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Engineering education

2025-06-22T08:03:50Z

89.243.41.89: /* United States */ link to new article

{{Short description|Educational activity of teaching knowledge and principles of engineering}}
{{redirect|Engineering college|the secondary schools in England|Engineering College (English specialist school)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2023}}
{{Citation style|date=February 2011}}
[[File:USMA Aerial View Looking North.jpg|thumb|The [[United States Military Academy]] in [[West Point, New York]], developed the first engineering education program in the United States in 1817.<ref>[https://ascelibrary.org/doi/10.1061/40594%28265%2941 "Early Engineering Education in the United States Prior to 1850"], ASCE Library, May 16, 2012</ref>]]

'''Engineering education''' is the activity of [[teaching]] knowledge and principles to the [[professional development|professional practice]] of [[engineering]]. It includes an initial education ([[Diploma in Engineering|Dip.Eng.]]) and [[Bachelor of Engineering|(B.Eng.)]] or ([[Master of Engineering|M.Eng.]]), and any advanced education and specializations that follow. Engineering education is typically accompanied by additional postgraduate examinations and supervised training as the requirements for a professional engineering license. The length of education, and training to qualify as a basic professional engineer, is typically five years, with 15–20 years for an engineer who takes responsibility for major projects.

[[Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics]] (STEM) education in primary and secondary schools often serves as the foundation for engineering education at the university level.<ref>Douglas, Iverson & Kalyandurg, 2004</ref> In the [[United States]], engineering education is a part of the [[STEM fields|STEM initiative]] in public schools.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ed.gov/stem|title=Science, Technology, Engineering and Math: Education for Global Leadership |website=U.S. Department of Education |access-date=2019-02-12}}</ref> [[Service-learning in engineering education]] is gaining popularity within the variety of disciplinary focuses within engineering education including [[chemical engineering]], [[civil engineering]], [[mechanical engineering]], [[industrial engineering]], [[computer engineering]], [[electrical engineering]], [[architectural engineering]], and other engineering education.
The field of academic inquiry regarding the education of engineers is called ''[[engineering education research]]''.

{{toclimit|2}}

==Africa==

=== Ghana ===
Ghana's engineering training landscape bridges the gap between theory and practice, equipping students with the technical knowledge and hands-on skills valued by the engineering industry. Students interested in engineering can enter the field at different levels.

* '''Traditional Secondary Technical Schools:''' These schools offer programs leading to the West African Senior Secondary School Certificate (WASSCE), which prepares students for university-level engineering programs.
* '''STEM Secondary Schools:''' Specialized senior high schools providing specialized training in Robotics, Aerospace Engineering, Biomedical and Agricultural Science
* '''Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) Schools:''' These schools provide vocational training, awarding the National Vocational Training Institute (NVTI) certificate. This prepares students for immediate entry into specific technical trades.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-02-09 |title=Government merges COTVET and NABPTEX {{!}} Commission for Technical and Vocational Educational and Training |url=https://ctvet.gov.gh/government-merges-cotvet-and-nabptex-2/ |access-date=2024-06-13 |website=ctvet.gov.gh |language=en-US}}</ref>
* '''Polytechnics and Technical Universities:''' Offer Higher National Diplomas (HNDs) in engineering disciplines, typically lasting three years. These programs have a strong emphasis on practical skills and application, preparing graduates for immediate employment. Some polytechnics have also transitioned to offering four-year Bachelor of Technology (BTech) degrees.
* '''Universities''': Offer four-year Bachelor of Science (BSc) degrees in various engineering fields like civil, mechanical, electrical, or computer engineering.

Ghana's engineering profession is regulated by the Ghana Institution of Engineers (GhIE), an autonomous body established in 1968. Its authority stems from the Engineering Council Act 2011 (Act 819) and the Professional Bodies Registration Decree NRCD143 of 1973.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Home |url=https://ghie.org.gh/ |access-date=2024-06-13 |website=Ghana Institution of Engineering |language=en-US}}</ref>

===Kenya===
Engineering training in [[Kenya]] is typically provided by the universities. Registration of engineers is governed by the Engineers Registration Act. A candidate stands to qualify as a registered engineer, R.Eng., if they are a holder of a minimum of four years of post-secondary Engineering Education and a minimum of three years of postgraduate work experience.<ref>Engineers Registration Board of Kenya. [http://www.erbk.go.ke/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=12&Itemid=27 Registration of Engineers in Kenya] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100816025957/http://www.erbk.go.ke/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=12&Itemid=27 |date=16 August 2010 }}, Engineers Registration Board of Kenya website.</ref>

All registrations are undertaken by the Engineers Registration Board which is a statutory body established through an Act of the Kenyan Parliament in 1969. A minor revision was done in 1992 to accommodate Technician Engineer grade. The board has been given the responsibility of regulating the activities and conduct of Practicing Engineers in the Republic of Kenya in accordance with the functions and powers conferred upon it by the Act. Under CAP 530 of the Laws of Kenya, it is illegal for an engineer to practice or call themself an engineer if not registered with the board. Registration with the board is thus a license to practice engineering in Kenya.

===Nigeria===
Engineering training is provided by universities subject to accreditation by the National Universities Commission (NUC) and the Council for Regulation of Engineering in Nigeria (COREN).<ref>{{cite web |title=Accreditation Status of Undergraduate Engineering Programs of Nigerian Universities as at March 2023 |url=https://coren.gov.ng/accredited-universities/ |date=31 March 2023 |website=Council for the Regulation of Engineering in Nigeria}}</ref> A candidate can be registered as an engineer after completion of a five-year Bachelor's degree (or equivalent) and four years of post-graduate work experience.<ref>{{cite web |title=Register as an Engineer |url=https://coren.gov.ng/service/engineer/ |date=1 July 2023 |website=Council for the Regulation of Engineering in Nigeria}}</ref> Previously, postgraduate education in engineering could be counted towards work experience. A candidate trained through a polytechnic may also be certified as a registered engineer on completion of a two-year Ordinary National Diploma (OND), a two-year Higher National Diploma (HND) and a post-graduate diploma (PGD) all in the same engineering discipline with two years of work experience after the PGD. Registration allows use of the protected title, registered Engineer (Engr). An alternative version, Registered Engineer (R. Eng) is also used although it is not formally recognized by COREN. Any person not registered as an engineer may not use any title that implies that they are registered Engineers. It is illegal to carry out engineering practice without a COREN registration. All unregistered engineers must work under supervision of an Engr.

COREN also recognizes other cadres of engineering work- technologists, technicians and craftsmen. Technologists and technicians are trained by polytechnics while craftsmen are trained by technical colleges. Technologists can become registered Engineering Technologists (Eng Tech) on completion of a two-year Ordinary National Diploma (OND), a two-year Higher National Diploma (HND) and three years of post-graduate work experience.<ref>{{cite web |title=GUIDELINES FOR REGISTRATION WITH COREN AS AN ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGIST |url=https://coren.gov.ng/service/technologist/|date=31 July 2023 |website=Council for the Regulation of Engineering in Nigeria}}</ref> A technician can be certified as a registered Engineering Technician (Tech) after completion of a two-year OND and two-years of post-graduate work experience.<ref>{{cite web |title=Register as a Technician |url=https://coren.gov.ng/service/technician/ |date=1 July 2023 |website=Council for the Regulation of Engineering in Nigeria}}</ref> A craftsman can become a registered Engineering Craftsman after passing the technical exam of the [[West African Examinations Council]] or [[National Business and Technical Examinations Board]] or a Trade Test Grade 1 from the Federal Ministry of Labour.<ref>{{cite web |title=Register as a Craftsman |url=https://coren.gov.ng/service/craftsman/ |date=1 July 2023 |website=Council for the Regulation of Engineering in Nigeria}}</ref> In addition, two years of work experience are required.

===South Africa===
Engineering training in South Africa is typically provided by the universities, universities of technology and colleges for Technical and Vocational Education and Training (previously Further Education and Training).<ref>Engineering Council of South Africa. [http://www.ecsa.co.za/index.asp?x=procedure Registration Process], Engineering Council of South Africa website, Bruma, Johannesburg, South Africa, 2008.</ref> The qualifications provided by these institutions must have an [[Engineering Council of South Africa]] (ECSA) accreditation for the qualification for graduates and diplomats of these institutions to be registered as Candidate Certificated Engineers, Candidate Engineers, Candidate Engineering Technologists and Candidate Engineering Technicians. There are many benefits to these attributes.

The academic training performed by the universities is typically in the form of a four-year BSc(Eng), BIng or BEng degree. For the degree to be accredited, the course material must conform to the ECSA Graduate Attributes (GA).

Professional Engineers (Pr Eng) are persons that are accredited by ECSA as engineering professionals. Legally, a Professional Engineer's sign off is required for any major project to be implemented, in order to ensure the safety and standards of the project. Professional Engineering Technologists (Pr Tech Eng) and Professional Engineering Technicians (Pr Techni Eng) are other members of the engineering team.

Professional Certificated Engineers (Pr Cert Eng) are people who hold one of seven Government Certificates of Competency and who have been registered by ECSA as engineering professionals.

The categories of professionals are differentiated by the degree of complexity of work carried out, where Professional Engineers are expected to solve complex engineering problems, Professional Engineering Technologists and Professional Certificated Engineers, broadly defined engineering problems and Professional Engineering Technicians, well-defined engineering problems.

===Tanzania===
Engineering training in Tanzania is typically provided by various universities and technical institutions in the country. Graduate engineers are registered by the Engineers Registration Board (ERB) after undergoing three years of practical training. A candidate stands to qualify as a professional engineer, P.Eng., if they are a holder of a minimum four years post-secondary Engineering Education and a minimum of three years of postgraduate work experience. Engineers Registration Board is a statutory body established through an Act of the Tanzanian Parliament in 1968. Minor revision was done in 1997 to address the issue of engineering professional excellence in the country.

The board has been given the responsibility of regulating the activities and conduct of Practicing Engineers in the United Republic of Tanzania in accordance with the functions and powers conferred upon it by the Act. According to Tanzania Laws, it is illegal for an engineer to practice or call themself an engineer if not registered with the board. Registration with the board is thus a license to practice engineering in United Republic of Tanzania.

