wiki143 - User contributions [en]

Schoolly D

2025-10-12T23:56:30Z

92.18.76.185: Fixing lint errors Special:LintErrors/missing-end-tag.

{{Short description|American rapper (born 1962)}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=July 2014}}
{{Infobox musical artist
| name = Schoolly D
| image = Schooly-d-house-of-blues-2012.jpg
| image_size =
| caption = Schoolly D at the [[House of Blues]] in 2012
| background = solo_singer
| birth_name = Jesse Bonds Weaver Jr.
| alias =
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|1962|06|22}}
| birth_place = [[Philadelphia]], Pennsylvania, U.S.
| origin =
| genre = {{hlist|[[East Coast hip hop]]|[[gangsta rap]]|[[hardcore hip hop]]}}
| occupation = {{hlist|[[Rapper]]|musician|composer|DJ|[[voice-over artist]]|actor
}}
| years_active = 1984–present
| label = {{hlist|[[Jive Records|Jive]]/[[Bertelsmann Music Group|BMG]]|[[Capitol Records|Capitol]]/[[EMI]]|[[Ruffhouse Records|Ruffhouse]]/[[Columbia Records|Columbia]]/[[Sony Music Entertainment|SME]]
}}
}}

'''Jesse Bonds Weaver Jr.''' (born June 22, 1962), better known by the stage name '''Schoolly D''', is an American rapper from [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://movies.nytimes.com/person/563261/Schoolly-D |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121104101400/http://movies.nytimes.com/person/563261/Schoolly-D |url-status=dead |archive-date=2012-11-04 |department=Movies & TV Dept. |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=2012 |title=All Movie Guide: Schoolly D }}</ref><ref name="phillymag">{{cite news |last1=Fiorillo |first1=Victor |title=Schoolly D Has a Message for Wannabe Rappers |url=https://www.phillymag.com/news/2023/10/04/schoolly-d-rapper-cheesesteaks/ |work=Philadelphia Magazine |date=October 4, 2023}}</ref>

== Biography ==
Schoolly D was born Jesse Bonds Weaver Jr. in [[West Philadelphia]] and raised in Philadelphia as well as Georgia.<ref name="phillymag" />

In the mid-1980s, Schoolly D teamed up with [[DJ Code Money]] with lyrics reflecting urban realism, violence, and sexual bravado.<ref name="LarkinDM"/> He was interviewed in the 1986 documentary ''[[Big Fun in the Big Town]]''.<ref>{{IMDb title|2323202|Big Fun in the Big Town (1986)}}</ref> He later embraced an [[Afrocentrism|Afrocentric]] style, bringing Afrocentric culture to hip hop along with [[KRS-One]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mtv.com/news/articles/1429824/20000214/guru.jhtml |title=KRS-One, Schoolly D, Guru Tapped For "Once in the Life" |access-date=September 9, 2010 |last=Basham |first=David |date=February 14, 2000 |publisher=[[MTV]].com |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081011005041/http://www.mtv.com/news/articles/1429824/20000214/guru.jhtml |archive-date=October 11, 2008 }}</ref>

Schoolly D contributed songs and music to many [[Abel Ferrara]] films, including "[[P.S.K. What Does It Mean?|P.S.K.]]" and "Saturday Night" (from ''[[Saturday Night! – The Album]]'') as well as "[[King of New York (song)|King of New York]]" to Ferrara's [[King of New York|film of the same name]] and the title track from ''[[Am I Black Enough for You? (album)|Am I Black Enough For You?]]'' that was played during the climactic shoot-out in that film, the title track from ''[[How a Black Man Feels]]'', and "Signifying Rapper" (from ''[[Smoke Some Kill]]''), which was used in Ferrara's film ''[[Bad Lieutenant]]''.<ref name="Tobias">{{cite news |url=http://www.avclub.com/content/node/22601 |title=Interview with Abel Ferrara |access-date=13 April 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090211170233/http://www.avclub.com/articles/abel-ferrara,13793/ | archive-date=February 11, 2009|last=Tobias |first=Scott |date=November 27, 2002 |newspaper=[[The A.V. Club]]}}</ref> Because [[Led Zeppelin]] successfully sued because of an uncleared [[Interpolation (popular music)|interpolation]]  of its song "[[Kashmir (song)|Kashmir]]" in "Signifying Rapper", the song was omitted from the soundtrack of the film and from subsequent releases of the film.<ref name="Tobias" />

Composer Joe Delia tapped Schoolly to co-write and record "The Player" for Ferrara's film ''The Blackout'', which Delia scored.<ref name="LarkinDM"/> Schoolly also wrote the score to Ferrara's ''[['R Xmas]]''. In 2006, Schoolly D co-wrote the indie film soundtrack of the historical science fiction thriller ''Order of the Quest'' with [[Chuck Treece]]. The project series is produced by Benjamin Barnett, and Jay D Clark of Media Bureau. His eighth album, ''[[Funk 'N Pussy]]'', on Jeff "Met" Thies' Chord Recordings features guest appearances by [[Public Enemy (band)|Public Enemy]]'s [[Chuck D]], Chuck Chillout, Lady B and a [[drum and bass]] remix of the classic Schoolly D track "Mr. Big Dick" (remixed by UK [[trip hop]] crew [[The Sneaker Pimps]]).

Schoolly also performed the music and occasional narration for the [[cult television|cult]] [[animated series]] ''[[Aqua Teen Hunger Force]]'' on the [[Cartoon Network]]'s [[Adult Swim]] programming block. He was a guest on a first-season episode of ''[[Space Ghost Coast to Coast]]''. He also created the song "Sharkian Nights" for the Adult Swim series ''[[12 oz. Mouse]]''. The character Jesse B. Weaver from ''[[The Rudy and Gogo World Famous Cartoon Show]]'' was also named after him.

On December 30, 2022, he released his newest album, ''Cause Schoolly D Is Crazy''.{{citation needed|date=January 2023}}

==Legacy==
Rapper [[Ice-T]], who is often given credit for the creation of [[gangsta rap]], discussed Schoolly D's influence on him in his autobiography:<ref name=IceCentury>{{cite book |last1=Marrow |first1=Tracy |last2=Century |first2=Douglas |title=Ice: A Memoir of Gangster Life and Redemption—from South Central to Hollywood |year=2011 |publisher=Random House |isbn=978-0-345-52328-0 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/icememoirofgangs00icet }}</ref>

{{blockquote|The first record that came out along those lines was Schoolly D's "P.S.K." Then the syncopation of that rap was used by me when I made "[[6 in the Mornin']]." The vocal delivery was the same: "...P.S.K. is makin' that green," "...six in the morning, police at my door." When I heard that record I was like, "Oh shit!" and call it a bite or what you will but I dug that record. My record didn't sound like "P.S.K.," but I liked the way he was flowing with it. "P.S.K." was talking about Park Side Killers but it was very vague. That was the only difference, when Schoolly did it, it was "...one by one, I'm knockin' em out." All he did was represent a gang on his record. I took that and wrote a record about guns, beating people down, and all that with "6 in the Mornin'."<ref>{{cite web
| url = http://www.daveyd.com/iceprops.html
| title = Ice T Speaks
| access-date = 2007-04-02
| author = Davey D
| work = Davey D's Ultimate Interview Directory
| publisher = Davey D with eLine Productions
| quote = Here's the exact chronological order of what really went down: The first record that came out along those lines was Schooly D's 'P.S.K.' …
| archive-date = July 18, 2006
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20060718115817/http://www.daveyd.com/iceprops.html
| url-status = live
}}</ref> }}

== Discography ==
=== Studio albums ===
{{Listen
| filename=Schoolly D - PSK What Does It Mean.ogg
| title=Schoolly D "P.S.K. 'What Does It Mean'?" (1985)
| description=25-second sample from Schoolly D's first album.}}

* 1985: ''[[Schoolly D (album)|Schoolly D]]''
* 1986: ''[[Saturday Night! – The Album]]''
* 1988: ''[[Smoke Some Kill]]''
* 1989: ''[[Am I Black Enough for You? (album)|Am I Black Enough for You?]]''
* 1991: ''[[How a Black Man Feels]]''
* 1994: ''[[Welcome to America (Schoolly D album)|Welcome to America]]''<ref name="LarkinDM">{{cite book|title=[[Encyclopedia of Popular Music|The Virgin Encyclopedia of Dance Music]]|editor=[[Colin Larkin (writer)|Colin Larkin]]|publisher=[[Virgin Books]]|date=1998|edition=First|isbn=0-7535-0252-6|page=301}}</ref>
* 1995: ''[[Reservoir Dog]]''
* 2000: ''[[Funk 'N Pussy]]''
* 2008: ''Schoolly D's Out Cold''
* 2010: ''International Supersport''
* 2019: ''The Real Hardcore''
* 2022: ''Cause Schoolly D Is Crazy''

=== Compilations ===
* 1987: ''The Adventures of Schoolly D''
* 1995: ''The Jive Collection, Vol. 3''
* 1996: ''A Gangster's Story: 1984–1996''
* 2000: ''Best on Wax (5 Years of Schoolly D)''
* 2003: ''The Best of Schoolly D''
* 2019: ''The Official Adventures of... Schoolly D''

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== Further reading ==
*{{cite book|first=Soren|last=Baker|author-link=Soren Baker|title=The History of Gangster Rap: From Schoolly D to Kendrick Lamar, the Rise of a Great American Art Form|year=2018|publisher=Abrams Books|isbn=978-1-4197-2915-7}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb name|0195997}}
* {{allMusic|id=p93}}
* {{Discogs artist}}
* [https://www.lambiek.net/artists/s/schoolly_d.htm Article about his graphic career as an album cover designer]

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Schoolly D}}
[[Category:African-American male rappers]]
[[Category:20th-century American male rappers]]
[[Category:American male voice actors]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Rappers from Philadelphia]]
[[Category:1962 births]]
[[Category:Jive Records artists]]
[[Category:Capitol Records artists]]
[[Category:Rhythm King artists]]
[[Category:East Coast hip-hop musicians]]
[[Category:Gangsta rappers]]
[[Category:20th-century American rappers]]
[[Category:21st-century American rappers]]
[[Category:American album-cover and concert-poster artists]]
[[Category:21st-century American male musicians]]
[[Category:20th-century American male musicians]]
[[Category:20th-century African-American musicians]]
[[Category:21st-century African-American musicians]]

Darryl F. Zanuck

2025-10-12T23:29:28Z

92.18.76.185: Fixing lint errors Special:LintErrors/missing-end-tag.

{{short description|American film producer (1902–1979)}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=April 2019}}{{Use American English|date=December 2024}}

{{Infobox person
|name = Darryl F. Zanuck
|image = Darryl F. Zanuck 1964.jpg
|caption = Zanuck in 1964
|birth_name = Darryl Francis Zanuck
|birth_date = {{birth date|1902|09|05}}
|birth_place = [[Wahoo, Nebraska]], U.S.
|death_date = {{nowrap|{{death date and age|1979|12|22|1902|09|05}}}}
|death_place = [[Palm Springs, California]], U.S.
|restingplace = [[Westwood Village Memorial Park Cemetery]], Los Angeles
|years_active = 1922–1970
|spouse = {{marriage|[[Virginia Fox]]|1924}}
|children = 3, including [[Richard D. Zanuck]]
|relatives = [[Dean Zanuck]] (grandson)
}}

'''Darryl Francis Zanuck''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|z|æ|n|ə|k}} {{respell|ZAN|ək}}; September 5, 1902{{spaced ndash}}December 22, 1979) was an American film producer and [[studio executive]]; he earlier contributed stories for films starting in the [[Silent film|silent era]]. Best known as a co-founder of [[20th Century Fox]], he played a major part in the Hollywood [[studio system]] as one of its longest survivors<ref name=":0" /> (the length of his career was rivaled only by that of [[Adolph Zukor]]).<ref>Albin Krebs. ''New York Times'', June 11, 1976, "Adolph Zukor is Dead at 103".</ref> Zanuck produced three films that won the [[Academy Award for Best Picture]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Darryl F. Zanuck - Awards |url=https://www.imdb.com/name/nm0953123/awards/ |access-date=2025-01-16 |website=IMDb |language=en-US}}</ref> and won the [[Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award]] twice, the only person to receive more than one.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-02-27 |title=The Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award {{!}} Oscars.org {{!}} Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences |url=https://www.oscars.org/governors/thalberg |access-date=2025-07-23 |website=www.oscars.org |language=en}}</ref>

==Early life==
Zanuck was born in [[Wahoo, Nebraska]], the son of Sarah Louise (née Torpin), who later married Charles Norton,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.familysearch.org/ark:/61903/3:1:3QSQ-G93H-9FG5?i=322&cc=1804002|title=FamilySearch|website=[[FamilySearch]]}}</ref> and Frank Harvey Zanuck, who owned and operated a hotel in Wahoo. He had an older brother, Donald (1893–1903), who died from pneumonia when he was only nine years old.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Encyclopedia of the Great Plains {{!}} ZANUCK, DARRYL F. (1902-1979)|url=http://plainshumanities.unl.edu/encyclopedia/doc/egp.fil.067|access-date=2022-02-13|website=plainshumanities.unl.edu}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Arnold|first=Gary|date=1979-12-24|title=Motion Picture Producer Darryl F. Zanuck Is Dead at 77|language=en-US|newspaper=Washington Post|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/local/1979/12/24/motion-picture-producer-darryl-f-zanuck-is-dead-at-77/6e238304-adea-462e-8121-5b782c74ff51/|access-date=2022-02-13|issn=0190-8286}}</ref> Zanuck was of partial Swiss descent, and raised as a Protestant.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2002/09/01/movies/film-darryl-f-zanuck-action-hero-of-the-studio-era.html |work=The New York Times |title=FILM; Darryl F. Zanuck, Action Hero of the Studio Era |first=Mel |last=Gussow |date=September 1, 2002 |access-date=May 1, 2010}}</ref> At the age of six, Zanuck and his mother moved to [[Los Angeles]], where the better climate could improve her poor health. When he was eight years old, he found his first movie job as an [[Extra (acting)|extra]], but his disapproving father recalled him to Nebraska.{{citation needed|date=March 2013}} In 1917, despite being 15, he deceived a [[recruiter]], joined the [[United States Army|U.S. Army]], and served in France with the [[Nebraska Army National Guard|Nebraska National Guard]] during [[World War I]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Darryl F. Zanuck {{!}} EBSCO Research Starters |url=https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/history/darryl-f-zanuck |access-date=2025-07-23 |website=www.ebsco.com |language=en}}</ref>

Upon returning to the US, he worked at many part-time jobs while seeking work as a writer. He found work producing movie plots, and sold his first story in 1922 to [[William Russell (American actor)|William Russell]] and his second to [[Irving Thalberg]]. Screenwriter [[Frederica Sagor Maas]], story editor at [[Universal Pictures|Universal Pictures']] [[New York City|New York]] office, stated that one of the stories Zanuck sent out to [[Film studio|movie studios]] around this time was completely [[Plagiarism|plagiarized]] from another author's work.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Shocking Miss Pilgrim: A Writer in Early Hollywood |last=Maas |first=Frederica Sagor |year=1999 |publisher=The University Press of Kentucky |location=Lexington, KY |isbn=0-8131-2122-1 |pages=44–45}}</ref>

Zanuck then worked for [[Mack Sennett]] and [[Film Booking Offices of America|FBO]] (where he wrote the [[Serial film|serials]] ''[[The Telephone Girl (serial)|The Telephone Girl]]'' and ''[[The Leather Pushers]]'') and took that experience to [[Warner Brothers|Warner Bros.]], where he wrote stories for [[Rin Tin Tin]] and under a number of [[pseudonym]]s wrote more than 40 scripts from 1924 to 1929, including ''[[Red Hot Tires (1925 film)|Red Hot Tires]]'' (1925) and ''[[Old San Francisco (film)|Old San Francisco]]'' (1927). He moved into management in 1929, and became head of production in 1931.{{citation needed|date=March 2013}}

==Career==
===Studio head===
[[File:Darryl F Zanuck and Oscar in Gentleman's Agreement trailer.jpg|thumb|upright|Zanuck at the Academy Awards celebration]]
In April 1933, Zanuck left Warner Bros. over an industry salary dispute when studio head [[Jack L. Warner]] refused to comply with the [[Academy of Motion Pictures Arts and Sciences]]' decision to restore salary cuts.<ref>{{cite magazine|magazine=[[Motion Picture Herald]]|date=April 22, 1933|page=11|title=Coast conferences close with many suggestions, few decisions|url=https://archive.org/details/motionpictureher111unse/page/n253/mode/2up|access-date=April 28, 2024|via=[[Internet Archive]]}}</ref> A few days later, he partnered with [[Joseph Schenck]] to form [[Twentieth Century Pictures|20th Century Pictures, Inc.]] with financial help from Joseph's brother [[Nicholas Schenck]] and [[Louis B. Mayer]], [[President (corporate title)|president]] and studio head of [[Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer|Loew's, Inc]] and its subsidiary [[Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer]], along with [[William Goetz]] and [[Raymond Griffith]]. 20th Century released its material through [[United Artists]].

During that short time (1933–1935), 20th Century became the most successful [[Independent film|independent movie studio]] of its time, breaking [[Box office|box-office]] records with 18 of its 19 films, all profitable, including ''[[Clive of India (film)|Clive of India]]'', ''[[Les Miserables (1935 film)|Les Miserables]]'', and ''[[The House of Rothschild]]''. After a dispute with United Artists over stock ownership, Schenck and Zanuck negotiated and used their studio to bring the bankrupt [[Fox Film|Fox studios]] in 1935 to create [[20th Century Fox|Twentieth Century-Fox Film Corporation]].<ref>Ilias Chrissochoidis (ed.), ''Spyros P. Skouras, Memoirs (1893–1953)'' (Stanford, 2013), p. 104.</ref>

Zanuck was [[Vice president|Vice President]] of Production of this new studio and took a hands-on approach, closely involving himself in scripts, [[film editing]], and producing.{{citation needed|date=November 2022}}

===World War II===
{{More citations needed|section|date=November 2022}}
When the U.S. entered [[World War II]] at the end of 1941, he was commissioned as a [[colonel]] in the [[United States Army|U.S. Army]] [[United States Army Signal Corps|Signal Corps]], but was frustrated to find himself posted to the [[Kaufman Astoria Studios|Astoria studios]] in [[Queens, New York]], and even worse, serving alongside the spoiled son of Universal's founder, [[Carl Laemmle Jr.]], who was chauffeured by limousine to the facility each morning from a luxury [[Manhattan]] hotel.

Appalled by such privileged cosseting, Zanuck stormed down to [[Washington, DC]], and into the [[United States Department of War|War Department]], demanding a riskier assignment from [[Chief of Staff of the United States Army|Chief of Staff]], [[General officer|General]] [[George C. Marshall]]. Since American forces were not yet fighting anywhere, Marshall had Zanuck posted to [[London]] as chief U.S. [[liaison officer]] to the [[British Army]] film unit, where at least he would be studying army training films while under [[Nazi Party|Nazi]] [[bombardment]] by [[Adolf Hitler|Hitler]]'s [[Luftwaffe]].<ref>Mosley, Leonard (1984) ''Zanuck: The Rise and Fall of Hollywood's Last Tycoon'', pp. 199–200.</ref>

He even persuaded [[Louis Mountbatten, 1st Earl Mountbatten of Burma|Lord Mountbatten]] to allow him along on a secret coastal [[Raid (military)|raid]] across the [[English Channel|Channel]] to occupied France. The daring nighttime attack on a German radar site was a success. Zanuck, ever the showman, sent his wife in [[Santa Monica, California|Santa Monica]] a package of "Nazi-occupied sand", writing her "I've just been swimming on an enemy beach" – not allowed, of course, to tell her where he had been, let alone that they had been under Nazi gunfire and helped the wounded back to the ship.<ref>Mosley, p. 201</ref>

While Zanuck was on duty, 20th Century-Fox, like the other studios, contributed to the war effort by releasing a large number of their male stars for overseas service and many of their female stars for [[United Service Organizations|USO]] and [[war bond]] tours — while creating patriotic films under the often contentious supervision of a fledgling [[United States Office of War Information|Office of War Information]]. Jack L. Warner, whose studio lot happened to be next door to a [[Lockheed Corporation|Lockheed]] factory, was made a colonel in the [[United States Army Air Forces|Army Air Corps]] without ever actually having to leave the studio, let alone put on a uniform. Not so Zanuck, who pleaded with the War Department, as soon as American troops were posted for action in [[North Africa]], and was rewarded with the assignment of covering the invasion for the Signal Corps.

Director [[John Ford]], a longtime adversary of Zanuck despite the latter's having shepherded Ford's ''[[The Grapes of Wrath (film)|The Grapes of Wrath]]'' (1940) past the [[Censorship|censorious]] [[Motion Picture Production Code|Hays office]] into production, had been making films as a commander in the U.S. Navy even before the U.S. entered the war, and he was horrified to discover himself drafted into Zanuck's Africa unit. "Can't I ever get away from you?" he growled. "I bet if I die and go to heaven, you'll be waiting for me under a sign reading 'Produced by Darryl F. Zanuck'."

Ford's chagrin turned to real outrage when Zanuck, after three months, took all their footage from [[Tunisia Campaign|battles]] in [[Tunisia]], most of which Ford had shot, and hastily assembled it into a picture that went into American theaters without Ford's name appearing anywhere. The movie, released as ''At The Front'' with Zanuck credited as producer, was poorly received in the States, called amateurish, dull, and even lacking in realism, prompting the affronted Zanuck to counter in ''[[The New York Times]]'' that he had resisted the temptation to stage events for a more convincing film. Unfortunately, this controversy landed Zanuck into a [[United States Senate|Senate]] [[subcommittee]] headed by Senator [[Harry S. Truman]], investigating "instant" colonels who were popping up and concentrating on famous Hollywood names.

Unlike Col. Warner, most colonels from the studio system — Col. [[Frank Capra]], Col. [[Anatole Litvak]], Col. [[Hal Roach]]—were actually doing their cinematic jobs, often, like Zanuck, under enemy fire. Nonetheless, when Col. Zanuck was named in this investigation in 1944, the usually combative mogul uncharacteristically and abruptly resigned his commission and left the Army. Biographer [[Leonard Mosley]] suggests this to be because of an inadvertent security leak when Zanuck had mentioned a top-secret, brand new, massively powerful bomb the size of a "golf ball" to a fellow officer from his Hollywood world. Whatever the reason, despite having published his own first-person account of his wartime adventures (''The New York Times'' critic [[Bosley Crowther]] actually liked this book better than the film), he resigned.<ref>Mosley "Zanuck", pp. 199–209</ref>

=== Studio head (1944–1956) ===

Zanuck returned to 20th Century-Fox in 1944 a changed man.<ref>Mosley, p. 209</ref> He avoided the studio and instead read books at home, surrounded by his growing family, and caught up on all the films he had missed while overseas in his private screening room. He did not return to take the reins until [[William Goetz]], the man Zanuck had left in charge when he went off to war, left for a job at [[Universal Pictures|Universal]].

Zanuck's tenure in the 1940s and '50s resonated with his astute choices. He first personally rescued a cumbersome cut of ''[[The Song of Bernadette (film)|The Song of Bernadette]]'' (1943), recutting the completed film into a surprise hit that made a star of newcomer [[Jennifer Jones]], who won the Oscar. He relented to actor [[Otto Preminger]]'s fervent wish to direct a modest thriller called ''[[Laura (1944 film)|Laura]]'' (1944), casting [[Clifton Webb]] in his Oscar-nominated role as [[Gene Tierney]]'s controlling mentor, with [[David Raksin]]'s haunting score.

Leading theater director [[Elia Kazan]] was carefully nurtured through his first film, ''[[A Tree Grows in Brooklyn (1945 film)|A Tree Grows in Brooklyn]]'' (1945), based on a popular novel. It did so well, he chose Kazan to direct the first studio film on [[antisemitism]], ''[[Gentleman's Agreement]]'' (1947), with [[Gregory Peck]] playing a [[Gentile]] reporter whose life falls apart due to implacable antisemitism emerging from friends and family when he pretends to be [[Jews|Jewish]] for an exposé. After Kazan triumphed in [[Tennessee Williams]]' Broadway hit, ''[[A Streetcar Named Desire (play)|A Streetcar Named Desire]]'', he brought Kazan back to direct ''[[Pinky (film)|Pinky]]'' (1949), another film about [[Discrimination|prejudice]], this time racial.

The scathing theater world of [[Bette Davis]]'s aging actress in ''[[All About Eve]]'' (1950) went on to win six Oscars at the [[23rd Academy Awards|Academy Awards]];<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oscars.org/oscars/ceremonies/1951|title=The 23rd Academy Awards (1951) Nominees and Winners|publisher=[[Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences]]|access-date=August 10, 2014}}</ref> the disturbing questions of a bomber squadron leader [[Gregory Peck]] in ''[[Twelve O'Clock High]]'' (1949) challenged wartime [[patriotism]]. Both showed Zanuck's ability to create box-office hits via brilliant films with unflinching examinations of demanding, hierarchical worlds. Zanuck continued to tackle [[social issue]]s other studios would not touch, but he stumbled with [[Idealism|idealistic]] projects. ''[[Wilson (1944 film)|Wilson]]'' (1944), an expensive picture that was unsuccessful at the box office, and an attempt to make a film of ''[[One World (Willkie book)|One World]]'', a memoir by politician [[Wendell Willkie]] of his tour of war-damaged [[Europe]], a project that was aborted before shooting began.{{citation needed|date=March 2021}}

===CinemaScope===
{{Unreferenced section|date=June 2024}}
As [[television]] began to erode Hollywood's audiences in the early 1950s, [[widescreen]] presentation was thought to be a potential solution. The 1950 [[television set]] duplicated the near-square shape of the [[35mm movie film|35 mm format]] in which all movies were shot—and this was no accident. Standardization of film size meant all theaters everywhere could play all films. Even the projection of film formats—i.e. any attempt to break out of the 35 mm format were under the control of the Hays Office, which limited any wide-screen experiments to the 10 largest cities in America. This severely limited the future of any widescreen format.

Zanuck was an early advocate of widescreen projection. One of the first things Zanuck did when he returned to Fox in 1944 was to restart the research on a 50 mm film, shelved in the early 1930s as a cost-cutting measure (a larger-sized film print in the projector meant higher resolution). Impressed by a screening in [[Cinerama]], a three-[[Movie projector|projector]] widescreen process, unveiled in 1952 that promised to envelop the viewer in a wrap-around image, Zanuck wrote an essay extolling widescreen's virtues, seeing the new formats as a "participatory" form of recreation, rather than mere passive entertainment, such as television.<ref>"Recreation vs. Entertainment" by Darryl Zanuck, Hollywood Reporter, October 1953, quoted in "Widescreen Cinema" by [[John Belton (academic)|John Belton]], Harvard Press, 1992, p. 77</ref> Cinerama was cumbersome, though, and used three (image) projectors simultaneously (plus a 4th projector for sound), potentially a hugely expensive investment. Fox, like every other studio, had rejected Cinerama when the innovative new process was pitched to them for investment. In retrospect, this looked like a mistake, but nothing could be done. Cinerama was no longer for sale.

Zanuck now urged the studio to keep the same principle, but find a more feasible approach. He approved a massive investment into a system that would be called [[CinemaScope]]—$10 million in its first year alone. The urgency was increased when an aggressive appliance tycoon and shareholder, Charles Green, began threatening a proxy takeover, claiming the current Fox administration was wasting stockholders' money. He attempted to conspire with Zanuck to oust the New York-based president of Fox since 1942, [[Greek Americans|Greek-American]] [[Spyros Skouras]]. Zanuck refused; instead, Skouras and he decided to gamble on CinemaScope to save their jobs, and perhaps, their studio.

Skouras made a bold announcement in February; Fox not only had a new and vastly more economical and efficient wide-screen process, but all Fox films would be released in CinemaScope—a format which had yet to be perfected. ''[[The Robe (film)|The Robe]]'' (1953), a [[Bible|Biblical]] [[Epic film|epic]], would be its first released feature film. Skouras now began to oversee Fox's somewhat startled research scientists, based on the East Coast and accustomed to Hollywood executives who thought R&D was a waste of money. Then Skouras flew to Paris to meet with a French inventor, [[Henri Chretien]], who had created a new lens that just might be suitable.

Though Fox shares immediately went up, Green found this an even more damning indication of Zanuck and Skouras's leadership and began readying his proxy fight for the May shareholder meeting. This meant that a CinemaScope process had to be publicly demonstrated to the industry's studios, theater owners, manufacturers, to stockholders and the press—by mid-March, to give them enough time to impress their shareholders with their new product and thus win the proxy fight.

With Chretien's new lens, the Fox engineers pulled it together—a widescreen, Cinerama-like picture projected using only one projector, not three. Zanuck carried out presentations of CinemaScope to the press in cities across the country throughout April, as Skouras and he gathered their forces for the proxy fight. "The enthusiastic response of those who attended these screenings and the laudatory reviews of CinemaScope in the trade press," writes John Belton in his book, ''Widescreen'' (1992), "undoubtedly played a major role in Green's defeat" at the May 5 meeting. CinemaScope's need for a wider screen was because of an [[anamorphic lens]] attached to the camera which, squeezed the image while filming, and another lens on the projector, which reverted the process, widening the image during screening.

Implementing this was no easy matter. Directors, cameramen, and production designers were baffled by what to do with all that space. Zanuck encouraged them to spread the action across the screen, to take full advantage of the new proportions. Committed to its all-widescreen slate, Fox had to drop several projects that were deemed unsuitable for CinemaScope—one of them being Elia Kazan's ''[[On the Waterfront]]'' (1954), which Zanuck could not visualize being in color and widescreen. (Kazan took the project to [[Columbia Pictures|Columbia]], which had thus far stayed on the sidelines of the widescreen debate.) The public demonstrations in spring had already included excerpts from ''The Robe'' and ''[[How to Marry a Millionaire]]'' (also 1953), a glossy star package with [[Marilyn Monroe]] and [[Lauren Bacall]].

Of the other studios, MGM had immediately abandoned its own attempts and committed to CinemaScope and United Artists and [[The Walt Disney Company|Walt Disney Productions]] announced they would make films in the same widescreen process, but the other studios hesitated, and some announced their own rival systems: [[Paramount Pictures|Paramount's]] [[VistaVision]], which would prove a worthy rival, and Warner Bros.'s WarnerScope which vanished overnight. The November 3, 1953, premiere of ''The Robe'' brought Warner Bros. and Columbia around, though Warner's plan had a full slate of [[3D film|3-D features]] for 1954 instead. Zanuck began to make compromises, and eventually capitulated. Smaller theaters rented conventional versions of the studio's films; stereo they could live without altogether. [[Todd-AO]] came out in 1955, and after its developer, [[Mike Todd]], died in 1958, Zanuck invested in the process for Fox's most exclusive [[Roadshow theatrical release|roadshows]]. Although pictures continued to be shot in CinemaScope until 1967, it ironically became relegated to Fox's conventional releases. Nonetheless, the Battle of the Screens seemed to leave Zanuck emotionally exhausted.

=== Going independent ===

Following the commercial disappointment of ''[[The Egyptian (film)|The Egyptian]]'' (1954), in 1956 Zanuck withdrew from the studio and left his wife, [[Virginia Fox]], to move to Europe and concentrate on independent producing with a generous contract from Fox that gave him directing and casting control on any projects Fox financed. Eventually, in his absence, Fox began to fall to pieces due to the ballooning budget of ''[[Cleopatra (1963 film)|Cleopatra]]'' (1963), whose entire set constructed at [[Pinewood Studios]] had to be scrapped before shooting even started.

Meanwhile, Zanuck picked up a hefty book by [[Cornelius Ryan]] called ''[[The Longest Day (book)|The Longest Day]]'', which promised to fulfill his dream of making the definitive film of [[Normandy landings|D-Day]]. Flying back to the States, he had to convince a Fox board, staggering under the still-unfinished ''Cleopatra''{{'}}s $15 million cost, to finance what he was sure would be a box-office hit, as indeed it was, despite skeptics that included his son Richard. He seethed at the $8 million ceiling imposed on him, knowing he would have to dip into his own pocket to finish the film, as he soon did.

=== Return to Fox ===

Fearing the studio's profligacy would sink his cherished ''[[The Longest Day (film)|The Longest Day]]'' (1962) as it readied for release, Zanuck returned to control Fox. He replaced [[Spyros Skouras]] as president, who had failed to control perilous cost overruns on the still-unfinished ''Cleopatra'' and had been forced to shelve [[Marilyn Monroe]]'s last vehicle, ''[[Something's Got to Give]]'' after principal photography had started, at a loss of $2 million. Zanuck promptly made his son, [[Richard D. Zanuck]], head of production.

Richard quickly displayed his own flair for picking fresh, new hits, helped by his trusted fellow producer, [[David Brown (producer)|David Brown]]. He plucked [[Rodgers and Hammerstein|Rodgers and Hammerstein's]] least successful [[Broadway theatre|Broadway show]] from obscurity and turned it into the highly successful ''[[The Sound of Music (film)|The Sound of Music]]'' (1965), committed to the [[science-fiction]] hit ''[[Planet of the Apes (1968 film)|Planet of the Apes]]'' (1968), unleashed maverick director [[Robert Altman]] to create his [[Anti-war movement|antiwar]] [[Comedy film|comedy]] ''[[MASH (film)|MASH]]'' (1970) and hired the little-known [[Francis Coppola]] to write ''[[Patton (film)|Patton]]'' (1970) into a project for [[George C. Scott]].

However, Zanuck Sr's next all-star World War II film ''[[Tora! Tora! Tora!]]'' (1970) was plagued with production problems from the start. First, director [[David Lean]] pulled out of the [[Attack on Pearl Harbor|Pearl Harbor]] retelling, and had to be hastily replaced by [[Richard Fleischer]]; storms destroyed expensive exteriors, closing down production while they were rebuilt; then the Japanese co-director [[Akira Kurosawa]], miffed by criticism of his early rushes, either really had or merely faked a nervous breakdown before his cast and crew and had to be hospitalized, shutting down production again.

When finally finished, the relentlessly authentic film could not disguise its downbeat nature as a chronicle of American defeat, the last thing critics and audiences wanted to revisit at the height of the [[Vietnam War]] in [[Asia]].

As the tumultuous decade wore on, Richard also began to falter with lavish [[Costume drama|costume]] [[Musical film|musicals]] that expensively tanked: [[Rex Harrison]] as the man who could talk to the animals in ''[[Doctor Dolittle (film)|Doctor Dolittle]]'' (1967), [[Julie Andrews]] in the period film ''[[Star! (film)|Star!]]'' (1968), and [[Barbra Streisand]] in ''[[Hello, Dolly! (film)|Hello Dolly]]'' (1969).

== Personal life ==
=== Marriage and family ===
On January 12, 1924, he married actress [[Virginia Fox]], with whom he had three children, Darrylin, Susan Marie, and [[Richard D. Zanuck|Richard Darryl]].<ref name="nyt.1982.10.14" /> Fox, who at a time had been a leading lady in many silent films, retired from acting but became known as a behind-the-scenes influence on her husband's business decisions, as well as a prominent California hostess.<ref name="nyt.1982.10.14" /> The couple separated in 1956, after Zanuck had suddenly resigned from Twentieth Century-Fox to become an independent producer, over Zanuck's well-publicized affairs with other actresses, although they never legally divorced.<ref name="nyt.1982.10.14" /> In 1973, after Zanuck retired from filmmaking, the two reconciled and lived together in Palm Springs, and she cared for him at their home from the time he became mentally incapacitated in the early 1970s until his death in 1979.<ref name="nyt.1982.10.14">{{Cite news |title=Virginia F. Zanuck, Silent Movie Star |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1982/10/15/obituaries/virginia-f-zanuck-silent-movie-star.html |last1=Gussow |first1=Mel |date=October 15, 1982 |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |language=en |access-date=October 31, 2022}}</ref>

=== Extramarital affairs ===
While on the French Riviera, the Zanucks met Bajla Węgier, a Polish-born woman who had been raised in France.<ref name="Katz">{{cite book|last=Katz|first=Ephraim|title=The Macmillan International Film Encyclopedia|publisher=Macmillan|location=London & Basingstoke|year=1998|page=333}}</ref> The Zanucks invited her to come to Los Angeles and in 1952 she moved there to live with them and began acting lessons.<ref name="los">{{Cite news|title=Bella Darvi Deems Grooming and Clothes Equally Important|last=Lane|first=Lydia|newspaper=Los Angeles Times|date=7 February 1954|page=C14}}</ref> The woman soon changed her name to [[Bella Darvi]], "Darvi" being a combination of the first names of the Zanucks, '''Dar'''ryl and '''Vi'''rginia.<ref name="glamourgirlsofthesilverscreen.com">{{cite web |url=http://www.glamourgirlsofthesilverscreen.com/show/61/Bella+Darvi/index.html |title=The Private Life and Times of Bella Darvi |work=Glamour Girls of the Silver Screen |access-date=2009-01-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081220030423/http://www.glamourgirlsofthesilverscreen.com/show/61/Bella%2BDarvi/index.html |archive-date=20 December 2008 |url-status=live }}</ref> Eventually, she became Darryl F. Zanuck's mistress, who began pushing for starring roles for her, such as in [[Sam Fuller]]'s film ''[[Hell and High Water (1954 film)|Hell and High Water]]'' (1954) and as Nefer, a seductive [[Babylon]]ian [[courtesan]], in ''[[The Egyptian (film)|The Egyptian]]'' (1954), winning the role over [[Ava Gardner]].<ref>{{Cite news|title=Drama: Dancing Leads Set for 'Hit the Deck'|newspaper=Los Angeles Times|date=2 December 1953|page=B8}}</ref> This was accompanied by a heavy promotional campaign; [[Hedda Hopper]] called her "an exciting new personality"<ref>{{Cite news|title=French Beauty Wins 20th Pact and Role|last=Hopper|first=Hedda|authorlink=Hedda Hopper|newspaper=Los Angeles Times|date=7 February 1953|page=12}}</ref> and predicted she would be one of the "stars of 1954" and "make a splash" in her first film.<ref>{{Cite news|title='THESE WILL STAR IN 1954': Says HEDDA HOPPER STARS OF 1954|newspaper=Chicago Daily Tribune|date=3 January 1954|page=f8}}</ref> However, the films were critical disappointments. Upon ''Hell and High Water'' coming out in February, the ''New York Times'' said Darvi "does not succeed convincingly"<ref>{{Cite news|title=THE SCREEN IN REVIEW: Fox' 'Hell and High Water' in CinemaScope Is the New Feature at Roxy|last=Crowther|first=Bosley|authorlink=Bosley Crowther|newspaper=The New York Times|date=2 February 1954|page=20}}</ref> and ''The Egyptian'' saw [[Marlon Brando]] walking off the picture after the first read-through and Darvi's performance being criticized for her unintelligible [[Accent (sociolinguistics)|accent]]. Afterwards, she left Hollywood to return to Paris,<ref>{{Cite news|title=Mature Will Star in 'Gilded Rooster'|last=Hopper|first=Hedda|authorlink=Hedda Hopper|newspaper=Los Angeles Times|date=6 November 1954|page=A6}}</ref> and Zanuck would later say about trying to build Darvi into a star, "I was guilty of egomania."<ref name="Buchwald">{{Cite news|last=Buchwald|first=Art|date=1962-07-14|title=Zanuck Vs. Greco: Four-Year Friendship Egomania Ambitious Girls|newspaper=The Washington Post and Times-Herald|page=D31}}</ref>

Following this, Zanuck would establish a pattern of beginning affairs with European actresses and attempt to turn them into films stars by giving them prominent roles in 20th Century Fox films: He had affairs with singer and actress [[Juliette Gréco]], whom he cast in ''[[The Sun Also Rises (1957 film)|The Sun Also Rises]]'' (1957);<ref>''Dictionnaire des Musiciens: Les Dictionnaires d'Universalis'' Encyclopaedia Universalis (27 October 2015)</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Schwaab |first1=Catherine |title=Nécrologie de Juliette Gréco |journal=Paris Match |pages=64–65}}</ref> [[Irina Demick]], whom he cast in ''[[The Longest Day (film)|The Longest Day]]'' (1962) as a [[French Resistance]] fighter;<ref name="Buchwald" /> and [[Genevieve Gilles]], whose only film, as the lead in ''[[Hello-Goodbye (1970 film)|Hello-Goodbye]]'' (1970), was conceived and written by Zanuck.<ref name="Buchwald" /><ref>{{Cite news|last=Blume|first=Mary|date=1969-12-07|title=Darryl F. Zanuck in Paris---the Last Film Tycoon|newspaper=[[Los Angeles Times]]|page=c36}}</ref> In 1980, Gilles filed a $15 million claim against Zanuck's estate, claiming that Zanuck's son Richard influenced his father to remove her from his final will in 1973.<ref name=Var>{{cite magazine|magazine=[[Variety (magazine)|Variety]]|date=July 2, 1980|page=2|title=Actress Sues Zanuck Estate and Richard}}</ref> Zanuck family members countersued.<ref>{{Cite news|title=ZANUCKS' WILLS: 'MORE DRAMA THAN SOAP OPERAS'|first=Robert E.|last=Lindsey|newspaper=The New York Times|date=June 19, 1983}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://apnews.com/da28f7fc1b4899b9305a76e8b75d4cbc |title=Zanuck's Daughter Files $10 Million Suit Against Father's Former Mistress |work=[[Associated Press]] |date=October 23, 1986}}</ref> Zanuck's will was settled on January 8, 1988, after Gilles provided that her claim on the estate would be given to [[Yeshiva University]] in New York. The university received a $50,000 payment.<ref name="apnewsarchive 1988">{{cite news |url=https://apnews.com/f563f3438d234370ab400893daf427e7 |title=People in the News |work=Associated Press News |date=February 26, 1988 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220129124528/https://apnews.com/article/f563f3438d234370ab400893daf427e7 |archive-date=January 29, 2022 |access-date=February 26, 2025 |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Sexual misconduct allegations ===
An October 2017 article by ''[[The Daily Beast]]'', following the reporting of several [[Harvey Weinstein sexual abuse cases|sexual abuse cases]] committed by [[Harvey Weinstein]] reported that "For an origin to all this ugliness, one must turn to Darryl F. Zanuck, the titan who rose from working as the head of production at Warner Bros. to running Twentieth Century Fox. It was in the latter position that he supposedly begat the modern casting couch, holding conferences with a variety of starlets in his office every afternoon from 4-4:30 p.m."<ref name="The Daily Beast"/> The article further adds that "As some have argued, he may have learned this malicious practice from fellow studio head [[Harry Cohn]], chief of Columbia Pictures during the first half of the 20th century, as Cohn reportedly even had a private room next to his office where he conducted his unofficial 'business'", and went on to blame both Zanuck and Cohn for having "helped foster the industry's corrosive atmosphere of sexualized misconduct."<ref name="The Daily Beast">{{Cite news |last=Schager |first=Nick |date=2017-10-14 |title=Hollywood's Heinous 'Casting Couch' Culture That Enabled Harvey Weinstein |language=en |work=The Daily Beast |url=https://www.thedailybeast.com/hollywoods-heinous-casting-couch-culture-that-enabled-harvey-weinstein |access-date=2022-09-18}}</ref>

A ''[[New York Times]]'' article in February 2020 following Weinstein's conviction repeated similar claims about Zanuck, while reporting that he also "had a well-documented habit of flashing his penis at women."<ref>{{Cite news |last=Dargis |first=Manohla |date=2020-02-25 |title=Harvey Weinstein Is Going to Prison. But That's Just a Starting Point. |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/02/25/movies/weinstein-jail.html |access-date=2022-09-18 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref>

According to Zanuck's biographer, Marlys Harris: "Anyone at the studio knew of the afternoon trysts, [...] [Zanuck] was not serious about any of the women. To him they were merely pleasurable breaks in the day — like polo, lunch, and practical jokes."<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://nypost.com/2017/10/16/hollywoods-horror-stories-of-sex-predators-long-before-weinstein/ |title=Hollywood's horror stories of sex predators long before Weinstein |first1=Linda |last1=Massarella |first2=Laura |last2=Italiano |newspaper=New York Post |date=October 16, 2017 |access-date=August 4, 2024}}</ref>

==Death==
[[File:Darryl Zanuck grave at Westwood Village Memorial Park Cemetery in Brentwood, California.JPG|thumb|Darryl Zanuck's grave at the [[Westwood Village Memorial Park Cemetery]]]]
A long-time [[cigar]] [[Smoking|smoker]],<ref>{{cite web | last = Hift | first = Fred | title=The Longest Day| work=Cigar Aficionado |date= September 1, 1994 | url=http://www.cigaraficionado.com/webfeatures/show/id/The-Longest-Day_6102 | access-date= December 6, 2011}}</ref> he died of pneumonia in 1979, aged 77.<ref name=":0">{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1979/12/24/archives/darryl-f-zanuck-flamboyant-film-producer-dead-knew-the-uses-of.html|title=Darryl F. Zanuck, Flamboyant Film Producer, Dead|first=Janet|last=Maslin|newspaper=The New York Times|date=December 24, 1979}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/local/1979/12/24/motion-picture-producer-darryl-f-zanuck-is-dead-at-77/6e238304-adea-462e-8121-5b782c74ff51/|title=Motion Picture Producer Darryl F. Zanuck Is Dead at 77|first1=Gary|last1=Arnold|date=December 24, 1979|access-date=August 31, 2017|via=WashingtonPost.com}}</ref> He is interred at the [[Westwood Village Memorial Park Cemetery]], near his wife, Virginia Fox in [[Westwood, Los Angeles|Westwood, Los Angeles, California]].

