout Turkey, such as the [[Atatürk International Airport]] in Istanbul, the [[Atatürk Bridge]] over the [[Golden Horn]] (Haliç), the [[Atatürk Dam]], and [[Atatürk Olympic Stadium|Atatürk Stadium]]. Atatürk statues have been erected in all Turkish cities by the Turkish Government, and most towns have their own memorial to him. His face and name are seen and heard everywhere in Turkey; his portrait can be seen in public buildings, in schools, on all [[Turkish lira]] banknotes, and in the homes of many Turkish families.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Navaro-Yashin |first=Yael |title=Faces of the State: Secularism and Public Life in Turkey |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-691-08845-7 |pages=196–99}}</ref> At 9:05 am on every 10 November, at the exact time of Atatürk's death, most vehicles and people in the country's streets pause for one minute in remembrance.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Morrison |first1=Terry |url=https://archive.org/details/kissboworshakeha00morr/page/392 |title=Kiss, Bow, Or Shake Hands: How to Do Business in Sixty Countries |last2=Conaway, Wayne A. |publisher=Adams Media |year=1994 |isbn=978-1-55850-444-8 |page=[https://archive.org/details/kissboworshakeha00morr/page/392 392]}}</ref>

In 1951, the [[Democrat Party (Turkey, historical)|Democrat Party]]-controlled Turkish parliament led by Prime Minister [[Adnan Menderes]] (despite being the conservative opposition to Atatürk's own [[Republican People's Party]]) issued [[Law on Crimes Committed Against Atatürk|a law (Law on Crimes Committed Against Atatürk)]] outlawing [[Law on Crimes Committed Against Atatürk#1.1|insults to his memory]] (''hatırasına alenen hakaret'') and [[Law on Crimes Committed Against Atatürk#1.2|destruction of objects]] representing him.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Yonah |first=Alexander |title=Turkey: Terrorism, Civil Rights, and the European Union |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-415-44163-6 |page=137}}</ref> The demarcation between a criticism and an insult was defined as a political argument, and the [[Ministry of Justice (Turkey)|Minister of Justice]] (a political position) was [[s:tr:5816 sayılı kanun#5.1|assigned in Article 5]] to execute the law rather than the [[public prosecutor]]. A government website was created to denounce websites that violate this law.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Turkish Telecommunications Presidency: Internet Hotline |url=http://www.ihbarweb.org.tr/eng/ihbar_en.php?subject=8 |publisher=Ihbarweb.org.tr |access-date=10 November 2012 |archive-date=5 October 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111005151726/http://www.ihbarweb.org.tr/eng/ihbar_en.php?subject=8 |url-status=live }}</ref>

In 2010, the French-based NGO [[Reporters Without Borders]] objected to the Turkish laws protecting the memory of Atatürk, arguing that they contradict the current [[European Union]] standards of [[freedom of speech]] in news media.<ref>[http://en.rsf.org/turkey-time-to-break-out-of-legislative-01-12-2010,38933.html Time to break out of legislative straitjacket that is stifling media freedom] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120319004632/http://en.rsf.org/turkey-time-to-break-out-of-legislative-01-12-2010,38933.html |date=19 March 2012 }}, ''[[Reporters Sans Frontières]]'', 1 December 2010</ref>

===Worldwide===
{{listen
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[[File:Mustapha Kemal, Handsome Head of Turk Republic, Ranks as Second Valentino and Is Swamped Under Admirers' 'Mash' Notes.jpg|thumb|[[Associated Press]] news article about the admiration of women from different parts of the world for Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, ''the handsome leader'' of the Turkish Republic]]