==Asia==
===Bangladesh===
To be educated in engineering education in Bangladesh, one has to study for a long time. This length of time is required because a fashion engineer in Bangladesh has to acquire technical education from an early age.

*'''Technical School & College''' Engineer means skilled in technical education. And to be proficient in technical education, you have to be educated in technical education from childhood. So you have to pass (2 years) Secondary and (2 years) Higher Secondary from ''Technical School & College'' under [[Bangladesh Technical Education Board]].

*'''Polytechnic/University''' [[Institute of technology|Polytechnics]] and [[universities]] mainly offer engineering degrees. After secondary and higher secondary, one can get admission in polytechnic & University. Polytechnic & university institutes offer 4-year ([[Diploma in Engineering|Dip.Engg.]])and [[Bachelor of Engineering|BSc.Engg]] degrees. Different types of engineering degrees in Diploma are [[Electrical Engineering]], [[Civil Engineering]], [[Computer Engineering]], [[Electronic Engineering]], [[Marine Engineering]], [[Mechanical Engineering]], etc.

=== Hong Kong ===
In Hong Kong, engineering degree programmes (4-year bachelor's degree) are offered by public universities funded by the [[University Grants Committee (Hong Kong)|University Grant Committee]] (UGC). There are 94 UGC-funded programmes in engineering and technology offered by [[City University of Hong Kong]], [[Chinese University of Hong Kong|the Chinese University of Hong Kong]], [[Hong Kong Polytechnic University|the Hong Kong Polytechnic University]], [[Hong Kong University of Science and Technology|the Hong Kong University of Science and Technology]], and [[University of Hong Kong|the University of Hong Kong]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://cdcf.ugc.edu.hk/cdcf/searchProgramme.action?actionType=searchProgramme&mode=&lang=EN&keyword=&lvForm.universities=CityU&lvForm.universities=HKBU&lvForm.universities=LU&lvForm.universities=CUHK&lvForm.universities=HKIEd&lvForm.universities=PolyU&lvForm.universities=HKUST&lvForm.universities=HKU&lvForm.academicLevel=Ug&lvForm.modeStudy=FT&lvForm.categories=8&lvForm.programmeVariables%5B0%5D.item=ActEnrol&lvForm.programmeVariables%5B0%5D.oper=All&lvForm.programmeVariables%5B0%5D.val=&lvForm.programmeVariables%5B1%5D.oper=All&lvForm.programmeVariables%5B1%5D.val=&lvForm.programmeVariables%5B5%5D.oper=All&lvForm.programmeVariables%5B5%5D.val=&lvForm.programmeVariables%5B6%5D.item=EmploySit|title=Profile of UGC-funded programmes|last=University Grant Committee|website=University Grant Committee|access-date=27 March 2019}}</ref> For example, the Faculty of Engineering of the University of Hong Kong (HKU) has five departments providing undergraduate, postgraduate and research degrees in civil engineering, Computer Science, Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Industrial and Manufacturing Systems Engineering, as well as Mechanical Engineering.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://aal.hku.hk/admissions/local/admissions-information?page=en/faculty/faculty-engineering|title=Admissions Information {{!}} Undergraduate Admissions for JUPAS Students {{!}} The University of Hong Kong|website=aal.hku.hk|access-date=2019-03-27}}</ref> All programmes of Bachelor of Engineering under the [[JUPAS|Joint University Programmes Admissions System (JUPAS)]] code 6963 being offered are accredited by [[The Hong Kong Institution of Engineers|the Hong Kong Institution of Engineers (HKIE)]].<ref name=":0" /> With that standing, the professional qualification of HKU engineering graduates is mutually recognized by most countries, such as the United States, Australia, Canada, Japan, Korea, New Zealand, Singapore and South Africa.<ref name=":0" /> Applicants with other local / international /national qualifications such as [[GCE Advanced Level|GCE A-level]], [[International Baccalaureate|International Baccalaureate (IB)]] or [[SAT]] can apply through the Non-JUPAS Route.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ugadmissions.engg.hku.hk/admission-requirements|title=Admissions Requirements|year=2019|website=HKU Engineering Undergraduate Admissions|language=en|access-date=2019-03-27}}</ref>

[[The Hong Kong Institution of Engineers|The Hong Kong Institution of Engineers (the HKIE)]] accredits individual engineering degree programmes.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=https://www.hkie.org.hk/en/quali/criteria/upload/page/55/self/59ba2b4d548ec.pdf|title=Professional Accreditation Handbook (Engineering Degrees)|last=The Hong Kong Institution of Engineers|year=2013|access-date=27 March 2019}}</ref> The process of professional accreditation also considers the appropriate Faculty in terms of its overall philosophy, objectives and resources.<ref name=":1" /> The professional accreditation of engineering degree programmes in the universities is normally initiated by a university issuing an invitation to the HKIE's Accreditation Board to carry out appropriate accreditation exercises.<ref name=":1" />

To become a professional engineer, senior secondary (Form 4 to Form 6) school students start by choosing science and technology related subjects, while at least passing English and Mathematics in the [[Hong Kong Diploma of Secondary Education]] examinations.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=http://hkie.org.hk/sap/rtpe.html|title=HKIE Route to Professional Engineer|year=2011|website=Hong Kong Institution of Engineers|access-date=2019-03-27}}</ref> Secondary school graduates have to enroll in an HKIE accredited engineering programme, join the universities' engineering students society and join the HKIE as a student member.<ref name=":2" /> After completing a bachelor's degree in engineering, graduates undergo two to three years of engineering graduate training and gaining another two to three years relevant working experience.<ref name=":2" /> Upon passing the Professional Assessment, the candidate will be conferred member by the HKIE, finally becoming a Professional Engineer.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://hkie.org.hk/sap/pa.html|title=HKIE Professional Assessment|year=2010|website=Hong Kong Institution of Engineers|access-date=2019-03-27}}</ref> The engineering profession in Hong Kong has 21 engineering disciplines, namely Aircraft, Biomedical, Building, Building Services, Chemical, Civil Control, Automation & Instrumentation, Electrical, Electronics, Energy, Environmental, Fire, Gas, Geotechnical, Information, Logistics & Transportation, Manufacturing & Industrial, Marine & Naval Architecture, Materials, Mechanical, as well as Structural engineering.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://hkie.org.hk/sap/index.html|title=The 21 engineering disciplines|website=Hong Kong Institution of Engineers|access-date=2019-03-27}}</ref>

In 2019, the Asian Society of Engineering Education (AsiaSEE) is founded in Hong Kong by Dr. Cecilia K.Y. Chan and over twenty founding members around Asia.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|url=https://www.asiasee.org/|title=The Asian Society for Engineering Education (AsiaSEE)|year=2019|website=AsiaSEE|language=en|access-date=2019-03-27}}</ref> AsiaSEE is the first Asian regional network of higher educational institutions leaders with commitment to improve engineering education.<ref name=":3" /> The vision of AsiaSEE is to be the trusted body in Asia to facilitate communications and cooperation in engineering education between members, institutions, industries, stakeholders and like-minded societies in the world.<ref name=":3" /> The mission of AsiaSEE is to contribute to the advancement and enhancement in engineering education via research and practice for the future generation.<ref name=":3" />
{| class="wikitable"
|+QS World University Rankings by Subject 2019: Engineering and Technology: Hong Kong<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.topuniversities.com/university-rankings/university-subject-rankings/2019/engineering-technology|title=Engineering and Technology|date=2019-02-15|website=Top Universities|language=en|access-date=2019-03-27}}</ref>
!Rank
!University
|-
|18
|[[Hong Kong University of Science and Technology|The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology]]
|-
|35
|[[University of Hong Kong|The University of Hong Kong]]
|-
|57
|[[Chinese University of Hong Kong|The Chinese University of Hong Kong]]
|-
|70
|[[Hong Kong Polytechnic University]]
|-
|79
|[[City University of Hong Kong]]
|-
|451–500
|[[Hong Kong Baptist University]]
|}

===Uzbekistan===
*[[Turin Polytechnic University in Tashkent]]
*[[Tashkent State Technical University]]
*[[Tashkent Institute of Irrigation and Melioration]]
*Tashkent Automobile and Road Construction Institut

===India===
{{Main|Engineering education in India}}
More than 5,000{{dubious|date=September 2018}} universities and colleges offer engineering courses in India.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.aicte-india.org/sallinstitiutesstatewisehtm.html |title=AICTE |publisher=Aicte-india.org |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120421162521/http://www.aicte-india.org/sallinstitiutesstatewisehtm.html |archive-date=21 April 2012 |access-date=15 February 2013 }}</ref>

===Indonesia===
*[[Sepuluh Nopember Institute of Technology]]
*[[Bandung Institute of Technology]]
* Faculty of Engineering of [[Sebelas Maret University]]
* Faculty of Engineering of [[Andalas University]]
* Faculty of Engineering of [[Sultan Ageng Tirtayasa University]]
* Faculty of Engineering of [[University of Indonesia]]
* Faculty of Engineering of [[Gadjah Mada University]]
* Faculty of Engineering of [[Diponegoro University]]
* Faculty of Engineering of [[Universitas Negeri Padang]]
* Faculty of Engineering of [[Universitas Negeri Malang]]
* Faculty of Engineering of [[Hasanuddin University]]
* Faculty of Engineering of [[University of Surabaya]]

===Malaysia===
Activities on engineering education in Malaysia are spearheaded by the Society of Engineering Education Malaysia (SEEM). SEEM was established in 2008 and launched on 23 February 2009. The idea of establishing the Society of Engineering Education was initiated in April 2005 with the creating of a Pro-team Committee for SEEM. The objectives of this society are to contribute to the development of education in the fields of engineering education and science and technology, including teaching and learning, counseling, research, service and public relations.
* [[Universiti Teknologi Malaysia]]
* Centre For Engineering Education, CEE
* [[Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman]]
* [[Tunku Abdul Rahman University College]]
* [[Southern University College]]
* [[Universiti Malaysia Pahang]]

===Pakistan===
In Pakistan, engineering education is accredited by the [[Pakistan Engineering Council]], a statutory body, constituted under the PEC Act No. V of 1976 of the constitution of Pakistan and amended vide Ordinance No.XXIII of 2006, to regulate the engineering profession in the country. It aims to achieve rapid and sustainable growth in all national, economic and social fields. The council is responsible for maintaining realistic and internationally relevant standards of professional competence and ethics for engineers in the country. PEC interacts with the Government, both at the Federal and Provincial level by participating in Commissions, Committees and Advisory Bodies. PEC is a fully representative body of the engineering community in the country. PEC has a full signatory status with [[Washington Accord (credentials)|Washington Accord]].