==Legacy==


On February 8, 1960, Zanuck received a star on the [[Hollywood Walk of Fame]], for his contribution to the motion picture industry, at 6336 [[Hollywood Boulevard|Hollywood Blvd]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.walkoffame.com/darryl-f-zanuck|title=Darryl F. Zanuck {{!}} Hollywood Walk of Fame|website=www.WalkOfFame.com|access-date=July 20, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://projects.latimes.com/hollywood/star-walk/darryl-zanuck/|title=Darryl Zanuck|website=[[Los Angeles Times]]|access-date=July 20, 2016}}</ref>

In the 2022 [[Netflix]] film ''[[Blonde (2022 film)|Blonde]]'', Zanuck was portrayed by [[David Warshofsky]].<ref>{{cite web |title='Blonde': 10 of the Marilyn Monroe Biopic's Stars and Their Real-Life Inspirations |url=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/lists/marilyn-monroe-blonde-characters-casting/john-f-kennedy-portrayed-by-caspar-phillipson/ |website=[[The Hollywood Reporter]]|first=Katherine|last=Schaffstall |access-date=6 August 2023 |date=28 September 2022}}</ref>

==Academy Awards==
{| class="wikitable"
|+Academy Award nominations for Darryl F. Zanuck films
|-
!scope="col"|Year
!scope="col"|Result
!scope="col"|Category
!scope="col"|Film
|-
| 1929–30
| Nominated
|scope="row"| [[Academy Award for Best Picture|Outstanding Production]]
| ''[[Disraeli (1929 film)|Disraeli]]''
|-
| 1932–33
| Nominated
|scope="row"| [[Academy Award for Best Picture|Outstanding Production]]
| ''[[42nd Street (film)|42nd Street]]''
|-
| 1934
| Nominated
|scope="row"| [[Academy Award for Best Picture|Outstanding Production]]
| ''[[The House of Rothschild]]''
|-
| 1935
| Nominated
|scope="row"| [[Academy Award for Best Picture|Outstanding Production]]
| ''[[Les Misérables (1935 film)|Les Misérables]]''
|-
| 1937
| Nominated
|scope="row"| [[Academy Award for Best Picture|Outstanding Production]]
| ''[[In Old Chicago]]''
|-
| 1938
| Nominated
|scope="row"| [[Academy Award for Best Picture|Outstanding Production]]
| ''[[Alexander's Ragtime Band (film)|Alexander's Ragtime Band]]''
|-
| 1940
| Nominated
|scope="row"| [[Academy Award for Best Picture|Outstanding Production]]
| ''[[The Grapes of Wrath (film)|The Grapes of Wrath]]''
|-
| 1941
| '''Won'''
|scope="row"| [[Academy Award for Best Picture|Outstanding Motion Picture]]
| ''[[How Green Was My Valley (film)|How Green Was My Valley]]''
|-
| 1944
| Nominated
|scope="row"| [[Academy Award for Best Picture|Best Motion Picture]]
| ''[[Wilson (1944 film)|Wilson]]''
|-
| 1946
| Nominated
|scope="row"| [[Academy Award for Best Picture|Best Motion Picture]]
| ''[[The Razor's Edge (1946 film)|The Razor's Edge]]''
|-
| 1947
| '''Won'''
|scope="row"| [[Academy Award for Best Picture|Best Motion Picture]]
| ''[[Gentleman's Agreement]]''
|-
| 1949
| Nominated
|scope="row"| [[Academy Award for Best Picture|Best Motion Picture]]
| ''[[Twelve O'Clock High]]''
|-
| 1950
| '''Won'''
|scope="row"| [[Academy Award for Best Picture|Best Motion Picture]]
| ''[[All About Eve]]''
|-
| 1956
| Nominated
|scope="row"| [[Academy Award for Best Picture|Best Motion Picture]]
| ''[[The King and I (1956 film)|The King and I]]'' ("Darryl F. Zanuck presents" is seen in the opening credits)
|-
| 1962
| Nominated
|scope="row"| [[Academy Award for Best Picture|Best Picture]]
| ''[[The Longest Day (film)|The Longest Day]]''
|}

==Filmography==

===Produced by Zanuck===
{{div col|colwidth=23em}}
* 1970 ''[[Tora! Tora! Tora!]]'' (executive producer)
* 1964 ''[[The Visit (1964 film)|The Visit]]''
* 1962 ''[[The Chapman Report]]''
* 1962 ''[[The Longest Day (film)|The Longest Day]]''
* 1961 ''[[The Big Gamble (1961 film)|The Big Gamble]]''
* 1961 ''[[Sanctuary (1961 film)|Sanctuary]]''
* 1960 ''[[Crack in the Mirror]]''
* 1958 ''[[The Roots of Heaven (film)|The Roots of Heaven]]''
* 1958 ''[[The Barbarian and the Geisha]]''
* 1957 ''[[The Sun Also Rises (1957 film)|The Sun Also Rises]]''
* 1957 ''[[Island in the Sun (film)|Island in the Sun]]''
* 1956 ''[[The King and I (1956 film)|The King and I]]'' (executive producer – uncredited)
* 1956 ''[[The Man in the Gray Flannel Suit]]''
* 1956 ''[[Carousel (film)|Carousel]]'' (executive producer – uncredited)
* 1954 ''[[The Egyptian (film)|The Egyptian]]''
* 1952 ''[[The Snows of Kilimanjaro (1952 film)|The Snows of Kilimanjaro]]''
* 1952 ''[[With a Song in My Heart (film)|With a Song in My Heart]]''
* 1952 ''[[Viva Zapata!]]''
* 1951 ''[[People Will Talk]]''
* 1951 ''[[David and Bathsheba (film)|David and Bathsheba]]''
* 1950 ''[[All About Eve]]''
* 1950 ''[[No Way Out (1950 film)|No Way Out]]''
* 1949 ''[[Twelve O'Clock High]]''
* 1949 ''[[Pinky (film)|Pinky]]''
* 1948 ''[[The Snake Pit]]''
* 1947 ''[[Captain from Castile]]''
* 1947 ''[[Gentleman's Agreement]]''
* 1947 ''[[Nightmare Alley (1947 film)|Nightmare Alley]]''
* 1947 ''[[Moss Rose (film)|Moss Rose]]''
* 1946 ''[[The Razor's Edge (1946 film)|The Razor's Edge]]''
* 1946 ''[[Dragonwyck (film)|Dragonwyck]]''
* 1945 ''[[Leave Her to Heaven]]'' (executive producer)
* 1944 ''[[Wilson (1944 film)|Wilson]]''
* 1944 ''[[Buffalo Bill (1944 film)|Buffalo Bill]]'' (executive producer)
* 1941 ''[[How Green Was My Valley (film)|How Green Was My Valley]]''
* 1941 ''[[Swamp Water]]''
* 1941 ''[[A Yank in the R.A.F.]]''
* 1941 ''[[Moon Over Miami (film)|Moon Over Miami]]''
* 1941 ''[[Man Hunt (1941 film)|Man Hunt]]'' (executive producer)
* 1941 ''[[Blood and Sand (1941 film)|Blood and Sand]]''
* 1941 ''[[That Night in Rio]]''
* 1941 ''[[Tobacco Road (film)|Tobacco Road]]''
* 1941 ''[[Western Union (film)|Western Union]]''
* 1941 ''[[Hudson's Bay (film)|Hudson's Bay]]''
* 1940 ''[[Chad Hanna]]''
* 1940 ''[[The Mark of Zorro (1940 film)|The Mark of Zorro]]''
* 1940 ''[[Down Argentine Way]]''
* 1940 ''[[Brigham Young (film)|Brigham Young]]''
* 1940 ''[[The Return of Frank James]]''
* 1940 ''[[The Man I Married]]''
* 1940 ''[[Lillian Russell (film)|Lillian Russell]]''
* 1940 ''[[Little Old New York (1940 film)|Little Old New York]]''
* 1940 ''[[The Grapes of Wrath (film)|The Grapes of Wrath]]''
* 1940 ''[[The Blue Bird (1940 film)|The Blue Bird]]''
* 1939 ''[[The Little Princess (1939 film)|The Little Princess]]''
* 1939 ''[[Swanee River (1939 film)|Swanee River]]''
* 1939 ''[[Hollywood Cavalcade]]''
* 1939 ''[[Here I Am a Stranger]]''
* 1939 ''[[The Rains Came]]''
* 1939 ''[[The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes (film)|The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes]]''
* 1939 ''[[Stanley and Livingstone]]''
* 1939 ''[[Second Fiddle (1939 film)|Second Fiddle]]''
* 1939 ''[[Susannah of the Mounties (film)|Susannah of the Mounties]]'' (executive producer)
* 1939 ''[[Young Mr. Lincoln]]''
* 1939 ''[[Rose of Washington Square]]''
* 1939 ''[[The Story of Alexander Graham Bell]]''
* 1939 ''[[The Hound of the Baskervilles (1939 film)|The Hound of the Baskervilles]]'' (executive producer)
* 1939 ''[[Wife, Husband and Friend]]''
* 1939 ''[[Tail Spin]]''
* 1939 ''[[Jesse James (1939 film)|Jesse James]]''
* 1938 ''[[Kentucky (film)|Kentucky]]'' (executive producer)
* 1938 ''[[Submarine Patrol]]''
* 1938 ''[[My Lucky Star (1938 film)|My Lucky Star]]''
* 1938 ''[[Gateway (film)|Gateway]]''
* 1938 ''[[I'll Give a Million (1938 film)|I'll Give a Million]]''
* 1938 ''[[Little Miss Broadway]]''
* 1938 ''[[Just Around the Corner (1938 film)|Just Around the Corner]]''
* 1938 ''[[Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm (1938 film)|Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm]]''
* 1938 ''[[Always Goodbye (1938 film)|Always Goodbye]]''
* 1938 ''[[Josette (1938 film)|Josette]]'' (executive producer)
* 1938 ''[[Kentucky Moonshine]]''
* 1938 ''[[International Settlement (film)|International Settlement]]''
* 1938 ''[[Happy Landing (1938 film)|Happy Landing]]''
* 1938 ''[[In Old Chicago]]''
* 1937 ''[[Love and Hisses]]''
* 1937 ''[[Lancer Spy]]''
* 1937 ''[[Wife, Doctor and Nurse]]''
* 1937 ''[[Thin Ice (1937 film)|Thin Ice]]''
* 1937 ''[[Wake Up and Live]]''
* 1937 ''[[Wee Willie Winkie (film)|Wee Willie Winkie]]''
* 1937 ''[[Slave Ship (1937 film)|Slave Ship]]''
* 1937 ''[[Seventh Heaven (1937 film)|Seventh Heaven]]''
* 1937 ''[[Nancy Steele Is Missing!]]'' (executive producer)
* 1936 ''[[Banjo on My Knee (film)|Banjo on My Knee]]'' (executive producer)
* 1936 ''[[Reunion (1936 film)|Reunion]]'' (executive producer)
* 1936 ''[[Pigskin Parade]]''
* 1936 ''[[Ramona (1936 film)|Ramona]]'' (executive producer)
* 1936 ''[[Sing, Baby, Sing]]''
* 1936 ''[[To Mary – with Love]]''
* 1936 ''[[Poor Little Rich Girl (1936 film)|Poor Little Rich Girl]]''
* 1936 ''[[The Road to Glory (1936 film)|The Road to Glory]]''
* 1936 ''[[Half Angel (1936 film)|Half Angel]]''
* 1936 ''[[Under Two Flags (1936 film)|Under Two Flags]]''
* 1936 ''[[The Country Beyond (1936 film)|The Country Beyond]]''
* 1936 ''[[A Message to Garcia (1936 film)|A Message to Garcia]]''
* 1936 ''[[It Had to Happen]]''
* 1936 ''[[The Prisoner of Shark Island]]''
* 1935 ''[[Professional Soldier (film)|Professional Soldier]]''
* 1935 ''[[Show Them No Mercy!]]''
* 1935 ''[[The Man Who Broke the Bank at Monte Carlo (film)|The Man Who Broke the Bank at Monte Carlo]]''
* 1935 ''[[Thanks a Million]]''
* 1935 ''[[Metropolitan (1935 film)|Metropolitan]]''
* 1935 ''[[The Call of the Wild (1935 film)|The Call of the Wild]]''
* 1935 ''[[Cardinal Richelieu (film)|Cardinal Richelieu]]''
* 1935 ''[[Les Misérables (1935 film)|Les Misérables]]''
* 1935 ''[[Folies Bergère de Paris]]''
* 1934 ''[[The Mighty Barnum]]''
* 1934 ''[[Bulldog Drummond Strikes Back (1934 film)|Bulldog Drummond Strikes Back]]''
* 1934 ''[[Born to Be Bad (1934 film)|Born to Be Bad]]''
* 1934 ''[[The Last Gentleman (film)|The Last Gentleman]]''
* 1934 ''[[Looking for Trouble (1934 film)|Looking for Trouble]]''
* 1934 ''[[Moulin Rouge (1934 film)|Moulin Rouge]]''
* 1933 ''[[Gallant Lady (1934 film)|Gallant Lady]]''
* 1933 ''[[Advice to the Lovelorn]]''
* 1933 ''[[Blood Money (1933 film)|Blood Money]]''
* 1933 ''[[The Bowery (1933 film)|The Bowery]]''
* 1933 ''[[Ex-Lady]]''
* 1933 ''[[The Working Man]]''
* 1933 ''[[42nd Street (film)|42nd Street]]''
* 1933 ''[[Parachute Jumper]]''
* 1932 ''[[20,000 Years in Sing Sing]]''
* 1932 ''[[Three on a Match]]''
* 1932 ''[[The Cabin in the Cotton]]''
* 1932 ''[[Life Begins (1932 film)|Life Begins]]''
* 1932 ''[[Doctor X (film)|Doctor X]]''
* 1932 ''[[The Dark Horse (1932 film)|The Dark Horse]]''
* 1932 ''[[The Rich Are Always with Us]]''
* 1932 ''[[The Man Who Played God (1932 film)|The Man Who Played God]]''
* 1931 ''[[The Public Enemy]]''
* 1931 ''[[Illicit (1931 film)|Illicit]]''
* 1931 ''[[Little Caesar (film)|Little Caesar]]''
* 1930 ''[[The Doorway to Hell]]''
* 1930 ''[[Three Faces East (1930 film)|Three Faces East]]''
* 1929 ''[[The Show of Shows]]''
* 1929 ''[[On with the Show! (1929 film)|On with the Show!]]''
* 1928 ''[[Tenderloin (film)|Tenderloin]]''
* 1927 ''[[The Jazz Singer]]''
* 1927 ''[[The First Auto]]''
* 1926 ''[[So This Is Paris (1926 film)|So This Is Paris]]''
* 1925 ''[[Lady Windermere's Fan (1925 film)|Lady Windermere's Fan]]''
{{div col end}}

===Written by Zanuck===
{{div col|colwidth=23em}}
* 1968 ''D-Day Revisited'' (Documentary)
* 1960 ''[[Crack in the Mirror]]'' (as Mark Canfield)
* 1944 ''[[The Purple Heart]]'' (story – as Melville Crossman)
* 1942 ''[[China Girl (1942 film)|China Girl]]'' (story – as Melville Crossman)
* 1942 ''[[Thunder Birds (1942 film)|Thunder Birds]]'' (original story – as Melville Crossman)
* 1942 ''[[Ten Gentlemen from West Point]]''
* 1941 ''[[A Yank in the R.A.F.]]'' (story – as Melville Crossman)
* 1940 ''[[The Great Profile]]'' (story – uncredited)
* 1938 ''[[Alexander's Ragtime Band (film)|Alexander's Ragtime Band]]'' (contributing writer – uncredited)
* 1937 ''[[This Is My Affair]]'' (story – uncredited)
* 1935 ''[[Thanks a Million]]'' (story – as Melville Crossman)
* 1935 ''[[G Men]]'' (story)
* 1935 ''[[Folies Bergère de Paris]]'' (contributing writer – uncredited)
* 1933 ''[[Lady Killer (1933 film)|Lady Killer]]'' (story – uncredited)
* 1933 ''[[Baby Face (film)|Baby Face]]'' (story – as Mark Canfield)
* 1932 ''[[The Dark Horse (1932 film)|The Dark Horse]]'' (story)
* 1931 ''[[Little Caesar (film)|Little Caesar]]'' (story – uncredited)
* 1930 ''[[The Life of the Party (1930 film)|The Life of the Party]]''
* 1930 ''[[Maybe It's Love (1930 film)|Maybe It's Love]]'' (as Mark Canfield)
* 1929 ''[[Say It with Songs]]'' (story)
* 1929 ''[[Madonna of Avenue A]]'' (story)
* 1929 ''[[Hardboiled Rose]]'' (story)
* 1928 ''[[My Man (1928 film)|My Man]]'' (story)
* 1928 ''[[Noah's Ark (1928 film)|Noah's Ark]]'' (story)
* 1928 ''[[The Midnight Taxi]]'' (story – as Gregory Rogers)
* 1928 ''[[State Street Sadie]]'' (story – as Melville Crossman)
* 1928 ''Pay as You Enter'' (story – as Gregory Rogers)
* 1928 ''[[Tenderloin (film)|Tenderloin]]'' (story – as Melville Crossman)
* 1927 ''Ham and Eggs at the Front'' (story)
* 1927 ''[[Good Time Charley]]'' (story)
* 1927 ''Jaws of Steel'' ([[Rin Tin Tin]] story as Gregory Rogers)
* 1927 ''Slightly Used'' (story – as Melville Crossman)
* 1927 ''[[The Desired Woman]]'' (story – as Mark Canfield)
* 1927 ''[[The First Auto]]'' (story)
* 1927 ''[[Old San Francisco]]''
* 1927 ''The Black Diamond Express'' (story)
* 1927 ''Simple Sis'' (story – as Melville Crossman)
* 1927 ''Irish Hearts'' (story – as Melville Crossman)
* 1927 ''The Missing Link'' (as Gregory Rogers)
* 1927 ''[[Tracked by the Police]]'' ([[Rin Tin Tin]] story)
* 1927 ''Wolf's Clothing''
* 1926 ''[[The Better 'Ole]]'' (screenplay)
* 1926 ''[[Across the Pacific (1926 film)|Across the Pacific]]'' (adaptation)
* 1926 ''[[Footloose Widows]]''
* 1926 ''[[The Social Highwayman]]''
* 1926 ''[[Oh! What a Nurse!]]'' (adaptation)
* 1926 ''[[The Little Irish Girl]]'' (adaptation)
* 1926 ''[[The Caveman (1926 film)|The Caveman]]'' (scenario)
* 1925 ''[[Three Weeks in Paris]]'' (story as Gregory Rogers, screenplay as Darryl Zanuck)
* 1925 ''[[Hogan's Alley (film)|Hogan's Alley]]''
* 1925 ''Seven Sinners''
* 1925 ''[[Red Hot Tires (1925 film)|Red Hot Tires]]''
* 1925 ''[[The Limited Mail]]''
* 1925 ''Eve's Lover''
* 1925 ''[[A Broadway Butterfly]]''
* 1925 ''[[On Thin Ice (1925 film)|On Thin Ice]]'' (as Gregory Rogers)
* 1924 ''[[The Lighthouse by the Sea]]'' ([[Rin Tin Tin]] story – as Gregory Rogers)
* 1924 ''[[The Millionaire Cowboy]]'' (story)
* 1924 ''[[Find Your Man]]'' ([[Rin Tin Tin]] story – as Gregory Rogers)
* 1924 ''For the Love of Mike'' (Short)
* 1924 ''Sherlock's Home'' (Short)
* 1924 ''William Tells'' (Short)
* 1924 ''King Leary'' (Short)
* 1924 ''Money to Burns'' (Short)
* 1924 ''When Knighthood Was in Tower'' (Short)
* 1924 ''Julius Sees Her'' (Short)
* 1923 ''Judy Punch'' (Short)
* 1923 ''When Gale and Hurricane Meet'' (Short)
* 1923 ''The End of a Perfect Fray'' (Short)
* 1923 ''Gall of the Wild'' (Short)
* 1923 ''Some Punches and Judy'' (Short)
* 1923 ''Two Stones with One Bird'' (Short)
* 1923 ''Six Second Smith'' (Short)
* 1923 ''The Knight That Failed'' (Short)
* 1923 ''The Knight in Gale'' (Short)
* 1923 ''Fighting Blood''
* 1922 ''The Storm''
* 1922 ''Round Two'' (Short)
{{div col end}}

===Zanuck in documentaries; television appearances===
* 2013 ''Don't Say Yes Until I Finish Talking'' (Documentary)
* 2013 ''Don't Say No Until I Finish Talking: The Story of Richard D. Zanuck'' (Documentary)
* 2011 ''Hollywood Invasion'' (Documentary)
* 2011 ''Making the Boys'' (Documentary)
* 2010 ''Moguls & Movie Stars: A History of Hollywood'' (TV documentary)
** ''Fade Out, Fade In'' (uncredited)
** ''The Attack of the Small Screens: 1950–1960''
* 2009 ''Coming Attractions: The History of the Movie Trailer'' (Documentary)
* 2009 ''1939: Hollywood's Greatest Year'' (TV documentary)
* 2006 ''Darryl F. Zanuck: A Dream Fulfilled'' (TV documentary)
* 2005 ''Filmmakers vs. Tycoons'' (Documentary)
* 2003 ''[[American Masters]]'' (TV documentary)
** ''None Without Sin''
* ''Backstory'' (TV documentary)
** ''Gentleman's Agreement'' (2001)
** ''The Longest Day'' (2000)
* ''History vs. Hollywood'' (TV documentary)
** ''The Longest Day: A Salute to Courage'' (2001)
* 2001 ''Cleopatra: The Film That Changed Hollywood'' (TV documentary)
* ''[[The Learning Channel's Great Books|Great Books]]'' (TV documentary)
** ''The Grapes of Wrath'' (1999)
* ''[[Biography (TV series)|Biography]]'' (TV documentary)
** ''Anna and the King: The Real Story of Anna Leonowens'' (1999)
** ''Sonja Henie: Fire on Ice'' (1997)
* 1997 ''20th Century-Fox: The First 50 Years'' (TV documentary)
* 1996 ''Rodgers & Hammerstein: The Sound of Movies'' (TV documentary)
* 1995 ''The First 100 Years: A Celebration of American Movies'' (TV documentary)
* 1995 ''Darryl F. Zanuck: 20th Century Filmmaker'' (TV documentary)
* 1995 ''The Casting Couch'' (Video documentary)
* 1975 ''20th Century Fox Presents...A Tribute to Darryl F. Zanuck'' (TV documentary)
* ''The David Frost Show'' (TV)
** Episode #3.211 (1971)
** Episode #2.203 (1970)
* 1968 ''D-Day Revisited'' (Documentary)
* ''[[What's My Line?]]'' (TV )
** Episode September 16, 1962 – Mystery Guest
** Episode October 5, 1958 – Mystery Guest
* ''Cinépanorama'' (TV documentary)
** Episode 11 (June 1960)
* ''Small World'' (TV Series)
** Episode #1.22 (1959) ... Himself
* ''[[The Ed Sullivan Show]]'' (TV Series)
** Episode #11.39 (1958)
* 1954 ''The CinemaScope Parade''
* 1953 ''Screen Snapshots: Hollywood's Great Entertainers'' (Short)
* 1950 ''Screen Snapshots: The Great Showman'' (Short)
* 1946 ''Hollywood Park'' (Short)
* 1943 ''Show-Business at War'' (Documentary)
* 1943 ''At the Front'' (Documentary)
* 1943 ''At the Front in North Africa with the U.S. Army'' (Documentary)

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite book | editor=Behlmer, Rudy | title=Memo from Darryl F. Zanuck: The Golden Years at Twentieth Century-Fox | publisher=Grove | year=1993 | isbn=0-8021-1540-3}}
* Chrissochoidis, Ilias (editor) (2013). [https://www.academia.edu/3673046/The_Cleopatra_Files_Selected_Documents_from_the_Spyros_P._Skouras_Archive The Cleopatra Files: ''Selected Documents''] ''from the'' [http://www.stanford.edu/~ichriss/Skouras.htm ''Spyros P. Skouras''] ''Archive''. Brave World. {{ISBN|978-0-61582-919-7}}.
* Chrissochoidis, Ilias (ed.). [https://www.academia.edu/4728298/CinemaScope_Selected_Documents_from_the_Spyros_P._Skouras_Archive ''CinemaScope: Selected Documents from the Spyros P. Skouras Archive''.] Brave World, 2013. {{ISBN|978-0-61589-880-3}}.
* Custen, George F. ''Twentieth Century's Fox: Darryl F. Zanuck And The Culture Of Hollywood''. Basic Books (November 1997) {{ISBN|046507619X}}
* Dunne, John Gregory. ''The Studio''. Farrar, Straus & Giroux (January 1969) {{ISBN|0374271127}}
* {{cite book | author=Mosley, Leonard | title=Zanuck: The Rise and Fall of Hollywood's Last Tycoon | publisher=Little, Brown | year=1984 | isbn=0-316-58538-6}}
* Farber, Stephen. ''Hollywood Dynasties'', Putnam Group (July 1984) {{ISBN|0887150004}}
* Harris, Marlys J. ''The Zanucks of Hollywood: The Dark Legacy of an American Dynasty'', Crown (June 1989) {{ISBN|0517570203}}
* Thackrey Jr., Thomas. (December 23, 1979). "Darryl F. Zanuck, Last of Movie Moguls, Dies at 77". ''[[Los Angeles Times]]'', p. 1.

==External links==
{{Commons category|Darryl F. Zanuck}}
{{Portal|Biography}}
* {{IMDb name}}
* {{cite news |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/the-zanucks-reel-royalty/ |title=The Zanucks: Reel Royalty}} from ''[[CBS News Sunday Morning]]'', July 10, 2005

{{Darryl F. Zanuck}}
{{Navboxes
|title = Awards for Darryl F. Zanuck
|list =
{{Cecil B. DeMille Award 1952–1975}}
{{Thalberg Award}}
}}

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Fauchard

2025-10-12T11:48:45Z

92.18.76.185: Fixing lint errors Special:LintErrors/bogus-image-options. |thumb| is not a valid option.

{{short description|Type of polearm}}
{{For|the dentistry pioneer|Pierre Fauchard}}
[[File:Fauchard.jpg|thumb|{{ordered list|1300s fauchard|1580 fauchard}}]]

A '''fauchard''' is a type of [[polearm]] which was used in [[Europe]] from the 11th through the 17th centuries. In later use fauchards became ornamental and ceremonial (''fauchard de parade''), growing in size until some examples were almost too heavy to carry, let alone use.<ref name="MMA">{{Cite book |last=Dean |first=Bashford |year=1916 |title=Notes on Arms and Armor |url=https://archive.org/details/notesonarmsarmor00dean |location=New York |publisher=Metropolitan Museum of Art |access-date=18 August 2015}}</ref>{{Rp|p=[https://archive.org/details/notesonarmsarmor00dean/page/139 139]}} The design consisted of a curved blade atop a long pole, although in some portrayals, it is shown on a shorter pole. The blade bore a moderate to strong curve along its length. The cutting edge was only on the [[wikt:convex|convex]] side of the blade, unlike the [[guisarme]] or [[Bill (weapon)|bill]]. The fauchard was likely developed from the [[war scythe]] (and is from the [[scythe]] ([[falx]]) family in general) with the cutting edge turned opposite, convex instead of concave, so that the weapon was good for both thrusting and slashing attacks.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Martin |first=Paul |year=1967 |title=Armes et Armures de Charlemagne à Louis XIV |location=Fribourg |publisher=Office du Livre |page=235 |oclc=5780816}}</ref>

Pole arms developed from relatively few early tools (axe, scythe/wide-bladed knife, and the pruning hook) and the spear.<ref name="MMA"/>{{Rp|p=[https://archive.org/details/notesonarmsarmor00dean/page/135 135]}} Thus naming, particularly of early forms, is difficult. Fauchard, as a name, is from early French and may have been used to describe various arms. The [[sovnya]] may have been a localized term for the same medieval weapon. In later historical text, the terms [[glaive]] (possibly Welsh) and fauchard are used to describe the same weapons.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Laking |first=Guy Francis |year=1920 |title=A Record of European Armour and Arms Through Seven Centuries |url=https://archive.org/stream/recordofeuropean03lakiuoft#page/107/mode/2up |volume=III |location=London |publisher=G. Bell and Sons |page=[https://archive.org/details/recordofeuropean03lakiuoft/page/106/mode/2up 107] |oclc=607864234 |access-date=12 October 2025}}</ref> Over time, the form evolved and elements from other pole-arms were included in the fauchard, such as prongs to parry weapons and hook armor, complicating naming further. Some historians use only the classification "glaive" or "fauchard" and ignore the other entirely.

The form of contemporary Asian pole arms (the Japanese [[naginata]] and the Chinese [[Guandao|guan dao]] for example) has led to speculation that one could have influenced the other as regional trade brought the cultures together.<ref name="MMA"/>{{Rp|p=[https://archive.org/details/notesonarmsarmor00dean/page/139 139]}}

From the ''Dictionnaire Encyclopédique Larousse'' (1898):

<blockquote>Fauchard:
A large iron "hand weapon" (vs. throwing weapon) with the form of a bill, the back, which is opposite to the longest curve, is straight or concave, while the cutting edge is convex. The fauchard differs from the guisarme by the direction of its edge and its point, generally projected in the rear, and of the war scythe by the dimension and the nature of the curves. The very old fauchards generally carry on their backs horizontal bumps or hooks directed from top to bottom and used to pull people by the projections of their armor. The length of the shaft varied between 8 and 12 feet, that of the iron 1 to 2 feet. The fauchard is a weapon of a foot soldier that was in use from the thirteenth to the fifteenth century. It is very difficult to make the exact departure between the fairly recent fauchards, which until the eighteenth century remained in use as a weapon of ramparts, and the war scythes, couteau de breche, etc.</blockquote>

The fauchard was also described in the "Poem of the [[Combat of the Thirty]]" (Le Poème du combat des Trente): "Huceton of Clamanban fought with a fauchart / Which was cutting (bladed) on one side, hooked on the other side".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Freminville |first=Christophe-Paulin de la Poix (chevalier de) |title=Le Combat des Trente, poème du XIVe siècle transcrit sur le ms. original, conservé à la Bibliothèque du Roi, et accompagné de notes historiques |url=https://bibnum.univ-rennes2.fr/items/viewer/340#page/n1/mode/1up |language=fr |location=Rennes, France |publisher=Bibliothèques de l'Université Rennes 2 |page=[https://bibnum.univ-rennes2.fr/items/viewer/340#page/24/mode/2up/search/Huceton 24] |access-date=12 October 2025}}</ref>

<gallery widths=200 heights=200>
File:Fauchard01.jpg|"Coupe-marc", a French agricultural tool from the 19th or 20th century, often mislabeled as a fauchard. Most polearms originated from pole-mounted agricultural tools because of their heft and reach.
File:E124259.jpg|Soldiers with various polearms including a fauchard and glaive
File:Armsarmourinanti00laco_0287.jpg|Weapons in a French museum, illustrating differing name usage between languages. Left: A weapon called a fauchard, resembling a [[bill (weapon)|bill]]. Right: An ornate crescent-bladed [[halberd]] labelled "[[partisan (weapon)|partisan]]".
File:Polearms.jpg|''Pole Arms: The Development of Their Commoner Forms During the Centuries'' (fauchards are near the middle)<ref name="MMA"/>{{Rp|p=137}}
</gallery>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Polearms}}

[[Category:Edged and bladed weapons]]
[[Category:Hewing spears]]
[[Category:Medieval polearms]]
[[Category:Polearms]]

Óscar Romero

2025-10-11T23:10:16Z

92.18.76.185: Fixing lint errors Special:LintErrors/bogus-image-options. |thumb| is not a valid option.

{{Short description|Archbishop of San Salvador from 1977 to 1980}}
{{for-multi|the Paraguayan footballer|Óscar Romero (footballer)|the American soccer player|Oscar Romero (soccer)}}
{{Family name hatnote|[[Romero]]|Galdámez|lang=Spanish}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2023}}
{{Infobox Christian leader
| type = bishop
| honorific_prefix = [[Saint]]
| name = Óscar Romero
| honorific-suffix =
| title = [[Archbishop of San Salvador]]
| image = Monseñor Romero (colour).jpg
| image_size =
| caption = Romero in 1978 on a visit to [[Rome]]
| church = [[Catholic Church]]
| archdiocese = [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of San Salvador|San Salvador]]
| appointed = 3 February 1977
| term_start = 22 February 1977
| term_end = 24 March 1980
| predecessor = [[Luis Chávez y González]]
| successor = [[Arturo Rivera y Damas]]
| other_post = {{unbulleted list|Auxiliary Bishop of San Salvador|Titular Bishop of Tambeae|[[Roman Catholic Diocese of Santiago de María|Bishop of Santiago de María]]}}

| ordination = 4 April 1942
| ordained_by =
| consecration = 25 April 1970
| consecrated_by = [[Girolamo Prigione]]

| birth_name = Óscar Arnulfo Romero y Galdámez
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1917|08|15|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Ciudad Barrios]], San Miguel, El Salvador
| death_date = {{Death date and age|1980|03|24|1917|08|15|df=y}}
| death_place = Chapel of Hospital de la Divina Providencia, [[San Salvador]], El Salvador
| buried = [[San Salvador Cathedral|Metropolitan Cathedral of San Salvador]], San Salvador
| nationality = 
| religion = [[Catholicism]]
| signature = Óscar Arnulfo Romero signature.svg{{!}}class=skin-invert
| motto = {{langnf|la|Sentire cum ecclesia|To feel with the Church|break=yes}}
| coat_of_arms = File:Coat of arms of Óscar Arnulfo Romero.svg

| feast_day = 24 March
| venerated = {{unbulleted list|Catholic Church|[[Anglican Communion]]|[[Lutheranism]]}}
| beatified_date = 23 May 2015
| beatified_place = [[Monumento al Divino Salvador del Mundo|Plaza El Salvador de Mundo]], San Salvador, El Salvador
| beatified_by = [[Angelo Amato]], representing [[Pope Francis]]
| canonized_date = 14 October 2018
| canonized_place = [[Saint Peter's Square]], Vatican City
| canonized_by = Pope Francis
| attributes = [[Episcopal vestments]] [[Crown of martyrdom]] [[Martyr's palm]] [[Rosary]]
| patronage = {{Hlist|Christian communicators<ref>{{cite web|url=https://translate.google.com/translate?sl=auto&tl=en&js=y&prev=_t&hl=en&ie=UTF-8&u=https%3A%2F%2Fofsdemexico.wordpress.com%2F2015%2F03%2F13%2F%25e2%2580%258boscar-romero-patrono-de-los-comunicadores-cristianos%2F&edit-text=&act=url|title=Oscar Romero, patron of Christian communicators? (in Spanish)|publisher=Aleteia|access-date=22 March 2015}}</ref>|[[El Salvador]]|[[The Americas]]|[[Archdiocese of San Salvador]]|Persecuted Christians|[[Caritas International]] (co-patron)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.avvenire.it/Chiesa/Pagine/romero-patrona-caritas-internationalis-rodrigues-maradiaga.aspx|title=Romero co-patrono di Caritas Internationalis|publisher=Avvenire|date=16 May 2015|access-date=18 May 2015}}</ref>}} [[Cainta]], Rizal, Philippines (Quasi-Parish)

| module = {{Ordination
| embed = yes
| denomination = Catholic Church
| name = Óscar Romero
| ordained priest by =
| date of priestly ordination = 4 April 1942
| place of priestly ordination = Rome, Italy
| consecrated by = Girolamo Prigione
| co-consecrators = Luis Chávez y González and Arturo Rivera y Damas
| date of consecration = 21 June 1970
| place of consecration =
| sources = <ref name="catholic-heirarchy">{{cite web|url=http://www.catholic-hierarchy.org/bishop/bromeroy.html|title=Archbishop St. Oscar Arnulfo Romero y Galdamez †|access-date=10 December 2021|website=[[Catholic-Hierarchy.org]]}}</ref>
}}
}}

'''Óscar Arnulfo Romero y Galdámez''' (15 August 1917 – 24 March 1980) was a [[prelate]] of the [[Catholic Church in El Salvador]]. He served as Auxiliary Bishop of the [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of San Salvador|Archdiocese of San Salvador]], the Titular Bishop of [[Tambeae]], as [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Santiago de María|Bishop of Santiago de María]], and finally as the fourth Archbishop of San Salvador. As archbishop, Romero spoke out against social injustice and violence amid the escalating conflict between the [[military government]] and left-wing insurgents that led to the [[Salvadoran Civil War]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/10/13/world/europe/oscar-arnulfo-romero-saint-canonization.html|title=Óscar Romero, Archbishop Killed While Saying Mass, Will Be Named a Saint on Sunday|last=Zraick|first=Karen|date=13 October 2018|work=The New York Times|access-date=9 May 2019|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> In 1980, Romero was shot by an assassin while celebrating [[Mass (liturgy)|Mass]]. Though no one was ever convicted for the crime, investigations by the UN-created [[Truth Commission for El Salvador]] concluded that Major [[Roberto D'Aubuisson]], a [[Death squads in El Salvador|death squad]] leader and later founder of the right-wing [[Nationalist Republican Alliance]] (ARENA) political party, had ordered the killing.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Brockett|first1=Charles D.|title=Political Movements and Violence in Central America|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=9780521600552 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a1_PgauRgLwC&pg=PA240|access-date=19 October 2016|language=en|date=21 February 2005}}</ref>

In 1997, [[Pope John Paul II]] bestowed upon Romero the title of [[Servant of God#Catholic Church|Servant of God]], and a cause for his [[beatification]] was opened by the church. The cause stalled but was reopened by [[Pope Benedict XVI]] in 2012. Romero was declared a [[martyr]] by [[Pope Francis]] on 3 February 2015, paving the way for his beatification on 23 May 2015. During Romero's beatification, Pope Francis declared that his "ministry was distinguished by his particular attention to the most poor and marginalized."<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.archivioradiovaticana.va/storico/2015/05/23/pope_francis_letter_for_the_beatification_of_%C3%83%C2%B3scar_romero/en-1146203|title=Pope Francis sends letter for the beatification of Óscar Romero|website=www.archivioradiovaticana.va}}</ref> Pope Francis [[Canonization|canonized]] Romero on 14 October 2018.