In 1981, the centennial of Atatürk's birth, his memory was honoured by the [[United Nations]] and [[UNESCO]], which declared it ''The Atatürk Year in the World'' and adopted the [[Atatürk Centennial|Resolution on the Atatürk Centennial]].<ref name="ATATURK: Creator of Modern Turkey2"/><ref name="Landau 19842"/> The [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk Monument, Mexico City|Atatürk Monument in Mexico City]] on [[Paseo de la Reforma]]; the [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk Monument, Baku|Atatürk Monument in Baku]], [[Azerbaijan]]; the Atatürk Monument in [[Almaty]], [[Kazakhstan]]; the Atatürk Memorial in [[Wellington]], [[New Zealand]] (which also serves as a memorial to the ANZAC troops who died at Gallipoli); the [[Kemal Atatürk Memorial, Canberra|Atatürk Memorial in the place of honour on Anzac Parade]] in [[Canberra]], [[Australia]]; and squares called the Plaza Mustafa Kemal Atatürk in [[Santiago]], [[Chile]] and the Largo Mustafa Kemal Atatürk in [[Rome]], [[Italy]] are a few examples of Atatürk memorials outside Turkey. He has roads named after him in several countries, such as the Kemal Atatürk Marg in [[New Delhi]], [[India]]; the [[Kamal Atatürk Avenue]]s in [[Dhaka]] and [[Chittagong]] in [[Bangladesh]]; the Atatürk Avenue in the heart of [[Islamabad]], [[Pakistan]]; the Atatürk Road in the southern city of [[Larkana]] in [[Sindh]], Pakistan; Mustafa Kemal Atatürk Street in [[Tunis]], [[Tunisia]]<!--نهج مصطفى كمال أتاتورك-->; Mustafá Kemal Atatürk Street in the Naco district of [[Santo Domingo]], [[Dominican Republic]]; and [[Atatürk residential area|the street and memorial Atatürk]] in the [[Amsterdam-Noord]] borough of [[Amsterdam]], [[Netherlands]]. In addition, the entrance to Princess Royal Harbour in [[Albany, Western Australia]] is named [[Princess Royal Harbour#History|Atatürk Channel]]. There are many statues and streets named after Atatürk in [[Northern Cyprus]]. 

Despite his radical secular reforms, Atatürk remained broadly popular in the Muslim world.<ref name="Hanioglu2011p128">{{Cite book |last=M. Şükrü Hanioğlu |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dNFhZzug6tMC&pg=PA128 |title=Atatürk: An Intellectual Biography |date=2011 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-1-4008-3817-2 |page=128 |access-date=5 June 2013 |archive-date=6 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231106045111/https://books.google.com/books?id=dNFhZzug6tMC&pg=PA128#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> He is remembered for being the creator of a new, fully independent Muslim country at a time of encroachment by Christian powers, and for having prevailed in a struggle against Western imperialism.<ref name="Hanioglu2011p128" /> When he died, the [[All-India Muslim League]] eulogised him as a "truly great personality in the Islamic world, a great general, and a great statesman", declaring that his memory would "inspire Muslims all over the world with courage, perseverance, and manliness".<ref name="Hanioglu2011p128" />

[[File:Mustafa Kemal Ataturk Reforma Mex D.F.jpg|thumb|right|Atatürk memorial on [[Paseo de la Reforma]] in [[Mexico City]]]]

