View source for Liquor

{{Short description|Alcoholic drink produced by distillation}}
{{for-multi|the sweetened and flavored alcoholic beverages|Liqueur|other uses}}
{{Use American English|date=November 2021}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=January 2023}}
[[File:Liquor Still Frankfort 489226997.jpg|thumb|An old [[whiskey]] [[still]]]]
[[File:spirituosen-im-supermarkt.jpg|thumb|A display of various liquors in a supermarket]]
[[File:17-05-06-Miniaturen RR79033.jpg|thumb|Some single-drink liquor bottles available in Germany]]
 
'''Liquor''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|l|ɪ|k|ər}} {{respell|LIK|ər}}, sometimes '''hard liquor'''), '''spirits''', '''distilled spirits''', or '''spiritous liquor''' are [[alcoholic drinks]] produced by the [[distillation]] of [[grain]]s, [[fruit]]s, [[vegetable]]s, or [[sugar]] that have already gone through [[ethanol fermentation|alcoholic fermentation]]. While the word ''liquor'' ordinarily refers to distilled alcoholic spirits rather than drinks produced by fermentation alone,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/liquor |title=Liquor |work=[[Merriam-Webster]] |access-date=November 29, 2022}}</ref> it can sometimes be used more broadly to refer to any alcoholic beverage (or even non-alcoholic ones produced by distillation or some other practices, such as the brewed liquor of a [[tea]]).<ref>{{cite web |title=Liquor |url=https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/liquor |work=[[Collins Dictionary]] |access-date=November 29, 2022}}</ref>

The distillation process concentrates the alcohol, the resulting condensate has an increased [[alcohol by volume]].<ref name="Britannica">{{Cite encyclopedia |title=distilled spirit – alcoholic beverage |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |date=December 21, 2023 |url=https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9106006/distilled-spirit}}</ref> As liquors contain significantly more [[alcohol (drug)|alcohol]] ([[ethanol]]) than other alcoholic drinks, they are considered "harder". In [[North America]], the term ''hard liquor'' is sometimes used to distinguish distilled alcoholic drinks from non-distilled ones, whereas the term ''spirits'' is more commonly used in the [[United Kingdom]]. Some examples of liquors include [[vodka]], [[rum]], [[gin]] and [[tequila]]. Liquors are often aged in [[barrel]]s, such as for the production of [[brandy]] and [[whiskey]], or are infused with flavorings to form [[flavored liquor]]s, such as [[absinthe]].

Like other alcoholic drinks, liquor is typically consumed for the [[psychoactive drug|psychoactive]] effects of alcohol. Liquor may be consumed on its own (i.e. "[[Bartending terminology#Neat|neat]]"), typically in amounts of around {{convert|50|ml|USfloz|abbr=off}} per served drink; or frequently mixed with other ingredients to form a [[cocktail]]. In an undiluted form, distilled beverages are often slightly sweet and bitter and typically impart a burning mouthfeel with an odor derived from the alcohol and the production and aging processes; the exact flavor varies between different varieties of liquor and the different impurities they impart.

Rapid consumption of a large amount of liquor can cause severe [[alcohol intoxication]] or [[alcohol poisoning]], which can be fatal either due to acute biochemical damage to vital [[organ (biology)|organ]]s (e.g. [[alcoholic hepatitis]] and [[alcoholic pancreatitis|pancreatitis]]), or due to [[Major trauma|trauma]] (e.g. [[fall (accident)|fall]]s or [[motor vehicle accident]]s) caused by alcohol-induced [[delirium]]. Consistent consumption of liquor over time correlates with higher mortality and other harmful health effects, even when compared to other alcoholic beverages.<ref name="Korotayev">{{Cite journal |last1=Korotayev |first1=Andrey |last2=Khaltourina |first2=Daria |last3=Meshcherina |first3=Kira |last4=Zamiatnina |first4=Elena |date=2018 |title=Distilled Spirits Overconsumption as the Most Important Factor of Excessive Adult Male Mortality in Europe |journal=Alcohol and Alcoholism |volume=53 |issue=6 |pages=742–752 |doi=10.1093/alcalc/agy054 |pmid=30113627 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Klatsky pp. 585–595">{{Cite journal |last=Klatsky |first=A. L. |date=September 15, 2003 |title=Wine, Liquor, Beer, and Mortality |journal=American Journal of Epidemiology |publisher=Oxford University Press (OUP) |volume=158 |issue=6 |pages=585–595 |doi=10.1093/aje/kwg184 |issn=0002-9262 |pmid=12965884 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

==Nomenclature==
The term "spirit" (singular and used without the additional term "drink") refers to liquor that should not contain added sugar<ref>{{Cite web |date=January 15, 2019 |title=Alcohol and Blood Sugar |url=https://www.diabetes.co.uk/alcohol-and-blood-sugar.html |access-date=June 27, 2022 |website=Diabetes.co.uk |language=en-GB}}</ref> and is usually 35–40% [[alcohol by volume]] (ABV).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Are spirits more dangerous than other alcoholic drinks? |url=https://www.drinkaware.co.uk/facts/alcoholic-drinks-and-units/are-spirits-more-dangerous-than-other-alcoholic-drinks#thestrengthofspirits |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220627025156/https://www.drinkaware.co.uk/facts/alcoholic-drinks-and-units/are-spirits-more-dangerous-than-other-alcoholic-drinks#thestrengthofspirits |archive-date=June 27, 2022 |access-date=June 26, 2022 |website=Drinkaware}}</ref> [[Fruit brandy]], for example, is also known as 'fruit spirit'.