===Philippines===
The [[Professional Regulation Commission]] is the regulating body for engineers in the [[Philippines]].{{Citation needed|date=June 2010}}

In the Philippines the [https://batstate-u.edu.ph/ciee/ '''Center for Innovation in Engineering Education (CIEE)'''] at '''[https://batstate-u.edu.ph Batangas State University - The National Engineering University]''' operates with a visionary goals to elevate the standard of engineering education in the country and to cultivate individuals equipped to lead in the dynamic global knowledge economy. With a strategic focus on fostering academic and industry leaders, '''CIEE''' acts as a nucleus, fostering collaborations among interdisciplinary experts. This collective synergy promotes a seamless exchange of knowledge and resources, bridging the gap between academia and industry. '''CIEE's''' multifaceted support spans from steering engineering curriculum development to achieving targeted advancements in research, teaching methodologies, and assessment pedagogies. Notably, the Center spearheads professional training initiatives, empowering capacity building not only within our institution but across '''Higher Education Institutions (HEIs)'''. Integral to its mission, '''CIEE''' diligently cultivates and manages crucial industry partnerships, facilitating ongoing advancements in engineering education. Furthermore, the Center's commitment extends globally, evidenced by its orchestration of international conferences in engineering education and overseeing the publication of scholarly works, fostering widespread dissemination of pioneering ideas and research.

===Sri Lanka===
{{Main|Engineering education in Sri Lanka}}

===Taiwan===
{{Main|Engineering education in Taiwan}}
Engineering is one of the most popular majors among [[List of universities in Taiwan|universities in Taiwan]].{{Citation needed|date=April 2010}} The engineering degrees are over a quarter of the bachelor's degrees in Taiwan.{{Citation needed|date=April 2010}} Campuses include the [[National Taiwan University of Science and Technology]].

==Europe==
{{See also|European Engineer}}

===Austria===
In [[Austria]], similar to Germany, an engineering degree can be obtained from either universities or Fachhochschulen (universities of applied sciences). As in most of Europe, the education usually consists of a 3-year [[bachelor's degree]] and a 2-year [[master's degree]].

A lower engineering degree is offered by [[Höhere Technische Lehranstalt|Höheren Technische Lehranstalten]], (HTL, Higher Technical Institute), a form of secondary college which reaches from grade 9 to 13. There are disciplines like [[civil engineering]], [[electronics]], [[information technology]], etc.

In the 5th year of HTL, as in other secondary schools in Austria, there is a final exam, called [[Matura]]. Graduates obtain an ''Ingenieur'' engineering degree after three years of work in the studied field.

===Bulgaria===
The beginning of higher engineering education in [[Bulgaria]] is established by the Law for Establishing a Higher Technical School in Sofia in 1941. Only two years later however because of the bombs flying over [[Sofia]], the school was evacuated in [[Lovech]], and the regular classes were discontinued. The learning process started again in 1945 when the university became a State Polytechnic.

In [[Bulgaria]], engineers are trained in the three basic degrees – bachelor, master and doctor. Since the [[Bologna declaration]], students receive a bachelor's degree (4 years of studies), optionally followed by a [[master's degree]] (1 years of studies). The science and engineering courses include lecture and laboratory education. The main subjects to be studied are mathematics, physics, chemistry, electrical engineering, etc. The degree received after completing with a state exam or defense of a thesis. Absolvents are awarded with the ''Ing''. title always put in front of one's name.

Some of [[engineering]] specialties are completely traditional, such as machine building, computer and software engineering, automation, electrical engineering, electronics. Newer specialties are [[engineering design]], mechatronics, [[aviation engineering]], industrial engineering.

The following technical universities prepare mainly engineers in Bulgaria:
* Technical University Sofia
* Technical University Varna
* Technical University Gabrovo<ref>[https://www.tugab.bg/index.php?option=com_content&view=featured&Itemid=298&lang=en Technical University Gabrovo]</ref>
* University of Forestry
* University of Architecture, Civil Engineering and Geodesy
* University of Chemical Technology and Metallurgy Sofia
* Agricultural University Plovdiv
* University of Mining and Geology "St. Ivan Rilski"

The Bulgarian engineers are united in the Federation of Scientific and Technical Unions, established in 1949. It comprises 33 territorial and 19 national unions.

===Denmark===
In Denmark, the engineering degree is delivered by either universities or engineering colleges (e.g. Engineering College of Aarhus).

Students receive first a baccalaureate degree (3 years of studies) followed by a master's degree (1–2 years of studies) according to the principles of the Bologna declaration. The engineering doctorate degree is the ''[[PhD]]'' (additional 3 years of studies).

===Finland===
Finland's system is derived from Germany's system. Two kinds of universities are recognized, the universities and the [[Ammattikorkeakoulu|universities of applied sciences]].

Universities award typically 'Bachelor of Science in Technology' and 'Master of Science in Technology' degrees. Bachelor's degree is a three-year degree as master's degree is equivalent for two-year full-time studies.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.aalto.fi/en/studies/about_studying_at_aalto/ |title=Aalto University studies-pages |access-date=15 February 2013 |archive-date=2 September 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130902015454/http://www.aalto.fi/en/studies/about_studying_at_aalto/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> In Finnish the master's degree is called [[diplomi-insinööri]], similarly as in Germany (''Diplom-Ingenieur''). The degrees are awarded by engineering schools or faculties in universities (in [[Aalto University]], [[University of Oulu|Oulu]], [[University of Turku|Turku]], [[University of Vaasa|Vaasa]] and [[Åbo Akademi University]]) or by separate universities of technology ([[Tampere university of technology|Tampere UT]] and [[Lappeenranta University of Technology|Lappeenranta UT]]). The degree is a scientific, theoretical taught master's degree. Master's thesis is important part of master's degree studies. Master's degree qualifies for further study into Licentiate or doctorate. Because of the Bologna process, the degree ''tekniikan kandidaatti'' ("Bachelor of Technology"), corresponding to three years of study into the master's degree, has been introduced.

The universities of applied sciences are regional universities that award 3.5-, to 4-year engineer degrees [[insinööri (amk)]]. An engineer's degree is normally 240 ECTS. There are 20 universities of applied sciences in Finland with a vide range of disciplines. The aim of the degree is professional competency with an emphasis on practical problem solving in engineering. Normally the teaching language is Finnish but there are also universities with Swedish as language of instruction, and most universities of applied sciences offer some degrees in English, too. These universities also award a Master of Engineering degree, designed for engineers already involved in the working life with at least two years of professional experience.

===France===
In France, the engineering degree is mainly delivered by "[[Grande École#List of graduate engineering schools (grandes écoles d'ingénieurs)|Grandes Écoles d'Ingénieurs]]" (graduate schools of engineering) upon completion of 3 years of Master's studies. Many Écoles recruit undergraduate students from [[Classe préparatoire aux grandes écoles|CPGE]] (two- or three-year high level program after the [[Baccalauréat]]), even though some of them include an integrated undergraduate cycle. Other students accessing these Grandes Ecoles may come from other horizons, such as DUT or BTS (technical two-year university degrees) or standard two-year university degrees. In all cases, recruitment is highly selective. Hence graduate engineers in France have studied a minimum of five years after the baccalaureate. Since 2013, the French engineering degree is recognized by the AACRAO as a Master of Science in engineering.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://highereducation.frenchculture.org/news/accord-historique-pour-les-ingenieurs-francais-aux-etats-unis|title=Accord historique pour les ingénieurs français aux Etats-Unis|access-date=30 December 2013|archive-date=3 September 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170903230059/http://highereducation.frenchculture.org/news/accord-historique-pour-les-ingenieurs-francais-aux-etats-unis|url-status=dead}}</ref>
To be able to deliver the engineering degree, an École Master 's curriculum has to be validated by the [[Commission des titres d'ingénieur]] ([[Commission des titres d'ingénieur|Commission of the Engineering Title]]). It is important for the external observer to note that the system in France is extremely demanding in its entrance requirements ([[numerus clausus]], using student rank in exams as the only criterion), despite being almost free of tuition fees, and much stricter in regards to the academic level of applying students than many other systems. The system focuses solely on selecting students by their engineering fundamental disciplines (mathematics, physics) abilities rather than their financial ability to finance large tuition fees, thus enabling a wider population access to higher education. In fact, being a graduate engineer in France is considered as being near/at the top of the social/professional ladder. The engineering profession grew from the military and the nobility in the 18th century. Before the [[French Revolution]], engineers were trained in schools for technical officers, like "École d'Arts et Métiers" ([[Arts et Métiers ParisTech]]) established in 1780. Then, other schools were created, for instance the [[École polytechnique]] and the [[Conservatoire national des arts et métiers]] which was established in 1794. Polytechnique is one of the ''grandes écoles'' that have traditionally prepared technocrats to lead French government and industry, and has been one of the most privileged routes into the elite divisions of the civil service known as the [[French Civil Service#Great corps of the State|"grands corps de l'État"]].

Inside a French company the title of ''Ingénieur'' refers to a rank in qualification and is not restricted. Therefore, there are sometimes ''Ingénieurs des Ventes'' (Sales Engineers), ''Ingénieur Marketing'', ''Ingénieur Bancaire'' (Banking Engineer), ''Ingénieur Recherche & Développement'' (R&D Engineer), etc.

===Germany===
In [[Germany]], the term ''Ingenieur'' (engineer) is legally protected and may only be used by graduates of a university degree program in engineering. Such degrees are offered by universities (''Universitäten''), including ''Technische Universitäten'' (universities of technology) and ''[[Technische Hochschule]]n'', or [[Fachhochschule|''Fachhochschulen'']] (universities of applied sciences).

Since the [[Bologna Process|Bologna reforms]], students receive a bachelor's degree (3–4 years of studies), optionally followed by a master's degree (1–2 years of studies). Prior to the country adopting the Bologna system, the first and only pre-doctorate degree received after completing engineering education at university was the German ''[[Diplom]]ingenieur'' (Dipl.-Ing.). The engineering [[doctorate]] is the ''[[Doktoringenieur]]'' (Dr.-Ing.).