Seen as a social conservative at the time of his appointment as archbishop in 1977, Romero was deeply affected by the murder of his friend and fellow priest [[Rutilio Grande]] and thereafter became an outspoken critic of the [[Military dictatorship in El Salvador|military government of El Salvador]]. Hailed by supporters of [[liberation theology]], Romero's relationship with this theology was debated and initially led to impediments in his [[beatification]] process, with both denials and affirmations of Romero adhering to it.<ref>{{cite book |title=Revolutionary Saint: The Theological Legacy of Oscar Romero |first=Michael E. |last=Lee |publisher=Orbis Books |year=2018 |isbn=9781626982260 |page=189}}</ref> According to his biographer Michael E. Lee, since Romero's theological thought and homilies extensively utilized the theme of liberation, and Romero borrowed numerous controversial elements of liberation theology, he "can be seen as an exemplar of liberation theology".<ref name="lee_193">{{cite book |title=Revolutionary Saint: The Theological Legacy of Oscar Romero |first=Michael E. |last=Lee |publisher=Orbis Books |year=2018 |isbn=9781626982260 |page=193}}</ref> Similarly, [[Peter McLaren]] also argued that "Archbishop Oscar Arnulfo Romero adopted an outspoken stance in favor of 'liberation theology'".<ref name="mclaren">{{cite journal |title=From liberation to salvation: Revolutionary critical pedagogy meets liberation theology |first1=Peter |last1=McLaren |first2=Petar |last2=Jandrić |journal=Policy Futures in Education |year=2017 |volume=15 |issue=5 |doi=10.1177/1478210317695713 |publisher=[[SagePub]] |location=[[Zagreb]] |page=636}}</ref>

In 2010, the [[United Nations General Assembly]] proclaimed 24 March as the "International Day for the Right to the Truth Concerning Gross Human Rights Violations and for the Dignity of Victims" in recognition of Romero's role in defence of human rights. Romero actively denounced violations of the human rights of the most vulnerable people and defended the principles of protecting lives, promoting human dignity and opposing all forms of violence. Archbishop [[José Luis Escobar Alas]], one of Romero's successors as Archbishop of San Salvador, asked Pope Francis to proclaim Romero a [[Doctor of the Church]], which is an acknowledgement from the church that his religious teachings were orthodox and had a significant impact on its philosophy and theology.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.catholicnews.com/services/englishnews/2018/salvadoran-archbishop-asks-pope-to-make-romero-doctor-of-the-church.cfm | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181015213657/http://www.catholicnews.com/services/englishnews/2018/salvadoran-archbishop-asks-pope-to-make-romero-doctor-of-the-church.cfm | url-status=dead | archive-date=15 October 2018 | title=Salvadoran archbishop asks pope to make Romero 'doctor of the church'| date=20 March 2019}}</ref>

Latin American church groups often proclaim Romero an unofficial [[patron saint]] of [[the Americas]] and El Salvador; Catholics in El Salvador often refer to him as ''San Romero'', as well as ''Monseñor Romero''. Outside of Catholicism, Romero is honoured by other [[Christendom|Christian denominations]], including the [[Church of England]] and [[Anglican Communion]], through the Calendar in [[Common Worship]], as well as in at least one [[Lutheran liturgical calendar]]. Romero is also one of the ten 20th-century martyrs depicted in statues above the Great West Door of [[Westminster Abbey]] in London.{{citation needed|date=July 2025}}

==Early life==
[[File:MOAR 3.jpg|left|thumb|upright|Romero in 1941]]
Óscar Romero was born on 15 August 1917<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2GOGV41Rc6wC&pg=PA220 |title=The A to Z of Human Rights and Humanitarian Organizations |author1=Edward S. Mihalkanin |author2=Robert F. Gorman |publisher=[[Scarecrow Press]] |isbn=978-0810868748 |page=220 |via=books.google.com |year=2009}}</ref> to Santos Romero and Guadalupe de Jesús Galdámez in [[Ciudad Barrios]] in the [[San Miguel Department (El Salvador)|San Miguel department]] of [[El Salvador]].<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=P2XVHycXikcC&pg=PA181 |title=A Shot in the Cathedral |author=Mario Bencastro |publisher=[[Arte Público Press]] |isbn=978-1558851641 |page=182 |year=1996}}</ref> On 11 May 1919, at the age of one, Romero was baptized into the Catholic Church by the priest Cecilio Morales.<ref name="Brockman1989">{{cite book|author=James R. Brockman|title=Romero: A Life|year=1989 |publisher=Orbis Books |isbn=9780883446522 |url=https://archive.org/details/romerolife0000broc}}</ref>

Romero entered the local public school, which offered only grades one through three. When finished with public school, Romero was privately tutored by a teacher, Anita Iglesias,<ref name="Brockman1982">{{cite book|author=James R. Brockman|title=The Word Remains: A Life of Oscar Romero|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KWhaAAAAMAAJ|year=1982|publisher=Orbis Books|isbn=978-0-88344-364-4|page=31}}</ref> until the age of thirteen.<ref name="Brockman2005">{{cite book|author=James R. Brockman|title=Romero: A Life|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dYLZAAAAMAAJ&q=Romero+Anita+Iglesias|year=2005|publisher=Orbis Books|isbn=978-1-57075-599-6|page=34|quote=The office was in the Romero home on the plaza, and the Romero children delivered letters and telegrams in the town. ... After that his parents sent him to study under a teacher named Anita Iglesias until he was twelve or thirteen.}}</ref> During this time Romero's father trained him in carpentry.<ref name="Royal2000">{{cite book|author=Robert Royal|title=The Catholic martyrs of the twentieth century: a comprehensive world history|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7cxsAAAAIAAJ&q=father+Santos,+had+been+training+Romero+in+carpentry.|year=2000|publisher=Crossroad Pub.|isbn=978-0-8245-1846-2|page=279}}</ref> Romero showed exceptional proficiency as an apprentice. His father wanted to offer his son the skill of a trade, because in El Salvador studies seldom led to employment,<ref>Wright, Scott (26 February 2015). "Family". ''Oscar Romero and the Communion of Saints: A Biography''. Orbis Books. {{ISBN|978-1-60833-247-2}}. "Most children never had the opportunity or the means to even consider [a vocation such as a priesthood]. At least that was his father's belief, and for that reason, he sent his son to learn a trade." Retrieved 27 December 2015.</ref> however, Romero broached the idea of studying for the priesthood, which did not surprise those who knew him.<ref name="liberators" />

==Priesthood==
[[File:Romero, Vatican City, 1942, color.jpg|thumb|upright|right|Romero in 1942 at [[Vatican City|the Vatican]].]]

Romero entered the [[minor seminary]] in San Miguel at the age of thirteen. He left the seminary for three months to return home when his mother became ill after the birth of her eighth child; during this time he worked with two of his brothers in a gold mine near Ciudad Barrios.<ref name="liberators">{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/liberatorspatrio00adam_0 |url-access=registration |title=Liberators, Patriots and Leaders of Latin America: 32 Biographies |author=Adams, Jerome R. |publisher=McFarland & Company, Inc.|date=2010 |access-date=27 December 2015|isbn=9780786455522 }}</ref> After graduation, he enrolled in the national [[seminary]] in San Salvador. He completed his studies at the [[Gregorian University]] in [[Rome]], where he received a [[Licentiate in Theology]] ''cum laude'' in 1941, but had to wait a year to be ordained because he was younger than the required age.<ref name="wright">Wright, Scott (26 February 2015). "Family". ''Oscar Romero and the Communion of Saints: A Biography''. Orbis Books. {{ISBN|978-1-60833-247-2}}. Retrieved 27 December 2015.</ref> He was [[Holy Orders|ordained]] in Rome on 4 April 1942.<ref name="catholic-heirarchy" /><ref name=un>{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/events/righttotruthday/romero.shtml|title=Biography of Archbishop Oscar Arnulfo Romero – International Day for the Right to the Truth Concerning Gross Human Rights Violations and for the Dignity of Victims, 24 March|website=United Nations}}</ref> His family could not attend his ordination because of travel restrictions due to [[World War II]].<ref name="kell-bio" /> Romero remained in Italy to obtain a doctoral degree in theology, specializing in [[ascetical theology]] and Christian perfection according to [[Luis de la Puente]].<ref name="wright" /> Before finishing, in 1943 at the age of 26, he was summoned back home from Italy by his bishop. He traveled home with a good friend, Father Valladares, who was also doing doctoral work in Rome. On the route home, they made stops in Spain and Cuba, where they were detained by the Cuban police, likely for having come from [[Kingdom of Italy#Fascist regime (1922–1943)|Fascist Italy]],<ref>Italy had signed [[Armistice of Cassibile|an armistice with the Allies]] two weeks earlier, but the ship on which they sailed had recently been suspected of espionage. {{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mg4eXqsXLhoC&q=Marqu%C3%A9s+de+Comillas |title=The Hemingway Patrols: Ernest Hemingway and His Hunt for U-Boats |last1=Mort |first1=Terry |date=2009 |publisher=Scribner |access-date=27 December 2015|isbn=9781416597902 }}</ref> and were placed in a series of internment camps. After several months in prison, Valladares became sick and [[Congregation of the Most Holy Redeemer|Redemptorist]] priests helped to have the two transferred to a hospital. From the hospital they were released from Cuban custody and sailed on to Mexico, then traveled overland to El Salvador.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://polycarpi.blogspot.com/2015/12/oscar-romeros-odyssey-in-cuba.html |title=Oscar Romero's Odyssey in Cuba |author= |date=21 December 2015 |website=Supermartyrio: The Martyrdom Files |access-date=27 December 2015}}</ref>

Romero was first assigned to serve as a [[parish priest]] in [[Anamorós]], but then moved to [[San Miguel, El Salvador|San Miguel]] where he worked for over 20 years.<ref name=un/> He promoted various apostolic groups, started an [[Alcoholics Anonymous]] group, helped in the construction of San Miguel's cathedral, and supported devotion to [[Our Lady of Peace]]. He was later appointed rector of the inter-diocesan seminary in [[San Salvador]]. Emotionally and physically exhausted by his work in San Miguel, Romero took a retreat in January 1966 where he visited a priest for confession and a psychiatrist. He was diagnosed by the psychiatrist as having [[obsessive-compulsive personality disorder]] and by priests with [[scrupulosity]].<ref>{{cite book|year=2014|title=Oscar Romero: Love Must Win Out|publisher=Liturgical Press|last=Clarke|first=Kevin|page=45|isbn=978-0-8146-3757-9}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|year=2011|title=Congregants Of Silence|publisher=Lulu|last=Schaller|first=George|page=70|isbn=978-1-105-19762-8}}</ref>

In 1966, he was chosen to be Secretary of the Bishops Conference for El Salvador. He also became the director of the archdiocesan newspaper ''Orientación'', which became fairly conservative while he was editor, defending the traditional Magisterium of the Catholic Church.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Óscar Romero|url=https://followingjesus.org/oscar-romero/|date=14 March 2016|website=following Jesus|language=en-US|access-date=23 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180913131031/http://followingjesus.org/oscar-romero/|archive-date=13 September 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==Bishop and Archbishop==
On 25 April 1970, Romero was appointed an [[auxiliary bishop]] for the [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of San Salvador|Archdiocese of San Salvador]] and as the titular bishop of Tambeae.<ref name="catholic-heirarchy" /> He was consecrated on 21 June by [[Girolamo Prigione]], titular Archbishop of Lauriacum.<ref name="catholic-heirarchy" /> On 15 October 1974, he was appointed Bishop of the [[Diocese of Santiago de María]], a poor, rural region.<ref name="catholic-heirarchy" /><ref name=un/>

On 3 February 1977, Romero was appointed Archbishop of San Salvador, assuming the position on 22 February.<ref name="catholic-heirarchy" /> While this appointment was welcomed by the government, many priests were disappointed, especially those openly supportive of [[Marxism|Marxist]] ideology. The progressive priests feared that his conservative reputation would negatively affect [[liberation theology]]'s commitment to the poor.<ref>{{Cite news|title=A day to remember Archbishop Óscar Romero|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/opinion/a-day-to-remember-archbishop-%C3%B3scar-romero-1.3186365|access-date=1 February 2021|newspaper=The Irish Times|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=McGarry|first=Patsy|title=Oscar Romero: one-time conservative who became a nation's social martyr|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/news/social-affairs/religion-and-beliefs/oscar-romero-one-time-conservative-who-became-a-nation-s-social-martyr-1.3657423|access-date=1 February 2021|newspaper=The Irish Times|language=en}}</ref>

[[File:Mural Oscar Romero UES.jpg|thumb|upright|A mural of Óscar Romero]]

On 12 March 1977, [[Rutilio Grande]], a [[Society of Jesus|Jesuit]] priest and personal friend of Romero who had been creating self-reliance groups among the poor, was assassinated. His death had a profound impact on Romero, who later stated: "When I looked at Rutilio lying there dead I thought, 'If they have killed him for doing what he did, then I too have to walk the same path.'"<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jJc83fZHD8EC&pg=PA48 |title=Truth and memory: the Church and human rights in El Salvador and Guatemala |publisher=Gracewing Publishing |isbn=978-0-85244-524-2 |author1=Michael A. Hayes (Chaplain) |author2=Tombs, David |date=April 2001 }}</ref> Romero urged the government to investigate, but they ignored his request. Furthermore, the censored press remained silent.<ref name="infed.org">{{cite web|url=http://www.infed.org/thinkers/oscar_romero.htm|title=infed.org – Oscar Romero of El Salvador: informal adult education in a context of violence|work=infed.org}}</ref>

Tension was noted by the closure of schools and the lack of Catholic priests invited to participate in government. In response to Grande's murder, Romero revealed an activism that had not been evident earlier, speaking out against poverty, social injustice, assassinations and torture.<ref name=Eaton>{{Cite thesis|last=Eaton|first=Helen-May |year=1991|url=http://scholars.wlu.ca/etd/116/ |title=The impact of the Archbishop Oscar Romero's alliance with the struggle for liberation of the Salvadoran people: A discussion of church-state relations (El Salvador)|degree=M.A.|publisher=[[Wilfrid Laurier University]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|date=April 2001|title=Truth and memory: the Church and human rights in El Salvador and Guatemala|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jJc83fZHD8EC&pg=PA48|publisher=Gracewing Publishing|isbn=978-0-85244-524-2|author1=Michael A. Hayes (Chaplain)|author2=Tombs, David}}</ref>

On 15 October 1979, the [[Revolutionary Government Junta of El Salvador|Revolutionary Government Junta]] (JRG) came to power amidst a wave of human rights abuses by paramilitary right-wing groups and the government, in an escalation of violence that would become the [[Salvadoran Civil War]]. Romero criticized the [[United States]] for giving military aid to the new government and wrote an open letter to President [[Jimmy Carter]] in February 1980, warning that increased US military aid would "undoubtedly sharpen the injustice and the political repression inflicted on the organized people, whose struggle has often been for their most basic human rights." This letter was then sent, via telegram, from the U.S. embassy in El Salvador to Washington D.C.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB339/doc04.pdf|title=Text of Archbishop's Letter to President Carter|date=19 February 1980|website=National Security Archive|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191112230835/https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB339/doc04.pdf|archive-date=12 November 2019|access-date=11 December 2019}}</ref> Carter did not directly respond to the letter; instead, [[Cyrus Vance]], the [[Secretary of state (U.S. state government)|Secretary of State]], wrote a telegram back to the U.S. embassy. The telegram carried a very contradictory message, both stating that the [[United States]] will not interfere but will respond to the Revolutionary Government Junta's requests. It is unknown if Archbishop Romero received the telegram.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB339/doc05.pdf|title=Reply to Archbishop's Letter to President Carter|last=Vance|first=Cyrus|date=1 March 1980|website=The National Security Archive|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200323133021/https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB339/doc05.pdf|archive-date=23 March 2020|access-date=11 December 2019}}</ref>

On 11 May 1979, Romero met with [[Pope John Paul II]] and unsuccessfully attempted to obtain a Vatican condemnation of the Salvadoran military regime for committing human rights violations and its support of [[Death squads in El Salvador|death squads]], and expressed his frustration in working with clergy who cooperated with the government. He was encouraged by Pope John Paul II to maintain episcopal unity as a top priority.<ref>{{cite magazine |title=The Beatification of Óscar Romero |url=https://www.newyorker.com/news/news-desk/the-beatification-of-oscar-romero |magazine=The New Yorker |date=19 May 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=What Óscar Romero's Canonization Says About Pope Francis |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2018/11/the-martyr-and-the-pope/570835/ |work=The Atlantic |date=November 2018}}</ref><ref name="infed.org" />

As a result of his humanitarian efforts, Romero began to be noticed internationally. In February 1980, he was given an honorary doctorate by the [[Université catholique de Louvain|Catholic University of Louvain]].

===Statements on persecution of the church===
[[Image:Oscar Romero by puigreixach.jpg|thumb|upright|Óscar Romero (pastel) by J. Puig Reixach (2013)]]

Romero denounced the persecution of members of the Catholic Church who had worked on behalf of the poor:<ref name="Louvaine">Oscar Romero, ''Voice of the Voiceless: The Four Pastoral Letters and Other Statements'' (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1985), pp. 177–187.</ref>

{{Blockquote|In less than three years, more than fifty priests have been attacked, threatened, calumniated. Six are already martyrs—they were murdered. Some have been tortured and others expelled [from the country]. Nuns have also been persecuted. The archdiocesan radio station and educational institutions that are Catholic or of a Christian inspiration have been attacked, threatened, intimidated, even bombed. Several parish communities have been raided. If all this has happened to persons who are the most evident representatives of the Church, you can guess what has happened to ordinary Christians, to the campesinos, catechists, lay ministers, and to the ecclesial base communities. There have been threats, arrests, tortures, murders, numbering in the hundreds and thousands....

But it is important to note why [the Church] has been persecuted. Not any and every priest has been persecuted, not any and every institution has been attacked. That part of the church has been attacked and persecuted that put itself on the side of the people and went to the people's defense. Here again we find the same key to understanding the persecution of the church: the poor.|Óscar Romero|Speech at the [[Université catholique de Louvain]], [[Belgium]], 2 February 1980.}}

===Popular radio sermons===
[[File:O.Romero 1979 autographed photo.jpg|thumb|left|Romero in 1979.]]

By the time of his death, Romero had gained an enormous following among Salvadorans. He did this largely through broadcasting his weekly sermons across El Salvador<ref name="Peadar Kirby 1980">Peadar Kirby, 'A Thoroughgoing Reformer', 26 March 1980, ''The Irish Times''</ref> on the church's station, YSAX, "except when it was bombed off the air."<ref name="diary" /> In these sermons, he listed disappearances, tortures, murders, and much more each Sunday.<ref name="Peadar Kirby 1980"/> This was followed by an hour-long speech on the radio the following day. On the importance of these broadcasts, one writer noted that "the archbishop's Sunday sermon was the main source in El Salvador about what was happening. It was estimated to have the largest listenership of any programme in the country."<ref name="Peadar Kirby 1980"/> According to listener surveys, 73% of the rural population and 47% of the urban listened regularly.<ref name="diary">{{cite web|url=http://www.romerotrust.org.uk/index.php?nuc=content&id=60|title=A Shepherd's Diary, Foreword.|access-date=5 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160308030706/http://www.romerotrust.org.uk/index.php?nuc=content&id=60|archive-date=8 March 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref> Similarly, his diocesan weekly paper ''Orientación'' carried lists of cases of torture and repression every week.<ref name="Peadar Kirby 1980"/>

==Theology==
According to Jesús Delgado, his biographer and [[postulator]] of the cause for his canonization, Romero agreed with the Catholic vision of liberation theology and not with the materialist vision: "A journalist once asked him: 'Do you agree with Liberation Theology' And Romero answered: "Yes, of course. However, there are two theologies of liberation. One is that which sees liberation only as material liberation. The other is that of Paul VI. I am with Paul VI."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.zenit.org/en/articles/archbishop-oscar-romero-pastor-and-martyr|title=Archbishop Oscar Romero: Pastor and Martyr – ZENIT – English|access-date=8 March 2017|date=4 February 2015}}</ref> However, Romero had a close connection with a prominent and controversial liberation theologian [[Jon Sobrino]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Revolutionary Saint: The Theological Legacy of Oscar Romero |first=Michael E. |last=Lee |publisher=Orbis Books |year=2018 |isbn=9781626982260 |page=190}}</ref> Romero greatly admired a minor figure in liberation theology, bishop of Argentina [[Eduardo Pironio]], whom he called "a holy bishop" and "a great friend". While Pironio was often criticized as a 'communist' and Romero was even given a book criticizing the bishop, titled "Pironio, Pyromaniac", he dismissed this criticism and referred to Pironio as "a great promoter of authentic liberation in Latin America".<ref name="emeric"/> In 1977, Romero "adopted an outspoken stance in favor of ‘‘liberation theology’’".<ref name="mclaren"/>

In one of his homilies, Romero stated that he studied liberation theology through Pironio; the theology of Pironio endorsed liberation of the poor and marginalized through a social revolution, but also highlighted that the Church could never be separated from the process and that liberation must not be reduced to 'mere activism or to structural changes', because the liberations must also be 'reformed by the Spirit'.<ref name="emeric">{{cite book |pages=172-174 |title= Óscar Romero’s Theological Vision Liberation and the Transfiguration of the Poor |first=Edgardo |last=Colón-Emeric |year=2018 |publisher=University of Notre Dame Press |isbn=9780268104757}}</ref> Michael E. Lee wrote that while Romero did adhere to liberation theology, it was often underplayed during the period of when liberation theology was looked at with suspicion by the Vatican: "Romero can be seen as an exemplar of liberation theology. His homilies and writings show him reflecting extensively on the theme of liberation, and his assassination is a result of his untiring advocacy for justice in his divided land. Why would some fear this idea or find it difficult to accept? Sadly, the very way that liberation theologies have been treated in Vatican documents provides the clue."<ref name="lee_193"/>

Romero spoke about social sin, a controversial concept in liberation theology that presented capitalism as sinful by nature, and was used by many as an example of a Marxist framework of liberation theology. In his pastoral letter, Romero defined social sin as "the crystallization, in other words, of individuals’ sins into permanent structures that keep sin in being, and make its force to be felt by the majority of the people". Michal E. Lee writes of Romero's utilization of liberation theology's anti-capitalist teaching:{{blockquote|text=Continually, he speaks of the rich or “those who are opposed to a just social order” needing conversion. He prayed for the conversion of those who “do not collaborate in the construction of a more just temporal order,” those who “are able to transform society because they have power in their hands,” those who “persecute the Church, paid by interests that want to maintain this system that can’t be maintained,” those who “oppose Christ’s reign of justice, peace, and love in the world.”58 The sins of El Salvador, he says, include the abuse of power, the selfish investment of capital, the idolatry of money, and even the refusal to develop oneself so as to contribute to society.<ref>{{cite book |title=Revolutionary Saint: The Theological Legacy of Oscar Romero |first=Michael E. |last=Lee |publisher=Orbis Books |year=2018 |isbn=9781626982260 |page=85}}</ref>}}

He also argued that the Catholic Church is 'by nature political' and that it 'must respect and support the right of the people to voice and move toward aspirations for liberation in their own way.' He was particularly dedicated to the [[preferential option for the poor]], on which he wrote:{{blockquote|text=The church would betray its own love for God and its fidelity to the gospel if it stopped being “the voice of the voiceless,” a defender of the rights of the poor, a promoter of every just aspiration for liberation, a guide, an empowerer, a humanizer of every legitimate struggle to achieve a more just society…. This demands of the church a greater presence among the poor. It ought to be in solidarity with them, running the risks they run, enduring the persecution that is their fate.<ref>{{cite book |title=Revolutionary Saint: The Theological Legacy of Oscar Romero |first=Michael E. |last=Lee |publisher=Orbis Books |year=2018 |isbn=9781626982260 |page=126}}</ref>}}

Romero preached that "the most profound social revolution is the serious, supernatural, interior reform of a Christian."<ref name="A. Romero p. 1">O. A. Romero, La Más Profunda Revolución Social [The Most Profound Social Revolution], DIARIO DE ORIENTE, No. 30867 – p. 1, 28 August 1973.</ref> He also emphasized: "The liberation of Christ and of His Church is not reduced to the dimension of a purely temporal project. It does not reduce its objectives to an anthropocentric perspective: to a material well-being or only to initiatives of a political or social, economic or cultural order. Much less can it be a liberation that supports or is supported by violence."<ref>6 August 1976 Sermon</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://site.adital.com.br/site/noticia.php?lang=PT&cod=55011|title=Adital – Comblin: Bastão de Deus que fustiga os acomodados|access-date=23 May 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150523131802/http://site.adital.com.br/site/noticia.php?lang=PT&cod=55011|archive-date=23 May 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref> Romero expressed several times his disapproval of divisiveness in the church. In a sermon preached on 11 November 1979 he said: "the other day, one of the persons who proclaims liberation in a political sense was asked: 'For you, what is the meaning of the Church'?" He said that the activist "answered with these scandalous words: 'There are two churches, the church of the rich and the church of the poor. We believe in the church of the poor but not in the church of the rich.'" Romero declared, "Clearly these words are a form of demagogy and I will never admit a division of the Church." He added, "There is only one Church, the Church that Christ preached, the Church to which we should give our whole hearts. There is only one Church, a Church that adores the living God and knows how to give relative value to the goods of this earth."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.romerotrust.org.uk/homilies/188/188_pdf.pdf|title=Three Christian Forces for Liberation, 11 November 1979 Sermon|access-date=5 October 2017}}</ref>

===Spiritual life===
[[File:Óscar Arnulfo Romero with Pope Paul VI (4).jpg|thumb|[[Pope Paul VI]] and Romero, 1978]]
[[File:Óscar Arnulfo Romero with Pope John Paul II (2).jpg|thumb|[[John Paul II]] and Romero, 1979]]

Romero noted in his diary on 4 February 1943: "In recent days the Lord has inspired in me a great desire for holiness. I have been thinking of how far a soul can ascend if it lets itself be possessed entirely by God." Commenting on this passage, James R. Brockman, Romero's biographer and author of ''Romero: A Life'', said that "All the evidence available indicates that he continued on his quest for holiness until the end of his life. But he also matured in that quest."<ref name="spirjourn">{{cite web |url=http://www.spiritualitytoday.org/spir2day/904242brock.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20001120092900/http://www.spiritualitytoday.org/spir2day/904242brock.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=20 November 2000 |title=The Spiritual Journey of Oscar Romero |access-date=17 January 2008 |author=James Brockman, S.J. |work=Spirituality Today }}</ref>

According to Brockman, Romero's spiritual journey had some of these characteristics:

* love for the Church of Rome, shown by his episcopal motto, "to be of one mind with the Church," a phrase he took from [[Ignatius of Loyola|St. Ignatius]]' ''[[Spiritual Exercises]]'';
* a tendency to make a very deep [[examination of conscience]];
* an emphasis on sincere [[piety]];
* [[Mortification in Roman Catholic teaching|mortification]] and [[penance]] through his duties;
* providing protection for his [[chastity]];
* [[spiritual direction]];
* "being one with the Church incarnated in this people which stands in need of liberation";
* eagerness for contemplative prayer and finding God in others;
* fidelity to the [[will of God]];
* self-offering to [[Jesus Christ]].

Romero was a strong advocate of the spiritual charism of [[Opus Dei]]. He received weekly spiritual direction from a priest of the Opus Dei movement.<ref name="cruxnow.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.cruxnow.com/church/2015/02/03/pope-declares-oscar-romero-hero-to-liberation-theology-a-martyr/|title=Pope declares Oscar Romero, hero to liberation theology, a martyr|date=3 February 2015|access-date=5 February 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150204132413/http://www.cruxnow.com/church/2015/02/03/pope-declares-oscar-romero-hero-to-liberation-theology-a-martyr/|archive-date=4 February 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref> In 1975 he wrote in support of the cause of canonization of Opus Dei's founder, "Personally, I owe deep gratitude to the priests involved with the Work, to whom I have entrusted with much satisfaction the spiritual direction of my own life and that of other priests."<ref name="Opus Dei archives">{{cite web |url=http://www.opusdei.us/en-us/article/oscar-romero-and-st-josemaria/ |title=Opus Dei – Oscar Romero |access-date=15 January 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://gloria.tv/media/a8cg2iuDpt4|title=Archbishop Oscar Romero: Letter to the Pope on Escriva's death|date=5 February 2015}}</ref>

==Assassination==
[[File:Assassination of Oscar Romero.jpg|thumb|Photo that appeared in ''[[El País]]'' on 7 November 2009 with the information that the state of [[El Salvador]] recognized its responsibility in the crime.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/Salvador/hace/responsable/crimen/arzobispo/Romero/elpepuint/20091107elpepuint_8/Tes|title=El Salvador hace justicia a monseñor Óscar Romero|author=Ediciones El País|work=EL PAÍS|date=7 November 2009}}</ref>]]

On 23 March 1980, Archbishop Romero delivered a sermon in which he called on Salvadoran soldiers, as [[Christians]], to obey God's higher order and to stop carrying out the government's repression and violations of basic [[human rights]].<ref name="BBC News" /><ref name="kell-bio" />

Romero spent 24 March in a recollection organized by Opus Dei,<ref name="auto">{{cite web|url=http://www.opusdei.us/en-us/article/oscar-romero-and-st-josemaria/|title=Oscar Romero and St. Josemaria|publisher=Opus Dei}}</ref> a monthly gathering of priest friends led by [[Fernando Sáenz Lacalle]]. On that day they reflected on the priesthood.<ref name="romereports.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.romereports.com/2015/02/03/the-final-hours-of-monsignor-romero|title=The final hours of Monsignor Romero|date=3 February 2015 }}</ref> That evening, Romero celebrated [[Mass (liturgy)|Mass]]<ref name="Gómez2003">{{cite book|author=Mayra Gómez|title=Human Rights in Cuba, El Salvador, and Nicaragua: A Sociological Perspective on Human Rights Abuse|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dC6CrsZs97UC&pg=PA110|date=2 October 2003|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-0-415-94649-0|page=110|quote=The following day, Archbishop Oscar Romero was shot dead in front of a full congregation as he was delivering mass (AI ...}}</ref><ref name="Settimba2009">{{cite book|author=Henry Settimba|title=Testing Times: Globalisation and Investing Theology in East Africa|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W1sWc4hERKsC&pg=PA223|date=1 March 2009|publisher=AuthorHouse|isbn=978-1-4678-9899-7|page=223}}</ref> at a small chapel at Hospital de la Divina Providencia (Divine Providence Hospital),<ref name=nytimesmurder>{{cite news|title=Salvador Archbishop Assassinated By Sniper While Officiating at Mass|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1980/03/25/archives/salvador-archbishop-assassinated-by-sniper-while-officiating-at.html|newspaper=The New York Times|date=25 March 1980|pages=1, 8}}</ref> a church-run hospital specializing in oncology and care for the terminally ill.<ref name=wapomurder>{{cite news|title=Salvadoran Archbishop Assassinated|newspaper=The Washington Post|date=25 March 1980|pages=A1, A12}}</ref> Romero finished his sermon, stepped away from the [[lectern]], and took a few steps to stand at the center of the altar.<ref name="BBC News">{{cite news|title=El Salvador marks Archbishop Oscar Romero's murder|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8580840.stm|work=BBC News|author=Julian Miglierini|date=24 March 2010}}</ref>

As Romero finished speaking, a red car came to a stop on the street in front of the chapel. A gunman emerged from the vehicle, stepped to the door of the chapel, and fired one, or possibly two, shots. Romero was struck in the heart, and the vehicle sped off.<ref name=nytimesmurder /> He died at the Chapel of Hospital de la Divina Providencia in San Salvador.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Royal |first1=Robert |title=The Catholic martyrs of the twentieth century : a comprehensive world history |date=2000 |publisher=New York : Crossroad Pub. |isbn=978-0-8245-1846-2 |page=270 |url=https://archive.org/details/catholicmartyrso0000roya |access-date=30 November 2024}}</ref>

=== Funeral ===
Romero was buried in the [[San Salvador Cathedral|Metropolitan Cathedral of San Salvador]]. The [[Requiem Mass|Funeral Mass]] on 30 March 1980 in San Salvador was attended by more than 250,000 mourners from all over the world. Viewing this attendance as a protest, [[Jesuit]] priest [[John Dear]] has said, "Romero's funeral was the largest demonstration in Salvadoran history, some say in the history of [[Latin America]]."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.huffpost.com/entry/honoring-oscar-romero-of_b_7342546|title=Honoring Oscar Romero of El Salvador|first=John|last=Dear|publisher=[[Huffington Post]]|date=20 May 2015|access-date=24 March 2023}}</ref>

At the funeral, [[cardinal (Catholic Church)|Cardinal]] [[Ernesto Corripio y Ahumada]], speaking as the personal delegate of Pope John Paul II, eulogized Romero as a "beloved, peacemaking man of God," and stated that "his blood will give fruit to brotherhood, love and peace."<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,923959,00.html | archive-url=https://archive.today/20130204084814/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,923959,00.html | url-status=dead | archive-date=4 February 2013 | work=Time Magazine | title=El Salvador: Something Vile in This Land | date=14 April 1980 | access-date=12 August 2012}}</ref>

==== Massacre at Romero's funeral ====
[[File:Asistentes al funeral de monseñor Romero corren tras escuchar los disparos en medio de la multitud, en la Plaza Barrios, el domingo 30 de marzo de 1980.jpg|thumb|left|Attendees to Monsignor Romero's funeral run after hearing gunshots in the middle of the crowd, in Plaza Barrios, on Sunday, March 30, 1980.]]During the ceremony, smoke bombs exploded on the streets near the cathedral and subsequently, there were rifle shots that came from surrounding buildings, including the [[National Palace (El Salvador)|National Palace]]. Many people were killed by gunfire and in the stampede of people running away from the explosions and gunfire. Official sources reported 31 overall casualties, while journalists claimed that between 30 and 50 died.<ref name="Morozzo" /> Some witnesses claimed it was government security forces who threw bombs into the crowd, and army sharpshooters, dressed as civilians, who fired into the chaos from the balcony or roof of the National Palace. However, there are contradictory accounts about the course of the events and one historian, Roberto Morozzo della Rocca, stated that "probably, one will never know the truth about the interrupted funeral."<ref name="Morozzo" />

As the gunfire continued, Romero's body was buried in a crypt beneath the sanctuary. Even after the burial, people continued to line up to pay homage to the assassinated prelate.<ref name="kell-bio">{{cite web |url=http://kellogg.nd.edu/romero/pdfs/Biography.pdf |title=Romero biography |access-date=17 January 2008 |work=Kellogg Institute, Notre Dame University |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080216120437/http://kellogg.nd.edu/romero/pdfs/Biography.pdf |archive-date=16 February 2008 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="kell-chron">{{cite web |url=http://kellogg.nd.edu/romero/PDF%27s/Chronology.pdf |title=Chronology |access-date=17 January 2008 |work=Chronology of the Salvadoran Civil War, Kellogg Institute, [[University of Notre Dame]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080216120438/http://kellogg.nd.edu/romero/PDF%27s/Chronology.pdf |archive-date=16 February 2008 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="requiem">{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/file_on_4/4376733.stm |title=Requiem for Romero |access-date=17 January 2008 |work=BBC News | date=23 March 2005 |first=Maurice |last=Walsh}}</ref><ref name="40killed">{{cite news |url=http://www.creighton.edu/CollaborativeMinistry/romero-wp-3-31-80.html |title=40 Killed in San Salvador: 40 Killed at Rites For Slain Prelate; Bombs, Bullets Disrupt Archbishop's Funeral |access-date=17 January 2008 |pages=A1 |author=Christopher Dickey |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] Foreign Service |archive-date=23 October 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081023173314/http://www.creighton.edu/CollaborativeMinistry/romero-wp-3-31-80.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>

===International reaction===
====Ireland====
All sections of Irish political and religious life condemned his assassination, with the Minister for Foreign Affairs [[Brian Lenihan Snr|Brian Lenihan]] "expressing shock and revulsion at the murder of Dr Romero",<ref>'Three ministers flee El Salvador, 29 March 1980</ref> while the leader of the [[Trócaire]] charity, Bishop [[Eamon Casey]], revealed that he had received a letter from Romero that very day.<ref name="ReferenceA">'Romero letter received on day of killing;, 26 March 1980, ''The Irish Times''</ref> The previous October, parliamentarians had given their support to the nomination of Romero for the Nobel Peace Prize.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> In March each year since the 1980s, the Irish–El Salvador Support Committee holds a mass in honour of Romero.<ref>'Permission given for Romero mass', 30 March 2007, The Irish Times</ref>

====United Kingdom====
In October 1978, 119 British parliamentarians had nominated Romero for the Nobel Prize for Peace. In this they were supported by 26 members of the United States Congress.<ref name="Peadar Kirby 1980"/> When news of the assassination was reported in March 1980, the new [[Archbishop of Canterbury]], [[Robert Runcie]], was about to be enthroned in [[Canterbury Cathedral]]. On hearing of Romero's death, one writer observed that Runcie "departed from the ancient traditions to decry the murder of Archbishop Óscar Romero in El Salvador."<ref>'Runcie urges charity', 26 March 1980, The Irish Times</ref>

====United States====
===== Public reaction =====
The United States public's reaction to Archbishop Romero's death was symbolized through the "martyrdom of Romero" as an inspiration to end US military aid to El Salvador. In December 1980 the [[International Longshore and Warehouse Union|International Longshoremen's and Warehousemen's Union]] refused to deliver military equipment destined for the Salvadoran government. The leader of the union, Jim Herman, was known as a supporter of Romero and denounced his death.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Union to Boycott Salvadoran Arms Shipments|last=Einstein|first=David|date=23 December 1980|agency=Associated Press}}</ref> On 24 March 1984 a protest was held in [[Los Angeles|Los Angeles, California]] where around 3,000 people, organized by 20 November Coalition, protested US intervention in El Salvador, using the anniversary of the Archbishop's death and his face as a symbol.<ref>{{Cite news|title=3,000 in L.A. Protest El Salvador Election: Coalition of Political and Religious Groups March Downtown.|last=Reza|first=H.G.|date=25 March 1984|work=Los Angeles Times}}</ref> On 24 March 1990, 10,000 people marched in front of the [[White House]] to denounce the military aid that was still flowing from the United States to the Salvadoran government. Protestors carried a bust of the archbishop and quoted some of his speeches, in addition to the event being held on the anniversary of his death. Noted figures [[Ed Asner]] and [[Jennifer Casolo]] participated in the event.<ref>{{Cite news|title=10,000 Protest U.S. Policy in Central America|last=Beamish|first=Rita|date=24 March 1990|agency=Associated Press}}</ref>