Liquor bottled with added sugar and flavorings, such as [[Grand Marnier]], [[amaretto]], and [[United States|American]] [[schnapps]], are known instead as [[liqueur]]s.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Filippone |first1=Peggy Trowbridge |title=The Difference Between a Liquor and a Liqueur |url=https://www.thespruceeats.com/difference-between-liquor-and-liqueur-1807030 |website=www.thespruceeats.com |access-date=25 October 2023}}</ref>

Liquor generally has an alcohol concentration higher than 30% when bottled, and before being diluted for bottling, it typically has a concentration over 50%. [[Beer]] and [[wine]], which are not distilled, typically have a maximum alcohol content of about 15% ABV, as most [[yeast]]s cannot metabolize when the concentration of alcohol is above this level; as a consequence, [[fermentation]] ceases at that point.

==Etymology==
The origin of ''liquor'' and its close relative ''liquid'' is the Latin verb ''liquere'', meaning 'to be fluid'. According to the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' (''OED''), an early use of the word in the English language, meaning simply "a liquid", can be dated to 1225. The first use documented in the ''OED'' defined as "a liquid for drinking" occurred in the 14th century. Its use as a term for "an intoxicating alcoholic drink" appeared in the 16th century.

== Legal definition ==
=== European Union ===
In accordance with the regulation (EU) 2019/787 of the European Parliament and of the Council of April 17, 2019,<ref name="reg2019787">{{Cite web |date=May 25, 2021 |title=Consolidated text: Regulation (EU) 2019/787 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 17 April 2019 on the definition, description, presentation, and labelling of spirit drinks, the use of the names of spirit drinks in the presentation and labeling of other foodstuffs, the protection of geographical indications for spirit drinks, the use of ethyl alcohol and distillates of agricultural origin in alcoholic beverages, and repealing Regulation (EC) No 110/2008: Article 2 - Definition of and requirements for spirit drinks |url=http://data.europa.eu/eli/reg/2019/787/2021-05-25 |pages=2–3}}</ref> a ''spirit drink'' is an [[Alcoholic drink|alcoholic beverage]] that has been produced:

* either directly by using, individually or in combination, any of the following methods:
*# distillation, with or without added flavourings or flavouring foodstuffs, of [[Fermentation|fermented products]];
*# maceration or similar processing of plant materials in [[Rectified spirit#Legal definition|ethyl alcohol of agricultural origin]], distillates of agricultural origin or spirit drinks or a combination thereof;
*# addition, individually or in combination, to ethyl alcohol of agricultural origin, distillates of agricultural origin, or spirit drinks of flavourings, colours, other authorised ingredients, sweetening products, other agricultural products, and foodstuffs.
* or by adding, individually or in combination, to it any of the following:
*# other spirit drinks;
*# ethyl alcohol of agricultural origin;
*# distillates of agricultural origin;
*# other foodstuffs.

Spirit drinks must contain at least 15% ABV (except in the case of egg liqueur such as [[Advocaat]], which must contain a minimum of 14% ABV).<ref name="reg2019787" /><ref>{{Cite web |date=May 25, 2021 |title=Consolidated text: Regulation (EU) 2019/787 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 17 April 2019 on the definition, description, presentation, and labelling of spirit drinks, the use of the names of spirit drinks in the presentation and labeling of other foodstuffs, the protection of geographical indications for spirit drinks, the use of ethyl alcohol and distillates of agricultural origin in alcoholic beverages, and repealing Regulation (EC) No 110/2008: Annex 1 - Categories of spirit drinks - 39. Egg liqueur or advocaat or avocat or advokat |url=http://data.europa.eu/eli/reg/2019/787/2021-05-25 |page=60}}</ref>

==== Distillate of agricultural origin ====
Regulation makes a difference between "ethyl alcohol of agricultural origin" and a "distillate of agricultural origin". ''Distillate of agricultural origin'' is defined as an alcoholic liquid that is the result of the distillation, after alcoholic fermentation, of agricultural products which does not have the properties of ethyl alcohol and which retain the aroma and taste of the raw materials used.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=May 25, 2021 |title=Consolidated text: Regulation (EU) 2019/787 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 17 April 2019 on the definition, description, presentation, and labelling of spirit drinks, the use of the names of spirit drinks in the presentation and labeling of other foodstuffs, the protection of geographical indications for spirit drinks, the use of ethyl alcohol and distillates of agricultural origin in alcoholic beverages, and repealing Regulation (EC) No 110/2008 |url=http://data.europa.eu/eli/reg/2019/787/2021-05-25 }}</ref>