The range of Atatürk's admirers extends from the British Prime Minister [[Winston Churchill]], his opponent in [[World War I]], to the German [[Nazism|Nazi]] leader and dictator [[Adolf Hitler]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=Hitler's Infatuation with Atatürk Revisited |url=https://www.turkeyanalyst.org/publications/turkey-analyst-articles/item/367-hitler%E2%80%99s-infatuation-with-atat%C3%BCrk-revisited.html |publisher=Turkey Analyst |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210123204528/https://www.turkeyanalyst.org/publications/turkey-analyst-articles/item/367-hitler%E2%80%99s-infatuation-with-atat%C3%BCrk-revisited.html |archive-date=23 January 2021 |access-date=19 April 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=The 20th-Century Dictator Most Idolized by Hitler |url=https://www.thedailybeast.com/the-20th-century-dictator-most-idolized-by-hitler |newspaper=The Daily Beast |date=24 November 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210204085856/https://www.thedailybeast.com/the-20th-century-dictator-most-idolized-by-hitler |archive-date=4 February 2021 |access-date=19 April 2021|last1=O'Connor |first1=William }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Ihrig |first=Stefan |title=Atatürk in the Nazi Imagination |page=116 |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-674-36837-8 |publisher=Harvard University Press |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |quote=For example, in 1938, on his birthday, in a meeting with a delegation of Turkish politicians and journalists, he reaffirmed the primal and original role Atatürk had played for him and in doing so also pinpointed what was the essence of most far-right and Nazi interpretations of Atatürk in interwar Germany: “Atatürk was the first to show that it is possible to mobilize and regenerate the resources that a country has lost. In this respect Atatürk was a teacher; Mussolini was his first and I his second student.”}}</ref><ref>In his [[s:Adolf Hitler's Address to the Reichstag (4 May 1941)|address to the Reichstag on 4 May 1941]], [[Adolf Hitler]] said: {{cquote|"Turkey had been our ally in the [[World War I|World War]]. Its unfortunate result was as heavy a burden for Turkey as it was for us. The great and ingenious reconstructor of the new Turkey gave his Allies, beaten by fate, the first example of resurrection. While Turkey, thanks to the realistic attitude of her State leadership, preserved her independent attitude Yugoslavia fell a victim to British intrigues."}}</ref> who called Atatürk a "star in the darkness".<ref>{{Cite book |url=http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674368378 |title=Atatürk in the Nazi Imagination – Stefan Ihrig |publisher=[[Harvard University Press|Belknap Press]] |date=2014 |isbn=9780674368378 |access-date=2019-06-30 |archive-date=12 July 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140712124647/http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674368378 |url-status=live }}</ref> Some presidents of the United States, including [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] and [[John F. Kennedy]], also respected Atatürk. President Kennedy paid tribute to Atatürk in 1963 on the 25th anniversary of his death.<ref>[http://www.jfklibrary.org/Asset-Viewer/Archives/JFKWHA-237-001.aspx Remarks on the 25th Anniversary of the Death of Kemal Atatürk, 4 November 1963] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180922211930/https://www.jfklibrary.org/Asset-Viewer/Archives/JFKWHA-237-001.aspx |date=22 September 2018 }}. Audio file on: jfklibrary.org.</ref>

As a role model that encouraged national sovereignty, Atatürk was especially revered in countries of the so-called [[Third World]], which saw him as the pioneer of independence from colonial powers. The leaders of such countries included Atatürk's Iranian contemporary [[Reza Shah|Reza Shah Pahlavi]], the Indian Prime Minister [[Jawaharlal Nehru]], the Tunisian President [[Habib Bourguiba]], and the Egyptian President [[Anwar Sadat]].<ref>Bernd Rill: ''Kemal Atatürk.'' Rowohlt, Reinbek 1985, p.&nbsp;146.</ref><ref name="hg228">Halil Gülbeyaz: ''Mustafa Kemal Atatürk. Vom Staatsgründer zum Mythos.'' Parthas-Verlag, Berlin, 2004, p.&nbsp;228.</ref><ref name="Girbeau">{{Cite news |last=Girbeau, Sabine |date=18 August 2003 |title=Habib Bourguiba ou la modernité inachevée |work=Afrik.com |url=http://www.afrik.com/article6475.html |access-date=19 March 2020 |archive-date=17 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180617070602/http://www.afrik.com/article6475.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The Pakistani poet and philosopher [[Muhammad Iqbal]] and the [[Bangladeshis|Bangladeshi]] national poet [[Kazi Nazrul Islam]] wrote poems in his honor.

In the epilogue of ''Grey Wolf, Mustafa Kemal: An Intimate Study of a Dictator'', first published in 1932 and the first biography of Atatürk published in his lifetime, [[Harold Courtenay Armstrong|H. C. Armstrong]] described him as a "man born out of due season" and compared him to [[Timur]] and [[Genghis Khan]].<ref>[http://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.201032/page/n333/mode/2up ''Grey Wolf: Mustafa Kemal – An intimate study of a dictator'' (fifth cheap edition, July 1935), p. 333]: {{cquote|"He is a man born out of due season, an anachronism, a throw-back to the Tartars<!--sic--> of the Steppes<!--sic-->, a fierce elemental force of a man. Had he been born in the centuries when all Central Asia was on the move he would have ridden out with [[Suleyman Shah|Sulyman Shah]][sic] under the banner of the Grey Wolf, and with the heart and instincts of a Grey Wolf. With his military genius, and his ruthless determination unweakened by sentiments, loyalties or moralities, he might well have been a [[Timur|Tamerlane<!--sic-->]] or a [[Genghis Khan|Jenghis Khan<!--sic-->]] riding at the head of great hordes of wild horsemen, conquering countries, devouring and destroying cities, and filling in the intervals of peace between campaigns with wild and hideous orgies of wine and women."}}</ref>