===Italy===
In [[Italy]], the engineering degree and "engineer" title is delivered by polytechnic universities upon completion of 3 years of studies (laurea). Additional master's degree (2 years) and doctorate programs (3 years) provide the title of "dottore di ricerca in ingegneria". Students that started studies in polytechnic universities before 2005 (when Italy adopted the Bologna declaration) need to complete a 5-year program to get the engineer title. In this case the master's degree is obtained after 1 year of studies.
Only people with an engineer title can be employed as "engineers". Still, some with competence and experience in an engineering field that do not have such a title, can still be employed to perform engineering tasks as "specialist", "assistant", "technologist" or "technician". But, only engineers can take legal responsibility and provide guarantee upon the work done by a team in their area of expertise. Sometimes a company working in this area, which temporarily does not have any employees with an engineer title must pay for an external service of an engineering audit to provide legal guarantee for their products or services.

===The Netherlands===
In the [[Netherlands]] there are two ways to study engineering, i.e. at the Dutch 'technical [[Vocational university#Netherlands|hogeschool]]', which is a [[professional school]] (equivalent to a [[university of applied sciences]] internationally) and awards a practically orientated degree with the pre-nominal ''ing.'' after four years study. Or at the university, which offers a more academically oriented degree with the pre-nominal ''ir.'' after five years study. Both are abbreviations of the title [[Ingenieur]].

In 2002 when the [[Netherlands]] switched to the Bachelor-Master system. This is a consequence of the [[Bologna process]]. In this accord 29 European countries agreed to harmonize their higher education system and create a [[European higher education area]]. In this system the professional schools award bachelor's degrees like ''BEng'' or ''BASc'' after four years study. And the universities with engineering programs award the bachelor's degree ''BSc'' after the third year. A university bachelor is usually continuing his education for one or two more years to earn his master's degree ''MSc''. Adjacent to these degrees, the old titles of the pre-populated system are still in use. A ''vocational'' bachelor may be admitted to a university master's degree program although often they are required to take additional courses.

===Poland===
In [[Poland]] after 3,5–4 years of technical studies, one gets '''inżynier''' degree ('''inż.'''), which corresponds to ''BSc'' or ''BEng'' After that, one can continue studies, and after 2 years of post-graduate programme (supplementary studies) can obtain additional ''MSc'' (or ''MEng'') degree, called '''magister''', '''mgr''', and that time one has two degrees: '''magister inżynier''', '''mgr inż.''' (literally: ''master engineer''). The ''mgr'' degree formerly (until full adaptation of [[Bologna process]] by university) could be obtained in integrated 5 years BSc-MSc programme studies. Graduates having ''magister inżynier'' degree, can start 4 years doctorate studies (PhD), which require opening of doctoral proceedings (''przewód doktorski''), carrying out own research, passing some exams (''e.g.'' foreign language, philosophy, economy, leading subjects), writing and defense of doctoral thesis. Some PhD students have also classes with undergraduate students (BSc, MSc). Graduate of doctorate studies of technical university holds ''scientific degree'' of '''doktor nauk technicznych''', '''dr inż.''', (literally: ''"doctor of technical sciences"'') or other ''e.g.'' ''Doktor Nauk Chemicznych'' (lit. ''"doctor of chemical sciences"'').

===Portugal===
In Portugal, there are two paths to study engineering: the [[polytechnic (Portugal)|polytechnic]] and the university paths. In theory, but many times not so much in practice, the polytechnic path is more practical oriented, the university path being more research oriented.

In this system, the polytechnic institutes award a ''licenciatura'' (bachelor) in engineering degree after three years of study, that can be complemented by a ''mestrado'' (master) in engineering after two plus years of study.

Regarding the universities, they offer both engineering programs similar to those of the polytechnics (three years ''licenciatura'' plus two years ''mestrado'') as ''mestrado integrados'' (integrated master's) in engineering programs. The ''mestrado integrado'' programs take five years of study to complete, awarding a ''licenciatura'' degree in engineering sciences after the first three years and a ''mestrado'' degree in engineering after the whole five years. Further, the universities also offer ''doutoramento'' (PhD) programs in engineering.

Being an holder of an academic degree in engineering is not enough to practice the profession of engineer and to have the legal right of the use of the title ''engenheiro'' (engineer) in Portugal. For that, it is necessary to be admitted and be a member of the [[Ordem dos Engenheiros]] (Portuguese institution of engineers). At the Ordem dos Engenheiros, an engineer is classified as an E1, E2 or E3 grade engineer, accordingly with the higher engineer degree he or she holds. Holders of the ancient pre-Bologna declaration five years ''licenciatura'' degrees in engineering are classified as E2 engineers.

===Romania===
In [[Romania]], the engineering degree and "engineer" title is delivered by technology and polytechnics universities upon completion of 4 years of studies. Additional master's degree (2 years) and doctorate programs (4–5 years) provide the title of "doctor inginer". Students that started studies in polytechnic universities before 2005 (when Romania adopted the Bologna declaration) needed to complete a 5-year program to get the engineer title. In this case the master's degree is obtained after 1 year of studies.
Only people with an engineer title can be employed as engineers. Still, some with competence and experience in an engineering field that do not have such a title, can still be employed to perform engineering tasks as "specialist", "assistant", "technologist" or "technician". But, only engineers can take legal responsibility and provide guarantee upon the work done by a team in their area of expertise. Sometimes a company working in this area, which temporarily does not have any employees with an engineer title must pay for an external service of an engineering audit to provide legal guarantee for their products or services.

===Russia===
{{Quote box
|quote = Students in Soviet engineering institutes did not major in mechanical or electrical engineering... but instead of one of hundreds of subspecialties... [for example] The Commissariat of Heavy Industry insisted on separate engineers for oil-based paints and non-oil-based paints.
|source = [[Loren Graham]], Proceedings, American Philosophical Society (vol. 140, No. 2, 1996)<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J0kLAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA175|title=Proceedings, American Philosophical Society (vol. 140, No. 2, 1996)|isbn=9781422370056}}</ref>
|align = right
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}}
[[Moscow School of Mathematics and Navigation]] was a first Russian educational institution founded by [[Peter the Great]] in 1701. It provided Russians with technical education for the first time and much of its curriculum was devoted to producing sailors, engineers, cartographers and bombardiers to support Russian expanding navy and army.
Then in 1810, the Saint Petersburg [[Military engineering-technical university]] becomes the first engineering [[higher learning institution]] in the [[Russian Empire]], after addition of officers classes and application of five-year term of teaching. So initially more rigorisms of standards and teaching terms became the traditional historical feature of the Russian engineering education in the 19th century.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://works.tarefer.ru/33/101252/index.html|title=Реферат История Подготовка инженеров России в XIX веке|access-date=25 December 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110804211645/http://works.tarefer.ru/33/101252/index.html|archive-date=4 August 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref>

===Slovakia===
In [[Slovakia]], an engineer (''inžinier'') is considered to be a person holding master's degree in technical sciences or economics. Several technical and economic universities offer 4-5-year master study in the fields of chemistry, agriculture, material technology, computer science, electrical and mechanical engineering, nuclear physics and technology or economics. A bachelor's degree in similar field is prerequisite. Absolvents are awarded with the ''Ing.'' title always put in front of one's name; eventual follow-up doctoral study is offered both by universities and some institutes of the [[Slovak Academy of Sciences]].

===Spain===
In [[Spain]], the engineering degree is delivered by universities in Engineering Schools, called "Escuelas de Ingeniería". Like with any other degree in Spain, students need to pass a series of examinations based on Bachillerato's subjects (Selectividad), select their bachelor's degree, and their marks determine whether they are access the degree they want or not.

Students receive first a grado degree (4 years of studies) followed by a master's degree (1–2 years of studies) according to the principles of the Bologna declaration, though traditionally, the degree received after completing an engineering education is the Spanish title of "Ingeniero". Using the title "Ingeniero" is legally regulated and limited to the according academic graduates.

===Sweden===
An institution offering engineering education is called "teknisk [[högskola]]" (institute of technology). These schools primarily offers five-year programmes resulting in the ''civilingenjör'' degree (not to be confused with the narrower English term "civil engineer"), internationally corresponding to a [[Master of Science in Engineering]] degree.<ref name="ukae_qual">{{cite web |title=Qualifications |url=https://english.uka.se/facts-about-higher-education/higher-education-in-sweden/qualifications.html |website=Swedish Higher Education Authority |access-date=15 March 2020}}</ref> These programmes typically offers a strong backing in the natural sciences, and the degree also opens up for doctoral (PHD) studies towards the degree "teknologie doktor".<ref name="ukae_qual"/> Civilingenjör programmes are offered in a broad range of fields: [[Engineering physics]], [[Chemical engineering|Chemistry]], [[Civil engineering]], [[surveying]], Industrial engineering and management, etc. There also are shorter three-year programmes called ''högskoleingenjör'' ([[Bachelor of Science in Engineering]]) that are typically more applied.<ref name="ukae_qual"/>

===Turkey===
In [[Turkey]], engineering degrees range from a bachelor's degree in engineering (for a four-year period), to a master's degree (adding two years), and to a doctoral degree (usually four to five years).

The title is limited by law to people with an engineering degree, and the use of the title by others (even persons with much more work experience) is illegal.

The [[Union of Chambers of Turkish Engineers and Architects]] (UCTEA) was established in 1954 and separates engineers and architects to professional branches, with the condition of being within the framework of laws and regulations and in accordance with the present conditions, requirements and possibilities and to also establishes new Chambers for the group of engineers and architects, whose professional or working areas are similar or the same.

UCTEA is maintaining its activities with its 23 Chambers, 194 branches of its Chambers and 39 Provincial Coordination Councils. Approximately, graduates of 70 related academic disciplines in engineering, architecture and city planning are members of the Chambers of UCTEA.