==== Categories ====
[[File:Viru Valge 1L.jpg|thumb|upright=0.5|[[Viru Valge]], an [[Estonia]]n vodka]]
Annex 1 to the regulation lists 44 categories of spirit drinks and their legal requirements.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Consolidated text: Regulation (EU) 2019/787 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 17 April 2019 on the definition, description, presentation, and labelling of spirit drinks, the use of the names of spirit drinks in the presentation and labelling of other foodstuffs, the protection of geographical indications for spirit drinks, the use of ethyl alcohol and distillates of agricultural origin in alcoholic beverages, and repealing Regulation (EC) No 110/2008: Annex 1 - Categories of spirit drinks |url=http://data.europa.eu/eli/reg/2019/787/2021-05-25 |pages=39–61 |publication-date=May 25, 2021}}</ref>

Some spirit drinks can fall into more than one category. Specific production requirements distinguish one category from another (London gin falls into the Gin category but any gin cannot be considered as London gin).

Spirit drinks that are not produced within the EU, such as [[tequila]] or [[baijiu]], are not listed in the 44 categories.
{{div col|colwidth=15em}}
# Mahua Wine or [[desi thhara]]
# [[Rum]]
# [[Whisky]] or [[whiskey]]
# Grain spirit
# Wine spirit
# [[Brandy]]
# [[Pomace brandy|Grape marc spirit]] or grape marc
# Fruit marc spirit
# [[Raisin]] spirit or [[Raisin|raisin brandy]]
# [[Fruit brandy|Fruit spirit]]
# [[Cider]] spirit, [[perry]] spirit and cider and perry spirit
# [[Honey]] spirit
# {{lang|de|Hefebrand}} or [[Lees (fermentation)|lees]] spirit
# {{lang|de|[[Bierbrand]]}}, or beer spirit
# Topinambur or [[Jerusalem artichoke#Fermented products|Jerusalem artichoke]] spirit
# [[Vodka]]
# Spirit (supplemented by the name of the fruit, berries or nuts) obtained by maceration and distillation
# {{lang|de|[[Geist (liquor)|Geist]]}} (supplemented by the name of the fruit or the raw materials used)
# [[Gentian (spirit)|Gentian]]
# [[Gin#Juniper-flavoured spirit drink|Juniper-flavored spirit drink]]
# [[Gin#Gin|Gin]]
# [[Gin#Distilled gin|Distilled gin]]
# [[Gin#London gin|London gin]]
# [[Caraway]]-flavored spirit drink or {{lang|de|[[Kümmel (liqueur)|Kümmel]]}}
# {{lang|sv|[[Akvavit]]}} or ''aquavit''
# [[Anise]]ed-flavored spirit drink (e.g. [[rakı]], [[ouzo]])
# [[Pastis]]
# [[Pastis]] de [[Marseille]]
# [[Anisette|Anis]] or {{lang|cs|janeževec}}
# Distilled anis
# Bitter-tasting spirit drink or ''[[bitters]]''
# Flavored [[vodka]]
# [[Sloe]]-aromatized spirit drink or [[pacharán]]
# [[Liqueur]]
# {{lang|fr|[[Crème liqueur|Crème]] de}} (supplemented by the name of a fruit or other raw material used)
# [[Sloe gin]]
# ''[[Sambuca]]''
# ''[[Maraschino]]'', ''marrasquino'' or ''maraskino''
# ''[[Nocino]]'' ou {{lang|hr|orehovec}}
# [[Egg as food|Egg]] liqueur or {{lang|nl|[[advocaat]]}}, ''avocat'' or ''advokat''
# Liqueur with egg
# {{lang|it|Mistrà}}
# {{lang|fi|Väkevä glögi}} or {{lang|sv|spritglögg}}
# {{lang|nl|[[Beerenburg|Berenburg]]}} or {{lang|nl|Beerenburg}}
# Honey nectar or [[mead]] nectar
{{div col end}}

==History of distillation==
{{Main|Distillation#History}}

===Early history===
[[File:Zosimos distillation equipment.jpg|thumb|Distillation equipment used by the 3rd century alchemist [[Zosimos of Panopolis]],<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Gildemeister |first1=E. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=earQAAAAMAAJ |title=The Volatile Oils |last2=Hoffman |first2=Fr. |publisher=Wiley |year=1913 |volume=1 |location=New York |page=203 |translator-last=Kremers |translator-first=Edward}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Bunch |first1=Bryan H. |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780618221233/page/88 |title=The History of Science and Technology |last2=Hellemans |first2=Alexander |publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt |year=2004 |isbn=0-618-22123-9 |page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780618221233/page/88 88] |url-access=registration}}</ref> from the [[Byzantine Greek]] manuscript ''Parisinus graecus 2327.''<ref>{{Cite web |last=Berthelot |first=Marcelin |date=1887 |title=Collection des anciens alchimistes grecs |url=https://archive.org/details/collectiondesanc01bert |location=Paris |page=161 |volume=1}}</ref>]]