The Twelfth International Women Conference was held in [[Istanbul]], [[Turkey]] on 18 April 1935, and Egyptian nationalist-feminist [[Huda Sha'arawi]] was elected by the conference as the vice-president of the International Women's Union. Huda considered Atatürk as a role model for her actions.<ref>Huda Shaarawi's Diaries – Book of Al-Hilal, September 1981: {{cquote|"After the Istanbul conference ended, we received an invitation to attend the celebration held by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, the liberator of modern Turkey ... and I said: If the Turks considered you the worthiness of their father and they called you Atatürk, I say that this is not enough, but you are for us "Atasharq"<!--أتاشرق--> [Father of the East]. Its meaning did not come from any female head of delegation, and thanked me very much for the great influence, and then I begged him to present us with a picture of his Excellency for publication in the journal ''[[L'Égyptienne (magazine)|L'Égyptienne]]''."}}</ref>

As the leader of the [[Turkish National Movement|national movement of 1919–1923]], Atatürk was described by the [[Allies of World War I|Allies]] and Istanbul journalist [[Ali Kemal]] (who believed the liberation efforts would fail and cause a more severe punishment by the Allies) as a "bandit chief". British statesman [[Arthur Balfour]] in this context called Atatürk the "most terrible of all the terrible Turks".<ref>''The Two Kemals; The Polished Aristocrat of European Circles in Contrast With the Ruthless Commander of Fanatical Turks'', [http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9E0CE7DE1F3CEE3ABC4953DFB6678389639EDE New York Times, 1 October 1922] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305162405/http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9E0CE7DE1F3CEE3ABC4953DFB6678389639EDE |date=5 March 2016 }}.</ref> His critics denounce him as an authoritarian despot responsible for numerous acts of repression and massacres. During his presidency, several instances of violence were committed against Kurdish rebels.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Kiernan |first1=Ben |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NLbHEAAAQBAJ&dq=Atat%C3%BCrk+genocide&pg=PT641 |title=The Cambridge World History of Genocide: Volume 3, Genocide in the Contemporary Era, 1914–2020 |last2=Lower |first2=Wendy |last3=Naimark |first3=Norman |last4=Straus |first4=Scott |date=2023-05-04 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-108-80627-5 |language=en}}</ref> According to Turkish Army general [[Osman Pamukoğlu]], Atatürk personally gave the operational order of [[Dersim massacre]] (1937–1938) against the rebellion.<ref>[http://www.hurriyet.com.tr/gundem/15589937.asp "Pamukoğlu: Dersim'in emrini Atatürk verdi"], ''[[Hürriyet]]'', August 19, 2010. {{in lang|tr}}</ref>

== Works ==

* ''Cumalı Ordugâhı - Süvâri: Bölük, Alay, Liva Tâlim ve Manevraları'' ''[Cumalı Camp - Cavalry: Company, Regiment, Brigade Training and Maneuvers]'', Thessaloniki, 1909.
* ''Ta’biye ve Tatbîkat Seyahati [Organization and Application Trip]'', Selanik Askeri Matbaası, 1911.
* ''Ta’biye Mes’elesinin Halli ve Emirlerin Sûret-i Tahrîrine Dâir Nasâyih [Advice on the Solution to the Problem of Organization and the Methods of Recording Orders]'', Edirne Sanayi Mektebi Matbaası, 1916.
* ''Taʼlîm ve Terbiye-i Askeriyye Hakkında Nokta-i Nazarlar [Points of View on Instruction and Military Training]'', Edirne Sanayi Mektebi Matbaası, 1916.
* ''Zâbit ve Kumandan ile Hasb-ı Hâl'' ''[Discourse with an Officer and a Commander]'', Minber Matbaası, 1918.
* ''[[Nutuk]]'' ''[Speech]'', [[Turkish Aeronautical Association]], Ankara, 1927.
* ''Vatandaş için Medeni Bilgiler'' ''[Civic Information for Citizens]'', Milliyet Matbaası, İstanbul, 1930.
* ''Geometri'' ''[Geometry]'', 1937.