===United Kingdom===
In the UK, like in the United States and [[Canada]], most professional engineers are trained in universities, but some can start in a technical [[apprenticeship]] and either enroll in a university engineering degree later, or enroll in one of the [[Engineering Council UK]] programmes (level 6 – bachelor's and 7 – master's) administered by the [[City and Guilds of London Institute]]. A recent trend has seen the rise of both bachelor's and master's degree higher engineering apprenticeships. All accredited engineering courses and apprenticeships are assessed and approved by the various professional engineering institutions reflecting the subject by engineering discipline covered; [[IMechE]], [[Institution of Engineering and Technology|IET]], [[British Computer Society|BCS]], [[Institution of Civil Engineers|ICE]], [[Institution of Structural Engineers|IStructE]] etc. Many of these institutions date back to the 19th century, and have previously administered their own engineering examination programmes. They have become globally renowned as premier learned societies.

The degree then counts in part to qualifying as a [[Chartered Engineer (UK)|Chartered Engineer]] after a period (usually 4–8 years beyond the first degree) of structured professional practice, professional practice peer review and, if required, further exams to then become a corporate member of the relevant professional body. The term 'Chartered Engineer' is regulated by [[Royal Assent]] and its use is restricted only to those registered; the awarding of this status is devolved to the professional institutions by the Engineering Council.

In the UK (except Scotland), most engineering courses take three years for an undergraduate bachelors ([[BEng]]) and four years for an [[Master's degree in Europe#United Kingdom|undergraduate master's]]. Students who read a four-year engineering course are awarded a [[MEng|Masters of Engineering]] (as opposed to [[Master of Science in Engineering|Masters of Science in Engineering]])<ref>[http://www.see.ed.ac.uk/undergraduate/Prospective/mech/DegsAvail/mech_eng.shtml "Prospective"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100430225041/http://www.see.ed.ac.uk/undergraduate/Prospective/mech/DegsAvail/mech_eng.shtml |date=30 April 2010 }}, [[University of Edinburgh]]</ref> Some universities allow a student to opt out after one year before completion of the programme and receive a [[Higher National Diploma]] if a student has successfully completed the second year, or a [[Higher National Certificate]] if only successfully completed year one. Many courses also include an option of a year in industry, which is usually a year before completion. Students who opt for this are awarded a '[[sandwich degree]]'.<ref>[http://seacoast.sunderland.ac.uk/~hs0acu/Biomed/sandwich.htm "Sandwich degree"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100726093951/http://seacoast.sunderland.ac.uk/~hs0acu/Biomed/sandwich.htm |date=26 July 2010 }}, University of Sunderland</ref>

BEng graduates may be registered as an "[[Incorporated Engineer]]" by the Engineering Council after a period of structured professional practice, professional practice peer review and, if required, further exams to then become a member of the relevant professional body. Again, the term 'Incorporated Engineer' is regulated by Royal Assent and its use is restricted only to those registered; the awarding of this status is devolved to the professional institutions by the Engineering Council.

Unlike the US and Canada, engineers do not require a licence to practice the profession in the UK. In the UK, the term "engineer" can be applied to non-degree vocations such as [[Engineering technologist|technologist]]s, [[technicians]], [[Drafter|draftsmen]], [[machinists]], [[mechanic]]s, [[plumbers]], [[electricians]], repair people, semi-skilled and even unskilled occupations.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/blog/2013/sep/19/engineer-dont-be-shy|title=Are you an engineer? Then don't be shy about it|work=The Guardian|author=Corrinne Burns|date=19 September 2013}}</ref>

In recent developments by government and industry, to address the growing skills deficit in many fields of UK engineering, there has been a strong emphasis placed on dealing with engineering in school and providing students with positive role models from a young age.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.georgededwards.co.uk/policy/the-need-for-role-models-in-british-engineering |title=George Edwards |access-date=19 June 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150113014113/http://www.georgededwards.co.uk/policy/the-need-for-role-models-in-british-engineering |archive-date=13 January 2015 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

== Middle East ==
[[File:Aerospace Faculty (Technion).JPG|thumb|241x241px|Aerospace Engineering Faculty in the [[Technion – Israel Institute of Technology|Technion]]]]

=== Israel ===
In Israel, several universities and colleges provide engineering degrees. These universities include the [[Technion – Israel Institute of Technology|Technion Institute of Technology]], [[Tel Aviv University]], [[Bar-Ilan University|Bar Ilan University]], [[Ben-Gurion University of the Negev|Ben Gurion University]], the [[Hebrew University of Jerusalem]], among others.

==North America==
===Canada===
Engineering degree education in Canada is highly regulated by the [[Canadian Council of Professional Engineers]] (Engineers Canada) and its Canadian Engineering Accreditation Board (CEAB). In [[Canada]], there are 43 institutions offering 278 engineering accredited programs delivering a bachelor's degree after a term of 4 years.<ref name="Engineers Canada Accreditation page">{{cite web|title=Engineers Canada Accreditation|url=http://www.engineerscanada.ca/accreditation|website=engineerscanada.ca|date=8 April 2014|access-date=24 July 2014}}</ref> Many schools also offer graduate level degrees in the applied sciences. ''Accreditation'' means that students who successfully complete the accredited program will have received sufficient engineering knowledge in order to meet the knowledge requirements of licensure as a [[Professional Engineer]].<ref name="Engineers Canada Accreditation page" /> Alternately, Canadian graduates of unaccredited 3-year diploma, BSc, BTech, or BEng programs can qualify for professional license by association examinations. Some of the schools include: [[Concordia University (Montreal)|Concordia University]], [[École de technologie supérieure]], [[École Polytechnique de Montréal]], [[University of Toronto]], [[University of Manitoba]], [[University of Saskatchewan]], [[University of Victoria]], [[University of Calgary]], [[University of Alberta]], [[University of British Columbia]], [[McGill University]], [[Dalhousie University]], [[Toronto Metropolitan University]], [[York University]], [[University of Regina]], [[Carleton University]], [[McMaster University]], [[University of Ottawa]], [[Queen's University at Kingston|Queen's University]], [[University of New Brunswick]], [[UOIT]], [[University of Waterloo]], [[University of Guelph]], [[University of Windsor]], [[Memorial University of Newfoundland]], and [[Royal Military College of Canada]]. Every university offering engineering degrees in Canada needs to be accredited by the CEAB (Canadian Engineering Accreditation Board), thus ensuring high standards are enforced at all universities.<ref>[http://www.engineerscanada.ca/e/co_schools.cfm Canadian Engineering Accreditation Board Approved Schools] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131019055821/http://www.engineerscanada.ca/e/co_schools.cfm |date=19 October 2013 }} Retrieved on 13 October 2009</ref> Engineering degrees in Canada are distinct from degrees in [[engineering technology]] which are more applied degrees or diplomas. An engineering education in Canada can culminate by qualifying as a [[professional engineer]] (P.Eng.) licensee.

=== Mexico ===
In the case of Mexico, education in the engineering field could be taken from public and private universities. Both types of colleges and universities can confer degrees of BEng, BSc, MEng, MSc and PhD through the presentation and dissertation of a thesis or other kind of requirements such as technical reports and knowledge exams among others.

The first University in Mexico to offers degrees in some engineering fields was the [[Royal and Pontifical University of Mexico]], established under the Spanish rule; the degrees offered included Mines Engineering and Physical Mathematical state-of-the-art knowledge from Europe.

Then came the 19th century and lack of political stability. The universities founded under Spanish rule were closed and reopened and the Engineering teaching tradition was lost; the University of Mexico, University of Guadalajara and University of Mérida suffered this. Then the liberal rule created the Arts and Handcraft schools were opened without the same success as the universities. In the 20th century and with the success of the Mexican Revolution some of the old colleges were reopened and the old Arts and Handcraft schools were joined to the new universities. In 1936 the [[Instituto Politécnico Nacional|National Polytechnic Institute of Mexico]] was created as an educational alternative for workers' sons and their families. A short time later the Regional Institutes of Technology were founded as a branch of the Polytechnic Institute in a few states of the republic, though most of them do not have any university in their own territory.

Right now the Regional Institutes of Technology have been merged into one single entity labeled as [[National Technological Institute of Mexico|Mexican National Technological Institute]]. The National Polytechnic Institute is the ensign university of the Mexican federal government on engineering education.

===United States===
{{Main|Engineering education in the United States}}
[[File:Top Engineering Colleges in North America.webp|thumb|300px|Top Engineering Colleges in North America]]
[[File:Engineering Bachelor’s Degrees Awarded by School.png|right|350px|Engineering bachelor's degrees Awarded by School]]
[[File:Engineering Bachelor's Degrees by discipline.png|350px|right|Engineering bachelor's degrees by discipline (2006-2015)]]

The first professional degree in engineering is a bachelor's degree with few exceptions. Interest in engineering has grown since 1999; the number of bachelor's degrees issued has increased by 20%.<ref name="autogenerated1">Reyes-Guerra, D. R. (2011). Engineering. In J. M. Castagno, P. Barrows, L. Brearley, & K. Fairchild (Eds.), Grolier online.</ref> Most bachelor's degree engineering programs are four years long and require about two years of [[Core curriculum|core courses]] followed by two years of specialized discipline specific courses. This is where a typical engineering student would learn [[mathematics]] (single- and multi-variable [[calculus]] and elementary [[differential equation]]s), general [[chemistry]], [[English composition]], general and modern [[physics]], [[computer science]] (typically [[Computer programming|programming]]), and introductory engineering in several areas that are required for a satisfactory engineering background and to be successful in their program of choice. Several courses in [[social science]]s or [[humanities]] are often also required, but are commonly [[elective course]]s from a broad choice. Required common engineering courses typically include [[engineering drawing]]/computer-aided-design, [[materials engineering]], [[statics]] and [[Dynamics (physics)|dynamics]], [[strength of materials]], basic circuits, [[thermodynamics]], [[fluid mechanics]], and perhaps some [[Systems engineering|systems]] or industrial engineering. The science and engineering courses include lecture and laboratory education, either in the same course(s) or in separate courses. However, some professors and educators believe that engineering programs should change to focus more on professional engineering practice, and engineering courses should be taught more by professional engineering practitioners and not by engineering researchers.<ref>Wulf, W. A., Smith, R., Winston, S. B., Lotas, A., Marcum, K., Beale, K., Sherman, W. (2007, 23 February). [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_oaIhzlpENY Engineering education in the 21st century] [Video file].</ref>

Many engineering degree programs admit students directly to a specialization as a first-year, but those which don't often require students to decide on a specialization by the end of the first or second year of study. Specializations often include [[architectural engineering]], [[civil engineering]] (including [[structural engineering]]), [[mechanical engineering]], [[electrical engineering]] (often including [[computer engineering]]), [[chemical engineering]], [[nuclear engineering]], [[biological engineering]], [[industrial engineering]], [[aerospace engineering]], [[materials engineering]] (including [[metallurgical engineering]]), [[agricultural engineering]], and many other specializations. After choosing a specialization, an engineering student will begin to take classes that will build on the fundamentals and gain their specialized knowledge and skills. Toward the end of their undergraduate education, engineering students often undertake an open-ended [[design]] or other special project specific to their field.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.learnon.org/ |title=Educating Engineers |access-date=15 February 2015}}</ref>

It is common for University students who are studying engineering to partake in different forms of career development during their undergraduate studies. These often take the form of paid internships, cooperative education programs (also referred to as "co-ops"), research experiences, or service learning.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.mccormick.northwestern.edu/career-development/programs/|title=Programs Overview {{!}} Engineering Career Development {{!}} Northwestern Engineering|website=mccormick.northwestern.edu|access-date=2019-04-22}}</ref> These types of experiences may be facilitated by the students' universities, or sought out by the students independently.