Early evidence of distillation comes from [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]] tablets dated {{Circa|1200 BC}} describing perfumery operations, providing textual evidence that an early, primitive form of distillation was known to the [[Babylonia]]ns of ancient [[Mesopotamia]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Levey |first=Martin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=76ILAQAAIAAJ |title=Chemistry and Chemical Technology in Ancient Mesopotamia |date=1959 |publisher=[[Elsevier]] |page=36 |quote=As already mentioned, the textual evidence for Sumero-Babylonian distillation is disclosed in a group of Akkadian tablets describing perfumery operations, dated ca. 1200 B.C.}}</ref> Early evidence of distillation also comes from [[Alchemy|alchemists]] working in [[Alexandria, Egypt|Alexandria]], [[Roman Egypt]], in the 1st century.<ref name="Forbes1970">{{Cite book |last=Forbes |first=Robert James |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XeqWOkKYn28C |title=A short history of the art of distillation: from the beginnings up to the death of Cellier Blumenthal |publisher=BRILL |year=1970 |isbn=978-90-04-00617-1 |pages=57, 89 |access-date=June 29, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111220084813/http://books.google.com/books?id=XeqWOkKYn28C |archive-date=December 20, 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Distilled water]] was described in the 2nd century AD by [[Alexander of Aphrodisias]].<ref name="Taylor">{{Cite journal |last=Taylor |first=F. Sherwood |author-link=F. Sherwood Taylor |year=1945 |title=The Evolution of the Still |journal=Annals of Science |volume=5 |issue=3 |page=186 |doi=10.1080/00033794500201451 |issn=0003-3790}}</ref> Alchemists in [[Roman Egypt]] were using a distillation [[alembic]] or [[still]] device in the 3rd century.

Distillation was known in the ancient [[Indian subcontinent]], evident from baked clay [[retort]]s and receivers found at [[Taxila]] and [[Charsadda]] in [[Pakistan]] and [[Rang Mahal, Sri Ganganagar|Rang Mahal]] in [[India]] dating to the early centuries of the [[Common Era]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Marshall|first=John|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IOnUugEACAAJ&q=water-condensers&pg=PA420|page=420|title=Taxila: An Illustrated Account of Archaeological Investigations Carried Out at Taxila|volume=2|date=1951|publisher=Cambridge University Press|language=en}}</ref><ref name=allchin>Frank Raymond Allchin, "India: the ancient home of distillation?" ''Man'', New Series '''14''':1:55-63 (1979) [https://www.samorini.it/doc1/alt_aut/ad/allchin-india-the-ancient-home-of-distillation.pdf full text] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191220212010/https://www.samorini.it/doc1/alt_aut/ad/allchin-india-the-ancient-home-of-distillation.pdf |date=December 20, 2019 }}</ref><ref>Javed Husain, "The So-Called 'Distillery' at Shaikhan Dheri - A Case Study", ''Journal of the Pakistan Historical Society'' '''41''':3:289-314 (July 1, 1993)</ref> [[Frank Raymond Allchin]] says these terracotta distill tubes were "made to imitate bamboo".<ref name=allchin/> These "[[Gandhara]] stills" were capable of producing only very weak liquor, as there was no efficient means of collecting the vapors at low heat.<ref name="habib">{{Cite book |last=Habib |first=Irfan |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/728102346 |title=Economic history of medieval India, 1200-1500 |date=2011 |isbn=978-81-317-2791-1 |page=55 |publisher=Pearson Education India |oclc=728102346}}</ref>

Distillation in [[China]] could have begun during the [[Eastern Han]] dynasty (1st–2nd centuries), but the distillation of beverages began in the [[Jin dynasty (1115–1234)|Jin]] (12th–13th centuries) and [[Southern Song dynasty|Southern Song]] (10th–13th centuries) dynasties according to archaeological evidence.<ref name=haw/>

[[Freeze distillation]] involves freezing the alcoholic beverage and then removing the ice. The freezing technique had limitations in geography and implementation limiting how widely this method was put to use.

=== Distillation of wine ===
[[File:Brewing and distillation industries. ( 1858- ).jpg|thumb|left|An illustration of brewing and distilling industry methods in England, 1858]]