===== Government response =====
On 25 March 1980, US Secretary of State [[Cyrus Vance]] revealed that the White House would continue to fund the Salvadoran government and provide it military aid, in spite of the pleas of Romero and his death immediately prior to this announcement.<ref>{{Cite news|title=U.S. Still Plans Military Aid to El Salvador|last=Knutson|first=Lawrence|date=25 March 1980|agency=Associated Press}}</ref> On 31 March 1983, [[Roberto D'Aubuisson]] was allowed entry to the United States by the [[United States Department of State|State Department]] after deeming him not barred from entry any longer. When asked about D'Aubuisson's association with the assassination of Romero, the [[United States Department of State|Department of State]] responded that "the allegations have not been substantiated."<ref>{{Cite news|title=Salvadoran Rightist Leader Issued Visa|last=Knutson|first=Lawrence|date=6 April 1983|agency=Associated Press}}</ref> In November 1993, documents by the Department of State, [[United States Department of Defense|Department of Defense]], and the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] were released after pressure by Congress increased. The 12,000 documents revealed that the administrations of [[Ronald Reagan]] and [[George H. W. Bush]] knew of the assassinations conducted by D'Aubuisson, including that of Romero, yet still worked with him despite this.<ref>{{Cite news|title=U.S., Aware of Killings, Worked With Salvador's Rightists, Papers Suggest|last=Krauss|first=Clifford|date=9 November 1993|work=The New York Times}}</ref>

=== Investigations into the assassination ===
No one has ever been prosecuted for the assassination or confessed to it to police. Immediately following the assassination, [[José Napoleón Duarte]], the newly appointed [[Minister of Foreign Affairs (El Salvador)|foreign minister of El Salvador]], actively promulgated a "blame on both sides" propaganda trope in order to provide cover for the lack of official inquiry into the assassination plot.<ref>''New York Times'', "5,000 in San Salvador Take Part in a March for Murdered Prelate", 27 March 1980.</ref>

Subsequent investigations by the United Nations and other international bodies have established that the four assassins were members of a death squad led by D'Aubuisson.<ref name=scarend /> Revelations of the D'Aubuisson plot came to light in 1984 when US ambassador [[Robert White (ambassador)|Robert White]] testified before the [[United States Congress]] that "there was sufficient evidence" to convict D'Aubuisson of planning and ordering Romero's assassination.<ref>{{cite news| last = Nordland| first = Rod| title = How 2 rose to vie for El Salvador's presidency| newspaper = Philadelphia Inquirer| location = Philadelphia, PA| date = 23 March 1984| page = A1}}</ref> In 1993, an official [[United Nations]] report identified D'Aubuisson as the man who ordered the killing.<ref name="Morozzo">Morozzo p. 351–352, 354, 364</ref> D'Aubuisson had strong connections to the [[Nicaraguan National Guard]] and to its offshoot the [[Fifteenth of September Legion]]<ref>{{cite book|last=Webb|first=Gary|year=1999 |pages=48|title=Dark Alliance|publisher=[[Seven Stories Press]]|isbn=978-1-888363-93-7|title-link=Dark Alliance (book)}}</ref> and had also planned to overthrow the government in a coup. Later, he founded the political party [[Nationalist Republican Alliance]] (ARENA) and organized death squads that systematically carried out politically motivated assassinations and other human rights abuses in El Salvador. Álvaro Rafael Saravia, a former captain in the [[Salvadoran Air Force]], was chief of security for D'Aubuisson and an active member of these death squads. In 2003 a United States human rights organization, the [[Center for Justice and Accountability]], filed a civil action against Saravia. In 2004, he was found liable by a [[US District Court]] under the [[Alien Tort Claims Act]] (ATCA) (28 U.S.C. § 1350) for aiding, conspiring, and participating in the assassination of Romero. Saravia was ordered to pay $10 million for [[extrajudicial killing]] and [[crimes against humanity]] pursuant to the ATCA;<ref>''Doe v. Rafael Saravia'', 348 F. Supp. 2d 1112 (E.D. Cal. 2004). The documentation from the case provides an account of the events leading up, and subsequent, to Romero's death.</ref> he has since gone into hiding.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://cja.org/what-we-do/litigation/doe-v-saravia/|title=Doe v. Saravia (Assassination of Archbishop Oscar Romero) – CJA}}</ref> On 24 March 2010–the thirtieth anniversary of Romero's death–Salvadoran President [[Mauricio Funes]] offered an official state apology for Romero's assassination. Speaking before Romero's family, representatives of the Catholic Church, diplomats, and government officials, Funes said those involved in the assassination "unfortunately acted with the protection, collaboration, or participation of state agents."<ref>{{cite news| url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/8586560.stm| title= Official El Salvador apology for Oscar Romero's murder| date = 25 March 2010| work= [[BBC News]]| access-date= 25 March 2010| quote = The archbishop, he said, was a victim of right-wing death squads "who unfortunately acted with the protection, collaboration or participation of state agents."}}</ref>

A 2000 article by Tom Gibb, then a correspondent with ''The Guardian'' and later with the [[BBC]], attributes the murder to a detective of the Salvadoran National Police named Óscar Pérez Linares, acting on the orders of D'Aubuisson. The article cites an anonymous former death squad member who claimed he had been assigned to guard a house in San Salvador used by a unit of three counter-guerrilla operatives directed by D'Aubuisson. The guard, whom Gibb identified as "Jorge," purported to have witnessed Linares fraternizing with the group, which was nicknamed the "Little Angels," and to have heard them praise Linares for the killing. The article furthermore attributes full knowledge of the assassination to the [[CIA]] as far back as 1983.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/theguardian/2000/mar/23/features11.g21|title=The killing of Archbishop Oscar Romero was one of the most notorious crimes of the cold war. Was the CIA to blame?|newspaper=The Guardian|date=23 March 2000}}</ref><ref name=scarend>{{cite news| url = https://www.theguardian.com/theguardian/2000/mar/23/features11.g21| title = The killing of Archbishop Oscar Romero was one of the most notorious crimes of the cold war. Was the CIA to blame?| date = 22 March 2000| work = [[The Guardian]]| location = London| access-date = 13 August 2015| quote = in mid-1983, an unusually detailed CIA report, quoting a senior Salvadoran police source, named Linares as a member of a four-man National Police squad which murdered Romero. Other Salvadoran officers said the same thing. And the man who drove the car which took the killer to the church also picked out a photo-fit of Linares."}}</ref> The article reports that both Linares and the Little Angels commander, who Jorge identified as "El Negro Mario," were killed by a CIA-trained Salvadoran special police unit in 1986; the unit had been assigned to investigate the murders. In 1983, U.S. Lt. Col. [[Oliver North]], an aide to then-Vice President George H.W. Bush, is alleged to have personally requested the Salvadoran military to "remove" Linares and several others from their service. Three years later they were pursued and extrajudicially killed – Linares after being found in neighbouring Guatemala. The article cites another source in the Salvadoran military as saying "they knew far too much to live".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/theguardian/2000/mar/23/features11.g21 |title=The killing of Archbishop Oscar Romero was one of the most notorious crimes of the cold war. Was the CIA to blame?|first=Tom|last=Gibb|date=22 March 2000|work=The Guardian}}</ref>

In a 2010 article for the Salvadoran online newspaper ''[[El Faro (digital newspaper)|El Faro]]'',<ref name=elfaro /> Saravia was interviewed from a mountain hideout.<ref name=elfaro /> He named D'Aubuisson as giving the assassination order to him over the phone,<ref name=elfaro /><ref>Anne-Marie O'Connor. "Participant in 1980 assassination of Romero in El Salvador provides new details," ''Washington Post'', 6 April 2010.</ref> and said that he and his cohorts drove the assassin to the chapel and paid him 1,000 [[Salvadoran colón]]es after the event.<ref name=elfaro />

In April 2017, however, in the wake of the overruling of a civil war [[amnesty]] law the previous year, a judge in El Salvador, Rigoberto Chicas, allowed the case against the escaped Saravia's alleged role in the murder of Romero to be reopened. On 23 October 2018, days after Romero's canonization, Judge Chicas issued a new arrest warrant for him, and Interpol and the National Police are charged with finding his hideout and apprehending him.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.catholicnewsagency.com/news/39720/arrest-warrant-issued-for-alleged-killer-of-saint-oscar-romero | title=Arrest warrant issued for alleged killer of Saint Oscar Romero}}</ref><ref name="thetabletwarrant">{{cite web|last=Guidos|first=Rhina|date=25 October 2018|title=Judge Orders Arrest of Longtime Suspect in St. Romero's 1980 Killing|url=https://thetablet.org/judge-orders-arrest-of-longtime-suspect-in-st-romeros-killing/|magazine=[[The Tablet]]|publisher=Tablet Publishing Company|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181026005239/https://thetablet.org/judge-orders-arrest-of-longtime-suspect-in-st-romeros-killing/|archive-date=26 October 2018|access-date=28 October 2018}}</ref> As both D'Aubuisson and Linares had already died, they could not be prosecuted.

== Legacy ==

===International recognition===
[[File:MonseñorRomero.jpg|thumb|right|Romero's tomb as seen in 2021.]]
During his first visit to El Salvador in 1983, [[Pope John Paul II]] entered the cathedral in San Salvador and prayed at Romero's tomb, despite opposition from the government and from some within the church who strongly opposed liberation theology. Afterwards, the Pope praised Romero as a "zealous and venerated pastor who tried to stop violence." John Paul II also asked for dialogue between the government and opposition to end El Salvador's civil war.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.americancatholic.org/Features/JohnPaulII/3-CentralAmerica-1983.asp |title= Pope John Paul II in Central America: What Did His Trip Accomplish? |author1= Paul D. Newpower, M.M. |author2= Stephen T. DeMott, M.M. |name-list-style = amp |date= June 1983 |work= St. Anthony Messenger |location= United States|access-date= 1 January 2013|quote = The pontiff went on to proclaim Archbishop Romero as "a zealous and venerated pastor who tried to stop violence. I ask that his memory be always respected, and let no ideological interest try to distort his sacrifice as a pastor given over to his flock." The right-wing groups did not want to hear that. They portray Romero as one who stirred the poor to violence. The other papal gesture that drew diverse reactions in El Salvador and rankled the Reagan administration was the pope's use of the word dialogue in talking about steps toward ending the civil war. A month before John Paul II journeyed to Central America, U.S. government representatives visited the Vatican and El Salvador to persuade church officials to have the pope mention elections rather than dialogue. |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130202131427/http://www.americancatholic.org/Features/JohnPaulII/3-CentralAmerica-1983.asp|archive-date = 2 February 2013|url-status= dead}}</ref>

On 7 May 2000, in Rome's Colosseum during the [[Great Jubilee|Jubilee Year]] celebrations, Pope John Paul II commemorated 20th-century martyrs. Of the several categories of martyrs, the seventh consisted of Christians who were killed for defending their brethren in the Americas. Despite the opposition of some social conservatives within the church, John Paul II insisted that Romero be included. He asked the organizers of the event to proclaim Romero "that great witness of the Gospel."<ref>Dziwisz, Stanislaw ''Life with Karol: My Forty-Year Friendship with the Man Who Became Pope '', p. 217–218, Doubleday Religion, 2008 {{ISBN|0385523742}}</ref>

On 21 December 2010, the United Nations General Assembly proclaimed 24 March as the International Day for the Right to the Truth concerning Gross Human Rights Violations and for the Dignity of Victims which recognizes, in particular, the important work and values of Romero.<ref>{{cite web|title = International Day for the Right to the Truth Concerning Gross Human Rights Violations and for the Dignity of Victims, 24 March|url = https://www.un.org/en/events/righttotruthday/|website = www.un.org|access-date = 22 May 2015|publisher = [[United Nations]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/events/righttotruthday/|title=International Day for the Right to the Truth Concerning Gross Human Rights Violations and for the Dignity of Victims, 24 March|website=www.un.org|language=EN|access-date=15 May 2017}}</ref>

On 22 March 2011, U.S. President [[Barack Obama]] visited Romero's tomb during an official visit to El Salvador.<ref>
{{cite web| url= http://www.bbc.co.uk/mundo/noticias/2011/03/110322_obama_el_salvador_final_jrg.shtml| title = Obama en El Salvador: una visita cargada de simbolismo| date= 22 March 2011| publisher = BBC MUNDO| access-date= 22 March 2011| quote= El Salvador fue la etapa más llena de simbolismo de la gira por América Latina del presidente de Estados Unidos, Barack Obama.}}</ref> Irish President [[Michael D. Higgins]] visited the cathedral and tomb of Romero on 25 October 2013 during a state visit to El Salvador.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.president.ie/engagements/week-beginning-monday-21-october-2013/ |title=Coinní Poiblí ag an Uachtarán Mícheál D. Ó hUigínn don tseachtain dar tús 21 Deireadh Fómhair, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131217060145/http://www.president.ie/engagements/week-beginning-monday-21-october-2013/ |archive-date=17 December 2013 |website=Áras an Uachtaráin|date=21 October 2013}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.rte.ie/news/2013/1026/482781-president-higgins-el-salvador/ |title=President Higgins visits Archbishop Romero's tomb in El Salvador|website=RTÉ News|date=26 October 2013}}</ref> Famed linguist [[Noam Chomsky]] speaks highly of Romero's social work, and refers often to his murder.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.commonwealmagazine.org/chomsky-romero|title=Chomsky on Romero | Commonweal Magazine|website=www.commonwealmagazine.org|date=10 April 2015 }}</ref> In 2014, El Salvador's main international airport was named after him, becoming [[El Salvador International Airport|Monseñor Óscar Arnulfo Romero y Galdámez International Airport]], and later, San Óscar Arnulfo Romero y Galdámez International Airport in 2018 after his canonization.<ref name="name change 2018">{{cite web|url=https://www.asamblea.gob.sv/node/8035|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200214203347/https://www.asamblea.gob.sv/node/8035|date=29 October 2018|archive-date=14 February 2020|access-date=9 November 2021|title=San Óscar Arnulfo Romero se Llamará el Aeropuerto Internacional|trans-title=The International Airport will be Called Saint Óscar Arnulfo Romero|website=asamblea.gob.sv|publisher=[[Legislative Assembly of El Salvador]]|first=Marilú|last=Alvarenga}}</ref>

Romero is [[Calendar of saints (Church of England)|remembered]] in the [[Church of England]] and in the [[Calendar of saints (Episcopal Church)|Episcopal Church]] on 24 March.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Calendar|url=https://www.churchofengland.org/prayer-and-worship/worship-texts-and-resources/common-worship/churchs-year/calendar|access-date=27 March 2021|website=The Church of England|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W3e7DwAAQBAJ |title=Lesser Feasts and Fasts 2018 |date=1 December 2019 |publisher=Church Publishing, Inc. |isbn=978-1-64065-234-7 |language=en}}</ref>

==Sainthood==

===Process for beatification===
[[File:BEATIFICACIÓN DE MONSEÑOR OSCAR ARNULFO ROMERO (17393112443).jpg|thumb|Savior of the World Plaza at the beatification]]

Romero's sainthood cause at the Vatican was opened in 1993, but the [[Catholic News Service]] reported that it "was delayed for years as the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith studied his writings, amid wider debate over whether he had been killed for his faith or for political reasons."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://catholicphilly.com/2014/05/news/world-news/bishops-ask-pope-to-beatify-archbishop-romero-in-el-salvador/|date=19 May 2014|title=Bishops ask pope to beatify Archbishop Romero in El Salvador|agency=Catholic News Service}}</ref>

In March 2005, [[Vincenzo Paglia]], the Vatican official in charge of the process, announced that Romero's cause had cleared a theological audit by the [[Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith]], at the time headed by Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger (later elected [[Pope Benedict XVI]]) and that beatification could follow within six months.<ref name="cwnews">{{cite web |url=http://www.cwnews.com/news/viewstory.cfm?recnum=35989 |title=Catholic World News : Beatification cause advanced for Archbishop Romero |access-date=17 January 2008 }}</ref> [[Pope John Paul II]] died within weeks of those remarks. Predictably, the transition of the new pontiff slowed down the work of canonizations and beatifications. Pope Benedict instituted changes that had the overall effect of reining in the Vatican's so-called "factory of saints."<ref name="timeproxy">{{cite news |url=http://www.time.com/time/archive/preview/0,10987,1059021,00.html |title=Will the Pope ever make fewer saints? |access-date=17 January 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051124162630/http://www.time.com/time/archive/preview/0,10987,1059021,00.html |archive-date=24 November 2005 |url-status=dead }}</ref> In an October 2005 interview, Cardinal [[José Saraiva Martins]], the Prefect of the Congregation for the Causes of Saints, was asked if Paglia's predictions of a clearance for Romero's beatification remained on track. Saraiva responded, "Not as far as I know today,"<ref name="saraiva">{{cite web |url=http://www.30giorni.it/us/articolo.asp?id=9359 |title=30Days – Blessed among their people, Interview with Cardinal José Saraiva Martins |access-date=17 January 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929090850/http://www.30giorni.it/us/articolo.asp?id=9359 |archive-date=29 September 2007 |url-status=dead }}</ref> In November 2005, the Jesuit magazine ''[[La Civiltà Cattolica]]'' signaled that Romero's beatification was still "years away."<ref name="cn-0506300">{{cite web |url=http://www.catholicnews.com/data/stories/cns/0506300.htm |archive-url=http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20051104184728/http://www.catholicnews.com/data/stories/cns/0506300.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=4 November 2005 |title=CNS STORY: Magazine says Archbishop Romero was killed for actions of faith |access-date=17 January 2008 }}</ref>

Although Benedict XVI had always been a fierce critic of liberation theology, Paglia reported in December 2012 that the Pope had informed him of the decision to "unblock" the cause and allow it to move forward.<ref name="catholicnews.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.catholicnews.com/data/stories/cns/1500520.htm|archive-url=https://archive.today/20150209062508/http://www.catholicnews.com/data/stories/cns/1500520.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=9 February 2015|title=Catholic News Service}}</ref> However, no progress was made before Benedict's resignation in February 2013. [[Pope Francis]] was elected in March 2013, and in September 2013, Archbishop [[Gerhard Ludwig Müller]], [[Prefect]] of the [[Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith]], stated that the Vatican doctrinal office has been "given the green light" to pursue sainthood for Romero.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/09/10/pope-francis-gustavo-gutierrez-liberation-theology_n_3900132.html | work=Huffington Post | first=Yasmine | last=Hafiz | title=Welcome Back Liberation Theology | date=10 September 2013}}</ref>

===Beatification===
[[File:BEATIFICACIÓN DE MONSEÑOR OSCAR ARNULFO ROMERO (18010267052).jpg|thumb|right|The [[beatification]] celebration on 23 May 2015 in San Salvador]]

On 18 August 2014, Pope Francis said that "[t]he process [of beatification of Romero] was at the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, blocked for 'prudential reasons', so they said. Now it is unblocked." Francis stated, "There are no doctrinal problems and it is very important that [the beatification] is done quickly."<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-28845998|title=Pope lifts beatification ban on Salvadoran Oscar Romero|publisher=BBC News|date=19 August 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://vaticaninsider.lastampa.it/en/the-vatican/detail/articolo/romero-romero-romero-25531/|title=Romero's beatification cause was "unblocked" by two Popes|access-date=23 August 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140826120444/http://vaticaninsider.lastampa.it/en/the-vatican/detail/articolo/romero-romero-romero-25531/|archive-date=26 August 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.vatican.va/content/francesco/en/speeches/2014/august/documents/papa-francesco_20140818_corea-conferenza-stampa.html|title=In-Flight Press Conference of His Holiness Pope Francis from Korea to Rome (18 August 2014) | Francis|website=www.vatican.va}}</ref> The beatification signaled Francis' affirmation of Romero's work with the poor as a major change in the direction of the church since he was elected.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.latimes.com/world/mexico-americas/la-fg-pope-direction-20150528-story.html|title=Romero beatification signals Pope Francis' plan for Catholic Church|first=Tracy Wilkinson, Tom|last=Kington|website=[[Los Angeles Times]]|date=28 May 2015}}</ref>

In January 2015, an advisory panel to the [[Roman Curia]]'s [[Congregation for the Causes of Saints]] voted unanimously to recognize Romero as a martyr, and the cardinals who were voting members of the Congregation unanimously recommended to Francis that he be beatified as a martyr (a martyr can be beatified without recognition of a miracle).<ref>{{cite web|author=Cindy Wooden|url=https://www.americamagazine.org/issue/romeros-beatification-will-be-soon|agency=Catholic News Service|title=Romero's Beatification Will Be 'Soon'|date=4 February 2015}}</ref> Archbishop [[Vincenzo Paglia]], the postulator (chief promoter) of the causes of saints, said that Romero's assassination at the altar was intended "to strike the Church that flowed from the Second Vatican Council" and that the motive for his murder "was not caused by motives that were simply political, but by hatred for a faith that, imbued with charity, would not be silent in the face of the injustices that relentlessly and cruelly slaughtered the poor and their defenders."<ref name="catholicnews.com"/> On 3 February 2015, Francis received Cardinal [[Angelo Amato]], [[Prefect#Catholic Church|Prefect]] of the Congregation for the Causes of Saints, in a private audience, and authorized Amato to promulgate (officially authorize) Romero's decree of martyrdom, meaning it had gained the Congregation's voting members and the Pope's approval. This cleared the way for the Pope to later set a date for his beatification.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://press.vatican.va/content/salastampa/it/bollettino/pubblico/2015/02/03/0089/00190.html|title=Promulgazione di Decreti della Congregazione delle Cause dei Santi, 03.02.2015}}</ref>

The beatification of Romero was held in San Salvador on 23 May 2015 in the Plaza Salvador del Mundo under the [[Monumento al Divino Salvador del Mundo]]. Amato presided over the ceremony on behalf of Francis, who in a letter to the Archbishop of San Salvador [[José Luis Escobar Alas]] marked the occasion by calling Romero "a voice that continues to resonate."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.elsalvador.com/mwedh/nota/nota_completa.asp?idCat=47654&idArt=9690577|last=elsalvador.com|url-status=dead|title=Elsalvador.com, Papa Francisco: "La voz del nuevo beato sigue resonando"|access-date=23 May 2015|archive-date=26 May 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150526004330/http://www.elsalvador.com/mwedh/nota/nota_completa.asp?idCat=47654&idArt=9690577}}</ref> An estimated 250,000 people attended the service,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-32859627|work=BBC News|title=Oscar Romero beatification draws huge El Salvador crowds|date=23 May 2015}}</ref> many watching on large television screens set up in the streets around the plaza.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.npr.org/2015/05/25/409421358/el-salvador-s-slain-archbishop-romero-moves-a-step-closer-to-sainthood|work=NPR News|title=El Salvador's Slain Archbishop Romero Moves A Step Closer To Sainthood|first=Carrie|last=Kahn|date=25 May 2015}}</ref>

===Canonization===
[[File:Ceremonia de Canonización de Monseñor Romero. (44398703435).jpg|thumb|right|Canonization Mass celebrated on 14 October 2018 in Saint Peter's Square.]]

Three miracles were submitted to the Congregation for the Causes of Saints in Rome in October 2016 that could have led to Romero's canonization. But each of these miracles was rejected after being investigated. A fourth (concerning the pregnant woman Cecilia Maribel Flores) was investigated in a diocesan process in San Salvador that was opened on 31 January 2017 and which concluded its initial investigation on 28 February before documentation was submitted to Rome via the apostolic nunciature. The CCS validated this on 7 April.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://cruxnow.com/global-church/2017/03/06/vatican-study-possible-miracle-slain-archbishop-oscar-romero/|title=Vatican to study possible miracle by slain Archbishop Oscar Romero|date=6 March 2017|publisher=Crux|access-date=18 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170419100628/https://cruxnow.com/global-church/2017/03/06/vatican-study-possible-miracle-slain-archbishop-oscar-romero/|archive-date=19 April 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://cruxnow.com/global-church/2018/03/11/salvadoran-newspaper-describes-miracle-blessed-romero-cause/|title=Salvadoran newspaper describes miracle for Blessed Romero cause|date=11 March 2018|publisher=Crux|access-date=12 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180311185306/https://cruxnow.com/global-church/2018/03/11/salvadoran-newspaper-describes-miracle-blessed-romero-cause/|archive-date=11 March 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref> On 11 August, Paglia celebrated the Romero Centenary Mass in [[St George's Cathedral, Southwark]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.romerotrust.org.uk/literature/anniversary-homilies-talks|title=Romero Anniversary Homilies & Talks – Archbishop Paglia: Romero Centenary Homily|date=4 June 2015|format=pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210605204040/http://www.romerotrust.org.uk/sites/default/files/ART%20Paglia%20Homily%20Aug%202017.pdf|archive-date=5 June 2021|url-status=live|access-date=5 June 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.indcatholicnews.com/news/33172|title=Southwark: Mass to mark Bl Oscar Romero centenary
|date=11 August 2017|access-date=6 June 2021}}</ref> in London, where the cross and relics of Romero are preserved.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.indcatholicnews.com/news/22930|title=Salvadoran Cross with Romero relic for St George's Cathedral, Southwark|date=10 July 2013|archive-url=https://archive.today/20170626071750/https://www.indcatholicnews.com/news/22930|archive-date=26 June 2017|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://gloria.tv/post/avcWyF37Zp4c1NptG81buExqE|title=Relics of Blessed Oscar Romero in St George's Cathedral, Southwark.|date=15 May 2015|website=[[gloria.tv]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210605205606/https://gloria.tv/post/avcWyF37Zp4c1NptG81buExqE|archive-date=5 June 2021|url-status=live|access-date=5 June 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.agensir.it/quotidiano/2017/8/11/mons-romero-mons-paglia-ucciso-per-aver-scelto-i-poveri-possibile-canonizzazione-lanno-prossimo/|title=Mons. Romero: mons. Paglia, "ucciso per aver scelto i poveri". "Possibile canonizzazione l'anno prossimo"|date=11 August 2017|publisher=[[AgenSIR]]|trans-title=Romero: Mgr Paglia: "Murdered for having defended the poors. Possible canonization within the end of the year|language=Italian}}</ref> Subsequently, medical experts issued unanimous approval to the presented miracle on 26 October with theologians also confirming their approval on 14 December. The CCS members likewise approved the case on 6 February 2018. Pope Francis approved this miracle on 6 March 2018, allowing for Romero to be canonized and the date was announced at a consistory of cardinals held on 19 May. The canonization was celebrated in Rome's Saint Peter's Square on 14 October 2018.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/oct/11/salvadoran-priest-oscar-romero-saint-pope-francis-canonisation|title=Salvadoran priest Oscar Romero to be declared saint by Pope Francis|last=Sherwood|first=Harriet|date=11 October 2018|website=The Guardian|language=en|access-date=11 October 2018}}</ref>

Previously, there had been hopes that Romero would be canonized during a possible papal visit to El Salvador on 15 August 2017 – the centennial of the late bishop's birth – or that he could be canonized in [[Panama]] during [[World Youth Day 2019|World Youth Day]] in 2019.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.lastampa.it/2017/03/17/vaticaninsider/ita/inchieste-e-interviste/romero-santo-ma-quando-g6MNmjcCzc5hMBY5hOXBPN/pagina.html|title=Romero santo, ma quando?|date=17 March 2017|newspaper=La Stampa|author=Metalli, Alver|access-date=18 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170419005640/http://www.lastampa.it/2017/03/17/vaticaninsider/ita/inchieste-e-interviste/romero-santo-ma-quando-g6MNmjcCzc5hMBY5hOXBPN/pagina.html|archive-date=19 April 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Romero was the first Salvadoran to be raised to the altars; the first martyred archbishop of America, the first to be declared a martyr after the [[Second Vatican Council]];<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://elfaro.net/es/201810/el_salvador/22575/Y-El-Vaticano-dio-la-raz%EF%BF%BDn-a-quienes-veneran-a-San-%EF%BF%BDscar-Romero.htm|title=Y el Vaticano dio la razón a quienes veneran a san Óscar Romero|website=Y el Vaticano dio la razón a quienes veneran a san Óscar Romero}}</ref> and the first native saint of [[Central America]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.laprensa.hn/mundo/monsenor-oscar-romero-santo-historia-canonizacion-homilia-el-salvador-iglesia-catolica-JWLP1224085|title=La historia de Monseñor Romero; el primer santo centroamericano|website=www.laprensa.hn}}</ref> ([[Peter of Saint Joseph de Betancur]], who did all his work for which he was canonized in the city of [[Antigua Guatemala|Santiago de los Caballeros]] of [[Guatemala]], was from [[Tenerife]], [[Spain]],<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://fraymartindeporres.wordpress.com/2013/04/24/festividad-de-san-pedro-de-san-jose-betancur-hermano-pedro-primer-santo-canario-2/ |title=Festividad de San Pedro de San José Betancur (Hermano Pedro), primer santo canario |access-date=26 January 2019 |archive-date=11 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190711125626/https://fraymartindeporres.wordpress.com/2013/04/24/festividad-de-san-pedro-de-san-jose-betancur-hermano-pedro-primer-santo-canario-2/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>) Romero had already been included on the [[Anglican Church]]'s list of official saints<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://evangelizadorasdelosapostoles.wordpress.com/2015/03/03/un-santo-para-la-iglesia-anglicana/ |title=Un santo para la iglesia anglicana |access-date=26 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190403204420/https://evangelizadorasdelosapostoles.wordpress.com/2015/03/03/un-santo-para-la-iglesia-anglicana/ |archive-date=3 April 2019 |url-status=dead }}</ref> and on the [[Lutheran Church]]'s liturgical calendar.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://americalatinacaribe.lutheranworld.org/es/content/arzobispo-cat%C3%B3lico-salvadore%C3%B1o-romero-amigo-y-un-gran-ecumenista-4|title=Arzobispo Católico Salvadoreño Romero: Amigo y un gran ecumenista|date=28 May 2015|website=América Latina y Caribe}}</ref>

==Homages and cultural references==
[[File:SalvadorDelMundo.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Monumento al Divino Salvador del Mundo]] in Plaza Salvador del Mundo]]

===Institutions===
* The Romero Centre in [[Dublin]], Ireland, is today an important centre that "promotes Development Education, Arts, Crafts, and Awareness about El Salvador".<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.sistersofstclare.ie/Romero.htm|title=Romero|website=www.sistersofstclare.ie}}</ref>
* The [[Christian Initiative Romero]] is a non-profit organization in Germany working in support of industrial law and human rights in Central American countries.<ref name="Ci-RomeroAboutus">{{cite web|url=http://www.ci-romero.de/aboutus/|title=About us|publisher=Christliche Initiative Romero e.V.|access-date=5 April 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130816081223/http://www.ci-romero.de/aboutus/|archive-date=16 August 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* The [[Romero Institute]], a nonprofit law and public policy center in [[Santa Cruz, California]], U.S., headed by [[Daniel Sheehan (attorney)|Daniel Sheehan]], was named after Archbishop Romero in 1996.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://romeroinstitute.org/about-us/our-name |title=Our Name |access-date=27 October 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151012220701/http://romeroinstitute.org/about-us/our-name |archive-date=12 October 2015 }}</ref>


* In 1989 the [[Toronto Catholic District School Board]] opened a secondary school in [[Toronto]], Canada, named after Archbishop Óscar Romero called [[St. Oscar Romero Catholic Secondary School]].<ref name="About Us">{{cite web|url=https://www.tcdsb.org/schools/archbishopromero/AboutUs/Pages/default.aspx|title=About us|publisher=Archbishop Romero Catholic Secondary School|access-date=24 March 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402133741/https://www.tcdsb.org/schools/archbishopromero/AboutUs/Pages/default.aspx|archive-date=2 April 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* St. Oscar Romero Catholic High School<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ecsd.net/1028/page/6505/about|title=St. Oscar Romero Catholic High School}}</ref> in Edmonton, Canada, formerly known as Archbishop Oscar Romero, and as Blessed Oscar Romero throughout his canonization.
* [[St Oscar Romero Catholic School]], a coeducational secondary school in [[Worthing]], [[West Sussex]], England.
* Romero Center Ministries in [[Camden, New Jersey]], U.S., provides Catholic education and retreat experiences inspired by Archbishop Óscar Romero's prophetic witness. The mission of Romero Center Ministries is to "seek personal, communal, and societal transformation by living ministry as proclaimed in Christ's Gospel." The center hosts over 1,600 guests annually from high schools, colleges, and youth groups which participate in the Urban Challenge program.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.romero-center.org/historymission/|title=Romero Center Ministries|access-date=18 October 2017|archive-date=19 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171019055121/http://romero-center.org/historymission/|url-status=dead}}</ref>
*[[The University of Scranton]] in [[Scranton, Pennsylvania]], renamed a plaza of four residence halls after him in 2018, the group of buildings in now known as Romero Plaza.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cnn.com/2018/08/21/us/university-of-scranton-buildings-pa-catholic-scandal-trnd/index.html |title=A Pennsylvania university scrubs the names of three bishops from buildings after the clergy sex abuse scandal |last=Willingham |first=AJ |date=21 August 2018 |work=CNN|access-date=24 March 2023}}</ref>
* The [[University of Texas at El Paso]]’s Catholic [[Newman Center]] named its Ministry Center after the Bishop in 2019<ref>{{cite web |url=https://catholicfoundationelpaso.org/news/uteps-newman-center-catholic-campus-ministry-goes-back-to-is-roots|title=UTEP's Newman Center Catholic Campus Ministry Has a New Name|date=18 August 2019 |work=CNN|access-date=21 August 2023}}</ref>
* The [https://www.ed.ac.uk/ University of Edinburgh] named [https://www.accom.ed.ac.uk/our-accommodation/fraser-court/ student accommodation] after the Archbishop, and unveiled a [https://www.atlasobscura.com/places/oscar-romero-plaque-edinburgh memorial plaque], in 1991.
* Óscar Romerocollege in [[Dendermonde]], [[Belgium]], is a fusion of multiple Catholic schools that took on the name of the Archbishop in 2014.

===Television and film===
* The opening scene in the otherwise fictional spy film ''[[S.A.S. à San Salvador]]'' (1983) shows a car carrying thugs through [[San Salvador]] and stopping at a church inside which the main villain assassinates Óscar Romero.
* [[Oliver Stone]]'s 1986 film ''[[Salvador (film)|Salvador]]'' depicts a fictionalized version of the assassination of Romero (played by [[José Carlos Ruiz]]) in a pivotal scene.<ref>{{cite news |last=Goodman |first=Walter |date=5 March 1986 |title=Screen: 'Salvador' by Stone |page=Section C, 22 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1986/03/05/movies/screen-salvador-by-stone.html |url-status=live |work=The New York Times |location=New York |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211112214632/https://www.nytimes.com/1986/03/05/movies/screen-salvador-by-stone.html |archive-date=12 November 2021 |access-date=23 February 2022}}</ref> Romero's assassination (with [[René Enríquez]] as Romero) was also featured in the 1983 [[television film]] ''[[Choices of the Heart]]'' about the life and death of American Catholic missionary [[Jean Donovan]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Shales |first=Tom |date=5 December 1983 |title=NBC's Heartsick 'Choices' |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/lifestyle/1983/12/05/nbcs-heartsick-choices/93069380-eba2-416e-9ced-0ce351636c65/ |url-status=live |newspaper=Washington Post |location=Washington, D.C. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220223152537/https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/lifestyle/1983/12/05/nbcs-heartsick-choices/93069380-eba2-416e-9ced-0ce351636c65/ |archive-date=23 February 2022 |access-date=23 February 2022}}</ref>
* The Archbishop's life is the basis of the 1989 film ''[[Romero (film)|Romero]]'', directed by [[John Duigan]] and starring [[Raul Julia]] as Romero. It was produced by Paulist Productions (a film company run by the [[Paulist Fathers]], a Roman Catholic society of priests). Timed for release ten years after Romero's death, it was the first Hollywood feature film ever to be financed by the order. The film received respectful, if less-than-enthusiastic, reviews. [[Roger Ebert]] typified the critics who acknowledged that "The film has a good heart, and the Julia performance is an interesting one, restrained and considered. ...The film's weakness is a certain implacable predictability."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.rogerebert.com/reviews/romero-1989 |title=Romero|last=Ebert |first=Roger |date=8 September 1989}}</ref>

* In 2005, while at the [[University of California, Berkeley Graduate School of Journalism|UC Berkeley Graduate School of Journalism]], Daniel Freed,<ref>{{cite web|last=Freed|first=Daniel|title=About Daniel Freed|url=http://www.danielfreed.com/about|work=The "About" page|publisher=The Daniel Freed website|access-date=24 November 2012}}</ref> an independent documentary filmmaker and frequent contributor to [[PBS]] and [[CNBC]], made a 30-minute film entitled ''The Murder of Monseñor''<ref>{{cite web|last=Freed|first=Daniel|title=The Murder of Monseñor|url=http://www.danielfreed.com/projects/2935191#4|work=A 30-minute documentary film (2005)|publisher=The Daniel Freed Website|access-date=24 November 2012|archive-date=22 May 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130522181819/http://www.danielfreed.com/projects/2935191#4|url-status=dead}}</ref> which not only documented Romero's assassination but also told the story of how Álvaro Rafael Saravia – whom a US District court found, in 2004, had personally organized the assassination – moved to the United States and lived for 25 years as a used car salesman in [[Modesto, California]], until he became aware of the pending legal action against him in 2003 and disappeared, leaving behind his drivers license and social security card, as well as his credit cards and his dog. In 2016 a 1993 law protecting the actions of the military during the Civil War was overruled by a Salvadoran high court and on 23 October 2018, another court ordered the arrest of Saravia.<ref name="thetabletwarrant"/>
* ''[[The Daily Show]]'' episode on 17 March 2010 showed clips from the Texas State Board of Education in which "a panel of experts" recommended including Romero in the state's history books,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ritter.tea.state.tx.us/teks/social/AlphabetizedList_such_as.pdf |title=Historical Figures in Social Studies Teks Draft - January 2010 |access-date=18 March 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100326050411/http://ritter.tea.state.tx.us/teks/social/AlphabetizedList_such_as.pdf |archive-date=26 March 2010 }}</ref> but an amendment proposed by Patricia Hardy<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tea.state.tx.us/index4.aspx?id=3420|title=SBOE Member District 11|date=20 March 2020}}</ref> to exclude Romero was passed on 10 March 2010. The clip of Ms. Hardy shows her arguing against including Romero because "I guarantee you most of you did not know who Oscar Romero was. ...I just happen to think it's not [important]."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cc.com/video-clips/zth8t9/the-daily-show-with-jon-stewart-don-t-mess-with-textbooks|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150927042215/http://www.cc.com/video-clips/zth8t9/the-daily-show-with-jon-stewart-don-t-mess-with-textbooks|url-status=dead|archive-date=27 September 2015|title=Don't Mess With Textbooks|date=3 March 2010|publisher=The Daily Show|access-date=15 October 2018}}</ref>
* A film about the Archbishop, ''Monseñor, the Last Journey of Óscar Romero'', with the priest Robert Pelton serving as executive producer, had its United States premiere in 2010. This film won the Latin American Studies Association (LASA) Award for Merit in film, in competition with 25 other films. Pelton was invited to show the film throughout Cuba. It was sponsored by ecclesial and human rights groups from Latin America and from North America.<ref>{{cite web|title = Romero Days 24–29 March 2010|url = http://kellogg.nd.edu/romero/Lecture.htm|access-date= 14 May 2010|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100501025416/http://kellogg.nd.edu/romero/Lecture.htm|archive-date = 1 May 2010|url-status = dead|df = dmy-all}}</ref> [[Alma Guillermoprieto]] in ''[[The New York Review of Books]]'' describes the film as a "hagiography," and as "an astonishing compilation of footage" of the final three years of his life.<ref>{{Cite magazine| last = Guillermoprieto| first = Alma| author-link = Alma Guillermoprieto| title = Death Comes for the Archbishop| magazine = The New York Review of Books| volume = LVII| issue = 9| pages = 41–42| date = 27 May 2010| url = http://www.nybooks.com/articles/archives/2010/may/27/death-comes-archbishop/| access-date = 14 May 2010 }}</ref>

===Visual arts===
* [[St. James the Greater]] Catholic Church in [[Charles Town, West Virginia]] is the first known Catholic Church in the United States to venerate St. Oscar Romero with a [[stained glass]] window in its building. The project was led by the first Spanish priest of the Wheeling-Charleston Diocese, José Escalante, who is originally from El Salvador, as a gift to the Spanish community of the parish.
* John Roberts sculpted a statue of Óscar Romero that fills a prominent niche on the western facade of Westminster Abbey in London; it was unveiled in the presence of [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]] in 1998.<ref name="abbey">{{cite web|url=http://www.westminster-abbey.org/our-history/people/oscar-romero|title=Westminster Abbey: Oscar Romero|access-date=20 March 2011}}</ref>
*Joan Walsh-Smith sculpted a statue of Saint Óscar Romero at The Holy Cross College Ellenbrook Western Australia in 2017. The sculpture depicts their College Patron "walking his faith" on his journey with the poor in El Salvador.<ref>{{cite web | title=Religious Sculptures | website=Smith Sculptors | url=https://www.smithsculptors.com/Religious_Sculptures.html | access-date=11 December 2019}}</ref>




<gallery widths="200px" heights="200px">
File:Westminster Abbey C20th martyrs.jpg|From the Gallery of 20th-century martyrs at [[Westminster Abbey]] – [[Princess Elisabeth of Hesse and by Rhine (1864–1918)|Mother Elizabeth of Russia]], Rev. [[Martin Luther King Jr.]], Archbishop Óscar Romero and Pastor [[Dietrich Bonhoeffer]].
File:Diaz Unregalo De Dios.jpg|Frank Diaz Escalet, 1998, "Oscar Romero, Un Regalo De Dios Para El Mundo Entero;" acrylic on Masonite. This painting is in a private collection in Sacramento, California.
File:St. Thomas Aquinas Church stained glass windows of Óscar Romero, Pier Giorgio Frassati and André Bessette, Toronto.JPG|[[Thomas Aquinas|St. Thomas Aquinas]] Church stained glass windows of Óscar Romero, [[Pier Giorgio Frassati]] and [[André Bessette]], Toronto Canada.
File:2024 Saint Thomas More - Arlington interior 24.jpg|St. Oscar Romero statue in the Cathedral of Saint Thomas More in Arlington, Virginia.
File:St Alban's Abbey IMG 2665 (28959349165).jpg|St. Oscar Romero, Saint [[Alban Roe]], [[Amphibalus|Saint Amphibalus]], [[Saint Alban]], Saint [[George Tankerfield]], [[Elizabeth of Russia]], [[Dietrich Bonhoeffer]], depicted in the nave reredos [[St Albans Cathedral]]
File:Mural "Homenaje a Monseñor Óscar Arnulfo Romero".png|Mural “Tribute to Monsignor Óscar Arnulfo Romero”, located at the San Óscar Arnulfo Romero y Galdámez International Airport in El Salvador.
File:El Salvador killed more than 75.000.jpg|Memorial depicting [[Oscar Romero]] and the '''1980 murders of U.S. missionaries in El Salvador'''.
File:Develación de escultura de Monseñor Romero. (31416362018).jpg|Unveiling of [[Óscar Romero|Monsignor Romero's]] sculpture in Italy
</gallery>

===Music===
* Violinist [[Jean-Luc Ponty]]'s album ''[[Individual Choice]]'' has a song dedicated to Oscar Romero: "Eulogy to Oscar Romero".
* Singer [[Billy Bragg]], on "The Marching Song Of The Covert Battalions", from his 1990 EP, ''[[The Internationale (album)|The Internationale]]'', shouts Oscar Romero's surname after the line, "Away with nuns and bishops".
* Panamanian musician [[Rubén Blades]] dedicated a song to him named "[[:es:El Padre Antonio y el Monaguillo Andrés|El Padre Antonio y el Monaguillo Andrés]]".<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.eluniverso.com/noticias/internacional/imagen-de-san-oscar-arnulfo-romero-presente-en-la-coronacion-del-rey-carlos-iii-nota/ | title=Este es el único santo latino presente en la coronación del Rey Carlos III: El sacerdote inspiró a Rubén Blades y su imagen está en la Abadía de Westminster | date=4 May 2023 }}</ref>
* Welsh folk singer [[Dafydd Iwan]] released the song 'Oscar Romero' in his memory on his 1991 album 'Dal i Gredu'.