==== Internships ====
Engineering internships are typically pursued by undergraduate students during the summer recess between the Spring and Fall semesters of the standard semester-based academic cycle (although some US universities abide by a 'quarter' or 'trimester' cycle). These internships usually have a duration of 8–12 weeks and may be part-time or full-time as well as paid or unpaid depending on the company; sometimes, students receive academic credit as an alternative or in addition to a wage. Shorter duration full-time internships over winter and other breaks are often available too, especially for those who have completed summer internships with the same firm.

Internships are offered as temporary positions by engineering companies, and are often competitive in certain fields. They provide a way for companies to recruit and get familiar with individual students as potential full-time employment after graduation. Engineering internships also have numerous benefits for participating students. They provide hands-on learning outside of the classroom as well as an opportunity for the student to discover if their current choice of engineering discipline is appropriate based on their level of enjoyment of their internship role. Additionally, research and internship experiences have been shown to have a positive effect on engineering task [[self-efficacy]] ('''ETSE'''), a measure of a students' perception of their ability to perform engineering functions and related tasks.<ref>Kusimo, A. C., Thompson, M. E., Atwood, S. A., & Sheppard, S. (2018). Effects of Research and Internship Experiences on Engineering Task Self-Efficacy on Engineering Students Through an Intersectional Lens. ''Proceedings of the ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition'', 1–19.</ref> It is also considered advantageous to have internship or co-op experience before completion of undergraduate studies, as students who have practical engineering experience are considered to be more attractive to engineering employers.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://news.olemiss.edu/engineering-students-benefit-summer-internships/|title=Engineering Students Benefit from Summer Internships|last=Upshaw|first=Ryan|date=2016-08-30|website=Ole Miss News|language=en-US|access-date=2019-04-22}}</ref>

==== Cooperative Education Programs ====
Cooperative Education Programs (often referred to as 'co-ops') are similar to internships insofar as they are employment opportunities offered to undergraduate students by engineering employers; however, they are intended to take place concurrently with the students' academic studies. Co-ops are sometimes part-time roles that are ongoing throughout the academic semester, with the student expected to invest between 10 and 30 hours a week depending on the severity of their course load. Some American universities, such as [[Northeastern University]] and [[Drexel University]], incorporate co-ops into their students' plan of study in the form of alternating semesters of full-time work and full-time classes; these programs typically take an additional year to complete compared to most 4-year undergraduate engineering programs in the US, even though Northeastern currently has a 4-year undergraduate program that integrates full-time co-ops with full-time studies. Co-ops are considered to be a valuable form of professional development, and may be undertaken by students who are looking to bolster their resumes with hopes of securing better salary offers when looking to secure their first job.<ref>Barry, BE, Ohland, MW, Mumford, KJ & Long, RA 2016, 'Influence of Job Market Conditions on Engineering Cooperative Education Participation', ''Journal of Professional Issues in Engineering Education & Practice'', vol. 142, no. 3, pp. 1–8.</ref>

==== Licensing ====
After formal education, the engineer will often enter an [[internship]] or [[engineer in training]] status for approximately four years. To achieve Engineering Intern (E.I.) or Engineer-in-Training (EIT) status, an individual must be the recipient of an engineering degree from an institution accredited by the Engineering Accreditation Commission (EAC) of the [[ABET]], formerly the Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology, Inc., as well as pass the Fundamentals of Engineering Exam (often abbreviated to the 'FE Exam'). The FE Exam is offered by the National Council for Examiners for Engineering and Surveying ([[National Council of Examiners for Engineering and Surveying|NCEES]]) for the following disciplines: Mechanical Engineering, Civil Engineering, Industrial & Systems Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Electrical & Computer Engineering, Environmental Engineering, or Other Disciplines<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ncees.org/engineering/fe/|title=NCEES FE exam information|website=NCEES|language=en-US|access-date=2019-04-22}}</ref> (also referred to as "General Engineering"). The FE Exam is held at remote testing locations four times throughout the year and can be taken by college graduates as well as current college students.<ref>Roney, Jason Andrew, Breigh Nonte Roszelle, Matt Gordon, and Bradley Davidson. 2017. "Impact of New FE Test Availability". ''Proceedings of the ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition'', January, 13894–900.</ref> After successfully passing the Fundamentals of Engineering Exam and receiving an ABET-accredited engineering degree, an aspiring engineer may apply for engineer-in-training status with their state's licensing board. If granted, they may use the suffix E.I.T. to denote their status as an engineer-in-training.

After that time, the [[engineer in training]] can decide whether or not to take a state licensing test to make them a [[Professional Engineer]]. The licensing process varies state-by-state, but generally they require the engineer-in-training to possess four years of verifiable work experience in their engineering field, as well as successfully pass the NCEES Principles and Practice of Engineering (PE) Exam for their engineering discipline.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ncees.org/licensure/|title=NCEES professional licensure|website=NCEES|language=en-US|access-date=2019-04-22}}</ref> After successful completion of that test, the Professional engineer can place the suffix P.E. after their name signifying that they are now a Professional Engineer and they can affix their P.E. seal to drawings and reports, for example. They can also serve as expert witnesses in their areas of expertise.<ref name="autogenerated1" />
Achieving the status of ' Professional Engineer is one of the highest levels of achievement one can attain in the engineering industry. Engineers with this status are generally highly sought-after by employers, especially in the field of Civil Engineering.<ref>MATTEI, N. J. Open New Doors by Becoming a P.E. '''Civil Engineering (08857024)''', [s. l.], v. 87, n. 6, p. 12, 2017.</ref>

There are also [[graduate degree]] options for an engineer. Many engineers decide to complete a master's degree in some field of engineering or [[Masters in Business Administration|business administration]] or get education in law, medicine, or other field.

Two types of doctorate are available also, the traditional [[Doctor of Philosophy|PhD]] or the [[Doctor of Engineering]]. The PhD focuses on research and academic excellence, whereas the doctor of engineering focuses on practical engineering. The education requirements are the same for both degrees; however, the [[dissertation]] required is different. The PhD also requires the standard research problem, where the doctor of engineering focuses on a practical dissertation.

In present undergraduate engineering education, the emphasis on linear systems develops a way of thinking that dismisses nonlinear dynamics as spurious oscillations. The linear systems approach oversimplifies the dynamics of nonlinear systems. Hence, the undergraduate students and teachers should recognize the educational value of [[Chaos theory|chaotic]] dynamics.<ref>{{cite conference |title= Introducing undergraduate electrical engineering students to chaotic dynamics: Computer simulations with logistic map and buck converter.|last= Iqbal|first= Sajid| year= 2014| doi= 10.1109/AMS.2014.20|pages = 47–52|publisher= Modelling Symposium (AMS), 2014 8th Asia. IEEE, 2014.|isbn= 978-1-4799-6487-1|display-authors=etal}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title= Reengineering the curriculum: design and analysis of a new undergraduate electrical and computer engineering degree at Carnegie Mellon University |last= Stephen|first= W.| year= 1995| doi= 10.1109/5.406429|pages = 1246–1269|journal= Proceedings of the IEEE|volume= 83|issue= 9|display-authors=etal}}</ref><ref>{{cite conference |title= Study of nonlinear dynamics using logistic map |last= Iqbal|first= Sajid| year= 2008|publisher= LUMS 2nd International Conference on Mathematics and its Applications in Information Technology (LICM08)|display-authors=etal}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title= What is chaos?|last= Iqbal|first= S.| year= 2008|pages = 7–10|journal= IEP Journal|display-authors=etal}}</ref> Practicing engineers will also have more insight of nonlinear circuits and systems by having an exposure to chaotic phenomena.

After graduation, [[continuing education]] courses may be needed to keep a government-issued [[professional engineer]] (PE) license valid, to keep skills fresh, to expand skills, or to keep up with new technology.

==Caribbean==
===Trinidad and Tobago===
Engineering degree education in Trinidad and Tobago is not regulated by the Board of Professional Engineers of Trinidad and Tobago (BOETT) or the location Engineering Association (APETT). Professional Engineers registed with BOETT are given the credentials "R.Eng.".