The flammable nature of the exhalations of wine was already known to ancient natural philosophers such as [[Aristotle]] (384–322 BCE), [[Theophrastus]] ({{Circa|371|287 BCE}}), and [[Pliny the Elder]] (23/24–79 CE).<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Berthelot |first1=Marcellin |title=La Chimie au Moyen Âge |last2=Houdas |first2=Octave V. |publisher=Imprimerie nationale |year=1893 |volume=I–III |location=Paris |author-link=Marcellin Berthelot}} vol. I, p. 137.</ref> This did not immediately lead to the isolation of alcohol, however,  despite the development of more advanced distillation techniques in second- and third-century [[Roman Egypt]].<ref>{{harvnb|Berthelot|Houdas|1893|loc=vol. I, pp. 138–139}}.</ref> An important recognition, first found in one of the writings attributed to [[Jabir ibn Hayyan|Jābir ibn Ḥayyān]] (ninth century CE), was that by [[Salt-effect distillation|adding salt]] to boiling wine, which increases the wine's [[relative volatility]], the flammability of the resulting vapors may be enhanced.<ref>{{Cite book |last=al-Hassan |first=Ahmad Y. |title=Studies in al-Kimya': Critical Issues in Latin and Arabic Alchemy and Chemistry |publisher=Georg Olms Verlag |year=2009 |location=Hildesheim |pages=283–298 |chapter=Alcohol and the Distillation of Wine in [[Arabic]] Sources from the 8th Century |author-link=Ahmad Y. al-Hassan}} (same content also available on [http://www.history-science-technology.com/notes/notes7.html the author's website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151229003135/http://www.history-science-technology.com/notes/notes7.html |date=December 29, 2015 }}).</ref> The distillation of wine is attested in Arabic works attributed to [[Al-Kindi|al-Kindī]] (c. 801–873 CE) and to [[Al-Farabi|al-Fārābī]] (c. 872–950), and in the 28th book of [[Al-Zahrawi|al-Zahrāwī]]'s (Latin: Abulcasis, 936–1013) ''Kitāb al-Taṣrīf'' (later translated into Latin as ''Liber servatoris'').<ref>{{harvnb|al-Hassan|2009}} (same content also available on [http://www.history-science-technology.com/notes/notes7.html the author's website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151229003135/http://www.history-science-technology.com/notes/notes7.html |date=December 29, 2015 }}); cf. {{harvnb|Berthelot|Houdas|1893|loc=vol. I, pp. 141, 143}}. Sometimes, sulfur was also added to the wine (see {{harvnb|Berthelot|Houdas|1893|loc=vol. I, p. 143}}).</ref> In the twelfth century, recipes for the production of ''aqua ardens'' ("burning water", i.e., alcohol) by distilling wine with salt started to appear in a number of Latin works, and by the end of the thirteenth century, it had become a widely known substance among Western European chemists.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Multhauf |first=Robert P. |title=The Origins of Chemistry |publisher=Oldbourne |year=1966 |isbn=9782881245947 |location=London |author-link=Robert P. Multhauf}} pp. 204–206.</ref> Its medicinal properties were studied by [[Arnald of Villanova]] (1240–1311 CE) and [[John of Rupescissa]] (c. 1310–1366), the latter of whom regarded it as a life-preserving substance able to prevent all diseases (the ''[[aqua vitae]]'' or "water of life", also called by John the ''[[Aether (classical element)|quintessence]]'' of wine).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Principe |first=Lawrence M. |title=The Secrets of Alchemy |publisher=The University of Chicago Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-0226103792 |location=Chicago |author-link=Lawrence M. Principe}} pp. 69–71.</ref>

In China, archaeological evidence indicates that the true distillation of alcohol began during the 12th century [[Jin dynasty (1115–1234)|Jin]] or [[Southern Song dynasty|Southern Song]] dynasties.<ref name="haw">{{Cite book |last=Haw |first=Stephen G. |title=Marco Polo in China |publisher=Routledge |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-134-27542-7 |pages=147–148 |chapter=Wine, women and poison |quote=The earliest possible period seems to be the Eastern Han dynasty... the most likely period for the beginning of true distillation of spirits for drinking in China is during the Jin and Southern Song dynasties |author-link=Stephen G. Haw |access-date=July 10, 2016 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DSfvfr8VQSEC&pg=PA148}}</ref>
A [[still]] has been found at an archaeological site in Qinglong, [[Hebei]], dating to the 12th century.<ref name=haw/>

In India, the true distillation of alcohol was introduced from the [[Middle East]] and was in wide use in the [[Delhi Sultanate]] by the 14th century.<ref name="habib" /><ref>{{Cite news |date=April 19, 2022 |title=India's Most Popular Liquors: ভারতের সব থেকে জনপ্রিয় মদ কোনগুলি জানেন, রইল তালিকা |work=The Bengali Chronicle |url=https://thebengalichronicle.com/most-wanted-alcohol-bavarage-brand-in-india-pst/ |access-date=August 10, 2022 |language=bn |archive-date=August 10, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220810112629/https://thebengalichronicle.com/most-wanted-alcohol-bavarage-brand-in-india-pst/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>

The works of [[Taddeo Alderotti]] (1223–1296) describe a method for concentrating alcohol involving repeated [[fractional distillation]] through a water-cooled still, by which an alcohol purity of 90% could be obtained.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Holmyard |first=Eric John |title=Alchemy |date=1957 |publisher=Penguin Books |isbn=978-0-486-26298-7 |location=Harmondsworth |author-link=Eric John Holmyard}} pp. 51–52.</ref>

In 1437, "burned water" ([[brandy]]) was mentioned in the records of the [[County of Katzenelnbogen]] in Germany.<ref>{{Cite web |title=graf-von-katzenelnbogen.com |url=http://www.graf-von-katzenelnbogen.com/begriffe.html |access-date=October 25, 2008 |archive-date=January 26, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126140943/http://www.graf-von-katzenelnbogen.com/begriffe.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>

===Microdistilling===
[[Microdistillery|Microdistilling]] (also known as craft distilling) began to re-emerge as a trend in the United States following the [[microbrewing]] and [[craft beer]] movement in the last decades of the 20th century.

==Flammability==
{{See also|Alcohol proof|Flash point|Fire point|Flaming drink}}
[[File:Flaming cocktails.jpg|right|thumb|These flaming cocktails illustrate that some liquors will readily catch fire and burn.]]