===Political writing===
* In their book ''[[Manufacturing Consent]]'' (1988), [[Noam Chomsky]] and [[Edward S. Herman]] compared US media coverage of the murders of Romero and other Latin American clergy in US client states with coverage of the murder of Catholic priest [[Jerzy Popiełuszko]] in "enemy" Communist [[Poland]] to explain their [[propaganda model]] hypothesis.<ref>{{cite book|year=2002|url=https://archive.org/details/manufacturingcon00herm_197|url-access=limited|title=Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media|publisher=Pantheon Books|last1=Herman|first1=Edward S.|last2=Chomsky|first2=Noam|page=[https://archive.org/details/manufacturingcon00herm_197/page/n96 37] |isbn=0375714499 |edition=2nd}}</ref><ref name="Goodwin">{{cite journal|journal=Sociological Forum|volume=9|issue=1|author=Jeff Goodwin|date=March 1994|pages=101–111|title=Review: What's Right (and Wrong) about Left Media Criticism? Herman and Chomsky's Propaganda Model|jstor=684944|doi=10.1007/BF01507710|s2cid=143939984}}</ref>

==See also==
{{portal|Saints|Biography|Catholicism|El Salvador}}
* [[List of peace activists]]
* [[List of unsolved murders (1980–1999)]]
* ''[[Misa Campesina Nicaragüense]]''
* [[Stanley Rother]]
* [[Salvadoran Civil War]]

; Catholic priests assassinated in El Salvador during and after Óscar Romero's time as archbishop (1977–1980)<nowiki>:</nowiki>
* [[Rutilio Grande]]: assassinated 12 March 1977
* [[Alfonso Navarro]]: assassinated 11 May 1977
* [[Ernesto Barrera]]: assassinated 28 November 1978
* [[Octavio Ortiz]]: assassinated 20 January 1979
* [[Rafael Palacios (priest)|Rafael Palacios]]: assassinated 20 June 1979
* [[Napoleón Macías]]: assassinated 4 August 1979
* [[Ignacio Martín-Baró]]: assassinated 16 November 1989
* [[Segundo Montes]]: assassinated 16 November 1989
* [[Ignacio Ellacuría]]: assassinated 16 November 1989

; [[1980 murders of U.S. missionaries in El Salvador|Murder of U.S. missionaries in El Salvador on 2 December 1980]]<nowiki>:</nowiki> three [[Religious Sisters]] and one [[laity|lay]] worker<nowiki>:</nowiki>
* [[Maura Clarke]], [[Maryknoll]]
* [[Jean Donovan]], lay missionary
* [[Ita Ford]], Maryknoll
* [[Dorothy Kazel]], Ursuline nun

==References==
{{Reflist|30em
<ref name=elfaro>{{cite web|url=https://elfaro.net/es/201003/noticias/1416/How-we-killed-Archbishop-Romero.htm |title= How We Killed Archbishop Romero|first=Carlos|last=Dada|date=25 March 2010|work=El Faro}}</ref>
}}

==External links==
{{Sister project links|auto=1|commonscat=1}}
* [http://www.romerotrust.org.uk/ The Archbishop Romero Trust], based in London
** ''[http://www.romerotrust.org.uk/documents/books/Ashepherdsdiary.pdf Archbishop Oscar Romero: A Shepherd's Diary]''. Archbishop Romero's diary in English. It covers the time between 31 March 1978 and 20 March 1980.
* [https://onlineministries.creighton.edu/CollaborativeMinistry/romero.html Remembering Archbishop Oscar Romero] (several contemporary and memorial articles) from the Collaborative Ministry Office at [[Creighton University]].
* [https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu//NSAEBB/NSAEBB339/index.htm Learn from History: 31st Anniversary of the Assassination of Archbishop Oscar Romero], [[National Security Archive]], Electronic Briefing Book No. 339
* [https://cja.org/what-we-do/litigation/doe-v-saravia/ Assassination of Archbishop Oscar Romerto: ''Doe v. Saravia''] from the [[Center for Justice and Accountability]]
* [https://elfaro.net/es/201003/noticias/1416/ How we killed Archbishop Romero] (2010), interviews with Captain Álvaro Rafael Saravia and others from ''[[El Faro (digital newspaper)|El Faro]]''
* [https://www.westminster-abbey.org/abbey-commemorations/commemorations/st-oscar-romero ''St Oscar Romero'' statue] at [[Westminster Abbey]]
* {{Hl-Lex|b|Oscar_Romero.html}}

{{S-start}}
{{s-rel|ca}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Francisco Raval Cruces|Francisco R. Cruces]]}}
{{s-tul|title=Bishop of Tambeae|years=5 April 1970 – 15 October 1974 }}
{{s-aft|after=[[Angélico Sândalo Bernardino|A. S. Bernardino]]}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Francisco José Castro y Ramírez|Francisco Ramírez]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Diocese of Santiago de María|Bishop of Santiago de María]]|years=15 October 1974 – 3 February 1977}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Arturo Rivera Damas|Arturo Rivera]]|rows=2}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Luis Chávez y González|Luis Chávez]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Archdiocese of San Salvador|Archbishop of San Salvador]]|years=3 February 1977 – 24 March 1980 }}
{{S-end}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Romero, Oscar}}
[[Category:1917 births]]
[[Category:1980 crimes in El Salvador]]
[[Category:1980 deaths]]
[[Category:1980 murders in North America]]
[[Category:1980s murders in El Salvador]]
[[Category:20th-century Roman Catholic archbishops in El Salvador]]
[[Category:20th-century Roman Catholic martyrs]]
[[Category:20th-century venerated Christians]]
[[Category:Anglican saints]]
[[Category:Anti-poverty advocates]]
[[Category:Assassinated Salvadoran people]]
[[Category:Beatifications by Pope Francis]]
[[Category:Canonizations by Pope Francis]]
[[Category:Catholic martyrs of El Salvador]]
[[Category:Deaths by firearm in El Salvador]]
[[Category:Human rights abuses in El Salvador]]
[[Category:Lutheran saints]]
[[Category:Martyred Roman Catholic bishops]]
[[Category:People celebrated in the Lutheran liturgical calendar]]
[[Category:People from Ciudad Barrios]]
[[Category:People of the Salvadoran Civil War]]
[[Category:People with obsessive-compulsive personality disorder]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic activists]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic archbishops of San Salvador]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic bishops of Santiago de María]]
[[Category:Salvadoran Roman Catholic saints]]
[[Category:Unsolved murders in El Salvador]]

Randolph Street

2025-10-11T06:26:00Z

92.18.76.185: Fixing lint errors Special:LintErrors/bogus-image-options.

{{short description|Street in Chicago, Illinois}}
{{Use American English|date=April 2025}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=April 2025}}
{{Infobox street
|name= Randolph Street (Randolph Drive)
|image=Chicago (2692181095).jpg
|caption=Randolph Street, looking east from the [[Loop Elevated]] above Wabash Avenue
|alternate_name= 150 North Edmund J. Randolph Street
|length_mi=
|direction_a= West
|terminus_a= Wolf Road in [[Hillside, Illinois|Hillside]]
|direction_b= East
|terminus_b= {{Jct|state=IL|US|41|name1=[[Lake Shore Drive]]}} in [[Chicago]]
|location= [[Chicago, Illinois]], United States
}}
'''Randolph Street''' is a street in [[Chicago]], Illinois, United States. It runs east–west through the [[Chicago Loop|Loop]], carrying westbound traffic west from [[Michigan Avenue (Chicago)|Michigan Avenue]] across the [[Chicago River]] on the [[Randolph Street Bridge]], interchanging with the [[Kennedy Expressway]] ([[Interstate 90 in Illinois|I-90]]/[[Interstate 94 in Illinois|I-94]]), and continuing west. It serves as the northern boundary of [[Grant Park (Chicago)|Grant Park]] and the [[Chicago Landmark]] [[Historic Michigan Boulevard District]]. Several large theaters, as well as city and state government buildings are on and adjacent to Randolph. [[Metra]]'s [[Millennium Station]] is located under Randolph Street.

==History==
[[Image:Randolph Street Market.jpg|thumb|left|Randolph Street Market, west of Desplaines Street, 1890]]
Randolph Street was named for [[Randolph County, Illinois]], in turn named after [[Edmund Randolph]] (1753–1813), Governor of Virginia, Secretary of State, and the first [[United States Attorney General]].

The street was part of the original plat of Chicago in the 1830s, originally ending at [[Michigan Avenue (Chicago)|Michigan Avenue]]. In the 1850s and 1860s, [[Gambling in the United States|gambling]] was a favorite pastime at the saloons on Randolph, and there were so many gunfights in the vicinity that downtown Randolph Street became known as "Hairtrigger Block."<ref>Donald L. Miller, ''City of the Century,'' Simon and Schuster, New York, 1996. p. 137</ref>

In 1937, in conjunction with the building of [[Lake Shore Drive]], a double-decker [[viaduct]] was built over the [[Illinois Central Railroad]]'s [[rail yard]], connecting Michigan to Lake Shore (which was where [[Field Boulevard (Chicago)|Field Boulevard]] is now). This viaduct still exists west of [[Columbus Drive (Chicago)|Columbus Drive]] as the upper level; it intersected LSD (Field) at the current upper level. The lower level of the viaduct was never used.

In 1963 the upper level was built east of Field to serve the new [[Outer Drive East]] building. Between 1970 and 1980, the viaduct was demolished east of Columbus; this probably happened after the extension of [[Wacker Drive]] to Lake Shore opened in December 1975. By 1988 the new Randolph had been completed, including a new upper level west of Columbus. East of Columbus, this level was built to slope down to the old upper level, which was orphaned by the move of Lake Shore Drive in 1986. The old viaduct was kept west of Columbus, and it slopes down to a middle level east towards the new Lake Shore Drive.

==East Randolph==
{{multiple image
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| footer = Westward (left) and eastward (right) views from [[Daley Center]]
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| image1 = 20080708 Randolph Street (westward).JPG
| width1 = 150
| caption1 =
| image2 = 20080708 Randolph Street (eastward).JPG
| width2 = 150
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East of Michigan Avenue, Randolph Street is a two-way street taking traffic to [[Lake Shore Drive]]. Just east of Michigan, Randolph crosses over the [[Metra Electric]]/[[South Shore Line (NICTD)|South Shore Line]] and splits into two levels, an upper level (via the outer lanes) and a middle level (via the inner lanes). The upper level carries local traffic to the [[Illinois Center]], [[Aon Center (Chicago)|Aon Center]] and [[Prudential Plaza]] developments, and was built in conjunction with them; it also takes traffic to the new [[Lakeshore East]] development. Intersections with the upper level are provided with [[Stetson Avenue (Chicago)|Stetson Avenue]] (which only heads north, and only intersects westbound Randolph) and [[Columbus Drive (Chicago)|Columbus Drive]] (which only heads north). The middle level, which takes traffic to Lake Shore Drive, intersects the middle level of Columbus. A lower level also exists between Stetson and Columbus, intersecting lower Columbus (and ramps to middle Columbus). The middle level East of Columbus Drive is known as '''Randolph Drive'''.

East of Columbus, Randolph continues as a triple-decker street. The lower level intersects with a short piece of [[Field Boulevard (Chicago)|Field Boulevard]]; at that point, the upper level narrows to lie only over the north side of the middle level. Field Boulevard was the original [[Lake Shore Drive]], and crossed the upper level of Randolph (which was the only level at the time). Old Lake Shore Drive (Field Boulevard) south of Randolph is now the [[Cancer Survivors Plaza]]; north of Randolph it was a viaduct at the level of current Upper Randolph and has been demolished. A new Upper Field Boulevard was recently built as part of the [[Lakeshore East]] development; it ramps down to ground (lower) level.

After Field Boulevard, the narrowed upper level and service level continue east to the double-decker [[Harbor Drive (Chicago)|Harbor Drive]], where they end. Harbor Drive provides access to several buildings and then itself dead ends. The middle level then continues east to an interchange with [[Lake Shore Drive]] and a dead end just beyond.

==Buildings==
[[File:20230704 900 West Randolph.jpg|thumb|900 West Randolph Street]]
[[File:20071007 Harris Theater and Heritage.JPG|thumb|alt=Harris Theater (Chicago)|Harris Theater (left), the [[Chicago Cultural Center]] (bottom right), and The Heritage at Millennium Park (upper right)]]
Buildings on Randolph include the following:[http://www.google.com/search?q=+site:www.emporis.com+%22randolph+street%22+emporis&num=100&hl=en&lr=&safe=off&filter=0]
*[[City View Tower]] (720-726W)
*[[Randolph Place Lofts]] (~485W)
*[[Boeing International Headquarters]] (~450W)
*[[Franklin and Randolph Office Building]] (~250W)
*[[Randolph Tower]] (188W)
*[[Hotel Allegro]] (171W)
*[[Cadillac Palace Theatre]] (151W)
*[[Michael A. Bilandic Building]] (~150W)
*[[Chicago Title and Trust Center]] (~80W)
*[[James R. Thompson Center]] (100W)
*[[Richard J. Daley Center]] (55W)
*[[Nederlander Theatre (Chicago)|Nederlander Theatre]] (24-32W)
*[[Joffrey Tower]] (8E)
*[[Trans World Entertainment|FYE Superstore]] (formally [[Trans World Entertainment|Coconuts]]) (26E)
*[[The Heritage at Millennium Park]] (~50E)
*[[Smurfit-Stone Building]] (~90E)
*[[Millennium Park Plaza]] (~100E)
*[[One Prudential Plaza]] (130E)
*[[Two Prudential Plaza]] and [[Millennium Station]] (~150E)
*[[Aon Center (Chicago)|Aon Center]] (200E)
*[[Harris Theater (Chicago)|Joan W. and Irving B. Harris Theater for Music and Dance]] (205E)
*[[McDonald's Cycle Center]] (239E)
*[[Blue Cross Blue Shield Tower]] (300E)
*[[Daley Bicentennial Plaza]] (337E)
*[[340 on the Park]] (340E)
*[[The Buckingham (Chicago, Illinois)|The Buckingham]] (360E)
*[[Outer Drive East]] (400E)
*[[Harbor Point (skyscraper)|Harbor Point]] (155 N Harbor Dr.)

==See also==
{{commons category|Randolph Street, Chicago}}
*[[Multilevel streets in Chicago]]
* [http://www.ERandolph.com E Randolph St.]
*[[Randolph Street Market]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Streets in Chicago}}

[[Category:Streets in Chicago| 1-150]]
[[Category:Tourism in Chicago]]

I486

2025-10-07T19:06:06Z

92.18.76.185: Fixing lint errors Special:LintErrors/bogus-image-options. |frameless| is not a valid option.

{{Short description|Successor to the Intel 386}}
{{lowercase title}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=October 2018}}

{{Infobox CPU
| name = i486
| image = [[File:Intel i486 logo.svg|upright=0.5|frameless|class=skin-invert]]{{pb}}[[File:80486dx2-large.jpg|frameless|upright=1]]
| caption = The exposed die of an Intel 486DX2
| manuf1 = Intel, [[IBM]], [[AMD]], [[Texas Instruments]], [[Harris Semiconductor]], [[United Microelectronics Corporation|UMC]], [[STMicroelectronics|SGS Thomson]]
| designfirm = [[Intel]], with [[Pat Gelsinger]] as chief architect
| produced-start = April 10, 1989<ref name="Lewnes, Ann 1989, page 2">Lewnes, Ann, "The Intel386 Architecture Here to Stay", Intel Corporation, Microcomputer Solutions, July/August 1989, page 2.</ref>
| produced-end = September 28, 2007<ref name="i486LastShipment2007"/>
| size-from = 1 μm
| size-to = 600 nm
| transistors = 1.2<ref name="Lewnes, Ann 1989, page 2"/>–1.6 million
| slowest = 16| slow-unit =
| fastest = 100 | fast-unit = MHz{{efn|AMD versions up to [[Am486|120]] and [[Am5x86|160]] MHz.}}
| fsb-slowest = 16 | fsb-slow-unit = MHz
| fsb-fastest = 50 | fsb-fast-unit = MHz
| l1cache = 8 KB to 16 KB
| arch = [[x86-16]], [[IA-32]] including [[x87]] (except for "[[i486SX|SX]]" models)
| data-width = 32 bits<ref name=486ref>{{cite book |author=Intel |title=Embedded Intel486 Processor Hardware Reference Manual (273025-001) |date=July 1997}}</ref>
| address-width = 32 bits<ref name=486ref/>
| virtual-width = 32 bits (linear); 46 bits (logical)<ref name=486ref/>
| pack1 = 168-pin [[Pin grid array|PGA]], 196-pin [[PQFP]], 208-pin [[SQFP]]
| predecessor = [[i386|Intel 386]]
| successor = [[Pentium (original)|Pentium/i586 (P5)]]
| co-processor = [[Intel 80487SX]]
| sock1 = PGA168, [[Socket 1]], [[Socket 2|2]], [[Socket 3|3]]
| support status = Unsupported
}}

The [[Intel]] '''486''', officially named '''i486''' and also known as '''80486''', is a [[microprocessor]] introduced in 1989. It is a higher-performance follow-up to the [[i386|Intel 386]]. It represents the fourth generation of [[binary compatible]] CPUs following the [[Intel 8086|8086]] of 1978, the [[Intel 80286]] of 1982, and 1985's [[i386]].

It was the first tightly-[[instruction pipeline|pipelined]]{{efn|Simple instructions spend only a single clock cycle at each pipeline stage.{{efn|name=fn1|}}}} [[x86]] design as well as the first x86 chip to include more than one million transistors. It offered a large on-chip [[Cache (computing)|cache]] and an integrated [[floating-point unit]]. When it was announced, the initial performance was originally published between 15 and 20 [[VAX Unit of Performance|VAX MIPS]], between 37,000 and 49,000 [[Dhrystone|dhrystones per second]], and between 6.1 and 8.2 double-precision [[Whetstone (benchmark)|megawhetstones per second]] for both 25 and 33 MHz version.<ref name="Lewnes, Ann 1989, page 2"/> A typical 50 MHz i486 executes 41 million [[instructions per second]] Dhrystone MIPS and [[SPECint|SPEC integer]] rating of 27.9.<ref name="auto">Chen, Allan, "The 50-MHz Intel486 Microprocessor", Intel Corporation, Microcomputer Solutions, September/October 1991, page 2.</ref> It is approximately twice as fast as the i386 or i286 per [[Clock signal|clock cycle]]. The i486's improved performance is thanks to its five-stage pipeline with all stages bound to a single cycle. The enhanced FPU unit on the chip was significantly faster than the [[i387]] FPU per cycle. The i387 FPU was a separate, optional math coprocessor installed in a motherboard socket alongside the i386.<ref>{{Cite web |last=LotusChain |date=Jan 28, 2024 |title=FPU in CPU |url=https://lotuschain.medium.com/fpu-in-cpu-a67a3bd2f5ea |access-date=2024-09-15 |website=LotusChain Medium}}</ref>

The i486 was succeeded by the [[Pentium (original)|original Pentium]]. Orders were discontinued for the i486 on March 30, 2007 and the last shipments were on September 28, 2007.<ref name="i486LastShipment2007">{{cite web |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061009060120/http://developer.intel.com/design/pcn/Processors/D0106013.pdf |archive-date=9 October 2006 |url=http://developer.intel.com/design/pcn/Processors/D0106013.pdf |title=Product Change Notification |date=2 May 2006 | page=2 | publisher=Intel | url-status=dead}}</ref>

==History==
The concept of this microprocessor generation was discussed with [[Pat Gelsinger]] and [[John Crawford (engineer)|John Crawford]] shortly after the release of [[I386|386 processor]] in 1985. The team started the computer simulation in early 1987. They finalized the logic and microcode function during 1988. The team finalized the database in February 1989 until the [[Tape-out|tape out]] on March 1. They received the first silicon from the fabrication on March 20.<ref name="Chen, Allan 1989, page 12">Chen, Allan, "Designing A Mainframe on a Chip: Interview with the i486 Microprocessor Design Team", Intel Corporation, Microcomputer Solutions, July/August 1989, page 12.</ref>

The i486 was announced at Spring [[COMDEX|Comdex]] on April 10, 1989.<ref name="Lewnes, Ann 1989, page 2"/> At the announcement, Intel stated that samples would be available in the third quarter and production quantities would ship in the fourth quarter.<ref>486 [[32-bit computing|32-bit]] CPU breaks new ground in chip density and operating performance. (Intel Corp.) (product announcement) EDN, May 11, 1989, Pryce, Dave.</ref> The first i486-based PCs were announced in late 1989.<ref>{{cite news |url = https://www.nytimes.com/1989/10/22/business/the-executive-computer-the-race-to-market-a-486-machine.html?pagewanted=1 |work = The New York Times |title = The Executive Computer; The Race to Market a 486 Machine |first = Peter H. |last = Lewis |date = October 22, 1989 |access-date = May 5, 2010 }}</ref>

In fall of 1991, Intel introduced the 50 MHz i486 DX using the three layer [[800 nm process]] [[CHMOS|CHMOS-V]] technology. They were available for US$665 in 1,000-unit quantities.<ref name="auto"/>

In that season, Intel introduced low-power 25 MHz Intel486 DX microprocessor. This one was available for US$471. Also, there were low-power 16, 20, and 25 MHz Intel486 SX microprocessors. They were available at $235, $266, and $366 for these frequency range respectively. All pricing were in quantities of 1,000 pieces. These low-power microprocessors have power consumption reduced by 50–75% compared to similar regular versions of these CPUs.<ref>Intel Corporation, "New Product Focus: Components: Modified Chips Cuts Portable Power Consumption", Microcomputer Solutions, November/December 1991, page 10.</ref>

The first major update to the i486 design came in March 1992 with the release of the clock-doubled [[Intel DX2|486DX2]] series.<ref name=":0">{{Cite magazine |last=Yates |first=Darren |date=November 2020 |title=Four. Eight. Six. |magazine=[[APC (magazine)|APC]] |language=en |publisher=Future Publishing |issue=486 |pages=52–55 |issn=0725-4415}}</ref> It was the first time that the CPU core clock frequency was separated from the [[system bus]] clock frequency by using a dual clock multiplier, supporting 486DX2 chips at 40 and 50 MHz. The faster 66 MHz 486DX2-66 was released that August.<ref name=":0" />

The fifth-generation [[Pentium (original)|Pentium]] processor launched in 1993, while Intel continued to produce i486 processors, including the triple-clock-rate [[Intel DX4|486DX4-100]] with a 100 MHz clock speed and a L1 cache doubled to 16 KB.<ref name=":0" />

Earlier, Intel had decided not to share its 80386 and 80486 technologies with AMD. However, AMD believed that their technology sharing agreement extended to the 80386 as a derivative of the 80286.<ref name=":0" /> AMD reverse-engineered the 386 and produced the 40 MHz [[Am386|Am386DX-40]] chip, which was cheaper and had lower power consumption than Intel's best 33 MHz version.<ref name=":0" /> Intel attempted to prevent AMD from selling the processor, but AMD won in court, which allowed it to establish itself as a competitor.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web  |last=Lilly |first=Paul |date=2009-04-14 |title=A Brief History of CPUs: 31 Awesome Years of x86 |url=https://www.pcgamer.com/a-brief-history-of-cpus-31-awesome-years-of-x86/ |access-date=2021-08-07 |website=PC Gamer |language=en}}</ref>

After 386 competitors appeared, Intel in 1992 lowered the price of the 25-MHz 80486SX to less than that of the 33-MHz 80386. An industry analyst said that Intel wanted customers to move to the competition-free 486. The strategy was very successful; by 1993 [[Dell]] reported that 80486-based computers were 70% of sales.<ref name="iw19930125">{{Cite magazine |last1=Quinlan |first1=Tom |last2=Damore |first2=Kelley |date=1993-01-25 |title=Manufacturers dropping 386 desktop lines |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2zsEAAAAMBAJ&dq=dataperfect&pg=PA1 |access-date=2025-05-20 |magazine=InfoWorld |pages=1,83 |volume=15 |issue=4}}</ref> AMD continued to create clones, releasing the first-generation [[Am486]] chip in April 1993 with clock frequencies of 25, 33 and 40 MHz. Second-generation Am486DX2 chips with 50, 66 and 80 MHz clock frequencies were released the following year.<ref name=":0" /> The Am486 series was completed with a 120 MHz DX4 chip in 1995.<ref name=":0" />

AMD's long-running 1987 arbitration lawsuit against Intel was settled in 1995, and AMD gained access to Intel's 80486 microcode.<ref name=":0" /> This led to the creation of two versions of AMD's 486 processor{{snd}} one reverse-engineered from Intel's microcode, while the other used AMD's microcode in a [[clean-room design]] process. However, the settlement also concluded that the 80486 would be AMD's last Intel clone.<ref name=":0" />

Another 486 clone manufacturer was [[Cyrix]], which was a [[Fabless manufacturing|fabless]] co-processor chip maker for 80286/386 systems. The first [[Cyrix Cx486|Cyrix 486]] processors, the 486SLC and 486DLC, were released in 1992 and used the 80386 package.<ref name=":0" /> Both [[Texas Instruments]]-manufactured Cyrix processors were pin-compatible with 386SX/DX systems, which allowed them to become an upgrade option.<ref name=":1" /> However, these chips could not match the Intel 486 processors, having only 1 KB of cache memory and no built-in math coprocessor. In 1993, Cyrix released its own Cx486DX and DX2 processors, which were closer in performance to Intel's counterparts. Intel and Cyrix sued each other, with Intel filing for [[patent infringement]], and Cyrix for [[antitrust]] claims. In 1994, Cyrix won the patent infringement case and dropped its antitrust claim.<ref name=":0" />

In 1995, both Cyrix and AMD began looking at a ready market for users wanting to upgrade their processors. Cyrix released a derivative 486 processor called the [[Cyrix 5x86|5x86]], based on the Cyrix M1 core, which was clocked up to 120 MHz and was an option for 486 Socket 3 motherboards.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /> AMD released a 133 MHz [[Am5x86]] upgrade chip, which was essentially an improved 80486 with double the cache and a quad multiplier that also worked with the original 486DX motherboards.<ref name=":0" /> Am5x86 was the first processor to use AMD's performance rating and was marketed as Am5x86-P75, with claims that it was equivalent to the Pentium 75.<ref name=":1" /> [[Kingston Technology]] launched a "TurboChip" 486 system upgrade that used a 133 MHz Am5x86.<ref name=":0" />

Intel responded by making a [[Pentium OverDrive]] upgrade chip for 486 motherboards, which was a modified Pentium core that ran up to 83 MHz on boards with a 25 or 33 MHz front-side bus clock. OverDrive wasn't popular due to speed and price.<ref name=":0" /> New computers equipped with 486 processors in discount warehouses became scarce, and an [[IBM]] spokesperson called it a "dinosaur".<ref name="chauvet-1996">{{cite news |first=Berenice D. |last=Chauvet |work=Sun Sentinel |title=School buys outdated computer model |url=https://www.sun-sentinel.com/news/fl-xpm-1996-07-15-9607140215-story.html |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210702154637/https://www.sun-sentinel.com/news/fl-xpm-1996-07-15-9607140215-story.html |archivedate=July 2, 2021 |date=July 15, 1996 |publisher=Tribune Publishing}}</ref> Even after the Pentium series of processors gained a foothold in the market, however, Intel continued to produce 486 cores for industrial embedded applications. Intel discontinued production of i486 processors in late 2007.<ref name="i486LastShipment2007"/><ref name=":0" />

==Improvements==
[[File:80486DX2 arch.svg|300px|thumb|The 486DX2 architecture]]
{| class="infobox" style="font-size:88%;width:34em;"
|-
|+ i486 registers
|-
|
{| style="font-size:88%"
|-
| style="width:10px; text-align:center"| 31
| style="width:120px; text-align:center"| ...
| style="width:10px; text-align:center"| 15
| style="width:50px; text-align:center"| ...
| style="width:10px; text-align:center"| 07
| style="width:35px; text-align:center"| ...
| style="width:10px; text-align:center"| 00
| style="width:auto; background:white; color:black" | ''(bit position)''
|-
|colspan="8" | '''Main registers''' ''(8/16/32 bits)''
|- style="background:silver;color:black;text-align:left"
| style="text-align:center" colspan="2"| EAX
| style="text-align:center" colspan="2"| AH
| style="text-align:center" colspan="3"| AL
| style="background:white; color:black"| '''A''' register
|- style="background:silver;color:black;text-align:left"
| style="text-align:center" colspan="2"| EBX
| style="text-align:center" colspan="2"| BH
| style="text-align:center" colspan="3"| BL
| style="background:white; color:black"| '''B''' register
|- style="background:silver;color:black;text-align:left"
| style="text-align:center" colspan="2"| ECX
| style="text-align:center" colspan="2"| CH
| style="text-align:center" colspan="3"| CL
| style="background:white; color:black"| '''C''' register
|- style="background:silver;color:black;text-align:left"
| style="text-align:center" colspan="2"| EDX
| style="text-align:center" colspan="2"| DH
| style="text-align:center" colspan="3"| DL
| style="background:white; color:black"| '''D''' register
|-
|colspan="8" | '''Index registers''' ''(16/32 bits)''
|- style="background:silver;color:black"
| style="text-align:center" colspan="2"| ESI
| style="text-align:center" colspan="5"| SI
| style="background:white; color:black"| '''S'''ource '''I'''ndex
|- style="background:silver;color:black"
| style="text-align:center" colspan="2"| EDI
| style="text-align:center" colspan="5"| DI
| style="background:white; color:black"| '''D'''estination '''I'''ndex
|- style="background:silver;color:black"
| style="text-align:center" colspan="2"| EBP
| style="text-align:center" colspan="5"| BP
| style="background:white; color:black"| '''B'''ase '''P'''ointer
|- style="background:silver;color:black"
| style="text-align:center" colspan="2"| ESP
| style="text-align:center" colspan="5"| SP
| style="background:white; color:black"| '''S'''tack '''P'''ointer
|-
|colspan="8" | '''Program counter''' ''(16/32 bits)''
|- style="background:silver;color:black"
| style="text-align:center" colspan="2"| EIP
| style="text-align:center" colspan="5"| IP
| style="background:white; color:black"| '''I'''nstruction '''P'''ointer
|-
|colspan="8" | '''Segment selectors''' ''(16 bits)''
|- style="background:silver;color:black"
| style="text-align:center;background:#FFF" colspan="2"|  
| style="text-align:center" colspan="5"| CS
| style="background:white; color:black"| '''C'''ode '''S'''egment
|- style="background:silver;color:black"
| style="text-align:center;background:#FFF" colspan="2"|  
| style="text-align:center" colspan="5"| DS
| style="background:white; color:black"| '''D'''ata '''S'''egment
|- style="background:silver;color:black"
| style="text-align:center;background:#FFF" colspan="2"|  
| style="text-align:center" colspan="5"| ES
| style="background:white; color:black"| '''E'''xtra '''S'''egment
|- style="background:silver;color:black"
| style="text-align:center;background:#FFF" colspan="2"|  
| style="text-align:center" colspan="5"| FS
| style="background:white; color:black"| '''F''' '''S'''egment
|- style="background:silver;color:black"
| style="text-align:center;background:#FFF" colspan="2"|  
| style="text-align:center" colspan="5"| GS
| style="background:white; color:black"| '''G''' '''S'''egment
|- style="background:silver;color:black"
| style="text-align:center;background:#FFF" colspan="2"|  
| style="text-align:center" colspan="5"| SS
| style="background:white; color:black"| '''S'''tack '''S'''egment
|}
|-
|
{| style="font-size:88%"
|-
|colspan="20" | '''Status register'''
|-
| style="width:20px; text-align:center"|  
| style="width:10px; text-align:center"| 17
| style="width:10px; text-align:center"| 16
| style="width:10px; text-align:center"| 15
| style="width:10px; text-align:center"| 14
| style="width:10px; text-align:center"| 13
| style="width:10px; text-align:center"| 12
| style="width:10px; text-align:center"| 11
| style="width:10px; text-align:center"| 10
| style="width:10px; text-align:center"| 09
| style="width:10px; text-align:center"| 08
| style="width:10px; text-align:center"| 07
| style="width:10px; text-align:center"| 06
| style="width:10px; text-align:center"| 05
| style="width:10px; text-align:center"| 04
| style="width:10px; text-align:center"| 03
| style="width:10px; text-align:center"| 02
| style="width:10px; text-align:center"| 01
| style="width:10px; text-align:center"| 00
| style="width:auto; background:white; color:black" | ''(bit position)''
|- style="background:silver;color:black"
| style="text-align:center;background:#FFF"|  
| style="text-align:center"| [[Virtual 8086 mode|V]]
| style="text-align:center"| R
| style="text-align:center"| 0
| style="text-align:center"| N
| style="text-align:center" colspan="2"| [[IOPL]]
| style="text-align:center"| [[Overflow flag|O]]
| style="text-align:center"| [[Direction flag|D]]
| style="text-align:center"| [[IF (x86 flag)|I]]
| style="text-align:center"| [[Trap flag|T]]
| style="text-align:center"| [[Sign flag|S]]
| style="text-align:center"| [[Zero flag|Z]]
| style="text-align:center"| 0
| style="text-align:center"| [[Adjust flag|A]]
| style="text-align:center"| 0
| style="text-align:center"| [[Parity flag|P]]
| style="text-align:center"| 1
| style="text-align:center"| [[Carry flag|C]]
| style="background:white; color:black" | [[FLAGS register|EFlags]]
|}
|-
|
{| style="font-size:88%"
|-
|colspan="3" | '''Floating-point registers''' ''(80 bits)''
|-
| style="width:10px; text-align:center"| 79
| style="width:245px; text-align:center"| ...
| style="width:10px; text-align:center"| 00
| style="width:auto; background:white; color:black" | ''(bit position)''
|- style="background:silver"
| style="text-align:center" colspan="3"| ST0
| style="background:white; color:black" | '''ST'''ack register 0
|- style="background:silver"
| style="text-align:center" colspan="3"| ST1
| style="background:white; color:black" | '''ST'''ack register 1
|- style="background:silver"
| style="text-align:center" colspan="3"| ST2
| style="background:white; color:black" | '''ST'''ack register 2
|- style="background:silver"
| style="text-align:center" colspan="3"| ST3
| style="background:white; color:black" | '''ST'''ack register 3
|- style="background:silver"
| style="text-align:center" colspan="3"| ST4
| style="background:white; color:black" | '''ST'''ack register 4
|- style="background:silver"
| style="text-align:center" colspan="3"| ST5
| style="background:white; color:black" | '''ST'''ack register 5
|- style="background:silver"
| style="text-align:center" colspan="3"| ST6
| style="background:white; color:black" | '''ST'''ack register 6
|- style="background:silver"
| style="text-align:center" colspan="3"| ST7
| style="background:white; color:black" | '''ST'''ack register 7
|}
|}

The [[instruction set]] of the i486 is very similar to the i386, with the addition of a few extra instructions, such as CMPXCHG, a [[compare-and-swap]] [[atomic operation]], and XADD, a [[fetch-and-add]] atomic operation that returned the original value (unlike a standard ADD, which returns flags only). This generation CPU has brought up to 156 different instructions listing.<ref>House, Dave, "Putting the RISC vs. CISC Debate to Rest", Intel Corporation, Microcomputer Solutions, November/December 1991, page 18</ref>

The i486's performance architecture is a vast improvement over the i386. It has an on-chip unified instruction and data [[CPU cache|cache]], an on-chip [[floating-point unit]] (FPU) and an enhanced [[computer bus|bus]] interface unit.<ref>{{FOLDOC|i486}}</ref> Due to the tight pipelining, sequences of simple instructions (such as <code>ALU reg,reg</code> and <code>ALU reg,im</code>) could sustain single-clock-cycle throughput (one instruction completed every clock). In other words, it was running about 1.8 clocks per instruction.<ref name="Chen, Allan 1989, page 12"/> These improvements yielded a rough doubling in integer [[Arithmetic logic unit|ALU]] performance over the i386 at the same [[clock rate]]. A 16 MHz i486 therefore had performance similar to a 33 MHz i386. The combination of both CPU and FPU housed on a single die results in bus utilization rates of 50% for the 25 MHz Intel486 version.<ref>Intel Corporation, "Coming Attractions: Clock-Doubling Technology", Microcomputer Solutions, January/February 1992, page 6</ref> In other words, with the combination of both CPU and MCP (math coprocessor) provides 40% more performance than with both Intel386 DX and Intel387 DX math coprocessor combined.<ref>Intel Corporation, "A Guide to the Intel Architecture", Microcomputer Solutions, January/February 1992, page 11</ref> The older design had to reach 50 MHz to be comparable with a 25 MHz i486 part.{{efn|The pre-DX2 i486 parts did not use a clock multiplier and are therefore comparable to a twice-higher clocked 386/286.}}

===Differences between i386 and i486===
* An 8 [[Kilobyte|KB]] on-chip (level 1) [[Static random access memory|SRAM]] [[CPU cache|cache]] stores the most recently used instructions and data (16 KB and/or [[Cache (computing)#Operation|write-back]] on some later models). The [[i386]] had no internal cache but supported a slower off-chip cache (not officially a [[level 2 cache]] because i386 had no internal level 1 cache).
* An enhanced external bus protocol to enable cache coherency and a new burst mode for memory accesses to fill a cache line of 16 bytes within five bus cycles. The 386 needed eight bus cycles to transfer the same amount of data.
* Tightly coupled{{efn|name=fn1|The 386, 286, and even the 8086 all had overlapping fetch, decode, execution (calculation), and write back; however, '''tightly pipelined''' usually means that all stages perform their respective duties within the same length time slot. In contrast '''loosely pipelined''' implies that some kind of buffering is used to decouple the units and allow them to work more independently. Both the original 8086 and the x86-chips of today are "loosely pipelined" in this sense, while the i486 and the original Pentium worked in a "tightly pipelined" manner for typical instructions. This included most "[[Complex instruction set computing|CISC]]" type instructions as well as the simple load/store-free "[[RISC]]-like" ones, although the most complex also used some dedicated [[microcode]] control.}} [[Instruction pipeline|pipelining]] completes a simple instruction like ALU ''reg,reg'' or ALU ''reg,im'' every clock cycle (after a latency of several cycles). The i386 needed two clock cycles.
* Integrated [[floating-point unit|FPU]] (disabled or absent in [[Intel 80486SX|SX models]]) with a dedicated [[local bus]]; together with faster algorithms on more extensive hardware than in the i387, this performed floating-point calculations faster than the [[i386]]/[[i387]] combination.
* Improved [[memory management unit|MMU]] performance.
* New instructions: XADD, BSWAP, CMPXCHG, INVD, WBINVD, INVLPG.