== South America ==
[[File:Facultad de Ingeniería de la Universidad de Buenos Aires (27547142228).jpg|thumb|271x271px|[[Faculty of Engineering, University of Buenos Aires|Faculty of Engineering of the University of Buenos Aires]]]]

=== Argentina ===
Engineering education programs at universities in Argentina span a variety of disciplines and typically require five–six years of studies to complete.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://utn.edu.ar/index.php/es/estudiar-utn|title=ESTUDIAR EN UTN|website=Sitio Web Rectorado|language=es-es|access-date=2019-04-22}}</ref> Most degree programs begin with foundational courses in mathematics, statistics, and the physical sciences during the first and second years, then move on to courses specific to the students' plan of study. After receiving a degree, an engineering student will go on to complete an external evaluation in order to become accredited as an engineer.<ref name=":4">Javier Alvarez Del Castillo (2000) Evaluation and accreditation of engineering programmes in Latin America, European Journal of Engineering Education, 25:3,281-290, DOI: 10.1080/030437900438702</ref>

There are many universities and technical schools across Argentina that offer degree programs in engineering education. The National Technological University (''Universidad Tecnológica Nacional'', '''UTN)''' is recognized as one of the best engineering institutions in the country, with degrees in the following disciplines offered across its 33 campuses:
* Aeronautical Engineering
* Civil Engineering
* Electrical Engineering
* Electronics Engineering
* Electro-mechanical Engineering
* Automotive Engineering
* Information Systems Engineering
* Railway Engineering
* Mechanical Engineering
* Metallurgical Engineering
* Naval Engineering
* Fisheries Engineering
* Chemical Engineering
* Textile Engineering

Outlined in the Argentinian Law 'Ley de Educacion Superior No. 24521' is the requirement for all universities to include a compulsory external evaluation for accreditation of certain professions, such as Law, Medicine, and Engineering, which are also strictly governed by other laws. Accreditation of engineers in Argentina is under the authority of the CONEAU (Comision Nacional de Evaluación y Acreditación Universitaria 1997), which performs the functions of coordinating and executing external evaluations and accrediting graduate and post-graduate university studies in the field of engineering.<ref name=":4" />

=== Brazil ===
In Brazil, education in engineering is offered by both public and private institutions. A degree in engineering requires five to six years of studies, comprising the core courses, specific subjects, an internship and a ''Course Completion Paper''.

Due to the nature of college admissions in Brazil, most students have to declare their major before entering college. This said, the first two years of a degree in engineering consist mostly of the core courses (calculus, physics, programming, etc.) along with a few specific subjects as well as some courses in humanities. After this period, some institutions offer specializations within the different fields of engineering (i.e. a student majoring in electrical engineering can choose to specialize in electronics or telecommunications) although most institutions balance their workload in order to give the students a consistent knowledge of every specialization.

Towards the end of their undergraduate education, students are required to develop the Course Completion Paper under the guidance of an adviser to be presented to and graded by a number of professors. In some institutions, students are also required to pursue an internship (the amount of time depends on the institution).

In order to pursue a career in engineering, graduates must first register with and abide by the rules of the Regional Counsel of Engineering and Agronomy of their state, a regional representative of the Federal Counsel of Engineering and Agronomy, a certification board for engineers, agronomists, geologists and other professionals of the applied sciences.

==See also==
*[[List of engineering schools]]
*[[Education and training of electrical and electronics engineers]]
*''[[Education for Chemical Engineers]]''
*[[Engineering education research]]
*[[Engineer's degree]]
*[[Global Engineering Education]]
*[[Institute of technology]]
*[[Problem-based learning]]
*[[Project-based learning]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

==References==
* {{Citation | last1 = Douglas | first1 = Josh | last2 = Iversen | first2 = Eric | last3 = Kalyandurg | first3 = Chitra | title = Engineering in the K-12 classroom: An analysis of current practices & guidelines for the future | publisher = [[American Society for Engineering Education]] | location = Washington, D.C. | date = November 2004 | pages = 1–23 |url=http://wolfsons.com/Engineering_in_the_K_12_Classroom.pdf | access-date = 18 September 2011 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120402145822/http://wolfsons.com/Engineering_in_the_K_12_Classroom.pdf | archive-date = 2 April 2012 | url-status = dead }}
* {{Citation
|last1=Dym
|first1=C.L.
|last2=Agogino
|first2=A.M
|last3=Eris
|first3=O.
|last4=Frey
|first4=D.D.
|last5=Leifer
|first5=L.J.
|s2cid=1002433
|title=Engineering Design Thinking, Teaching, and Learning
|journal=[[Journal of Engineering Education]]
|volume=94
|issue=1
|pages=103–120
|year=2005
|doi=10.1002/j.2168-9830.2005.tb00832.x
|url=http://www.jee.org/2005/january/252.pdf
|url-status=dead
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120330151210/http://www.jee.org/2005/january/252.pdf
|archive-date=30 March 2012
}}
* {{Citation
| last1 = Wankat | first1 = Phillip C.
| last2 = Oreovicz | first2 = Frank S.
| title = Teaching Engineering
| publisher = McGraw-Hill |location=New York
| year = 1993 |isbn=978-0-07-068154-5
}}

{{Engineering fields}}
{{Education}}
{{Glossaries of science and engineering}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Engineering Education}}
[[Category:Engineering education| ]]

Ballarpur Industries

2025-06-21T05:44:46Z

89.243.41.89: Trimmed editorialising

{{About|a paper company in India|the rewards program based in the United States|Bilt Rewards}}
{{Short description|Located in Chandrapur District}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2017}}
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2017}}{{Infobox company
| name = Ballarpur Industries Limited
| logo = BILT new logo.svg
| logo_size = 150px
| type = [[Public company|Public]]
| traded_as = {{BSE|500102}}
| founder = Lala Karamchand Thapar
| foundation = {{sda|1945}}
| location_city = [[Gurgaon]]
| location_country = India
| key_people = [[Gautam Thapar]] ([[chairman]] and [[CEO]])
| revenue = USD 70 Million
| homepage = {{URL|https://biltpaper.in/|biltpaper.in}}
}}
'''Ballarpur Industries Limited''' ('''BILT''') is a subsidiary of [[Avantha Group]], and was once india's largest manufacturer of writing and printing paper. The current chairman of the company is [[Gautam Thapar]], who succeeded his late uncle [[L.M. Thapar]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=BILT: Growing aggressively|url=https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/todays-paper/tp-corporate/BILT-Growing-aggressively/article20159281.ece|access-date=2020-10-13|website=@businessline|date=22 March 2007 |language=en}}</ref>

BILT subsidiaries include Sabah Forest Industries (SFI), Malaysia's largest [[pulp and paper company]], and BILT Tree Tech Limited (BTTL), which runs BILT's farm forestry program in several states in India.<ref>{{Cite web|date=March 19, 2007|first=Bisheshwar|last=Mishra|title=BILT buys paper mill in Malaysia for $261 mn|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/business/international-business/BILT-buys-paper-mill-in-Malaysia-for-261-mn/articleshow/1780918.cms|access-date=2020-10-13|website=The Times of India|language=en}}</ref>

BILT has six manufacturing units across India, which give the company geographic coverage over most of the domestic market. BILT has a dominant share of the high-end [[coated paper]] segment in India. The company accounts for over 50% of the coated [[wood-free paper]] market, 85% of the bond paper market and nearly 45% of the hi-bright Maplitho market, besides being India's largest exporter of coated paper.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2011-07-15|title=The PPI Top 100|url=http://www.risiinfo.com/magazines/September/2008/PPI/pulp-paper/magazine/international/september/2008/PPIMagSeptember-The-PPI-top-100.html|access-date=2020-10-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110715190158/http://www.risiinfo.com/magazines/September/2008/PPI/pulp-paper/magazine/international/september/2008/PPIMagSeptember-The-PPI-top-100.html|archive-date=15 July 2011}}</ref>

In 2007, Ballarpur Industries Limited (BILT), acquired Sabah Forest Industries (SFI) of Malaysia in its first overseas acquisition.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Vanar |first=Muguntan |title=India's Ballarpur takes over SFI |url=https://www.thestar.com.my/business/business-news/2007/03/17/indias-ballarpur-takes-over-sfi |access-date=2023-12-15 |website=The Star |language=en}}</ref> This acquisition transformed BILT into a major regional player in the paper industry and elevated the company's global ranking to be among the top 100 paper companies worldwide. It also entered into a partnership with Red Roses Publications, Norway in 2013, which is owned and managed by a multi-billionaire.<ref>{{Cite web|title=India's Ballarpur takes over SFI {{!}} The Star|url=https://www.thestar.com.my/business/business-news/2007/03/17/indias-ballarpur-takes-over-sfi|access-date=2020-10-13|website=www.thestar.com.my}}</ref>

==History==
Lala [[Karam Chand Thapar]] established the company in 1945 as Ballarpur Paper and Straw Board Mills Limited, with 'Three Aces' (paper) and 'Wisdom' (stationery) being its first two brands. In 1969, Shree Gopal Paper Mills Limited in [[Yamunanagar]] was merged with the company. In 1975, the organization was renamed Ballarpur Industries Limited.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Ballarpur Inds.: Reports, Company History, Directors Report, Chairman's Speech, Auditors Report of Ballarpur Inds. - NDTV|url=https://www.ndtv.com/business/stock/ballarpur-industries-ltd_ballarpur/reports|access-date=2020-10-13|website=www.ndtv.com}}</ref>

In the 1990s the company was under siege from Southeast Asian companies, who set up greenfield projects in India. However, in 2001, Ballarpur Industries turned around and was able to buy out its Indonesian competitor's [[Sinar Mas Group]] Indian division and entered into a partnership with Red Roses Publications, Norway.

The name BILT emerged after a corporate rebranding exercise in 2002.

==Locations==
BILT is headquartered in Gurgaon in Haryana.

It has three central nurseries, each located in [[Maharashtra]], [[Orissa, India|Orissa]] and [[Telangana]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://bilt.com/forestry3.asp |title=Forestry Operations |website=bilt.com |access-date=6 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040217161821/http://bilt.com/forestry3.asp |archive-date=17 February 2004 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

The company has the following manufacturing units:
#Unit : Ashti, [[Gadchiroli]], [[Maharashtra]]
#[[Unit : Ballarpur]], [[Chandrapur District]], [[Maharashtra]]
#Unit : Bhigwan, [[Pune District]], [[Maharashtra]]
#Unit : [[Kamalapuram, Warangal|Kamalapuram]], [[Warangal District]], [[Telangana]]
#Unit : Sewa, [[Jeypore]], [[Orissa, India|Orissa]]
#[[Unit : Shree Gopal]], [[Yamuna Nagar District]], [[Haryana]]

The company also has one of its office in [[Sabah]], [[Malaysia]].