Liquor that contains 40% [[Alcohol by volume|ABV]] (80 [[Alcohol proof|US proof]]) will catch fire if heated to about {{convert|26|°C}} and if an ignition source is applied to it. This temperature is called its [[flash point]].<ref name="flash point">{{Cite web |title=Flash Point and Fire Point |url=http://www.nttworldwide.com/tech2212.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101214222420/http://www.nttworldwide.com/tech2212.htm |archive-date=December 14, 2010 |access-date=March 6, 2011}}</ref> The flash point of [[Ethanol|pure alcohol]] is {{convert|16.6|°C}}, less than average room temperature.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Material Safety Data Sheet, Section 5 |url=http://fscimage.fishersci.com/msds/89308.htm |access-date=March 7, 2011}}</ref>

The flammability of liquor is applied in the cooking technique [[flambé]].

The flash points of alcohol concentrations from 10% to 96% by weight are:<ref>{{Cite web |title=Flash points of ethanol-based water solutions |url=http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/ethanol-water-d_989.html |access-date=June 23, 2011}}</ref>
* 10% – {{convert|49|°C}} – [[ethanol]]-based water solution
* 12.5% – about {{convert|52|°C}} – [[wine]]<ref name="Wolke">{{Cite news |last=Wolke |first=Robert L. |date=July 5, 2006 |title=Combustible Combination |newspaper=Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/07/04/AR2006070400283.html |access-date=January 27, 2011}}</ref>
* 15% – {{convert|42|°C}} – [[sake]], [[mijiu]], [[Cheongju (beverage)|cheongju]] 
* 20% – {{convert|36|°C}} – [[shōchū]], [[fortified wine]]
* 30% – {{convert|29|°C}} – strong shōchū
* 40% – {{convert|26|°C}} – typical [[vodka]], [[whisky]] or [[brandy]]
* 50% – {{convert|24|°C}} – typical [[baijiu]], strong whisky, [[bottled in bond]] whisky, typical [[Absinthe#Styles|blanche absinthe]]
* 60% – {{convert|22|°C}} – strong baijiu, normal [[tsikoudia]] (called mesoraki or middle raki), [[barrel proof]] whisky, typical [[Absinthe#Styles|verte absinthe]]
* 70% – {{convert|21|°C}} – [[slivovitz]]
* 80% – {{convert|20|°C}} – [[Absinthe#Bottled strength|strong absinthe]]
* 90% or more – {{convert|17|°C}} – [[neutral grain spirit]]

==Serving==
{{See also|Bartending terminology}}
[[File:Bar Hard Rock Cafe Prague.png|thumb|A row of alcoholic beverages – in this case, spirits – in a [[Bar (establishment)|bar]]]]
Liquor can be served:
* Neat – at room temperature without any additional ingredient(s)<ref>{{Cite book |last=Walkart |first=C.G. |title=National Bartending Center Instruction Manual |publisher=Bartenders America, Inc |year=2002 |location=Oceanside, California |page=104}} &nbsp;ASIN: B000F1U6HG.</ref>
* Up – shaken or stirred with ice, strained, and served in a [[Cocktail glass|stemmed glass]]
* Down – shaken or stirred with ice, strained, and served in a [[Old Fashioned glass|rocks glass]]
* On the rocks – over [[ice cube]]s
* Blended or frozen – blended with ice
* With a simple mixer, such as [[Carbonated water|club soda]], [[tonic water]], [[juice]], or [[cola]]
* As an ingredient of a [[cocktail]]
* As an ingredient of a [[Shooter (mixed drink)|shooter]]
* With water
* With water poured over sugar (as with absinthe)

==Alcohol consumption by country==
{{Main|List of countries by alcohol consumption}}
{{See also|Alcohol preferences in Europe}}
[[File:Alcohol belts of Europe (actual consumption in 2016).svg|thumb|upright=1.5|alt=European countries grouped by preferred type of alcoholic drink, based on recorded alcohol consumption per capita (age 15+) (in liters of pure alcohol) in 2016|Map of Europe with individual countries grouped by preferred type of alcoholic drink, based on recorded alcohol consumption per capita (age 15+) (in liters of pure alcohol) in 2016.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Global status report on alcohol and health 2018 |url=https://www.who.int/publications-detail-redirect/9789241565639 |website=www.who.int}}</ref>
{{legend|#a70000|'''Wine'''}}
{{legend|#f8f107|'''Beer'''}}
{{legend|#5fc8d7|'''Spirits'''}}]]
The [[World Health Organization]] (WHO) measures and publishes alcohol consumption patterns in different countries. The WHO measures alcohol consumed by persons 15 years of age or older and reports it on the basis of liters of pure alcohol consumed [[per capita]] in a given year in a country.<ref>{{Cite web |title=who.int |url=https://www.who.int/substance_abuse/publications/global_alcohol_report/msbgsruprofiles.pdf}}</ref>

In Europe, spirits (especially vodka) are more popular in the north and east of the continent.[[File:Vodka distillery Matsalu 2021.jpg|thumb|Abandoned 19th-century [[vodka]] distillery in Estonia]]