Just as in the i386, a flat 4 GB memory model could be implemented. All "segment selector" registers could be set to a neutral value in [[protected mode]], or to zero in [[real mode]], and using only the 32-bit "offset registers" (x86-terminology for general CPU registers used as address registers) as a linear 32-bit virtual address bypassing the segmentation logic. Virtual addresses were then normally mapped onto physical addresses by the paging system except when it was disabled (''real'' mode had no ''virtual'' addresses). Just as with the i386, circumventing memory segmentation could substantially improve performance for some [[operating systems]] and applications.

On a typical PC [[motherboard]], either four matched 30-pin (8-bit) [[SIMM]]s or one 72-pin (32-bit) SIMM per bank were required to fit the i486's [[32-bit computing|32-bit]] [[bus (computing)|data bus]]. The [[address bus]] used 30-bits (A31..A2) complemented by four byte-select pins (instead of A0,A1) to allow for any 8/16/32-bit selection. This meant that the limit of directly addressable physical memory was 4 [[gigabyte]]s as well (230 ''32-bit'' words = 232 ''8-bit'' words).

==Models==
Intel offered several suffixes and variants (see table). Variants include:
* ''[[RapidCAD|Intel RapidCAD]]'': a specially packaged Intel 486DX and a dummy [[floating-point unit]] (FPU) designed as pin-compatible replacements for an [[i386]] processor and [[Intel 80387|80387]] FPU.
* ''i486SL-NM'': i486SL based on i486SX.
* ''[[Intel 80487SX|i487SX (P23N)]]'': i486DX with one extra pin sold as an FPU upgrade to [[i486SX]] systems; When the i487SX was installed, it ensured that an i486SX was present on the [[motherboard]] but disabled it, taking over all of its functions.
* ''[[Intel 80486 OverDrive|i486 OverDrive (P23T/P24T)]]'': i486SX, i486SX2, i486DX2 or i486DX4. Marked as upgrade processors, some models had different pinouts or voltage-handling abilities from "standard" chips of the same speed. Fitted to a coprocessor or "OverDrive" socket on the motherboard, they worked the same as the i487SX.

The maximal internal clock frequency (on Intel's versions) ranged from 16 to 100 MHz. The 16 MHz i486SX model was used by [[Dell Computers]].

One of the few i486 models specified for a 50 MHz bus (486DX-50) initially had overheating problems and was moved to the 0.8-[[Micrometre|micrometer]] fabrication process. However, problems continued when the 486DX-50 was installed in local-bus systems due to the high bus speed, making it unpopular with mainstream consumers. Local-bus video was considered a requirement at the time, though it remained popular with users of [[Extended Industry Standard Architecture|EISA]] systems. The 486DX-50 was soon eclipsed by the clock-doubled [[Intel 80486DX2|i486DX2]], which although running the internal CPU logic at twice the external bus speed (50 MHz), was nevertheless slower because the external bus ran at only 25 MHz. The i486DX2 at 66 MHz (with 33 MHz external bus) was faster than the 486DX-50, overall.

More powerful i486 iterations such as the OverDrive and [[DX4]] were less popular (the latter available as an OEM part only), as they came out after Intel had released the [[Pentium (original)|next-generation Pentium]] processor family. Certain steppings of the DX4 also officially supported 50 MHz bus operation, but it was a seldom-used feature.

:{| class="wikitable"
! || Model || CPU/bus clock speed || [[VCore|Voltage]] || [[L1 cache]]{{efn|1=''WT'' = write-through cache strategy, ''WB'' = write-back cache strategy.}} || Introduced
! width="520px" | Notes
|-
| [[File:Intel i486 DX 25MHz SX328.jpg|80px]][[File:Intel i486 DX-33.jpg|80px]][[File:Intel i486 dx 50mhz 2007 03 27.jpg|80px]] || i486DX (P4) || 20, 25 MHz 33 MHz 50 MHz || 5 V || 8 KB WT || April 1989 May 1990 June 1991 || The original chip without clock multiplier
|-
| {{Anchor|486SL}}[[File:KL Intel 486SL.jpg|80px]] || i486SL || 20, 25, 33 MHz || 5 V or 3.3 V || 8 KB WT || November 1992 || Low-power version of the i486DX, reduced VCore, SMM ([[System Management Mode]]), stop clock, and power-saving features — mainly for use in portable computers
|-
| [[File:Intel i486 sx 33mhz 2007 03 27.jpg|80px]] || i486SX (P23) || 16, 20, 25 MHz 33 MHz || 5 V || 8 KB WT || September 1991 September 1992 || An i486DX with the FPU part disabled; later versions had the FPU removed from the [[Integrated circuit|die]] to reduce area and hence cost.
|-
| [[File:Intel i486 dx2 66mhz 2007 03 27.jpg|80px]] || i486DX2 (P24) || 40/20, 50/25 MHz 66/33 MHz || 5 V || 8 KB WT || March 1992 August 1992 || The internal processor clock runs at twice the [[clock rate]] of the external bus clock
|-
| || i486DX-S (P4S) || 33 MHz; 50 MHz || 5 V or 3.3 V || 8 KB WT || June 1993 || SL Enhanced 486DX
|-
| [[File:KL Intel i486DX2 PQFP.jpg|80px]] || i486DX2-S (P24S) || 40/20 MHz, 50/25 MHz, (''66/33 MHz'') || 5 V or 3.3 V || 8 KB WT || June 1993 || SL Enhanced 486DX2
|-
| [[File:KL Intel i486SX PQFP.jpg|80px]] || i486SX-S (P23S)|| 25, 33 MHz || 5 V or 3.3 V || 8 KB WT || June 1993 || SL Enhanced 486SX
|-
| [[File:KL intel i486SX2.jpg|80px]] || i486SX2 || 50/25, 66/33 MHz || 5 V || 8 KB WT || March 1994 || i486DX2 with the FPU disabled. Early version used the 800 nm process technology.<ref>Intel Corporation, "Coming Attractions: Clock-Doubling Technology", Microcomputer Solutions, January/February 1992, page 6.</ref>
|-
| [[File:FC80486DX4-75 AK SX883 USA 1995 01 WT.jpg|80px]][[File:Intel i486 DX4 100 MHz SK051.jpeg|80px]]|| IntelDX4 (P24C) || 75/25, 100/33 MHz || 3.3 V || 16 KB WT || March 1994 || Designed to run at triple clock rate (not quadruple, as often believed; the DX3, which was meant to run at 2.5× the clock speed, was never released). DX4 models that featured write-back cache were identified by an "&EW" laser-etched into their top surface, while the write-through models were identified by "&E".
|-
| [[File:Intel i486 DX2 66 CPU SX955.jpg|80px]]|| i486DX2WB (P24D)|| 50/25 MHz, 66/33 MHz || 5 V || 8 KB WB || October 1994 || Enabled write-back cache.
|-
| || i486DX2 (P24LM) || 90/30 MHz, 100/33 MHz || 2.5–2.9 V || 8 KB WT || 1994 ||
|-
| [[File:Intel i486 dx4 100mhz 2007 03 27.jpg|80px]] || IntelDX4WB || 100/33 MHz || 3.3 V || 16 KB WB || 1995 ||Enabled write-back cache.
|-
| [[File:KL Intel i486GX.jpg|80px]]|| i486GX || up to 33 MHz || 3.3 V || 8 KB WT || || Embedded ultra-low-power CPU with all features of the i486SX and 16-bit external data bus. This CPU is for embedded battery-operated and hand-held applications.
|}



==Other makers of 486-like CPUs==
[[File:KL STMicroelectronics ST486DX2-40.jpg|thumb|150px|STMicroelectronics' ST ST486DX2-40]]
[[File:KL UMC U5SX.jpg|thumb|150px|[[UMC Green CPU]] U5SX]]
[[Image:KL Cyrix 486DRx2.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Cyrix Cx486DRx²]]
Processors compatible with the i486 were produced by companies such as [[IBM]], [[Texas Instruments]], [[AMD]], [[Cyrix]], [[United Microelectronics Corporation|UMC]], and [[STMicroelectronics]] (formerly SGS-Thomson). Some were clones (identical at the microarchitectural level), others were [[clean room design|clean room implementations]] of the Intel instruction set. (IBM's multiple-source requirement was one of the reasons behind its x86 manufacturing since the 80286.) The i486 was, however, covered by many Intel patents, including from the prior i386. Intel and IBM had broad cross-licenses of these patents, and AMD was granted rights to the relevant patents in the 1995 settlement of a lawsuit between the companies.<ref>{{cite web|title=AMD-Intel Litigation History|url=https://yannalaw.com/services/trials-litigation/litigation-cottage-industry/amd-intel-litigation/|website=yannalaw.com}}</ref>

AMD produced several clones using a 40 MHz bus (486DX-40, 486DX/2-80, and 486DX/4-120) which had no Intel equivalent, as well as a part specified for 90 MHz, using a 30 MHz external clock, that was sold only to OEMs. The fastest running i486-compatible CPU, the [[Am5x86]], ran at 133 MHz and was released by AMD in 1995. 150 MHz and 160 MHz parts were planned but never officially released.

Cyrix made a variety of i486-compatible processors, positioned at the cost-sensitive desktop and low-power (laptop) markets. Unlike AMD's 486 clones, the Cyrix processors were the result of clean-room reverse engineering. Cyrix's early offerings included the [[Cyrix_Cx486DLC|486DLC]] and 486SLC, two hybrid chips that plugged into 386DX or SX sockets respectively, and offered 1 KB of cache (versus 8 KB for the then-current Intel/AMD parts). Cyrix also made "real" 486 processors, which plugged into the i486's socket and offered 2 or 8 KB of cache. Clock-for-clock, the Cyrix-made chips were generally slower than their Intel/AMD equivalents, though later products with 8 KB caches were more competitive, albeit late to market.

The [[Motorola 68040]], while not i486 compatible, was often positioned as its equivalent in features and performance. Clock-for-clock basis the [[Motorola 68040]] could significantly outperform the Intel chip.<ref>{{cite web|title=CISC: The Intel 80486 vs. The Motorola MC68040|url=http://textfiles.meulie.net/computers/486vs040.txt|access-date=May 20, 2013|date=July 1992}}</ref><ref>[http://www.bbs.ingedigit.com.ve/TechInfo/68040.Microprocessor.html 68040 Microprocessor] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120216013510/http://www.bbs.ingedigit.com.ve/TechInfo/68040.Microprocessor.html |date=February 16, 2012 }}</ref> However, the i486 had the ability to be clocked significantly faster without overheating. [[Motorola 68040]] performance lagged behind the later production i486 systems.{{Citation needed|date=July 2015}}

==Motherboards and buses==
{{unreferenced section|date=March 2021}}
[[File:Byte magazine September 1989 cover.png|thumb|200px|The [[Apricot VX FT]] was the first complete 486 system released, as featured on the cover of ''[[Byte (magazine)|Byte]]'', September 1989<ref name="byte198909_apricot">{{ cite magazine | url=https://archive.org/details/eu_BYTE-1989-09_OCR/page/n162/mode/1up | title=The 486s Are Here | magazine=Byte | date=September 1989 | access-date=30 April 2022 | last1=Lavin | first1=Paul | last2=Nadeau | first2=Michael E. | pages=95–98 }}</ref>]]
Early i486-based computers were equipped with several [[Industry Standard Architecture|ISA]] slots (using an [[emulated]] [[Industry Standard Architecture|PC/AT-bus]]) and sometimes one or two [[8-bit computing|8-bit]]-only slots (compatible with the PC/XT-bus).{{efn|In general, 8-bit ISA slots in these systems were implemented just by leaving off the shorter "C"/"D" connector of the slot, though the copper traces for a 16-bit slot were still there on the motherboard; the computer could tell no difference between an 8-bit ISA adapter in such a slot and the same adapter in a 16-bit slot, and there were still enough 8-bit adapters in circulation that vendors figured they could save money on a few connectors this way. Also, leaving off the 16-bit extension to the ISA connector allowed use of some early 8-bit ISA cards that otherwise could not be used due to the PCB "skirt" hanging down into that 16-bit extension space. IBM was the first to do this in the IBM AT.}} Many [[motherboard]]s enabled overclocking of these from the default 6 or 8 MHz to perhaps 16.7 or 20 MHz (half the i486 bus clock) in several steps, often from within the [[BIOS]] setup. Especially older peripheral cards normally worked well at such speeds as they often used standard MSI chips instead of slower (at the time) custom [[VLSI]] designs. This could give significant performance gains (such as for old video cards moved from a 386 or 286 computer, for example). However, operation beyond 8 or 10 MHz could sometimes lead to stability problems, at least in systems equipped with [[SCSI]] or [[sound cards]].

Some motherboards came equipped with a [[32-bit computing|32-bit]] EISA bus that was backward compatible with the ISA-standard. EISA offered attractive features such as increased bandwidth, extended addressing, IRQ sharing, and card configuration through software (rather than through jumpers, DIP switches, etc.) However, EISA cards were expensive and therefore mostly employed in servers and workstations. Consumer desktops often used the simpler, faster [[VESA Local Bus]] (VLB). Unfortunately prone to electrical and timing-based instability; typical consumer desktops had ISA slots combined with a single VLB slot for a video card. VLB was gradually replaced by [[Peripheral Component Interconnect|PCI]] during the final years of the i486 period. Few [[Pentium class]] motherboards had VLB support as VLB was based directly on the i486 bus; much different from the P5 Pentium-bus. ISA persisted through the P5 Pentium generation and was not completely displaced by PCI until the Pentium III era, although ISA persisted well into the Pentium 4 era, especially among industrial PCs.

Late i486 boards were normally equipped with both PCI and ISA slots, and sometimes a single VLB slot. In this configuration, VLB or PCI throughput suffered depending on how buses were bridged. Initially, the VLB slot in these systems was usually fully compatible only with video cards (fitting as "VESA" stands for ''[[VESA|Video Electronics Standards Association]]''); VLB-IDE, multi I/O, or SCSI cards could have problems on motherboards with PCI slots. The VL-Bus operated at the same clock speed as the i486-bus (basically a local bus) while the PCI bus also usually depended on the i486 clock but sometimes had a divider setting available via the BIOS. This could be set to 1/1 or 1/2, sometimes even 2/3 (for 50 MHz CPU clocks). Some motherboards limited the PCI clock to the specified maximum of 33 MHz and certain network cards depended on this frequency for correct bit-rates. The ISA clock was typically generated by a divider of the CPU/VLB/PCI clock.

The earliest hardware product to use the i486 chip was [[IBM]]'s [[486/25 Power Platform]], a [[CPU card]] that plugged into their [[IBM PS/2 Model 70|PS/2 Model 70 386]] in order to upgrade it to a 25-MHz i486. Introduced in October 1989, it was recalled a few weeks after its release after reports of bugs in initial batches of the i486 were confirmed by Intel.<ref>{{cite magazine | last=Keefe | first=Patricia | date=October 9, 1989 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RCRN09BFuYUC&pg=PA39 | title=IBM 80486 upgrade leads the pack | magazine=Computerworld | volume=XXIII | issue=41 | pages=39, 50 | via=Google Books}}</ref>{{rp|39}}<ref>{{cite magazine | last=Yoder | first=Stephen Kreider | date=October 27, 1989 | url=https://www.proquest.com/docview/398099426 | title=Chip by Intel Contains Flaw in Calculating | newspaper=The Wall Street Journal | page=1 | id={{ProQuest|398099426}} }}</ref><ref name=bug>{{cite magazine | last=March | first=Richard | date=October 30, 1989 | url=https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A7819694/GPS?sid=wikipedia | title=Bug could delay 486 PCs | magazine=PC Week | volume=6 | issue=43 | page=8 | via=Gale}}</ref> The first complete computer system to use the i486 chip was the [[Apricot VX FT]], produced by British hardware manufacturer [[Apricot Computers]] and released in late 1989.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Collin | first=Simon | date=31 January 1990 | url=https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A8159678/GPS?u=wikipedia&sid=bookmark-GPS&xid=6b27b0d4 | title=The 486 Alternative | journal=PC User | publisher=EMAP Media | issue=125 | page=56 | via=Gale}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last=Lavin | first=Paul | date=28 April 1994 | url=https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A15355986/GPS?u=wikipedia&sid=bookmark-GPS&xid=20e6fb64 | title=Down, but Not Out | journal=Computer Weekly | publisher=TechTarget | page=42 | via=Gale}}</ref>

Later i486 boards supported [[Plug-And-Play]], a specification designed by [[Microsoft]] that began as a part of [[Windows 95]] to make component installation easier for consumers.

Some mid-end and high-end i486 motherboards can include L2 cache integrated in motherboard.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://theretroweb.com/motherboard/manual/atc1411b-6086f62a0092f482397102.pdf |title=UMC-486 Cache ISA M/B - user's manual |website=theretroweb.com |date=n.d. |access-date=14 July 2025}}</ref>

==Obsolescence==
The [[AMD Am5x86]] and [[Cyrix Cx5x86]] were the last i486 processors often used in late-generation i486 motherboards. They came with PCI slots and 72-pin SIMMs that were designed to run [[Windows 95]], and also used for 80486 motherboards upgrades. While the [[Cyrix Cx5x86]] faded when the [[Cyrix 6x86]] took over, the [[AMD Am5x86]] remained important given [[AMD K5]] delays.

Computers based on the i486 remained popular through the late 1990s, serving as low-end processors for entry-level PCs. Production for traditional desktop and laptop systems ceased in 1998, when Intel introduced the [[Celeron]] brand, though it continued to be produced for [[embedded systems]] through the late 2000s.

In the general-purpose desktop computer role, i486-based machines remained in use into the early 2000s, especially as Windows 95 through [[Windows 98|98]] and [[Windows NT 4.0]] were the last Microsoft operating systems to officially support i486-based systems.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://support.microsoft.com/kb/182751 |title = Minimum Hardware Requirements for a Windows 98 Installation |date = January 24, 2001 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20041205061101/http://support.microsoft.com/kb/182751 |archive-date = December 5, 2004 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.winhistory.de/more/nt4.htm |title = Windows NT 4.0 Workstation |publisher = WinHistory.de |language=de}}</ref> [[Windows 2000]] could run on an i486-based machine, although with a less than optimal performance (the official "minimum hardware requirement" was a Pentium processor).<ref>{{cite web |url = https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d33rIWdgc_A&t=380s&ab_channel=HARDWARECOP |title = World Record*: Windows 2000 running on Intel i486 SX 25 MHz |website = [[YouTube]] |date = July 29, 2013 }}</ref> As they were generally overtaken by newer operating systems, i486 systems fell out of use except for [[backward compatibility]] with older programs (most notably games), especially given problems running on newer operating systems. However, support was not removed from some open source operating systems until considerably later.

The i486 was eventually overtaken by the Pentium for [[personal computer]] applications, although Intel continued production for use in [[embedded systems]]. In May 2006, Intel announced that production of the i486 would stop at the end of September 2007.<ref name="i486LastShipment2007"/><ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.reghardware.co.uk/2006/05/18/intel_cans_386_486_960_cpus/ |title = Intel cashes in ancient chips. i386, i486, i960 finally for the chop |date = May 18, 2006 |author = Tony Smith |access-date = May 20, 2012 |publisher = [[The Register]] Hardware |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110813073335/http://www.reghardware.com/2006/05/18/intel_cans_386_486_960_cpus/ |archive-date = August 13, 2011 |url-status = dead }}</ref>

The mainline [[Linux kernel]] considered dropping support for i486-class x86 processors in 2022 and 2025.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Purdy |first=Kevin |date=2025-05-09 |title=Linux kernel is leaving 486 CPUs behind, only 18 years after the last one made |url=https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2025/05/linux-to-end-support-for-1989s-hottest-chip-the-486-with-next-release/ |access-date=2025-06-05 |website=Ars Technica |language=en}}</ref>

==See also==

*[[List of Intel microprocessors]]
*[[Motorola 68040]], although not compatible, was often positioned as the [[Motorola]] equivalent to the Intel 486 in terms of performance and features.
*VL86C020, [[ARM3]] core of similar time frame and comparable MIPS performance on integer code (25 MHz for both), with 310,000 transistors (in a 1.5 μm process) instead of 1 million

== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}

== Further reading ==
*{{Cite web |last=Gamer |first=Brassic |date=2023-01-01 |title=The Brassic Gamer: The (Almost) Definitive 486DX/50 Article |url=https://brassicgamer.blogspot.com/2023/01/the-almost-definitive-486dx50-article.html |access-date=2023-01-03 |website=The Brassic Gamer}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://datasheets.chipdb.org/Intel/x86/486/datashts Intel486 datasheets]
** [http://datasheets.chipdb.org/Intel/x86/486/datashts/241199-002.pdf Low power SX and DX with variable freq. Dec 1992]
** [http://datasheets.chipdb.org/Intel/x86/486/datashts/27273102.PDF EMBEDDED ULTRA-LOW POWER Intel 486 SX]
** [http://datasheets.chipdb.org/Intel/x86/486/datashts/27277101.pdf Embedded Write-Back Enhanced Intel DX4. Oct 1995]
* [http://www.cpu-collection.de/?l0=co&l1=Intel&l2=i486%20DX Intel i486 DX images and descriptions at cpu-collection.de]
* [http://download.intel.com/newsroom/kits/40thanniversary/gallery/images/80486_die.jpg Die photo of Intel 386DX]

{{Intel processors|discontinued}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Intel I486}}
[[Category:Intel x86 microprocessors|80486]]
[[Category:32-bit microprocessors]]
[[Category:Computer-related introductions in 1989]]
[[Category:X86 microarchitectures]]

Secret Treaty of Dover

2025-10-07T16:06:12Z

92.18.76.185: Fixing lint errors Special:LintErrors/missing-end-tag.

{{Short description|1670 treaty between England and France}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2023}}
{{Use British English|date=June 2013}}
{{Infobox Treaty
| name = Treaty of Dover
| long_name =
| image = Peter Lely (1618-1680) (and studio) - Henry Bennet (1618–1685), 1st Earl of Arlington, in Garter Robes - 108929 - National Trust.jpg
| image_size = 220
| caption = [[Henry Bennet, 1st Earl of Arlington]], who led negotiations on behalf of [[Charles II of England]]
| type =
| date_drafted =
| date_signed = {{Start date|1670|6|01|df=y}}
| location_signed = [[Dover]], [[England]]
| date_sealed =
| date_effective =
| condition_effective =
| date_expiration =
| mediators =
| negotiators =
* {{flagcountry|Kingdom of France}} [[Charles Colbert, marquis de Croissy|Marquis de Croissy]]
* {{flagcountry|Kingdom of England}} [[Henry Bennet, 1st Earl of Arlington|Earl of Arlington]]
| original_signatories =
* {{flagicon|Kingdom of France}}[[Louis XIV of France]]
* {{flagicon|Kingdom of England}} [[Charles II of England]]
| signatories =
| parties =
* {{flagcountry|Kingdom of France}}
* {{flagcountry|Kingdom of England}}
| depositor =
| languages = French
| website =
}}
The '''Treaty of Dover''', also known as the '''Secret Treaty of Dover''', was an agreement between [[Louis XIV of France]] and [[Charles II of England]] signed at [[Dover]] on 1 June 1670. Officially, it only committed [[Kingdom of England|England]] to provide [[Kingdom of France|France]] with general diplomatic assistance. However, of greater significance were secret provisions which remained largely unknown until published by historians over a century later.

Under these, Charles would provide military backing for a French invasion of the [[Dutch Republic]], and committed to convert to [[Catholicism]] at some future date. In return, Louis agreed to pay him a secret pension of £230,000 per year, as well as a bonus when his conversion was made public. Charles hoped these payments would help make him financially independent of [[Parliament of England|Parliament]].

Although the conversion clause was never activated, the treaty led to the 1672 to 1674 [[Third Anglo-Dutch War]], a related conflict of the 1672 to 1678 [[Franco-Dutch War]].

==Background==

A possible Anglo-French treaty had been discussed after the 1660 [[Stuart Restoration]], but none was agreed.{{sfn|Rommelse|2006|pp=29-30}} Despite growing tensions over French ambitions in the [[Spanish Netherlands]], [[Louis XIV of France]] decided an agreement with the [[Dutch Republic]] might allow him to achieve these without war.{{sfn|Rommelse|2006|pp= 65,109}} A Franco-Dutch defensive treaty was signed in 1662, while in January 1666 France entered the [[Second Anglo-Dutch War]] against [[Kingdom of England|England]].{{sfn|Rommelse|2006|p=151}}

France took a minor role in the war, as mutual suspicion grew between the Dutch and Louis. Following the peace [[Treaty of Breda (1667)]], Louis invaded the [[Spanish Netherlands]] later that year, beginning the [[War of Devolution]]. To oppose French expansion in the region, a [[Triple Alliance (1668)|Triple Alliance]] was formed between the Dutch Republic, England and Sweden during 1668, which immediately pressured Louis into signing [[Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1668)|a peace treaty with Spain]].<ref>Ronald Hutton, "The Making of the Secret Treaty of Dover, 1668–1670." pp 299-300.</ref> During 1669, friction among the members of the Triple Alliance convinced Louis that he could induce either England or the Dutch Republic to leave it. Following an unsuccessful attempt to negotiate with the Dutch, Louis was approached by Charles with the offer of an alliance, which was delivered secretly by Charles' sister.<ref>Ronald Hutton, "The Making of the Secret Treaty of Dover, 1668–1670." pp 300-301.</ref> At this stage, the only participants in the talks were [[Louis XIV]] of France, [[Charles II of England]], and Charles's sister [[Princess Henrietta of England|Henrietta]], ''[[duchesse d'Orléans]]''. Louis was [[first cousin]] to Charles (through their grandfather [[Henry IV of France]]); Henrietta was also Louis's sister-in-law through her marriage to his only brother, [[Philippe I, Duke of Orléans|Phillippe, ''duc d'Orléans'']].<ref>David Ogg, ''England in the Reign of Charles II'' (2nd ed. 1936) vol 1 p 342-44.</ref>

[[File:Mignard, possibly after - Henrietta of England - National Portrait Gallery.jpg|left|thumb|upright=1.0|[[Henrietta of England]], sister of [[Charles II of England]] and sister-in-law of [[Louis XIV of France]], who helped negotiate the secret terms.{{sfn|Coote|2000|p=?}}]]

Charles's motives for secretly entering into negotiations with France, while England was still part of the Triple Alliance against France, have been debated among historians. Suggested motives include: a desire to gain the alliance of Europe's strongest state; to ensure Charles' political and financial independence from the [[English parliament]]; to put England in a position to receive a share of the [[Spanish Empire]] if it broke up (the infant [[Charles II of Spain]] had no clear heir); to gain the support of English Catholics (and possibly also Protestant [[dissenters]]) for the monarchy; or to seek revenge on the Dutch for the English defeat in the Second Anglo-Dutch War, particularly the humiliating [[Raid on the Medway]]. Charles initially attempted to form an alliance with France in 1668, without abandoning the Triple Alliance, so was not as consistent as Louis in opposing the Dutch.<ref>Ronald Hutton, "The Making of the Secret Treaty of Dover, 1668–1670." pp. 297, 299.</ref> Louis was married to [[Maria Theresa of Spain|Maria Theresa]], the eldest daughter of [[Philip IV of Spain]] (died 1665); Maria Theresa had renounced her inheritance rights, but Louis consistently manoeuvred to acquire Spanish territory adjacent to France and to promote his wife's potential claim to the Spanish throne.<ref>Gijs Rommelse, ''The Second Anglo-Dutch War (1665-1667)'', pp 28, 34.</ref> Louis rebuffed Charles's approach in 1668, as Charles was not willing to join a French attack on Spain.<ref>Ronald Hutton, "The Making of the Secret Treaty of Dover, 1668–1670." p. 299.</ref>

In the early part of 1669, Louis attempted to gain Dutch agreement to his acquiring all or most of the Spanish Netherlands, but the Dutch themselves were anxious to prevent a French army being stationed on or near their frontiers. During the same period, Charles attempted to preserve the Triple Alliance by settling outstanding overseas trade issues with the Dutch, with little success. Through his ambassador [[Henry Jermyn, 1st Earl of St Albans|Lord St Albans]], Charles attempted simultaneously to restart negotiations for a French alliance, but Louis repeated the condition that England must join him in attacking the Netherlands. Charles remained unenthusiastic, but his failure to gain the security he sought by other diplomatic means forced him to accept this precondition, subject to substantial French financial assistance. The parties entered into more detailed discussions by December 1669.<ref>Ronald Hutton, "The Making of the Secret Treaty of Dover, 1668–1670." pp. 300-302.</ref> During the five months in which detailed terms were being agreed, both parties attempted to reach understandings with Spain: their realisation that Spain might cede the Spanish Netherlands to France in a territorial exchange or act in concert with the Triple Alliance was a strong incentive for Charles and Louis respectively to reach a final agreement.<ref>Ronald Hutton, "The Making of the Secret Treaty of Dover, 1668–1670." pp. 303-304.</ref>

By the secret treaty, Charles was to abandon the Triple Alliance with Sweden and the [[Dutch Republic]] in favour of assisting Louis in conquering the Dutch Republic. Provided that the conquest was successfully completed, England was promised several very profitable ports along one of the major rivers that run through the Dutch Republic.<ref>David Ogg, ''England in the Reign of Charles II'' vol 1 pp 344-46.</ref> The main components of the treaty can be paraphrased:

{{blockquote |The King of England will make a public profession of the Catholic faith, and will receive the sum of two millions of crowns, to aid him in this project, from the Most Christian King, in the course of the next six months. The date of this declaration is left absolutely to his own pleasure. The King of France will faithfully observe the [[Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1668)|Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle]], as regards Spain, and the King of England will maintain the Treaty of the [[Triple Alliance (1668)|Triple Alliance]] in a similar manner. If new rights to the Spanish monarchy revert to the King of France, the King of England will aid him in maintaining these rights. The two Kings will declare war against the United Provinces. The King of France will attack them by land, and will receive the help of 6000 men from England. The King of England will send 50 men-of-war to sea, and the King of France 30; the combined fleets will be under the [[James II of England|Duke of York]]'s command. His Britannic Majesty will be content to receive [[Walcheren]], the mouth of the [[Scheldt]], and the isle of [[Cadzand]], as his share of the conquered provinces. Separate articles will provide for the interests of the [[William III of England|Prince of Orange]]. The Treaty of Commerce, which has already begun, shall be concluded as promptly as possible.<ref>Andrew Browning, ed. ''English Historical Documents: 1660-1714'' (Eyre & Spottiswoode, 1953), pp 863-67 for text; paraphrase by [[François Mignet]] from Julia Ady, ''Madame'' (1894) pp. 332–33.</ref>}}

By Article 7 of the treaty, Charles was able to secure only a vague promise that the rights and interests of his nephew, William, Prince of Orange, would be respected.<ref>Ronald Hutton, "The Making of the Secret Treaty of Dover, 1668–1670." p. 303.</ref>

The secret treaty did not become public until 1771 when the historian [[Sir John Dalrymple, 4th Baronet|Sir John Dalrymple]] published its contents in his ''Memoirs of Great Britain and Ireland''.<ref>J. P. Kenyon, ''The History Men. The Historical Profession in England since the Renaissance. Second Edition'' (Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1993), pp. 67-68.</ref> Had it been published in Charles II's lifetime, the results might have been drastic; considering the enormous effect of [[Titus Oates]]'s highly unreliable assertions of a [[Popish Plot]], an even greater backlash might have followed had the English public learned that the King actually obliged himself to turn Catholic and that he was willing to rely on French troops to impose that conversion on his own subjects.{{Citation needed|date=October 2025}}

==The "cover" treaty==
The [[secret treaty]] was signed and sealed in June 1670. The [[George Villiers, 2nd Duke of Buckingham|Duke of Buckingham]] was then appointed to negotiate a treaty with the King of France. He was amazed by how smoothly it went. This treaty closely followed the secret treaty just concluded, but the clause by which King Charles was to declare himself a Roman Catholic as soon as the affairs of his kingdom permitted did not appear; neither, therefore, did the stipulation that the attack on the Netherlands would follow his declaration. This treaty was signed by all five members of the [[Cabal Ministry]] on 21 December 1670 and was made known to the public. However King Charles and the French knew it was a meaningless fake.<ref>Antonia Fraser, ''Royal Charles: Charles II and the Restoration'' (1979), pp. 275–276</ref><ref>David Ogg, ''England in the Reign of Charles II'' vol 1 pp 346-48.</ref><ref>Tim Harris, ''Restoration: Charles II and his kingdoms, 1660-1685'' (2006) p 71.</ref>

== Consequences ==

Military preparations took some time; Louis declared war on the Dutch on 6 April 1672, and Charles followed suit the next day. On 14 April 1672 under the [[Treaty of Stockholm (1672)|Treaty of Stockholm]], France paid Sweden subsidies to remain neutral, while also promising Sweden military support if it were threatened by [[Brandenburg-Prussia]]. This Franco-Swedish alliance completed Louis' diplomatic encirclement of the Republic.<ref>Roger Frost, ''The Northern Wars 1558–1721'' p. 209.</ref>

The [[Third Anglo-Dutch War]] started badly for the Dutch. The French strategy was to invade the Dutch Republic along the line of the River [[Rhine]] where Dutch defences were weakest, outflanking the main defences on the Dutch border with the Spanish Netherlands. Despite warnings about French intentions, the Dutch leader [[Johan de Witt]] mistakenly thought that the war against France and England would be decided at sea, and he prioritised equipping the Dutch fleet while neglecting the eastern frontier fortresses.<ref>J. R. Jones, ''The Anglo-Dutch Wars of the Seventeenth Century'', pp 179-181, 185</ref> This led to significant early French successes and a near-collapse of the Dutch army, which was forced to retreat behind the inundations of [[The Dutch Water Line]] and offer peace terms that were very favourable to France. The year 1672 is known to the Dutch as the ''[[Rampjaar]]'' or 'Year of disaster': the [[Orangism (Dutch Republic)|Orangists]] blamed de Witt whom they forced to resign, and they later brutally killed him and his brother [[Cornelis de Witt|Cornelis]].<ref>C. R. Boxer, ''Some Second Thoughts on the Third Anglo-Dutch War'', p 81.</ref><ref>J. R. Jones, ''The Anglo-Dutch Wars of the Seventeenth Century'', pp 193, 197-198, 220</ref>

The breathing space afforded by its retreat behind the inundations, followed by military reforms, recruitment of new troops and unofficial Spanish assistance, enabled the Dutch army, led by William III of Orange as its Captain-General, to hold the Dutch Water Line for the rest of 1672 and 1673. Louis was now involved in a war of attrition and faced growing opposition from other European powers. Charles was short of money, as the costs of deploying the English fleet were much greater than expected despite French subsidies, and he faced increasing domestic opposition to the war.<ref>C. R. Boxer, ''Some Second Thoughts on the Third Anglo-Dutch War'', p 72.</ref> Part of this opposition related to English perceptions that the French fleet had stood by while the English fleet bore the brunt of the fighting the Dutch.<ref>E. H. Jenkins, ''A History of the French Navy'', pp 50-1 52.</ref>

In the [[Battle of Solebay]] in 1672, [[Jean II d'Estrées|d'Estrées]], commanding the French squadron, avoided the main battle and only engaged a much smaller Dutch force at long-range, earning the condemnation of English, and of some French officers.<ref>E. H. Jenkins, ''A History of the French Navy'', pp 50-51.</ref> The conduct of the French fleet in the two 1673 Battles of the Schooneveld was undistinguished and, in the final 1673 conflict, the [[Battle of Texel|Battle of the Texel]], D'Estrées, either through poor seamanship, or because he had been ordered by Louis XIV to preserve the French fleet should England make peace with the Dutch, failed to engage the Dutch closely.<ref>E. H. Jenkins, ''A History of the French Navy'', p 52.</ref> In addition, Dutch privateers had been much more successful at capturing English merchant ships than English privateers attacking Dutch vessels in this war.<ref>J. R. Jones, ''The Anglo-Dutch Wars of the Seventeenth Century'', pp 30, 192</ref>

Desperate for funds, Charles was forced to call Parliament into session for the first time in over two years. He had hoped to keep it [[legislative session#Procedure in Commonwealth realms|prorogued]] in order to wage the war without its oversight. In 1674, largely because of the pressure put upon Charles by Parliament, England signed the [[Treaty of Westminster (1674)|Treaty of Westminster]]: this largely restored the pre-war status quo and ended the Third Anglo-Dutch War.<ref>F. L. Carsten, ''The New Cambridge Modern History: Volume 5'', p 275</ref> The French would continue to fight for four more years. A peace conference was convened at [[Nijmegen]] in 1676, but this made little progress as the French insisted in retaining the Dutch fortress of [[Maastricht]]. However, the conclusion of an Anglo-Dutch defensive treaty in March 1678 convinced Louis to offer peace without the cession of any Dutch territory, leading to the signing of the [[Treaty of Nijmegen]].<ref>F. L. Carsten, ''The New Cambridge Modern History: Volume 5'', p 219</ref> Although not unfavourable to the Dutch, and less favourable to France than the terms offered by the Dutch in 1672, France gained [[Franche-Comté]] and several towns in the Spanish Netherlands by this treaty, although relinquishing other conquests. More importantly, Louis achieved a diplomatic victory by breaking the European alliance against him.<ref>F. L. Carsten, ''The New Cambridge Modern History: Volume 5'', pp 296-297</ref>

In 1672, Charles issued a [[Declaration of Indulgence (1672)|Declaration of Indulgence]] which suspended the penal laws against [[Nonconformist (Protestantism)|nonconforming]] Protestants and also relaxed (but did not suspend) the penal laws applying to Roman Catholics. When Parliament reconvened that year, they denounced the Declaration and announced that the English monarch did not possess the power to issue proclamations that suspended penal laws passed by the Parliament. Furthermore, they refused to fund the ongoing [[Third Anglo-Dutch War]] until the declaration was withdrawn. Charles was forced to comply with Parliament's demands, thereby ending the chance offered by the treaty of reconciling England with the Roman Catholic Church.<ref>David Ogg, ''England in the Reign of Charles II'' vol 1 pp 354-55, 365-68.</ref>

The treaty's reference to the possibility of "new rights to the Spanish monarchy reverting to the King of France" envisaged the possibility of [[Charles II of Spain]] dying childless, and of Louis then claiming the Spanish throne for the House of Bourbon through his wife. At the time of the treaty, the Spanish monarch was only nine years old, but his infirmity was already evident and well-known, casting doubt on his ever being able to beget children. However, Charles's promise to Louis was purely personal, and as the Spanish King outlived him, his promise had no effect.<ref>F. L. Carsten, ''The New Cambridge Modern History: Volume 5'', pp 309-310</ref> When, shortly after the conclusion of the [[Nine Years' War]], the death of Charles II of Spain seemed imminent, the exhausted participants agreed by the [[Treaty of The Hague (1698)|First Partition Treaty of 1698]], brokered by William III, that [[Joseph Ferdinand of Bavaria]] would succeed to the Spanish throne, and that France and Austria would divide Spain's European possessions outside the [[Iberian Peninsula]]. After Joseph Ferdinand's death in 1699, the [[Treaty of London (1700)|Second Partition Treaty]] of 1700, also sponsored by William III awarded Spain and its overseas possessions to [[Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor|Archduke Charles]] and most of Spain's European possessions to France. However, when the Spanish king died childless in 1700, William III's foreign policy initiative was nullified when Louis claimed the whole Spanish inheritance for his grandson, and French ambitions caused the [[War of Spanish Succession]].<ref>C. W. Ingrao, ''The Habsburg Monarchy, 1618-1815'', pp 105-107</ref>

==See also==
* [[List of treaties]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Bibliography==
* {{cite book|last=Ady|first=Julia|title = Madame, a Life of Henrietta, Daughter of Charles I and Duchess of Orleans|publisher=Seeley & Co|year=1894}}
* Black, Jeremy. "British Foreign Policy and International Affairs during Sir William Trumbull's Career." ''The British Library Journal'' 19.2 (1993): 199–217.
* {{cite journal|last=Boxer|first=C. R.|date= 1969|title=Some Second Thoughts on the Third Anglo-Dutch War, 1672–1674|journal = [[Transactions of the Royal Historical Society|Trans. R. Hist. Soc.]]|volume= 19|pages=67–94|jstor= 3678740|doi=10.2307/3678740|s2cid=159934682 }}
* Browning, Andrew, ed. ''English historical documents: 1660–1714'' (Eyre & Spottiswoode, 1953), pp 863–867 for text.
* Bryant, Arthur. ''King Charles II'' (1955), pp. 154–168.
* {{cite book|last1=Carsten|first1=F. L.|title=The New Cambridge Modern History: Volume 5, The Ascendancy of France, 1648–88|date=1961|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0521045445}}
* {{cite book|first=Stephen|last=Coote|title=Royal Survivor: The Life of Charles II|year = 2000|publisher = St. Martin's Press | isbn = 0-312-22687-X}}
* Feiling, Keith. ''British Foreign Policy 1660–1672'' (1930). [https://books.google.com/books?id=o13GLzw8dpkC excerpt 1968 reprint]
* {{cite book |last1=Frost |first1=Robert |title=The Northern Wars; State and Society in Northeastern Europe 1558–1721 |date=2000 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0582064294 }}
* Howat, G. M. D. ''Stuart and Cromwellian Foreign Policy'' (1974) pp 95–138.
* {{cite journal|last=Hutton|first=Ronald|year=1986|title =The Making of the Secret Treaty of Dover, 1668–1670|journal = The Historical Journal | volume = 29 | issue = 2| pages = 297–318 | doi = 10.1017/S0018246X00018756 | s2cid = 159787254}}
* {{cite book|last= Ingrao|first=C. W.|date= 2000|title= The Hapsburg Monarchy, 1618–1815 |publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn = 978-0521785051}}
* {{cite book|last1=Jenkins|first1=E. H.|title=A History of the French Navy|date=1973|publisher=MacDonald and Jane's|isbn=978-0786457847}}
* {{cite book|last= Jones|first=J. R|date= 2013|title= The Anglo-Dutch Wars of the Seventeenth Century|publisher=Routledge|isbn = 978-1315845975}}
* Jones, J. R. ''Country and Court'' (1978), pp 64–73. {{ISBN?}}
* Lodge, Richard. "English Foreign Policy, 1660–1715" ''History'' 15#60 (1931) pp 296–307.
* {{cite journal | last1 = Maurice | first1 = D. Lee Jr | year = 1961 | title = The Earl of Arlington and the Treaty of Dover | journal = Journal of British Studies | volume = 1 | issue = 1| pages = 58–70 | jstor=175099 | doi=10.1086/385435| s2cid = 159658912 }}
* Miller, John. ''Popery and politics in England'' (Cambridge UP, 1973), pp. 108–114.
* Ogg, David. '' England in the Reign of Charles II'' (2nd ed. 2 vol 1936)
* {{cite book |last=Rommelse |first=Gijs |title=The Second Anglo-Dutch War (1665–1667): Raison D'état, Mercantilism and Maritime Strife |publisher=Verloren |date=2006 |isbn=9789065509079 }}

==External links==
* Original French text of the treaty, at {{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/ngociationsrel03mignuoft/page/n193/mode/2up |pages=187–199; 256–267 |title=Négociations Relatives à la Succession d'Espagne sous Louis XIV |first=M. |last=Mignet |language=fr |volume=iii |location=Paris |publisher=Imprimerie Royale |year=1835}}

[[Category:1670 in England]]
[[Category:1670 in France]]
[[Category:Anglo-Dutch Wars]]
[[Category:Secret treaties|Dover]]
[[Category:Treaties of England|Dover]]
[[Category:History of Dover, Kent]]
[[Category:Military history of Dover, Kent]]
[[Category:1670 treaties]]
[[Category:Treaties of the Kingdom of France|Dover]]
[[Category:History of Catholicism in England]]
[[Category:Charles II of Spain]]
[[Category:Charles II of England]]
[[Category:Louis XIV]]
[[Category:Third Anglo-Dutch War]]

Sturmscharführer

2025-10-04T23:26:31Z

92.18.76.185: Fixing lint errors Special:LintErrors/bogus-image-options.