=== Translations ===

* ''Takımın Muharebe Tâlimi'' ''[Combat Training for the Squad]'', Selanik Asır Matbaası, Thessaloniki, 1908. (From German)
* ''Bölüğün Muharebe Tâlimi'' ''[Combat Training for the Company]'', 1912. (From German)

==Awards and decorations==
{{main|List of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk's awards}}
He received awards and decorations before, during, and after [[World War I]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Atatürk'ün Madalya ve Nişanları |url=https://isteataturk.com/g/kategori/madalya-ve-nisanlar |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200315144609/https://isteataturk.com/g/kategori/madalya-ve-nisanlar |archive-date=15 March 2020 |access-date=15 March 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Atatürk'ün Rütbe, Nişan ve Madalyaları |url=https://ataturk.org.au/ataturk-2/ataturkun-hayati/ataturkun-rutbe-yukselme-tarihleri-nisan-ve-madalyalari/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200315144550/https://ataturk.org.au/ataturk-2/ataturkun-hayati/ataturkun-rutbe-yukselme-tarihleri-nisan-ve-madalyalari/ |archive-date=15 March 2020 |access-date=15 March 2020}}</ref>

===National honours===
[[File:Mareşal Atatürk Anıtı.jpg|thumb|150px|Statue of Atatürk in [[Ankara]]]]

* Ottoman Empire:
** [[Order of the Medjidie|Fifth Class Knight Order of the Medjidie]] awarded by [[Abdul Hamid II]] (25 December 1906)
** [[Imtiyaz Medal|Silver Imtiyaz Medal]] awarded by [[Mehmed V]] (30 April 1915)
** [[Liakat Medal|Silver Liakat Medal]] awarded by [[Mehmed V]] (1 September 1915)
** [[Liakat Medal|Golden Liakat Medal]] awarded by [[Mehmed V]] (17 January 1916)
** [[Order of Osmanieh|Second Class Knight Order of Osmanieh]] awarded by [[Mehmed V]] (1 February 1916)
** [[Order of the Medjidie|Second Class Knight Order of the Medjidie]] awarded by [[Mehmed V]] (12 December 1916)
** [[Imtiyaz Medal|Golden Imtiyaz Medal]] awarded by [[Mehmed V]] (23 September 1917)
** [[Order of the Medjidie|First Class Knight Order of the Medjidie]] awarded by [[Mehmed V]] (16 December 1917)
** [[Gallipoli Star (Ottoman Empire)|Gallipoli Star]] awarded by [[Mehmed VI]] (11 May 1918)
* Turkey:
** [[Medal of Independence (Turkey)|Medal of Independence]] awarded by [[Grand National Assembly of Turkey]] (21 November 1923)
** Murassa Order awarded by [[Turkish Aeronautical Association]] (20 May 1925)

===Foreign honours===
* Kingdom of Bulgaria: [[Orders, decorations, and medals of Bulgaria|Commander Grand Cross Order of Saint Alexander]] awarded by [[Ferdinand I of Bulgaria|Ferdinand I]] (1915)<ref name=":3">[[A. L. Macfie|Macfie, A.L.]] (2014) p. 43</ref>
* German Empire: [[Iron Cross]] of the [[German Empire]] awarded by [[Wilhelm II, German Emperor|Wilhelm II]] (1915)<ref name=":3" />
* Austria-Hungary:
** [[Military Merit Medal (Austria-Hungary)]] awarded by [[Franz Joseph I of Austria|Franz Joseph I]] (1916)
** [[Military Merit Medal (Austria-Hungary)|2nd Class Military Merit Cross (Austria-Hungary)]] awarded by [[Charles I of Austria|Charles I]] (1916)
** [[Military Merit Cross (Austria-Hungary)|3rd Class Military Merit Cross (Austria-Hungary)]] awarded by [[Franz Joseph I of Austria|Franz Joseph I]] (27 July 1916)
* German Empire:
** [[Iron Cross|1st Class Iron Cross]] of the [[German Empire]] awarded by [[Wilhelm II, German Emperor|Wilhelm II]] (1917)
** [[Iron Cross|2nd Class Iron Cross]] of the [[German Empire]] awarded by [[Wilhelm II, German Emperor|Wilhelm II]] (9 September 1917)
* Kingdom of Prussia: [[Order of the Crown (Prussia)|1st Class Order of the Crown Prussia]] awarded by [[Wilhelm II, German Emperor|Wilhelm II]] (1918)
* Kingdom of Afghanistan: Alüyülala Order of [[Kingdom of Afghanistan]] awarded by [[Amānullāh Khān]] (27 March 1923)