===Government regulation===
====Production====
It is legal to distill beverage alcohol as a hobby for personal use in some countries, including New Zealand<ref>{{Cite news |last=Austin |first=Kim |date=September 16, 2011 |title=Distilling your own spirits: A drop of the easier stuff |url=https://www.nzherald.co.nz/aucklander/lifestyle/news/article.cfm?c_id=1503372&objectid=11040946 |access-date=May 20, 2020}}</ref> and the Netherlands.{{Efn|In the Netherlands, the ABV of the distilled drink must be under 15% ABV without a license.|name=Note|group=note}}

In many others including the [[United States]], it is illegal to distill beverage alcohol without a license, and the licensing process is too arduous for hobbyist-scale production. In some parts of the U.S., it is also illegal to sell a still without a license. Nonetheless, all states allow unlicensed individuals to [[Homebrewing|make their own beer]], and some also allow unlicensed individuals to make their own wine (although making beer and wine is also prohibited in some local jurisdictions).{{citation needed|date=August 2023}}

====Sale====
Some countries and sub-national jurisdictions limit or prohibit the sale of certain high-percentage alcohol, commonly known as [[Rectified spirit#Regulation|neutral spirit]]. Due to its flammability (see below) alcoholic beverages with an alcohol content above 70% by volume are not permitted to be transported in aircraft.<ref>{{Cite web |title=App-1 Appendix on Dangerous Goods |url=https://www.icao.int/safety/DangerousGoods/Working%20Group%20of%20the%20Whole/WP.50.AppB.pdf |access-date=May 20, 2020 |publisher=[[ICAO]]}}</ref>

==Health effects of alcohol==
{{Main|Health effects of alcohol}}

Distilled spirits contain [[ethyl alcohol]], the same chemical that is present in [[beer]] and [[wine]], and as such, spirit consumption has short-term psychological and physiological effects on the user. Different concentrations of alcohol in the human body have different effects on a person. The effects of alcohol depend on the amount an individual has drunk, the percentage of alcohol in the spirits and the timespan over which the consumption took place.<ref name="FeigeScaalHornyakGannRiemann2007">{{cite journal |vauthors=Feige B, Scaal S, Hornyak M, Gann H, Riemann D |date=January 2007 |title=Sleep electroencephalographic spectral power after withdrawal from alcohol in alcohol-dependent patients |journal=Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research |volume=31 |issue=1 |pages=19–27 |doi=10.1111/j.1530-0277.2006.00260.x |pmid=17207097}}</ref>

The short-term effects of alcohol consumption range from a decrease in anxiety and motor skills and [[euphoria]] at lower doses to [[Alcohol intoxication|intoxication]] (drunkenness), to [[stupor]], unconsciousness, [[anterograde amnesia]] (memory "blackouts"), and [[central nervous system depression]] at higher doses. [[Cell membrane|Cell membranes]] are highly permeable to [[Alcohol (drug)|alcohol]], so once it is in the bloodstream, it can diffuse into nearly every cell in the body.  Alcohol can greatly exacerbate sleep problems. During [[abstinence]], residual disruptions in sleep regularity and sleep patterns are the greatest predictors of [[relapse]].<ref name="FeigeScaalHornyakGannRiemann2007" /> 

Drinking more than 1–2 drinks a day increases the risk of heart disease, [[high blood pressure]], [[atrial fibrillation]], and [[stroke]].<ref name="Kee2014">{{Cite journal |last1=O'Keefe |first1=JH |last2=Bhatti |first2=SK |last3=Bajwa |first3=A |last4=DiNicolantonio |first4=JJ |last5=Lavie |first5=CJ |date=March 2014 |title=Alcohol and cardiovascular health: the dose makes the poison...or the remedy. |journal=Mayo Clinic Proceedings |volume=89 |issue=3 |pages=382–93 |doi=10.1016/j.mayocp.2013.11.005 |pmid=24582196 |doi-access=free}}</ref> The risk is greater in younger people due to [[binge drinking]], which may result in violence or accidents.<ref name="Kee2014" /> About 3.3 million deaths (5.9% of all deaths) are due to alcohol each year.<ref name="NIH2015Stats">{{Cite web |title=Alcohol Facts and Statistics |url=http://www.niaaa.nih.gov/alcohol-health/overview-alcohol-consumption/alcohol-facts-and-statistics |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160212173744/http://www.niaaa.nih.gov/alcohol-health/overview-alcohol-consumption/alcohol-facts-and-statistics |archive-date=February 12, 2016 |access-date=May 9, 2015}}</ref>
Unlike wine and perhaps beer, there is no evidence for a [[J curve|J-shaped]] health effect for the consumption of distilled alcohol.<ref name="Korotayev" />  Long-term use can lead to an [[Alcoholism|alcohol use disorder]], an increased risk of developing [[physical dependence]]. [[Alcohol and cardiovascular disease|cardiovascular disease]] and [[Alcohol and cancer|several types of cancer]].<ref name="FeigeScaalHornyakGannRiemann2007" />