{{Short description|Rank in Nazi German military}}
__NOTOC__{{italic title}}
{{Infobox military rank
| name = ''Sturmscharführer''
| image = [[File:SS-Sturmscharführer.svg|150px]]
| caption = Gorget patch
| image2 = {{nowrap|[[File:SS-Sturmscharführer h.svg|100px]] [[File:StFw Stuscha OR8 cam slv 1945.svg|100px]]}}
| image3 =
| caption2 = Shoulder and camo insignia
| country = {{flag|Nazi Germany}}
| service branch = {{flagicon image|Flag of the Schutzstaffel.svg}} [[Schutzstaffel]]
| abbreviation = Stuscha
| rank =
| NATO rank =
| Non-NATO rank =
| formation = 1934
| abolished = 1945
| higher rank = ''[[Untersturmführer]]''
| lower rank = ''[[Hauptscharführer]]''
| equivalents = ''[[Stabsfeldwebel]]''
| history =
}}

{{lang|de|'''SS-Sturmscharführer'''}} ({{IPA|de|ˈʃtʊʁmʃaːɐ̯ˌfyːʁɐ|lang}}; {{literally|Storm squad leader}}) was a [[Ranks and insignia of the Schutzstaffel|Nazi rank]] of the [[Waffen-SS]] that existed between 1934 and 1945.{{sfn|Lumsden|2000|p=109}}{{sfn|McNab|2009|p=30}} The rank was the most senior enlisted rank in the Waffen-SS, the equivalent of a [[regimental sergeant major]],{{sfn|Flaherty|2004|p= 148}} in other military organizations.

==Rank usage==
[[File:Adolf Maurer.jpg|thumb|SS-''Sturmscharführer'' Adolf Maurer]]
''Sturmscharführer'' as a proper rank was unique to the Waffen-SS and was not used in the ''[[Allgemeine-SS]]'' (general-SS), where the highest enlisted rank was ''[[Hauptscharführer]]''. Members of the ''[[Sicherheitspolizei]]'' (SiPo), when wearing the rank insignia of ''Sturmscharführer'' with police collar piping, did so when holding the equivalent police rank of ''Meister'' or the investigator's title of ''Kriminalsekretär''. Administratively, such secret police members were not even required to be members of the SS (although many were) and thus the insignia was sometimes worn by non-SS members. Due to SS rank parity regulations, by 1943 most police members were required to hold SS rank, and those with police equivalent rank to ''Sturmscharführer'' were often administratively enlisted into the Waffen-SS in order to be ranked as a ''Sturmscharführer''.

==History==

The rank of ''Sturmscharführer'' was first created in June 1934, after the [[Night of the Long Knives]].{{sfn|McNab|2009|pp=29, 30}} Due to a reorganization of the [[Schutzstaffel|SS]], ''Sturmscharführer'' was created as the most senior enlisted rank of the ''[[SS-Verfügungstruppe]]'' (SS-VT), replacing the older ''[[Sturmabteilung]]'' (SA) title of ''[[Haupttruppführer]]''.

By 1941, the Waffen-SS had become the successor organization to the SS-VT and ''Sturmscharführer'' was established as the most senior enlisted rank.{{sfn|Lumsden|2000|p=109}} A ''Sturmscharführer'' was typically assigned as the head sergeant of an entire regiment or, in some cases, an infantry division.

==Insignia==

''Sturmscharführer'' was not the same as ''[[Stabsscharführer]]'', which was a positional title given to the head SS [[non-commissioned officer]] of a company. The rank of ''Sturmscharführer'' was also not a prerequisite for promotion to ''[[Untersturmführer]]'' and was generally considered as a rank for "career" enlisted SS soldiers, rather than a rank on the path to becoming an officer.

The insignia for ''Sturmscharführer'' was two silver pips and two silver stripes worn on a collar patch along with the shoulder boards of a [[Wehrmacht]] ''[[Feldwebel|Stabsfeldwebel]]''.{{sfn|Flaherty|2004|p= 148}} As was the case with Waffen-SS enlisted insignia, the collar patch of a ''Sturmscharführer'' was edged with black-and-silver twist cord until 1940 when the edging was dropped; like all non-commissioned officers the collar was bordered with 9mm silver-grey braid.

==Insignia Waffen-SS==
<gallery class="center">
File:SS-Sturmscharführer h.svg |[[Shoulder strap (insignia)]]
File:SS-Sturmscharführer.svg |[[Gorget patches]]
File:StFw Stuscha OR8 cam slv 1945.svg |SS smock insignia
</gallery>

{| class="toccolours" border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="border-collapse: collapse; margin: 0.5em auto; clear: both;"
|-
|width="30%" align="center"|Junior rank '''SS-[[Hauptscharführer]]'''
|width="40%" align="center"|'''[[Ranks and insignia of the Schutzstaffel|SS rank]]''' '''SS-Sturmscharführer'''
|width="30%" align="center"|Senior rank '''SS-[[Untersturmführer]]'''
|}

==See also==
*[[Table of ranks and insignia of the Waffen-SS]]

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

== Bibliography ==
{{refbegin}}
*{{cite book | last = Flaherty | first = T. H. | title = The Third Reich: The SS | publisher = Time-Life Books, Inc | year = 2004 | orig-year = 1988 | isbn = 1-84447-073-3 }}
*{{cite book | last = Lumsden | first = Robin | title = A Collector's Guide To: The Waffen–SS | year = 2000 | publisher = Ian Allan Publishing, Inc | isbn = 0-7110-2285-2 }}
*{{cite book | last = McNab | first = Chris | title = The SS: 1923–1945 | publisher = Amber Books Ltd | year = 2009 | isbn = 978-1-906626-49-5 }}
{{refend}}

{{Nazi Germany Paramilitary Ranks}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sturmscharfuhrer}}
[[Category:SS ranks]]

Baryon

2025-09-27T21:26:13Z

92.18.76.185: Fixing lint errors Special:LintErrors/html5-misnesting.

{{short description|Hadron (subatomic particle) that is composed of three quarks}}
{{Redirect|Baryonic|the dinosaur|Baryonyx}}
{{Standard model of particle physics}}

In [[particle physics]], a '''baryon''' is a type of [[composite particle|composite]] [[subatomic particle]] that contains an odd number of [[valence quark]]s, conventionally three.<ref name="Gell-Mann 1964">{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/S0031-9163(64)92001-3 |bibcode=1964PhL.....8..214G |title=A schematic model of baryons and mesons |journal=Physics Letters |volume=8 |issue=3 |pages=214–215 |last1=Gell-Mann |first1=M. |year=1964 }}</ref> [[proton|Protons]] and [[neutron|neutrons]] are examples of baryons; because baryons are composed of [[quark]]s, they belong to the [[hadron]] [[list of particles|family of particles]]. Baryons are also classified as [[fermion]]s because they have half-integer [[Spin (physics)|spin]].

The name "baryon", introduced by [[Abraham Pais]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nakano |first1=Tadao |author-link1=Tadao Nakano |last2=Nishijima |first2=Kazuhiko |author-link2=Kazuhiko Nishijima |date=November 1953 |title=Charge Independence for ''V''-particles |journal=Progress of Theoretical Physics |doi=10.1143/PTP.10.581 |volume=10 |issue=5 |pages=581–582 |quote=The 'baryon' is the collective name for the members of the nucleon family. This name is due to [[Abraham Pais|Pais]]. See ref. (6).|doi-access=free |bibcode=1953PThPh..10..581N }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1=Pais | first1=A. | title=On the Baryon-meson-photon System | journal=Progress of Theoretical Physics | date=1953 | volume=10 | issue=4 | pages=457–469 | doi=10.1143/PTP.10.457 |doi-access=free | bibcode=1953PThPh..10..457P }}</ref>{{rp|457|q=... it seems practical to have a collective name for these particles and other which possibly may still be discovered and which may also have to be taken along in the conservation principle just mentioned. It is proposed to use the fitting name "baryon" for this purpose.}} comes from the [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] word for "heavy" (βαρύς, ''barýs''), because, at the time of their naming, most known elementary particles had lower masses than the baryons. Each baryon has a corresponding [[antiparticle]] (antibaryon) where their corresponding antiquarks replace quarks. For example, a [[proton]] is made of two [[up quark]]s and one [[down quark]]; and its corresponding antiparticle, the [[antiproton]], is made of two up antiquarks and one down antiquark.

Baryons participate in the [[residual strong force]], which is [[force carrier|mediated]] by particles known as [[meson]]s. The most familiar baryons are [[proton]]s and [[neutron]]s, both of which contain three quarks, and for this reason they are sometimes called ''triquarks''. These particles make up most of the mass of the visible [[matter]] in the [[universe]] and compose the [[atomic nucleus|nucleus]] of every [[atom]] ([[electron]]s, the other major component of the atom, are members of a different family of particles called [[lepton]]s; leptons do not interact via the strong force). [[Exotic baryon]]s containing five quarks, called [[pentaquark]]s, have also been discovered and studied.

A census of the Universe's baryons indicates that 10% of them could be found inside galaxies, 50 to 60% in the [[wikt:circumgalactic medium|circumgalactic medium]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Shull |first1=J. Michael |last2=Smith |first2=Britton D. |last3=Danforth |first3=Charles W. |title=The Baryon Census in a Multiphase Intergalactic Medium: 30% of the Baryons May Still be Missing|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|year=2012|volume=759|issue=1|page=23 |doi=10.1088/0004-637X/759/1/23 |arxiv=1112.2706 |bibcode=2012ApJ...759...23S }}</ref> and the remaining 30 to 40% could be located in the [[warm–hot intergalactic medium]] (WHIM).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=MacQuart |first1=J.-P. |last2=Prochaska |first2=J. X. |last3=McQuinn |first3=M. |last4=Bannister |first4=K. W. |last5=Bhandari |first5=S. |last6=Day |first6=C. K. |last7=Deller |first7=A. T. |last8=Ekers |first8=R. D. |last9=James |first9=C. W. |last10=Marnoch |first10=L. |last11=Osłowski |first11=S. |last12=Phillips |first12=C. |last13=Ryder |first13=S. D. |last14=Scott |first14=D. R. |last15=Shannon |first15=R. M. |last16=Tejos |first16=N. |title=A census of baryons in the Universe from localized fast radio bursts|journal=Nature|year=2020|volume=581|issue=7809 |pages=391–395|doi=10.1038/s41586-020-2300-2 |pmid=32461651 |arxiv=2005.13161 |bibcode=2020Natur.581..391M }}</ref>

== Background ==
Baryons are strongly interacting [[fermion]]s; that is, they are acted on by the [[strong nuclear force]] and are described by [[Fermi–Dirac statistics]], which apply to all particles obeying the [[Pauli exclusion principle]]. This is in contrast to the [[boson]]s, which do not obey the exclusion principle.

Baryons, alongside [[meson]]s, are [[hadron]]s, composite particles composed of [[quark]]s. Quarks have [[baryon number]]s of ''B'' = {{sfrac|1|3}} and antiquarks have baryon numbers of ''B'' = −{{sfrac|1|3}}. The term "baryon" usually refers to ''triquarks''—baryons made of three quarks (''B'' = {{sfrac|1|3}} + {{sfrac|1|3}} + {{sfrac|1|3}} = 1).

Other [[exotic baryon]]s have been proposed, such as [[pentaquark]]s—baryons made of four quarks and one antiquark (''B'' = {{sfrac|1|3}} + {{sfrac|1|3}} + {{sfrac|1|3}} + {{sfrac|1|3}} − {{sfrac|1|3}} = 1),<ref>H. Muir (2003)</ref><ref>K. Carter (2003)</ref> but their existence is not generally accepted. The particle physics community as a whole did not view their existence as likely in 2006,<ref name="PDGPentaquarks2006">W.-M. Yao et al. (2006): [http://pdg.lbl.gov/2006/reviews/theta_b152.pdf Particle listings – Θ+</ref> and in 2008, considered evidence to be overwhelmingly against the existence of the reported pentaquarks.<ref name="PDGPentaquarks2008">C. Amsler et al. (2008): [http://pdg.lbl.gov/2008/reviews/pentaquarks_b801.pdf Pentaquarks]</ref> However, in July 2015, the [[LHCb]] experiment observed two resonances consistent with pentaquark states in the Λ{{su|p=0|b=b}} → J/ψK{{su|p=−}}p decay, with a combined [[statistical significance]] of 15σ.<ref name="LHCb-public">
{{cite web |author=LHCb |date=14 July 2015 |title=Observation of particles composed of five quarks, pentaquark-charmonium states, seen in Λ{{su|b=b|p=0}} → J/ψpK− decays. |url=http://lhcb-public.web.cern.ch/lhcb-public/Welcome.html#Penta |access-date=2015-07-14 |publisher=[[CERN]]}}</ref><ref name="LHCb2015">
{{cite journal |last=Aaij |first=R. |display-authors=et al |year=2015 |title=Observation of J/ψp resonances consistent with pentaquark states in Λ{{su|p=0|b=b→J/ψK}}−p decays |journal=[[Physical Review Letters]] |volume=115 |issue=7 |article-number=072001 |arxiv=1507.03414 |bibcode=2015PhRvL.115g2001A |doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.115.072001 |pmid=26317714 |s2cid=119204136 |collaboration=[[LHCb]] collaboration}}</ref>

In theory, heptaquarks (5 quarks, 2 antiquarks), nonaquarks (6 quarks, 3 antiquarks), etc. could also exist.

== Baryonic matter ==
Nearly all matter that may be encountered or experienced in everyday life is baryonic [[matter]], which includes [[atom]]s of any sort, and provides them with the property of mass. Non-baryonic matter, as implied by the name, is any sort of matter that is not composed primarily of baryons. This might include [[neutrino]]s and free [[electron]]s, [[dark matter]], [[supersymmetry|supersymmetric particles]], [[axion]]s, and [[black hole]]s.

The very existence of baryons is also a significant issue in cosmology because it is assumed that the Big Bang produced a state with equal amounts of baryons and antibaryons. The process by which baryons came to outnumber their [[antiparticle]]s is called [[baryogenesis]].

== Baryogenesis ==
{{Main|Baryogenesis}}

Experiments are consistent with the number of quarks in the universe being conserved alongside the total [[baryon number]], with antibaryons being counted as negative quantities.<ref>{{Cite web |date=November 1, 2016 |title=11.3: Particle Conservation Laws |url=https://phys.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/University_Physics/Book%3A_University_Physics_(OpenStax)/University_Physics_III_-_Optics_and_Modern_Physics_(OpenStax)/11%3A_Particle_Physics_and_Cosmology/11.03%3A_Particle_Conservation_Laws |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220810163918/https://phys.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/University_Physics/Book%3A_University_Physics_(OpenStax)/University_Physics_III_-_Optics_and_Modern_Physics_(OpenStax)/11%3A_Particle_Physics_and_Cosmology/11.03%3A_Particle_Conservation_Laws |archive-date=August 10, 2022 |access-date=December 26, 2023 |website=[[LibreTexts]]}}</ref> Within the prevailing [[Standard Model]] of particle physics, the number of baryons may change in multiples of three due to the action of [[sphaleron]]s, although this is rare and has not been observed under experiment. Some [[Grand Unified Theory|Grand Unified Theories]] of particle physics also predict that a single [[proton]] can [[Proton decay|decay]], changing the baryon number by one; however, this has not yet been observed under experiment. The excess of baryons over antibaryons in the present universe is thought to be due to non-[[conservation of baryon number]] in the very early universe, though this is not well understood.

== Properties ==

=== Isospin and charge ===
{{Main|Isospin}}

[[File:Baryon-decuplet-small.svg|thumb|200px|
Combinations of three '''[[up quark|u]], [[down quark|d]]''' or '''[[strange quark|s]]''' quarks forming baryons with a spin-{{sfrac|3|2}} form the ''[[Eightfold way (physics)|uds baryon decuplet]]'']]
[[File:Baryon-octet-small.svg|thumb|200px|Combinations of three '''[[up quark|u]], [[down quark|d]]''' or '''[[strange quark|s]]''' quarks forming baryons with a spin-{{sfrac|1|2}} form the ''[[Eightfold way (physics)|uds baryon octet]]'']]

The concept of isospin was first proposed by [[Werner Heisenberg]] in 1932 to explain the similarities between protons and neutrons under the [[strong interaction]].<ref>W. Heisenberg (1932)</ref> Although they had different electric charges, their masses were so similar that physicists believed they were the same particle. The different electric charges were explained as being the result of some unknown excitation similar to spin. This unknown excitation was later dubbed ''isospin'' by [[Eugene Wigner]] in 1937.<ref>E. Wigner (1937)</ref>

This belief lasted until [[Murray Gell-Mann]] proposed the [[quark model]] in 1964 (containing originally only the u, d, and s quarks).<ref>M. Gell-Mann (1964)</ref> The success of the isospin model is now understood to be the result of the similar masses of u and d quarks. Since u and d quarks have similar masses, particles made of the same number then also have similar masses. The exact specific u and d quark composition determines the charge, as u quarks carry charge +{{sfrac|2|3}} while d quarks carry charge −{{sfrac|1|3}}. For example, the four [[Delta baryon|Deltas]] all have different charges ({{SubatomicParticle|Delta++}} (uuu), {{SubatomicParticle|Delta+}} (uud), {{SubatomicParticle|Delta0}} (udd), {{SubatomicParticle|Delta-}} (ddd)), but have similar masses (~1,232 MeV/c2) as they are each made of a combination of three u or d quarks. Under the isospin model, they were considered to be a single particle in different charged states.

The mathematics of isospin was modeled after that of spin. Isospin projections varied in increments of 1 just like those of spin, and to each projection was associated a "[[Quantum state|charged state]]". Since the "[[Delta baryon|Delta particle]]" had four "charged states", it was said to be of isospin ''I'' = {{sfrac|3|2}}. Its "charged states" {{SubatomicParticle|Delta++}}, {{SubatomicParticle|Delta+}}, {{SubatomicParticle|Delta0}}, and {{SubatomicParticle|Delta-}}, corresponded to the isospin projections ''I''3 = +{{sfrac|3|2}}, ''I''3 = +{{sfrac|1|2}}, ''I''3 = −{{sfrac|1|2}}, and ''I''3 = −{{sfrac|3|2}}, respectively. Another example is the "nucleon particle". As there were two nucleon "charged states", it was said to be of isospin {{sfrac|1|2}}. The positive nucleon {{SubatomicParticle|Nucleon+}} (proton) was identified with ''I''3 = +{{sfrac|1|2}} and the neutral nucleon {{SubatomicParticle|Nucleon0}} (neutron) with ''I''3 = −{{sfrac|1|2}}.<ref name=WongA>S.S.M. Wong (1998a)</ref> It was later noted that the isospin projections were related to the up and down quark content of particles by the relation:
: <math>I_\mathrm{3}=\frac{1}{2}[(n_\mathrm{u}-n_\mathrm{\bar{u}})-(n_\mathrm{d}-n_\mathrm{\bar{d}})],</math>
where the ''n'''s are the number of up and down quarks and antiquarks.

In the "isospin picture", the four Deltas and the two nucleons were thought to be the different states of two particles. However, in the quark model, Deltas are different states of nucleons (the N++ or N− are forbidden by [[Pauli's exclusion principle]]). Isospin, although conveying an inaccurate picture of things, is still used to classify baryons, leading to unnatural and often confusing nomenclature.

=== Flavour quantum numbers ===
{{Main|Flavour (particle physics)#Flavour quantum numbers}}

The [[strangeness]] [[flavour (particle physics)#Flavour quantum numbers|flavour quantum number]] ''S'' (not to be confused with spin) was noticed to go up and down along with particle mass. The higher the mass, the lower the strangeness (the more s quarks). Particles could be described with isospin projections (related to charge) and strangeness (mass) (see the uds [[Eightfold way (physics)#Baryon octet|octet]] and [[Eightfold way (physics)#Baryon decuplet|decuplet]] figures on the right). As other quarks were discovered, new quantum numbers were made to have similar description of udc and udb octets and decuplets. Since only the u and d mass are similar, this description of particle mass and charge in terms of isospin and flavour quantum numbers works well only for octet and decuplet made of one u, one d, and one other quark, and breaks down for the other octets and decuplets (for example, ucb octet and decuplet). If the quarks all had the same mass, their behaviour would be called ''symmetric'', as they would all behave in the same way to the strong interaction. Since quarks do not have the same mass, they do not interact in the same way (exactly like an electron placed in an electric field will accelerate more than a proton placed in the same field because of its lighter mass), and the symmetry is said to be [[broken symmetry|broken]].

It was noted that charge (''Q'') was related to the isospin projection (''I''3), the [[baryon number]] (''B'') and flavour quantum numbers (''S'', ''C'', ''B''′, ''T'') by the [[Gell-Mann–Nishijima formula]]:<ref name="WongA" />
: <math>Q = I_3 +\frac{1}{2}\left(B + S + C + B^\prime + T\right),</math>
where ''S'', ''C'', ''B''′, and ''T'' represent the [[strangeness]], [[charm (quantum number)|charm]], [[bottomness]] and [[topness]] flavour quantum numbers, respectively. They are related to the number of strange, charm, bottom, and top quarks and antiquark according to the relations:
: <math>\begin{align}
S &= -\left(n_\mathrm{s} - n_\mathrm{\bar{s}}\right), \\
C &= +\left(n_\mathrm{c} - n_\mathrm{\bar{c}}\right), \\
B^\prime &= -\left(n_\mathrm{b} - n_\mathrm{\bar{b}}\right), \\
T &= +\left(n_\mathrm{t} - n_\mathrm{\bar{t}}\right),
\end{align}</math>
meaning that the Gell-Mann–Nishijima formula is equivalent to the expression of charge in terms of quark content:
: <math>Q = \frac{2}{3}\left[(n_\mathrm{u} - n_\mathrm{\bar{u}}) + (n_\mathrm{c} - n_\mathrm{\bar{c}}) + (n_\mathrm{t} - n_\mathrm{\bar{t}})\right] - \frac{1}{3}\left[(n_\mathrm{d} - n_\mathrm{\bar{d}}) + (n_\mathrm{s} - n_\mathrm{\bar{s}}) + (n_\mathrm{b} - n_\mathrm{\bar{b}})\right].</math>

=== Spin, orbital angular momentum, and total angular momentum ===
{{Main|Spin (physics)|Angular momentum operator|Quantum numbers|Clebsch–Gordan coefficients}}
[[Spin (physics)|Spin]] (quantum number ''S'') is a [[Euclidean vector|vector]] quantity that represents the "intrinsic" [[angular momentum]] of a particle. It comes in increments of {{nobr|{{math|{{sfrac|1|2}} [[Planck constant|ħ]]}}}} (pronounced "h-bar"). The {{math|ħ}} is often dropped because it is the "fundamental" unit of spin, and it is implied that {{nobr|"spin {{math|1}}"}} means {{nobr|"spin {{math|1 ħ}}".}} In some systems of [[natural units]], {{math|ħ}} is chosen to be {{math|1}}, and therefore does not appear anywhere.

[[Quark]]s are [[fermion]]ic particles of spin {{sfrac|1|2}} {{nobr|({{math|''S'' {{=}} {{sfrac|1|2}}}}).}} Because spin projections vary in increments of {{math|1}} (that is {{nobr|1 {{math|ħ}}),}} a single quark has a spin vector of {{nobr|length {{sfrac|1|2}} ,}} and has two spin projections {{nobr|( {{math|''S''z {{=}} +{{sfrac|1|2}} }}}} and {{nobr|{{math|''S''z {{=}} −{{sfrac|1|2}}}}).}} Two quarks can have their spins aligned, in which case the two spin vectors add to make a vector of length {{nobr|{{math|''S'' {{=}} 1 }}}} and three spin projections {{nobr|( {{math|''S''z {{=}} +1}} ,}} {{nobr|{{math|''S''z {{=}} 0}} ,}} and {{nobr|{{math|''S''z {{=}} −1}} ).}} If two quarks have unaligned spins, the spin vectors add up to make a vector of length {{nobr|{{math|''S'' {{=}} 0 }}}} and has only one spin projection {{nobr|({{math|''S''z {{=}} 0}} ),}} etc. Since baryons are made of three quarks, their spin vectors can add to make a vector of length {{nobr|{{math|''S'' {{=}} {{sfrac|3|2}}}} ,}} which has four spin projections {{nobr|( {{math|''S''z {{=}} +{{sfrac|3|2}}}} ,}} {{nobr|{{math|''S''z {{=}} +{{sfrac|1|2}}}} ,}} {{nobr|{{math|''S''z {{=}} −{{sfrac|1|2}}}} ,}} and {{nobr|{{math|''S''z {{=}} −{{sfrac|3|2}}}} ),}} or a vector of length {{nobr|{{math|''S'' {{=}} {{sfrac|1|2}}}}}} with two spin projections {{nobr|( {{math|''S''z {{=}} +{{sfrac|1|2}}}} ,}} and {{nobr|{{math|''S''z {{=}} −{{sfrac|1|2}}}} ).<ref name=Shankar>R. Shankar (1994)</ref>}}

There is another quantity of angular momentum, called the [[angular momentum operator|orbital angular momentum]] ([[azimuthal quantum number]] {{mvar|L}}), that comes in increments of {{nobr|{{math|1 ħ}},}} which represent the angular moment due to quarks orbiting around each other. The [[angular momentum operator|total angular momentum]] ([[total angular momentum quantum number]] {{nobr|{{math|''J''}} )}} of a particle is therefore the combination of intrinsic angular momentum (spin) and orbital angular momentum. It can take any value from {{nobr|{{math|''J'' {{=}} {{!}}''L'' − ''S''{{!}}}} to {{nobr|''J'' {{=}} {{!}}''L'' + ''S''{{!}}}},}} in increments {{nobr|of {{math|1}} .}}
{|class="wikitable" style="margin:1em auto; text-align: center;"
|+ Baryon angular momentum quantum numbers {{nobr|for {{math|''L'' {{=}} 0, 1, 2, 3 }} }}
|-
! Spin, ''S''
! Orbital angular momentum, ''L''
! Total angular momentum, ''J''
! [[#Parity|Parity]], ''P''
! Condensed notation, ''J''''P''
|-
|rowspan="4"| {{sfrac|1|2}}
| 0 || {{sfrac|1|2}} || + || {{sfrac|1|2}}+
|-
| 1 || {{sfrac|3|2}}, {{sfrac|1|2}} || − || {{sfrac|3|2}}−, {{sfrac|1|2}}−
|-
| 2 || {{sfrac|5|2}}, {{sfrac|3|2}} || + || {{sfrac|5|2}}+, {{sfrac|3|2}}+
|-
| 3 || {{sfrac|7|2}}, {{sfrac|5|2}} || − || {{sfrac|7|2}}−, {{sfrac|5|2}}−
|-
|rowspan="4"| {{sfrac|3|2}}
| 0 || {{sfrac|3|2}} || + || {{sfrac|3|2}}+
|-
| 1 || {{sfrac|5|2}}, {{sfrac|3|2}}, {{sfrac|1|2}} || − || {{sfrac|5|2}}−, {{sfrac|3|2}}−, {{sfrac|1|2}}−
|-
| 2 || {{sfrac|7|2}}, {{sfrac|5|2}}, {{sfrac|3|2}}, {{sfrac|1|2}} || + || {{sfrac|7|2}}+, {{sfrac|5|2}}+, {{sfrac|3|2}}+, {{sfrac|1|2}}+
|-
| 3 || {{sfrac|9|2}}, {{sfrac|7|2}}, {{sfrac|5|2}}, {{sfrac|3|2}} || − || {{sfrac|9|2}}−, {{sfrac|7|2}}−, {{sfrac|5|2}}−, {{sfrac|3|2}}−
|}

Particle physicists are most interested in baryons with no orbital angular momentum (''L'' = 0), as they correspond to [[ground state]]s—states of minimal energy. Therefore, the two groups of baryons most studied are the ''S'' = {{sfrac|1|2}}; ''L'' = 0 and ''S'' = {{sfrac|3|2}}; ''L'' = 0, which corresponds to ''J'' = {{sfrac|1|2}}+ and ''J'' = {{sfrac|3|2}}+, respectively, although they are not the only ones. It is also possible to obtain ''J'' = {{sfrac|3|2}}+ particles from ''S'' = {{sfrac|1|2}} and ''L'' = 2, as well as ''S'' = {{sfrac|3|2}} and ''L'' = 2. This phenomenon of having multiple particles in the same total angular momentum configuration is called ''[[degenerate energy level|degeneracy]]''. How to distinguish between these degenerate baryons is an active area of research in [[baryon spectroscopy]].<ref>H. Garcilazo et al. (2007)</ref><ref>D.M. Manley (2005)</ref>

=== Parity ===
{{Main|Parity (physics)}}

If the universe were reflected in a mirror, most of the laws of physics would be identical—things would behave the same way regardless of what we call "left" and what we call "right". This concept of mirror reflection is called "[[parity (physics)|intrinsic parity]]" or simply "parity" (''P''). [[Gravity]], the [[electromagnetic force]], and the [[strong interaction]] all behave in the same way regardless of whether or not the universe is reflected in a mirror, and thus are said to [[P-symmetry|conserve parity]] (P-symmetry). However, the [[weak interaction]] does distinguish "left" from "right", a phenomenon called [[parity violation]] (P-violation).

Based on this, if the [[wavefunction]] for each particle (in more precise terms, the [[quantum field]] for each particle type) were simultaneously mirror-reversed, then the new set of wavefunctions would perfectly satisfy the laws of physics (apart from the weak interaction). It turns out that this is not quite true: for the equations to be satisfied, the wavefunctions of certain types of particles have to be multiplied by −1, in addition to being mirror-reversed. Such particle types are said to have negative or odd parity (''P'' = −1, or alternatively ''P'' = –), while the other particles are said to have positive or even parity (''P'' = +1, or alternatively ''P'' = +).

For baryons, the parity is related to the orbital angular momentum by the relation:<ref name=WongB>S.S.M. Wong (1998b)</ref>
: <math>P=(-1)^L.\ </math>

As a consequence, baryons with no orbital angular momentum (''L'' = 0) all have even parity (''P'' = +).

== Nomenclature ==
Baryons are classified into groups according to their [[isospin]] (''I'') values and [[quark]] (''q'') content. There are six groups of baryons: [[nucleon]] ({{SubatomicParticle|Nucleon}}), [[Delta baryon|Delta]] ({{SubatomicParticle|Delta}}), [[Lambda baryon|Lambda]] ({{SubatomicParticle|Lambda}}), [[Sigma baryon|Sigma]] ({{SubatomicParticle|Sigma}}), [[Xi baryon|Xi]] ({{SubatomicParticle|Xi}}), and [[Omega baryon|Omega]] ({{SubatomicParticle|Omega}}). The rules for classification are defined by the [[Particle Data Group]]. These rules consider the [[up quark|up]] ({{SubatomicParticle|Up quark}}), [[down quark|down]] ({{SubatomicParticle|Down quark}}) and [[strange quark|strange]] ({{SubatomicParticle|Strange quark}}) quarks to be ''light'' and the [[charm quark|charm]] ({{SubatomicParticle|Charm quark}}), [[bottom quark|bottom]] ({{SubatomicParticle|Bottom quark}}), and [[top quark|top]] ({{SubatomicParticle|Top quark}}) quarks to be ''heavy''. The rules cover all the particles that can be made from three of each of the six quarks, even though baryons made of top quarks are not expected to exist because of the [[top quark]]'s short lifetime. The rules do not cover pentaquarks.<ref name=PDGBaryonsymbols>C. Amsler et al. (2008): [http://pdg.lbl.gov/2008/reviews/namingrpp.pdf Naming scheme for hadrons]</ref>
* Baryons with (any combination of) three {{SubatomicParticle|link=yes|Up quark}} and/or {{SubatomicParticle|link=yes|Down quark}} quarks are {{SubatomicParticle|link=yes|Nucleon}}s (''I'' = {{sfrac|1|2}}) or {{SubatomicParticle|link=yes|Delta}} baryons (''I'' = {{sfrac|3|2}}).
* Baryons containing two {{SubatomicParticle|link=yes|Up quark}} and/or {{SubatomicParticle|link=yes|Down quark}} quarks are {{SubatomicParticle|link=yes|Lambda}} baryons (''I'' = 0) or {{SubatomicParticle|link=yes|Sigma}} baryons (''I'' = 1). If the third quark is heavy, its identity is given by a subscript.
* Baryons containing one {{SubatomicParticle|link=yes|Up quark}} or {{SubatomicParticle|link=yes|Down quark}} quark are {{SubatomicParticle|link=yes|Xi}} baryons (''I'' = {{sfrac|1|2}}). One or two subscripts are used if one or both of the remaining quarks are heavy.
* Baryons containing no {{SubatomicParticle|link=yes|Up quark}} or {{SubatomicParticle|link=yes|Down quark}} quarks are {{SubatomicParticle|link=yes|Omega}} baryons (''I'' = 0), and subscripts indicate any heavy quark content.
* Baryons that decay strongly have their masses as part of their names. For example, Σ0 does not decay strongly, but Δ++(1232) does.

It is also a widespread (but not universal) practice to follow some additional rules when distinguishing between some states that would otherwise have the same symbol.<ref name="WongA" />
* Baryons in [[total angular momentum]] ''J'' = {{sfrac|3|2}} configuration that have the same symbols as their ''J'' = {{sfrac|1|2}} counterparts are denoted by an asterisk ( * ).
* Two baryons can be made of three different quarks in ''J'' = {{sfrac|1|2}} configuration. In this case, a prime ( ′ ) is used to distinguish between them.
** ''Exception'': When two of the three quarks are one up and one down quark, one baryon is dubbed Λ while the other is dubbed Σ.

Quarks carry a charge, so knowing the charge of a particle indirectly gives the quark content. For example, the rules above say that a {{SubatomicParticle|charmed Lambda+}} contains a c quark and some combination of two u and/or d quarks. The c quark has a charge of (''Q'' = +{{sfrac|2|3}}), therefore the other two must be a u quark (''Q'' = +{{sfrac|2|3}}), and a d quark (''Q'' = −{{sfrac|1|3}}) to have the correct total charge (''Q'' = +1).

== See also ==
* [[Eightfold way (physics)|Eightfold way]]
* [[List of baryons]]
* [[Meson]]
* [[Timeline of particle discoveries]]

== Citations ==
{{reflist}}

== General references ==
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite journal |author=C. Amsler et al. ([[Particle Data Group]]) |title=Review of Particle Physics |journal=[[Physics Letters B]] |volume=667 |issue=1 |pages=1–1340 |year=2008 |doi=10.1016/j.physletb.2008.07.018|pmid=10020536 |bibcode = 2008PhLB..667....1A |url=http://scipp.ucsc.edu/%7Ehaber/pubs/Review_of_Particle_Physics_2014.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://scipp.ucsc.edu/%7Ehaber/pubs/Review_of_Particle_Physics_2014.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |hdl=1854/LU-685594 |s2cid=227119789 |hdl-access=free }}
* {{cite journal |author1=H. Garcilazo |author2=J. Vijande |author3=A. Valcarce |name-list-style=amp |title=Faddeev study of heavy-baryon spectroscopy |journal=[[Journal of Physics G]] |volume=34 |issue=5 |pages=961–976 |year=2007 |doi=10.1088/0954-3899/34/5/014|arxiv=hep-ph/0703257 |bibcode=2007hep.ph....3257G |s2cid=15445714 }}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.symmetrymagazine.org/cms/?pid=1000377 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070708143911/http://www.symmetrymagazine.org/cms/?pid=1000377 |url-status=dead |archive-date=2007-07-08 |title=The rise and fall of the pentaquark |access-date=2008-05-27 |author=K. Carter |year=2006 |publisher=[[Fermilab]] and [[Stanford Linear Accelerator Center|SLAC]] }}
* {{cite journal |author=W.-M. Yao et al. ([[Particle Data Group]]) |title=Review of Particle Physics |journal=Journal of Physics G |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=1–1232 |year=2006 |doi=10.1088/0954-3899/33/1/001|arxiv = astro-ph/0601168 |bibcode = 2006JPhG...33....1Y }}
* {{cite journal |author=D.M. Manley |title=Status of baryon spectroscopy |journal=[[Journal of Physics: Conference Series]] |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=230–237 |year=2005 |doi=10.1088/1742-6596/9/1/043 |bibcode = 2005JPhCS...9..230M |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite magazine |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn3903 |title=Pentaquark discovery confounds sceptics |access-date=2008-05-27 |author=H. Muir |year=2003 |magazine=[[New Scientist]]}}
* {{cite book |title=Introductory Nuclear Physics |edition=2nd |author=S.S.M. Wong |year=1998a |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]] |location=New York (NY) |isbn=978-0-471-23973-4|chapter=Chapter 2—Nucleon Structure |pages=21–56}}
* {{cite book |title=Introductory Nuclear Physics |edition=2nd |author=S.S.M. Wong |year=1998b |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |location=New York (NY) |isbn=978-0-471-23973-4|chapter=Chapter 3—The Deuteron |pages=57–104}}
* {{cite book |title=Principles of Quantum Mechanics |edition=2nd |author=R. Shankar |year=1994 |publisher=[[Plenum Press]] |location=New York (NY) |isbn=978-0-306-44790-7}}
* {{cite journal |author=E. Wigner |title=On the Consequences of the Symmetry of the Nuclear Hamiltonian on the Spectroscopy of Nuclei |journal=[[Physical Review]] |volume=51 |issue=2 |year=1937|pages=106–119 |doi=10.1103/PhysRev.51.106|bibcode = 1937PhRv...51..106W }}
* {{cite journal |author=M. Gell-Mann |title=A Schematic of Baryons and Mesons |journal=[[Physics Letters]] |volume=8 |issue=3 |pages=214–215 |year=1964 |doi=10.1016/S0031-9163(64)92001-3 |bibcode = 1964PhL.....8..214G }}
* {{cite journal |author=W. Heisenberg |year=1932 |title=Über den Bau der Atomkerne I |journal=[[Zeitschrift für Physik]] |volume=77 |issue=1–2 |pages=1–11 |doi=10.1007/BF01342433|bibcode = 1932ZPhy...77....1H |s2cid=186218053 |language=de}}
* {{cite journal |author=W. Heisenberg |year=1932 |title=Über den Bau der Atomkerne II |journal=Zeitschrift für Physik |volume=78 |pages=156–164 |doi=10.1007/BF01337585|bibcode = 1932ZPhy...78..156H |issue=3–4 |s2cid=186221789 |language=de}}
* {{cite journal |author=W. Heisenberg |year=1932 |title=Über den Bau der Atomkerne III |journal=Zeitschrift für Physik |volume=80 |pages=587–596 |doi=10.1007/BF01335696|bibcode = 1933ZPhy...80..587H |issue=9–10 |s2cid=126422047 |language=de}}
{{refend}}

== External links ==
* Particle Data Group—[http://pdg.lbl.gov/index.html Review of Particle Physics (2018).]
* Georgia State University—[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/hframe.html HyperPhysics]

{{particles}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Baryons| ]]

Archibald Lampman

2025-09-16T23:16:37Z

92.18.76.185: Fixing lint errors Special:LintErrors/bogus-image-options.