==See also==
{{Portal|Turkey|Biography|Politics}}
* [[Atatürk Forest Farm and Zoo]]
* [[European interwar dictatorships]]
* ''[[İleri]]''
* [[Kemalist historiography]]
* [[Law on Crimes Committed Against Atatürk]]
* [[List of covers of Time magazine (1920s)|List of covers of ''Time'' magazine (1920s)]] – 24 March 1923 and 21 February 1927
* [[Sun Language Theory]]
* [[Timeline of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]]
* [[Turkish History Thesis]]
* [[Turkish War of Independence]]
** [[List of high-ranking commanders of the Turkish War of Independence]]
** [[Timeline of the Turkish War of Independence]]

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}

==Bibliography==
{{Refbegin}}

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{{Refend}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category}}
{{Wikiquote}}
* {{OL subject|person:kemal_atatürk_(1881-1938)}}
* {{OL author|OL4540440A}}
* {{Internet Archive author |sname= Mustafa Kemal Atatürk}}
* {{PM20|FID=pe/000726}}

{{Navboxes
 |title = Mustafa Kemal Atatürk
 |titlestyle = background:#ccccff
 |list =
{{Navboxes
 |title = Offices held by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk
 |titlestyle = background:#ccccff
 |list =
{{s-start}}
{{s-mil}}
{{s-brk}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Ahmed İzzet Pasha|Ahmet İzzet Furgaç]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=Commander of the [[Second Army (Ottoman Empire)|Second Army]]|years=March – July 1917}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Fevzi Çakmak]]}}
{{s-brk}}
{{s-vac|unknown}}
{{s-ttl|title=Commander of the [[Seventh Army (Ottoman Empire)|Seventh Army]]|years=July – October 1917}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Fevzi Çakmak]]}}
{{s-brk}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Fevzi Çakmak]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=Commander of the [[Seventh Army (Ottoman Empire)|Seventh Army]]|years=August – September 1918}}
{{s-non|reason=[[Battle of Megiddo (1918)#Destruction of the Turkish Seventh Army|Formation destroyed]]}}
{{s-brk}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Otto Liman von Sanders]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=Commander of [[Yildirim Army Group (Ottoman Empire)|Thunder Army Group]]<br />{{small|Residual elements}}|years=October – November 1918}}
{{s-non|reason=Formation dissolved}}
{{s-brk}}
{{s-off}}
{{s-brk}}
{{s-new|reason=State founded}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[List of Prime Ministers of Turkey|Prime Minister of Turkey]]|years=25 April 1920 – 24 January 1921}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Fevzi Çakmak]]}}
{{s-brk}}
{{s-new|reason=State founded}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[List of Speakers of the Parliament of Turkey|Speaker of the Parliament of Turkey]]|years=24 April 1920 – 29 October 1923}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Fethi Okyar]]}}
{{s-brk}}
{{s-new|reason=State founded}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[List of Presidents of Turkey|President of Turkey]]|years=29 October 1923 – 10 November 1938}}
{{s-aft|after=[[İsmet İnönü]]}}
{{s-brk}}
{{s-ppo}}
{{s-brk}}
{{s-new|reason=State founded}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Leader of the Republican People's Party]]|years=9 September 1923 – 10 November 1938}}
{{s-aft|after=[[İsmet İnönü]]}}
{{s-end}}}}
{{Presidents of Turkey}}
{{Prime Ministers of Turkey}}
{{Speakers of the Parliament of Turkey}}
{{CHP Leaders}}
{{Turkish nationalism}}
{{Secularism in Turkey}}
{{Turkey topics}}
{{Party Leaders in Turkey}}}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ataturk, Mustafa Kemal}}
[[Category:Mustafa Kemal Atatürk| ]]
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