[[Alcoholism]], also known as "alcohol use disorder", is a broad term for any drinking of alcohol that results in problems.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Littrell |first=Jill |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2k57AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA55 |title=Understanding and Treating Alcoholism Volume I: An Empirically Based Clinician's Handbook for the Treatment of Alcoholism: Volume II: Biological, Psychological, and Social Aspects of Alcohol Consumption and Abuse |date=2014 |publisher=Taylor and Francis |isbn=9781317783145 |location=Hoboken |page=55 |quote=The World Health Organization defines alcoholism as any drinking which results in problems}}</ref> Alcoholism reduces a person's life expectancy by around ten years<ref name="Schu2014">{{Cite journal |last=Schuckit |first=MA |date=November 27, 2014 |title=Recognition and management of withdrawal delirium (delirium tremens). |url=http://www.escholarship.org/uc/item/08b9z9th |journal=The New England Journal of Medicine |volume=371 |issue=22 |pages=2109–13 |doi=10.1056/NEJMra1407298 |pmid=25427113 |s2cid=205116954}}</ref> and alcohol use is the third-leading cause of early death in the United States.<ref name="Kee2014" />

Consumption of alcohol in any quantity [[alcohol and cancer|can cause cancer]]. Alcohol causes [[breast cancer]], [[colorectal cancer]], [[esophageal cancer]], [[liver cancer]], and [[head-and-neck cancer]]s. The more alcohol is consumed, the higher the cancer risk.<ref>{{Cite web |date=July 14, 2021 |title=Alcohol and Cancer Risk Fact Sheet - NCI |url=https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/causes-prevention/risk/alcohol/alcohol-fact-sheet |access-date=June 28, 2022 |website=www.cancer.gov |language=en}}</ref>

===Home-made liquor===
{{confuse|Moonshine}}

A survey of high school students in Alstahaug, Nordland county, revealed that adolescents consume alcohol at rates above the national average, with home-made liquor being prevalent and easily accessible, highlighting an urgent need for preventive measures.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jaegtvik |first1=T |last2=Schei |first2=E |title=[Home-brew and alcohol drinking of adolescents]. |journal=Tidsskrift for den Norske Laegeforening |date=30 May 1999 |volume=119 |issue=14 |pages=2010–4 |pmid=10394274}}</ref>

==See also==
{{div col|colwidth=25em}}
* {{annotated link|Aguardiente}}
* {{annotated link|Akvavit}}
* {{section link|Alcohol measurements#Liquor bottles}}
* {{annotated link|Amaro (liqueur)}} 
* {{annotated link|Arak (drink)|Arak}}
* {{annotated link|Arrack}}
* {{annotated link|Awamori}}
* {{annotated link|Baijiu}} / [[Shōchū]] / [[Soju]]
* {{annotated link|Borovička}}
* {{annotated link|Cachaça}}
* {{annotated link|Eau de vie}}
* {{annotated link|Er guo tou}}
* {{annotated link|Feni (liquor)|Fenny}}
* {{annotated link|Freeze distillation}}
* {{annotated link|Geist (liquor)|Geist}}
* {{annotated link|Horilka}}
* {{annotated link|Jenever}}
* {{annotated link|Kaoliang liquor}}
* {{annotated link|Liquor store}}
* {{annotated link|List of national drinks}}
* {{annotated link|Mahuli (wine)|Mahua}}
* {{annotated link|Mamajuana}}
* {{annotated link|Mezcal}}
* {{annotated link|Moonshine}}
* {{annotated link|Moonshine by country}}
* {{annotated link|Orujo}}
* {{annotated link|Padlamanggan}}
* {{annotated link|Pálinka}}
* {{annotated link|Pisco}}
* {{annotated link|Poitín}}
* {{annotated link|Rakia}}
* {{annotated link|Rakı}}
* {{annotated link|Rectified spirit}}
* {{annotated link|Rượu đế}}
* {{annotated link|Schnapps}}
* {{annotated link|Slivovitz}}
* {{annotated link|Tsikoudia}}
* {{annotated link|Tsipouro}}
* {{annotated link|Viche (drink)|Viche}}
* {{annotated link|Whiskey}}
{{div col end}}

== Notes ==
{{NoteFoot}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Bibliography==
*{{Cite book |last=Blue |first=Anthony Dias |title=The Complete Book of Spirits: A Guide to Their History, Production, and Enjoyment |publisher=HarperCollins Publishers |year=2004 |isbn=0-06-054218-7 |location=New York}}
*{{Cite book |last=Forbes |first=Robert |title=Short History of the Art of Distillation from the Beginnings up to the Death of Cellier Blumenthal |publisher=Brill Academic Publishers |year=1997 |isbn=90-04-00617-6}}
*{{Cite book |last=Multhauf |first=Robert |title=The Origins of Chemistry |publisher=Gordon & Breach Science Publishers |year=1993 |isbn=2-88124-594-3}}

==External links==
{{Wiktionary|liquor|liqueur|spirit}}
* {{commons category-inline|Distilled beverages}}

{{Alcoholic beverages |state=expanded |selected=types}}
{{portal bar|Liquor|Drink}}
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Alcohol industry]]
[[Category:Alcoholic drinks]]
[[Category:Distilled drinks| ]]
[[Category:Distillation]]
[[Category:Drinks]]
[[Category:Mesopotamian inventions]]
[[Category:Ancient inventions]]