{{Short description|Canadian poet (1861–99)}}
{{Infobox writer 
| honorific_suffix = {{post-nominals|country=CAN|FRSC|size=100%}}
| image = ArchibaldLampman23.jpg
| alt = Archibald Lampman (Topley Studio/Library and Archives Canada/PA-027190)
| caption = Lampman in 1889
| pseudonym =
| birth_name =
| birth_date = {{birth date|1861|11|17|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Morpeth, Ontario|Morpeth]], Canada West
| death_date = {{death date and age|1899|02|10|1861|11|17|df=y}}
| death_place = [[Ottawa]], Ontario
| resting_place =
| occupation = Civil servant
| language = English
| nationality = {{flagicon|Canada}} Canadian
| ethnicity =
| citizenship = British subject
| education =
| alma_mater =
| period =
| genre = poetry
| subject =
| movement = [[Confederation Poets]]
| notableworks = ''Among the Millet and Other Poems, At the Long Sault and Other Poems, Lyrics of Earth''
| spouse = Maude Playter
| partner =
| children =
| relatives = [[Hilda Katherine Ross]] {{small|(niece)}}
| influences =
| influenced =
| awards = FRSC
| signature =
| signature_alt =
| website =
| portaldisp =
}}

[[File:Archibald Lampman's headstone 0104.jpg|thumb|Archibald Lampman's headstone in [[Beechwood Cemetery]] in Ottawa]]
[[File:Archibald Lampman's footstone 0105.jpg|thumb|Archibald Lampman's footstone in Beechwood Cemetery in Ottawa]]
'''Archibald Lampman''' {{Post-nominals|country=CAN|FRSC}} (17 November 1861 – 10 February 1899) was a [[Canadian poetry|Canadian poet]]. "He has been described as 'the Canadian [[John Keats|Keats]];' and he is perhaps the most outstanding exponent of the [[Canadians|Canadian]] school of nature poets."<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Lampman, Archibald |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Canada |location=Toronto, Ontario |publisher=University Associates |date=1948 |volume=III |page=379}}</ref> ''[[The Canadian Encyclopedia]]'' says that he is "generally considered the finest of [[Canada]]'s late 19th-century poets in [[English language|English]]."<ref name=gnarowski/>

Lampman is classed as one of Canada's [[Confederation Poets]], a group which also includes [[Charles G.D. Roberts]], [[Bliss Carman]], and [[Duncan Campbell Scott]].<ref name=ross>{{cite book |first=Malcolm |last=Ross |chapter=Introduction |title=Poets of the Confederation |location=Toronto |publisher=McLelland and Stewart |date=1960 |page=vii}}</ref>

==Life==

Archibald Lampman was born at [[Morpeth, Ontario]], a village near [[Chatham-Kent, Ontario|Chatham]], the son of Archibald Lampman, an Anglican clergyman. "The Morpeth that Lampman knew was a small town set in the rolling farm country of what is now western Ontario, not far from the shores of Lake Erie. The little red church just east of the town, on the Talbot Road, was his father's charge."<ref name=DCB/>

In 1867 the family moved to Gore's Landing on [[Rice Lake (Ontario)|Rice Lake]], where young Archie Lampman attended at the Barron's School.<ref name=cobourg>Guillet, Edwin C. ''Cobourg 1798 - 1948''. page 283. Goodfellow Printing Company, 1948.</ref> In 1868 he contracted [[rheumatic fever]], which left him lame for some years and with a permanently weakened heart.<ref name="DCB">{{cite DCB |title=Lampman, Archibald |first=Robert L. |last=McDougall |volume=12 |url=https://www.biographi.ca/en/bio/lampman_archibald_12E.html |access-date=September 21, 2015}}</ref>

Lampman attended Cobourg Collegiate, followed by [[Trinity College School]] in [[Port Hope, Ontario]],<ref name=cobourg /> and then [[University of Trinity College|Trinity College]] in [[Toronto|Toronto, Ontario]] (now part of the [[University of Toronto]]), graduating in 1882, with only second-class standing.<ref>{{cite web|author=Robert L. McDougall|url=https://www.biographi.ca/en/bio/lampman_archibald_12E.html|title=LAMPMAN, ARCHIBALD}}</ref> While at university, he published early poems in ''[[Acta Victoriana]]'', the literary journal of [[Victoria College (U of T)|Victoria College]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Acta Victoriana |website=Victoria College |publisher=University of Toronto |url=http://actavictoriana.ca |access-date=September 21, 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925065632/http://actavictoriana.ca/ |archive-date=September 25, 2015 }}</ref> In 1883, after a frustrating attempt to teach high school in [[Orangeville, Ontario]], he took an appointment as a low-paid clerk in the [[Post Office Department (Canada)|Post Office Department]] in [[Ottawa]], a position he held for the rest of his life.<ref name="gnarowski">{{cite encyclopedia |first=Michael |last=Gnarowski |title=Archibald Lampman |encyclopedia=[[The Canadian Encyclopedia]] |publisher=[[Historica Canada]] |url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/archibald-lampman |date=March 4, 2015 |access-date=September 21, 2015}}</ref>

Lampman "was slight of form and of middle height. He was quiet and undemonstrative in manner, but had a fascinating personality. Sincerity and high ideals characterized his life and work."<ref name=garvin>{{cite book |editor-first=John W. |editor-last=Garvin |chapter=Archibald Lampman |title=Canadian Poets and Poetry |chapter-url={{google books|Ei8MAAAAMAAJ|plainurl=yes|page=62}} |location=Toronto, Ontario |publisher=McClelland, Goodchild & Stewart |date=1916 |pages=61–74 |access-date=April 29, 2011}}</ref>

On Sep. 3, 1887, Lampman married 20-year-old Maude Emma Playter. "They had a daughter, Natalie Charlotte, born in 1892. Arnold Gesner, born May 1894, was the first boy, but he died in August. A third child, Archibald Otto, was born in 1898."<ref name="DCB"/>

In Ottawa, Lampman befriended poet [[William Wilfred Campbell]].<ref name="campbell">{{cite book |first=John Coldwell |last=Adams |chapter-url=http://www.canadianpoetry.ca/confederation/John%20Coldwell%20Adams/Confederation%20Voices/chapter%206.html |chapter=VI - William Wilfred Campbell (1860-1918) |title=Confederation Voices: Seven Canadian Poets |publisher=Canadian Poetry Press |access-date=March 21, 2011}}</ref> He also became a close friend of [[Indian and Northern Affairs Canada|Indian Affairs]] bureaucrat [[Duncan Campbell Scott]]; Scott introduced him to camping, and Lampman introduced Scott to writing poetry. One of their early camping trips inspired Lampman's classic ''Morning on the Lièvre'' which, in 1961, became the text for, and subject of, an award-winning [[National Film Board of Canada]] film of the [[Morning on the Lièvre|same name]].

Lampman, Campbell, and Scott together wrote a literary column, "At the Mermaid Inn," for the ''[[Toronto Globe]]'' from February 1892 until July 1893. (The name was a reference to the [[Elizabethan era|Elizabethan-era]] [[Mermaid Tavern]].) As Lampman wrote to a friend:

{{blockquote|Campbell is deplorably poor.... Partly in order to help his pockets a little Mr. Scott and I decided to see if we could get the Toronto "Globe" to give us space for a couple of columns of paragraphs & short articles, at whatever pay we could get for them. They agreed to it; and Campbell, Scott and I have been carrying on the thing for several weeks now.<ref name="campbell"/>}}

"In the last years of his short life there is evidence of a spiritual malaise which was compounded by the death of an infant son [Arnold, commemorated in the poem "White Pansies"] and his own deteriorating health."<ref name="gnarowski"/>

Lampman died in Ottawa at the age of 37, due to his weakened heart. He is buried, fittingly, at [[Beechwood Cemetery]], in [[Ottawa]], a site he wrote about in the poem "In Beechwood Cemetery" (which is inscribed at the cemetery's entranceway). His grave is marked by a natural stone on which is carved only one word: Lampman.<ref>{{cite web |title=Our Poets at Rest: Archibald Lampman |website=Arc Poetry Magazine |url=http://arcpoetry.ca/?p=2465 |date=December 9, 2010 |access-date=September 21, 2015 |archive-date=October 18, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151018203649/http://arcpoetry.ca/?p=2465 |url-status=dead }}</ref> A plaque on the site carries a few lines from his poem "In November":<ref>{{cite web |title=Poets' Pathway and Lampman reading inspires Arc to launch nationwide hunt for poets' gravesites |website=Arc Poetry Magazine |url=https://arcpoetry.ca/?p=2286 |date=November 15, 2010 |access-date=September 21, 2015}}</ref>

{{poemquote|The hills grow wintry white, and bleak winds moan
About the naked uplands. I alone
Am neither sad, nor shelterless, nor gray
Wrapped round with thought, content to watch and dream.}}

==Writing==

In May 1881, when Lampman was at Trinity College, someone lent him a copy of [[Charles G. D. Roberts]]'s recently published first book, ''Orion and Other Poems''. The effect on the 19-year-old student was immediate and profound:

{{blockquote|I sat up most of the night reading and re-reading "Orion" in a state of the wildest excitement and when I went to bed I could not sleep. It seemed to me a wonderful thing that such work could be done by a Canadian, by a young man, one of ourselves. It was like a voice from some new paradise of art, calling to us to be up and doing. A little after sunrise I got up and went out into the college grounds ... everything was transfigured for me beyond description, bathed in an old world radiance of beauty; the magic of the lines was sounding in my ears, those divine verses, as they seemed to me, with their [[Alfred Tennyson|Tennyson]]-like richness and strange earth-loving Greekish flavour. I have never forgotten that morning, and its influence has always remained with me.<ref name="adams">{{cite book |first=John Coldwell |last=Adams |chapter-url=http://www.canadianpoetry.ca/confederation/John%20Coldwell%20Adams/Confederation%20Voices/chapter%204.html |chapter=IV - Archibald Lampman (1861-1899) |title=Confederation Voices: Seven Canadian Poets |publisher=Canadian Poetry Press |access-date=March 21, 2011}}</ref>}}

Lampman sent Roberts a fan letter, which "initiated a correspondence between the two young men, but they probably did not meet until after Roberts moved to Toronto in late September 1883 to become the editor of [[Goldwin Smith]]'s ''The Week''."<ref name="adams"/>

Inspired, Lampman also began writing poetry, and soon after began publishing it: first "in the pages of his college magazine, ''Rouge et Noir'';" then "graduating to the more presitigious pages of ''The Week''" – (his [[sonnet]] "A Monition," later retitled "The Coming of Winter," appeared in its first issue<ref name="adams"/>) – and finally, by the late 1880s "winning an audience in the major magazines of the day, such as ''[[Atlantic Monthly]]'', ''[[Harper's Magazine|Harper's]]'', and ''[[Scribner's Monthly|Scribner's]]''."<ref name="gnarowski"/>

Lampman published mainly nature poetry in the current late-[[Romantic poetry|Romantic]] style. "The prime literary antecedents of Lampman lie in the work of the English poets Keats, [[William Wordsworth|Wordsworth]], and [[Matthew Arnold|Arnold]]," says the ''Gale Encyclopedia of Biography'', "but he also brought new and distinctively Canadian elements to the tradition. Lampman, like others of his school, relied on the Canadian landscape to provide him with much of the imagery, stimulus, and philosophy which characterize his work.... Acutely observant in his method, Lampman created out of the minutiae of nature careful compositions of color, sound, and subtle movement. Evocatively rich, his poems are frequently sustained by a mood of revery and withdrawal, while their themes are those of beauty, wisdom, and reassurance, which the poet discovered in his contemplation of the changing seasons and the harmony of the countryside."<ref name="gale">{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.answers.com/topic/archibald-lampman |title=Archibald Lampman |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of World Biography |publisher=Gale |access-date=March 22, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081015213856/http://www.answers.com/topic/archibald-lampman |archive-date=October 15, 2008 }}</ref>

''The [[Canadian Encyclopedia]]'' calls his poems "for the most part close-packed melancholy meditations on natural objects, emphasizing the calm of country life in contrast to the restlessness of city living. Limited in range, they are nonetheless remarkable for descriptive precision and emotional restraint. Although characterized by a skilful control of rhythm and sound, they tend to display a sameness of thought."<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |first=W.J. |last=Keith |title=Poetry in English: 1867-1918 |encyclopedia=The Canadian Encyclopedia |publisher=Historica Canada |date=March 4, 2015 |url=http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/poetry-in-english/ |access-date=September 21, 2015}}</ref>

"Lampman wrote more than 300 poems in this last period of his life, although scarcely half of these were published prior to his death. For single poems or groups of poems he found outlets in the literary magazines of the day: in Canada, chiefly the ''Week''; in the United States, ''Scribner's Magazine'', ''[[The Youth's Companion]]'', the ''Independent'', the ''[[The Atlantic|Atlantic Monthly]]'', and ''Harper's Magazine''. In 1888, with the help of a legacy left to his wife, he published ''[[#Millet|Among the millet and other poems]]''," his first book, at his own expense.<ref name="DCB"/> The book is notable for the poems "Morning on the Lièvre," "Heat," the sonnet "In November," and the long sonnet sequence "The Frogs"

"By this time he had achieved a literary reputation, and his work appeared regularly in Canadian periodicals and prestigious American magazines.... In 1895 Lampman was elected a Fellow of the [[Royal Society of Canada]], and his second collection of poems, ''Lyrics of Earth'', was brought out by a Boston publisher."<ref name="gale"/>

The book was not a success. "The sales of ''[[#Lyrics|Lyrics of Earth]]'' were disappointing and the only critical notices were four brief though favourable reviews. In size, the volume is slighter than ''Among the Millet'' — twenty-nine poems in contrast to forty-eight — and in quality fails to surpass the earlier work."<ref name="adams"/> (''Lyrics'' does, though, contain some of Lampman's most beautiful poems, such as "After Rain" and "The Sun Cup.")

"A third volume, ''[[#Alcyone|Alcyone and other poems]]'', in press at the time of his death"<ref name="DCB"/> in 1899, showed Lampman starting to move in new directions, with the nature verses interspersed with philosophical poetry like "Voices of Earth" and "The Clearer Self" and poems of social criticism like "The City" and what may be his best-known poem, the [[dystopian]] vision of "The City of the End of Things." "As a corollary to his preoccupation with nature," notes the ''Gale Encyclopedia'', "Lampman [had] developed a critical stance toward an emerging urban civilization and a social order against which he pitted his own [[idealism]]. He was an outspoken [[Socialism in Canada|socialist]], a [[Feminism in Canada|feminist]], and a [[Social criticism|social critic]]."<ref name="gale"/> Canadian critic [[Malcolm Ross (literary critic)|Malcolm Ross]] wrote that "in poems like 'The City at the End of Things' and 'Epitaph on a Rich Man' Lampman seems to have a social and political insight absent in his fellows."<ref name="ross"/>

However, Lampman died before ''Alcyone'' appeared, and it "was held back by Scott (12 specimen copies were printed posthumously in Ottawa in 1899) in favour of a comprehensive memorial volume planned for 1900."<ref name="DCB"/> The latter was a planned collected poems "which he was editing in the hope that its sale would provide Maud with some much-needed cash. Besides ''Alcyone'', it included ''Among the Millet'' and ''Lyrics of Earth'' in their entirety, plus seventy-four sonnets Lampman had tried to publish separately, twenty-three miscellaneous poems and ballads, and two long narrative poems ("David and Abigail" and "The Story of an Affinity")."<ref name="adams"/> Among the previously unpublished sonnets were some of Lampman's finest work, including "Winter Uplands", "The Railway Station," and "A Sunset at Les Eboulements."

"Published by Morang & Company of Toronto in 1900," ''[[#Poems1900|The Poems of Archibald Lampman]]'' "was a substantial tome — 473 pages — and ran through several editions. Scott's 'Memoir,' which prefaces the volume, would prove to be an invaluable source of information about the poet's life and personality."<ref name="adams"/>

Scott published one further volume of Lampman's poetry, ''[[#Sault|At the Long Sault and Other Poems]]'', in 1943 – "and on this occasion, as on other occasions previously, he did not hesitate to make what he felt were improvements on the manuscript versions of the poems."<ref name="DCB"/> The book is remarkable mainly for its title poem, "At the Long Sault: May 1660," a dramatic retelling of the [[Battle of Long Sault]], which belongs with the great Canadian historical poems. It was co-edited by [[E.K. Brown]], who the same year published his own volume ''On Canadian Poetry'': a book that was a major boost to Lampman's reputation. Brown considered Lampman and Scott the top Confederation Poets, well ahead of Roberts and Carman, and his view came to predominate over the next few decades.<ref name=time>{{cite book |first=John Coldwell |last=Adams |chapter-url=http://www.uwo.ca/english/canadianpoetry/confederation/John%20Coldwell%20Adams/Confederation%20Voices/chapter%209.html |chapter=II - The Whirligig of Time |title=Confederation Voices: Seven Canadian Poets |publisher=Canadian Poetry Press |access-date=March 28, 2011 |archive-date=March 19, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120319145909/http://www.uwo.ca/english/canadianpoetry/confederation/John%20Coldwell%20Adams/Confederation%20Voices/chapter%209.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Lampman never considered himself more than a minor poet, as he once confessed in a letter to a friend: "I am not a great poet and I never was. Greatness in poetry must proceed from greatness of character — from force, fearlessness, brightness. I have none of those qualities. I am, if anything, the very opposite, I am weak, I am a coward, I am a hypochondriac. I am a minor poet of a superior order, and that is all."<ref name="adams"/> However, others' opinion of his work has been higher than his own.

Malcolm Ross, for instance, considered him to be the best of all the Confederation Poets:

{{blockquote|Lampman, it is true, has the camera eye. But Lampman is no mere photographer. With Scott (and more completely than Scott), he has, poetically, met the demands of his place and his time.... Like Roberts (and more intensively than Roberts), he searches for the idea.... Ideas are germinal for him, infecting the tissue of his thought.... Like the [[existentialism|existentialist]] of our day, Lampman is not so much 'in search of himself' as engaged strenuously in the creation of the self. Every idea is approached as potentially the substance of a 'clearer self.' Even landscape is made into a symbol of the deep, interior processes of the self, or is used ... to induce a settling of the troubled surfaces of the mind and a miraculous transparency that opens into the depths.<ref name="ross"/>}}

==Recognition==
[[File:Lampman plaque.jpg|thumb|Archibald Lampman plaque and cairn, Morpeth. Photo by Alan L. Brown, June 2009. Photo used with permission from the website [http://www.ontarioplaques.com/index.html www.ontarioplaques.com].]]
[[File:Ottawa Public Library.jpg|thumb|right|Stained glass at [[Ottawa Public Library]] features [[Charles Dickens]], Archibald Lampman, [[Duncan Campbell Scott]], [[Lord Byron]], [[Alfred, Lord Tennyson]], [[William Shakespeare]], [[Thomas Moore]]]]
Lampman was elected a Fellow of the [[Royal Society of Canada]] in 1895.<ref name=gale/>

He was designated a [[Persons of National Historic Significance|Person of National Historic Significance]] in 1920.<ref>{{DFHD|1233|Lampman, Archibald National Historic Person|access-date=September 21, 2015}}</ref>

A literary prize, the [[Archibald Lampman Award]], is awarded annually by Ottawa-area poetry magazine ''Arc'' in Lampman's honour.<ref>{{cite web |title=Archibald Lampman Award |website=Arc Poetry Magazine |date=December 5, 2013 |url=http://arcpoetry.ca/?p=7615 |access-date=September 21, 2015 |archive-date=November 4, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141104150940/http://arcpoetry.ca/?p=7615 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Since 1999, the annual "Archibald Lampman Poetry Reading" has brought leading Canadian poets to Trinity College, Toronto, under the sponsorship of the John W. Graham Library and the Friends of the Library, Trinity College.<ref>{{cite news |first=Christina |last=Rizzuto |title=Julie Roorda Giving the 12th Annual Archibald Lampman Poetry Reading |website=News |publisher=Guernica Editions |date=January 19, 2011 |url=http://news.guernicaeditions.com/2011/01/19/julie-roorda-chosen-for-12th-annual-archibald-lampman-poetry-reading/ |access-date=May 5, 2011 |archive-date=March 23, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120323144028/http://news.guernicaeditions.com/2011/01/19/julie-roorda-chosen-for-12th-annual-archibald-lampman-poetry-reading/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>

His name is also carried on in the town of [[Lampman, Saskatchewan|Lampman]], [[Saskatchewan]], a small community of approximately 730 people, situated near the City of [[Estevan]].<ref>"A Little Bit of History," [http://lampman.sasktelwebsite.net/lampman.htm Town of Lampman and Community] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100421112035/http://lampman.sasktelwebsite.net/lampman.htm |date=2010-04-21 }}. Web, Mar. 23, 2011.</ref>

Canada Post issued a postage stamp in his honour on July 7, 1989. The stamp depicts Lampman's portrait on a backdrop of nature.

Canadian singer/songwriter [[Loreena McKennitt]] adapted Lampman's poem "Snow" as a song, writing original music while keeping as the lyrics the poem verbatim. This adaptation appears on McKennitt's album ''[[To Drive the Cold Winter Away]]'' (1987) and, with a different arrangement, on her 1995 EP, ''A Winter Garden: Five Songs for the Season'', which was replaced in 2008 by the album ''[[A Midwinter Night's Dream]]''.

Toronto choir the Upper Canada Choristers commissioned a setting of three of Lampman's poems ("The Bird and the Hour," "Snow" and "Voices of Earth") from Canadian composer [[Stephen Chatman]].

==Publications==

===Poetry===
* {{cite book |title=Among the Millett, and Other Poems |last=Lampman |first=Archibald |location=Ottawa, Ontario |publisher=J. Durie and son |date=1888 |ref=Millet |url=http://www.uwo.ca/english/canadianpoetry/confederation/Archibald%20Lampman/among_the_millet/index.htm |access-date=2011-03-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120319144627/http://www.uwo.ca/english/canadianpoetry/confederation/Archibald%20Lampman/among_the_millet/index.htm |archive-date=2012-03-19 |url-status=dead }}
* {{cite book |title=Lyrics of Earth |last=Lampman |first=Archibald |location=Boston, Massachusetts |publisher=Copeland & Day |date=1895 |ref=Lyrics |url=http://www.uwo.ca/english/canadianpoetry/confederation/Archibald%20Lampman/lyrics_of_earth/index.htm |access-date=2011-03-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120319144704/http://www.uwo.ca/english/canadianpoetry/confederation/Archibald%20Lampman/lyrics_of_earth/index.htm |archive-date=2012-03-19 |url-status=dead }}
* {{cite web |title=Two poems |first1=Archibald |last1=Lampman |first2=Duncan Campbell |last2=Scott |publisher=not published |location=privately issued to their friends at Christmastide |date=1896
|url=https://openlibrary.org/works/OL17017224W/Two_poems}}
* {{cite book |title=Alcyone and Other Poems |last=Lampman |first=Archibald |location=Ottawa, Ontario |publisher=Ogilvy |date=1899 |ref=Alcyone |url=http://www.uwo.ca/english/canadianpoetry/confederation/Archibald%20Lampman/alcyone/index.htm |access-date=2011-03-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120319144709/http://www.uwo.ca/english/canadianpoetry/confederation/Archibald%20Lampman/alcyone/index.htm |archive-date=2012-03-19 |url-status=dead }}
* {{cite book |title=The Poems of Archibald Lampman |editor-first=Duncan Campbell |editor-last=Scott |location=Toronto, Ontario |publisher=Morang |date=1900 |url={{google books|q3QuAAAAYAAJ|plainurl=yes}} |ref=Poems1900}}
* {{cite book |title=Lyrics of Earth: Sonnets and Ballads |editor-first=Duncan Campbell |editor-last=Scott |location=Toronto, Ontario |publisher=Musson |date=1925 |url={{google books|GZA-AAAAIAAJ|plainurl=yes}} }}
* {{cite book |title=At the Long Sault and Other New Poems |editor-first=Duncan Campbell |editor-last=Scott |location=Toronto, Ontario |publisher=Ryerson |date=1943 |ref=Sault}}
* {{cite book |title=Selected Poems of Archibald Lampman |editor-first=Duncan Campbell |editor-last=Scott |location=Toronto, Ontario |publisher=Ryerson |date=1947 |url={{google books|AMlDEOXQLy4C|plainurl=yes}} }}
* {{cite book |title=Lampman's Kate: Late Love Poems of Archibald Lampman |editor-first=Margaret |editor-last=Coulby Whitridge |location=Ottawa, Ontario |publisher=Borealis |date=1975 |isbn=978-0-9195-9436-4}}
* {{cite book |title=Lampman's Sonnets: The Complete Sonnets of Archibald Lampman |editor-first=Margaret |editor-last=Coulby Whitridge |location=Ottawa, Ontario |publisher=Borealis |date=1976 |isbn=978-0-919594-50-0}}
* {{cite book |title=The Story of an Affinity |editor-first=D.M.R. |editor-last=Bentley |location=London, Ontario |publisher=Canadian Poetry Press |date=1986 |isbn=978-0-921243-00-7}}
* {{cite book |title=Selected Poetry of Archibald Lampman |editor-first=Michael |editor-last=Gnarowski |location=Ottawa, Ontario |publisher=Tecumseh |date=1990 |isbn=978-0-919662-15-5}}

===Prose===
* {{cite book |editor-last=Bourinot |editor-first=Arthur S. |title=Archibald Lampman's letters to Edward William Thomson (1890-1898) |publisher=Arthur S. Bourinot Publisher |location=Ottawa, Ontario |date=1956 |url={{google books|3nZDnwEACAAJ|plainurl=yes}} }}
* {{cite book |title=Archibald Lampman: Selected Prose |editor-first=Barrie |editor-last=Davies |location=Ottawa, Ontario |publisher=Tecumseh |date=1975 |url={{google books|aGEIAQAAIAAJ|plainurl=yes}} |isbn=978-0-9196-6254-4}}
* {{cite book |title=At the Mermaid Inn: Wilfred Campbell, Archibald Lampman, Duncan Campbell Scott in the Globe 1892–93 |editor-first=Barrie |editor-last=Davies |location=Toronto, Ontario |publisher=University of Toronto Press |date=1979 |isbn=0-8020-2299-5 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/atmermaidinnwilf0000camp }}
* {{cite book |title=An annotated edition of the correspondence between Archibald Lampman and Edward William Thomson, 1890-1898 |editor-first=Helen |editor-last=Lynn |location=Ottawa, Ontario |publisher=Tecumseh |date=1980 |isbn=978-0-919662-77-3 |url={{google books|s2EIAQAAIAAJ|plainurl=yes}} }}
* {{cite book |editor-last=Bentley |editor-first=D.M.R. |title=The Essays and Reviews of Archibald Lampman |publisher=Canadian Poetry Press |location=London, Ontario |date=1996 |url={{google books|IHIfAQAAIAAJ|plainurl=yes}} }}
* {{cite book |editor-last=Bentley |editor-first=D.M.R. |title=The Fairy Tales of Archibald Lampman |publisher=Canadian Poetry Press |location=London, Ontario |date=1999 |url={{google books|4HQfAQAAIAAJ|plainurl=yes}} }}

==See also==
{{Portal|Poetry|Biography|Canada|Ontario}}
*[[Canadian literature]]
*[[Canadian poetry]]
*[[List of Canadian poets]]

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Archibald Lampman}}{{Archival records|title=Archibald Lampman collection}}
{{Wikiquote}}
* {{Gutenberg author |id=4352| name=Archibald Lampman}}
* {{Internet Archive author |sname=Archibald Lampman}}
* {{Librivox author |id=4907}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110427045430/http://rpo.library.utoronto.ca/poet/190.html Selected Poetry of Archibald Lampman] - Biography and 29 poems (At the Long Sault: May 1660, The City at the End of Things, Comfort of the Fields, Evening, The Frogs, The Growth of Love XI, Heat, In Beechwood Cemetery, In November (1), In November (2), A January Morning, Midnight, Morning on the Lièvre, A Niagara Landscape, On Lake Temiscamingue, On the Companionship with Nature, Outlook, The Railway Station, Reality, Storm, A Sunset at Les Eboulements, Temagami, A Thunderstorm, To a Millionaire, To the Ottawa, Voices of Earth, We too shall Sleep, Winter Evening, Winter Uplands, Winter-Solitude)
* [http://www.uwo.ca/english/canadianpoetry/confederation/Archibald%20Lampman/index.htm Archibald Lampman at Canadian Poetry.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120319144400/http://www.uwo.ca/english/canadianpoetry/confederation/Archibald%20Lampman/index.htm |date=2012-03-19 }}
* [https://www.biographi.ca/en/bio/lampman_archibald_12E.html Biography at the ''Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online'']
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20061018013146/http://lampman.sasktelwebsite.net/index.htm Website for the town of Lampman, Saskatchewan]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090910031235/http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=A1ARTA0004492 Archibald Lampman's] entry in [[The Canadian Encyclopedia]]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110612034208/http://www.uwo.ca/english/canadianpoetry/cpjrn/vol51/lee.htm#1.1 The Lampman Medallion in the Trinity College Chapel]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110706170432/http://www.canadianpoetry.ca/cpjrn/vol45/vol45index.htm ''Canadian Poetry: Studies/Documents/Reviews'', No. 45 (Fall/Winter 1999)]. [Lampman centennial edition].
*[http://atom.archives.sfu.ca/index.php/archibald-lampman-collection-3 Records of Archibald Lampman are held by Simon Fraser University's Special Collections and Rare Books]

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[[Category:1861 births]]
[[Category:1899 deaths]]
[[Category:19th-century Canadian poets]]
[[Category:Canadian male poets]]
[[Category:Canadian Anglicans]]
[[Category:Canadian socialists]]
[[Category:Fellows of the Royal Society of Canada]]
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Blood lancet

2025-09-02T12:10:32Z

92.18.76.185: Fixing lint errors Special:LintErrors/bogus-image-options.

{{Short description|Small medical instrument used for blood sampling}}
{{One source|date=September 2021}}

[[File:Box of lancets.JPG|thumb|200px|Box of disposable lancets.]]
[[Image:Blood sampling device2.jpg|thumb|200px|Blood-sampling device with a '''lancet''' at the tip.]]
[[File:Blood Lancet Blade.jpg|thumb|200px|Blade extracted from disposable self retracting blood lancet with ruler for scale.]]

A '''blood lancet''', or simply '''lancet''', is a small medical implement used for [[capillary]] [[Sampling (medicine)|blood sampling]]. A blood lancet, sometimes called a lance, is similar to a [[scalpel]] style lancet, but with a double-edged blade and a pointed end. It can even be a specialized type of sharp needle.

==Use==
Lancets are used to make punctures, such as a [[fingerstick]], to obtain small blood specimens. Blood lancets are generally disposable.

Lancets are also used to prick the [[skin]] in [[Skin allergy test|dermatological testing for allergies]].<ref>[https://archive.today/20121018180231/http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/119561623/abstract?CRETRY=1&SRETRY=0 Abstract: The Allergy Pricker]</ref>

==Lancing device==
A blood-sampling device, also known as a '''lancing device''', is an instrument equipped with a lancet. It is also most commonly used by [[diabetes|diabetic]] patients during [[blood glucose monitoring]]. The depth of skin penetration can be adjusted for various skin thicknesses. Long lancing devices are used for [[fetal scalp blood testing]] to get a measure of the [[acid base status]] of the fetus.

==Blood sampling==
{{Main|Capillary blood sampling}}
The small capillary blood samples obtained can be tested for [[Blood sugar|blood glucose]], [[hemoglobin]], and many other [[List of human blood components|blood components]].

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{commons category|Blood lancets}}
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20090303145443/http://www.diabetesselfmanagement.com/articles/Diabetes_Definitions/Lancet Lancet In Diabetes Self Management]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Blood Lancet}}

[[Category:Diabetes-related supplies and medical equipment]]
[[Category:Medical testing equipment]]

Voree, Wisconsin

2025-09-01T13:28:53Z

92.18.76.185: Fixing lint errors Special:LintErrors/wikilink-in-extlink.

{{Short description|Unincorporated community in the United States}}
{{Use American English|date=July 2025}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=July 2023}}
{{Infobox settlement
|name = Voree, Wisconsin
|official_name =
|settlement_type = Unincorporated Community
|nickname =
|motto =
|image_skyline = Map of Wisconsin highlighting Walworth County.svg
|image_size = 150px
|image_caption = Map of [[Wisconsin]] highlighting [[Walworth County, Wisconsin|Walworth County]] where the [[unincorporated area|unincorporated community]] of Voree is located
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|subdivision_name = [[United States]]
|subdivision_type1 = [[U.S. state|State]]
|subdivision_name1 ={{flag|Wisconsin}}
|subdivision_type2 = [[List of counties in Wisconsin|County]]
|subdivision_name2 = [[Walworth County, Wisconsin|Walworth]]
|established_date1 = 1900
|founder = [[James Strang]] founded Voree in 1844 (independent communal settlement)
|named_for = Voree means "Garden of Peace"

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|area_code = [[Area code 262|262]]
|website = [http://www.burlington-wi.gov www.burlington-wi.gov]
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[[Image:OldVoree.jpg|thumb|right|A map of old Voree, engraved on a monument at the townsite.]]

'''Voree''' (/vɔːriː/) is an [[unincorporated area|unincorporated community]] in the [[Spring Prairie, Wisconsin|Town of Spring Prairie]] in [[Walworth County, Wisconsin|Walworth County]], [[Wisconsin]], [[United States]].<ref>[http://www.walcohistory.org/# Romance of Walworth County Place names]</ref><ref>[http://www.wisconsinhistory.org/dictionary/index.asp?action=view&term_id=3922&voree Voree - origin of place name]{{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121104013124/http://www.wisconsinhistory.org/dictionary/index.asp?action=view&term_id=3922&voree |date=November 4, 2012 }}</ref><ref>[http://www.walworthcgs.com/springprairie.html Town of Spring Prairie]</ref> It is best known as the headquarters of the [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (Strangite)]], a denomination of the [[Latter Day Saint movement]]. According to [[James Strang]], founder of the Strangite church and of the town, the name means "Garden of Peace".<ref>Linda S. Godfey. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=jRBPbFHCoV4C&dq=Voree,+Wisconsin+population&pg=PA10 Strange Wisconsin]''. p. 10.</ref> The community is situated along former [[Highway 11 (Wisconsin)|Wisconsin Highway 11]], just west of the [[Racine County, Wisconsin|Racine County]] line.

==Strangite settlement==

[[File:James Strang daguerreotype (1856).jpg|left|thumb|150px|1856 [[daguerreotype]] of [[James Strang]], taken on [[Beaver Island (Lake Michigan)|Beaver Island]], [[Michigan]] the year of his death by J. Atkyn, itinerant photographer who later became one of Strang's [[assassination|assassins]]]]
[[Image:VoreeChurch.jpg|thumb|300px|left|[[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (Strangite)|Strangite]] church building in Voree (2005) {{coord|42.682414|-88.305882}}]]

Although the Voree area was inhabited by [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]]s prior to the arrival of the first [[Europeans]], the most notable part of its history begins in 1844, after the death of [[Joseph Smith Jr.]], founder of the Latter Day Saint movement. James J. Strang, who had declared himself Smith's successor, established Voree, then within the [[Wisconsin Territory]] as a "gathering place" for those Latter Day Saints who chose to follow his leadership rather than that of [[Brigham Young]] or other claimants. Strang's followers moved from [[Nauvoo, Illinois]] and other places to Voree. Young's followers relocated to the [[Salt Lake Valley]] in what would ultimately become the [[Utah Territory]], where they established [[the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] (LDS Church), which is now the largest Latter Day Saint denomination. The Strang, Young, and several other church organizations claimed to be the sole legal continuance and succession leader of Joseph Smith's church, each rejecting all claims to legitimacy by the others.

The "Strangite" church established a [[quarry]] and built many fine [[stone]] houses, several of which survive. Their community included a [[blacksmithing|blacksmith shop]], [[tavern]], [[school]] and a [[Tithing (Latter Day Saints)|tithing house]]. The church excavated a foundation for their intended [[Temple (Latter Day Saints)|temple]], but were unable to finish it due to poverty and internal dissent. They also published [[newspapers]] the ''Voree Herald'' and ''Zion's Reveille'' in the town. Tombstone carving, plough manufacturing, and the raising of English [[Fox Terrier]]s were some of Voree's business enterprises.<ref>[https://archive.today/20130113081132/http://www.strangite.org/Wisconsin.htm Mormons in Wisconsin]</ref>

A small hill in Voree, known as the "Hill of Promise", became noteworthy as the location where James Strang allegedly unearthed the [[Voree Plates]]. These three small metal plates, purportedly containing the ancient record of "Rajah Manchou of Vorito" (alleged to be an ancient inhabitant of the area), became a [[scripture]] of Strang's church and are still accepted by his followers today. [[Baptism for the Dead|Baptisms for the Dead]] were performed in the White River, which flowed through the settlement. These have not been conducted since Strang's lifetime due to a lack of prophetic leadership, though the Strangites still believe in the validity of this doctrine, as do members of the LDS and certain other Mormon factions.

==Relocation to Beaver Island==
Because land prices in the Voree area were high, it was difficult for church members to "gather" to the settlement and purchase farmlands. Additional trouble ensued when a group of Strangite leaders, led by [[Aaron Smith (Strangite)|Aaron Smith]], rejected Strang and formed a [[schism]]atic group in Voree. For these and other reasons, Strang relocated his church headquarters to [[Beaver Island (Lake Michigan)|Beaver Island]] by 1848. Most of his members followed him where he was crowned the Mormon king of Beaver Island, though a small minority elected to remain in Voree. Opposition in Beaver Island ultimately led to the fatal wounding of Strang in June 1856; he returned to Voree, where he died weeks after the shooting. His followers were forcibly expelled from the island, and most abandoned his church entirely. A loyal remnant remained, however, with many of them choosing to return to Voree and nearby areas. The Strangite church still considers Voree to be a "gathering place" for its members.

==Voree today==
The diminutive Strangite organization continues to maintain a presence in Voree to this day. Two different factions maintain meetinghouses there; at least one has a congregation that meets there regularly. There are also two Internet-based groups of Strangites at [[Independence, Missouri]] and [[Shreveport, Louisiana]]. The historical society at nearby [[Burlington, Wisconsin|Burlington]] has erected a monument at Voree to commemorate the Strangite settlement there.

==References==
{{reflist}}

== Further reading ==
* {{cite book |first=William F. |last=Stark |chapter=Voree |pages=71–81 |title=Ghost Towns of Wisconsin |location=Sheboygan |publisher=Zimmermann Press |year=1977 |oclc=3564408 }}

== External links ==
* [http://www.strangite.org/Tour.htm Photo Tour of Voree] Contains several photos of Voree, from different historical periods
* [https://archive.today/20130113081132/http://www.strangite.org/Wisconsin.htm "Mormons in Wisconsin"] Article on Latter Day Saint settlements in Wisconsin, including Voree
* [http://www.burlingtonhistory.org Burlington Historical Society] Website of the historical society for nearby Burlington, Wisconsin
* [http://bycommonconsent.com/2008/10/17/voree-temple/ The Voree Temple] Article on the never-built Voree Temple, includes conceptual drawings and photos of the area
* [http://www.burlingtonnews.net/burlingtonwi.html Burlington, Wisconsin and the "Veiled City of Voree]," by Mary Sutherland

{{Walworth County, Wisconsin}}

{{authority control}}

[[Category:Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (Strangite)]]
[[Category:Latter Day Saint movement in Wisconsin]]
[[Category:Unincorporated communities in Walworth County, Wisconsin]]
[[Category:Unincorporated communities in Wisconsin]]