== Financials and bankruptcy process ==
The company has been reporting losses for numerous financial years<ref>{{Cite web|title=BSEINDIA|url=https://www.bseindia.com/corporates/Comp_Results.aspx?Code=500102|access-date=2020-10-13|website=www.bseindia.com}}</ref> and was taken to the bankruptcy court by its lenders in January 2020. BILT's major lenders include [https://www.onlinesbi.com/ SBI], [[ICICI Bank]], [[Axis Bank]], [[IDBI Bank]] and Finquest Financial Solutions.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Rebello|first=Joel|title=Thapar Group's BILT in bankruptcy court|work=The Economic Times|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/markets/stocks/news/thapar-groups-bilt-in-bankruptcy-court/articleshow/73539676.cms?from=mdr|access-date=2020-10-13}}</ref>

Due to poor internal performance of the company, its stock has fallen more than 95% in a span of three years (as of March, 2020). The equity shares of BILT are listed on [[National Stock Exchange of India]] and [[Bombay Stock Exchange]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Introducing Ballarpur Industries (NSE:BALLARPUR), The Stock That Collapsed 98%|date=15 March 2020 |url=https://simplywall.st/stocks/in/materials/nse-ballarpur/ballarpur-industries-shares/news/introducing-ballarpur-industries-nseballarpur-the-stock-that-collapsed-98/|access-date=2020-10-13|language=en-AU}}</ref>

On March 31,2023 NCLT Mumbai approved Finquest Financial Solutions bid to acquire Ballarpur Industries.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Vyas |first=Maulik |date=2023-04-03 |title=Finquest’s offer for Ballarpur Industries gets NCLT nod |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/indl-goods/svs/paper-/-wood-/-glass/-plastic/-marbles/finquests-offer-for-ballarpur-industries-gets-nclt-nod/articleshow/99194714.cms?from=mdr |access-date=2024-07-02 |work=The Economic Times |issn=0013-0389}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2024-01-09 |title=CM meets officials of BILT buyer, ITC |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/hyderabad/cm-meets-officials-of-bilt-buyer-itc/articleshow/106651257.cms |access-date=2024-07-02 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070222220104/http://www.biltpaper.com/ Paper Division]

[[Category:Pulp and paper companies of India]]
[[Category:Manufacturing companies based in Gurgaon]]
[[Category:Manufacturing companies established in 1945]]
[[Category:1945 establishments in India]]
[[Category:Forestry in Malaysia]]
[[Category:Avantha Group]]
[[Category:Companies listed on the Bombay Stock Exchange]]

Attachment theory

2025-06-19T09:23:46Z

89.243.41.89: /* Attachment styles in adults */ link

{{Short description|Psychological ethological theory}}
{{cs1 config|name-list-style=vanc|display-authors=6}}
{{pp-move}}
{{Use Oxford spelling|date=November 2024}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2024}}
[[File:Eskimo Family NGM-v31-p564-2.jpg|upright=1.4|thumb|right|alt=An Inuit family is sitting on a log outside their tent. The parents, wearing warm clothing made of animal skins, are engaged in domestic tasks. Between them sits a toddler, also in skin clothes, staring at the camera. On the mother's back is a baby in a papoose.|For infants and toddlers, the "set-goal" of the behavioural system is to maintain or achieve proximity to attachment figures, usually the parents.]]

'''Attachment theory''' is a [[psychological]] and [[evolution]]ary framework, concerning the [[Interpersonal relationship|relationships between humans]], particularly the importance of early bonds between infants and their primary caregivers. Developed by psychiatrist and psychoanalyst [[John Bowlby]] (1907–90), the theory posits that infants need to form a close relationship with at least one primary caregiver to ensure their survival, and to develop healthy social and emotional functioning.<ref name="Cassidy">{{cite encyclopedia |year=1999 |title=The Nature of a Child's Ties |encyclopedia=Handbook of Attachment: Theory, Research and Clinical Applications |publisher=Guilford Press |location=New York | veditors = Cassidy J, Shaver PR |pages=[https://archive.org/details/handbookofattach0000unse/page/3 3–20] |isbn=1-57230-087-6 | vauthors = Cassidy J |url=https://archive.org/details/handbookofattach0000unse/page/3 }}</ref><ref name="Abrams Turner Baumann Karel 2013 pp. 149–155">{{cite book | last1=Abrams | first1=David B. | last2=Turner | first2=J. Rick | last3=Baumann | first3=Linda C. | last4=Karel | first4=Alyssa | last5=Collins | first5=Susan E. | last6=Witkiewitz | first6=Katie | last7=Fulmer | first7=Terry | last8=Tanenbaum | first8=Molly L. | last9=Commissariat | first9=Persis | last10=Kupperman | first10=Elyse | last11=Baek | first11=Rachel N. | last12=Gonzalez | first12=Jeffrey S. | last13=Brandt | first13=Nicole | last14=Flurie | first14=Rachel | last15=Heaney | first15=Jennifer | last16=Kline | first16=Christopher | last17=Carroll | first17=Linda | last18=Upton | first18=Jane | last19=Buchain | first19=Patrícia Cardoso | last20=Vizzotto | first20=Adriana Dias Barbosa | last21=Martini de Oliveira | first21=Alexandra | last22=Ferraz Alves | first22=Tania C. T. | last23=Cordeiro | first23=Quirino | last24=Cohen | first24=Lorenzo | last25=Garcia | first25=M. Kay | last26=Marcano-Reik | first26=Amy Jo | last27=Ye | first27=Siqin | last28=Gidron | first28=Yori | last29=Gellman | first29=Marc D. | last30=Howren | first30=M. Bryant | last31=Harlapur | first31=Manjunath | last32=Shimbo | first32=Daichi | last33=Ohta | first33=Keisuke | last34=Yahagi | first34=Naoya | last35=Franzmann | first35=Elizabeth | last36=Singh | first36=Abanish | last37=Baumann | first37=Linda C. | last38=Karel | first38=Alyssa | last39=Johnson | first39=Debra | last40=Clarke | first40=Benjamin L. | last41=Johnson | first41=Debra | last42=Millstein | first42=Rachel | last43=Niven | first43=Karen | last44=Niven | first44=Karen | last45=Miles | first45=Eleanor | last46=Turner | first46=J. Rick | last47=Resnick | first47=Barbara | last48=Gidron | first48=Yori | last49=Lennon | first49=Carter A. | last50=DeMartini | first50=Kelly S. | last51=MacGregor | first51=Kristin L. | last52=Collins | first52=Susan E. | last53=Kirouac | first53=Megan | last54=Turner | first54=J. Rick | last55=Singh | first55=Abanish | last56=Gidron | first56=Yori | last57=Yamamoto | first57=Yoshiharu | last58=Nater | first58=Urs M. | last59=Nisly | first59=Nicole | last60=Johnson | first60=Debra | last61=Johnston | first61=Derek | last62=Zanstra | first62=Ydwine | last63=Johnston | first63=Derek | last64=Kim | first64=Youngmee | last65=Matheson | first65=Della | last66=McInroy | first66=Brooke | last67=France | first67=Christopher | last68=Fukudo | first68=Shin | last69=Tsuchiya | first69=Emiko | last70=Katayori | first70=Yoko | last71=Deschner | first71=Martin | last72=Anderson | first72=Norman B. | last73=Barrett | first73=Chad | last74=Lumley | first74=Mark A. | last75=Oberleitner | first75=Lindsay | last76=Bongard | first76=Stephan | last77=Ye | first77=Siqin | last78=Marcano-Reik | first78=Amy Jo | last79=Hurley | first79=Seth | last80=Hurley | first80=Seth | last81=Patino-Fernandez | first81=Anna Maria | last82=Phillips | first82=Anna C. | last83=Akechi | first83=Tatsuo | last84=Phillips | first84=Anna C. | last85=Marcano-Reik | first85=Amy Jo | last86=Brandt | first86=Nicole | last87=Flurie | first87=Rachel | last88=Aldred | first88=Sarah | last89=Lavoie | first89=Kim | last90=Harlapur | first90=Manjunath | last91=Shimbo | first91=Daichi | last92=Jansen | first92=Kate L. | last93=Fortenberry | first93=Katherine T. | last94=Clark | first94=Molly S. | last95=Millstein | first95=Rachel | last96=Okuyama | first96=Toru | last97=Whang | first97=William | last98=Al’Absi | first98=Mustafa | last99=Li | first99=Bingshuo | last100=Gidron | first100=Yori | last101=Turner | first101=J. Rick | last102=Pulgaron | first102=Elizabeth R. | last103=Wile | first103=Diana | last104=Baumann | first104=Linda C. | last105=Karel | first105=Alyssa | last106=Schroeder | first106=Beth | last107=Davis | first107=Mary C. | last108=Zautra | first108=Alex | last109=Stark | first109=Shannon L. | last110=Whang | first110=William | last111=Soto | first111=Ana Victoria | last112=Gidron | first112=Yori | last113=Wheeler | first113=Anthony J. | last114=DeBerard | first114=Scott | last115=Allen | first115=Josh | last116=Mitani | first116=Akihisa | last117=Mitani | first117=Akihisa | last118=Pulgaron | first118=Elizabeth R. | last119=Mitani | first119=Akihisa | last120=Carter | first120=Jennifer | last121=Whang | first121=William | last122=Schroeder | first122=Beth | last123=Hicks | first123=Angela M. | last124=Korbel | first124=Carolyn | last125=Baldwin | first125=Austin S. | last126=Spink | first126=Kevin S. | last127=Nickel | first127=Darren | last128=Richter | first128=Michael | last129=Wright | first129=Rex A. | last130=Thayer | first130=Julian F. | last131=Richter | first131=Michael | last132=Wright | first132=Rex A. | last133=Wiebe | first133=Deborah J. | title=Encyclopedia of Behavioral Medicine | chapter=Attachment Theory | publisher=Springer New York | publication-place=New York, NY | year=2013 | doi=10.1007/978-1-4419-1005-9_939 | pages=149–155| isbn=978-1-4419-1004-2 |quote=Bowlby (1969, 1988) described an attachment as an emotional bond that is characterized by the tendency to seek out and maintain proximity to a specific attachment figure, particularly during times of distress.}}</ref>

Pivotal aspects of attachment theory include the observation that infants seek proximity to attachment figures, especially during stressful situations.<ref name="Abrams Turner Baumann Karel 2013 pp. 149–155"/><ref name="Brimhall Haralson 2017 pp. 1–3">{{cite book | last1=Brimhall | first1=Andrew S. | last2=Haralson | first2=David M. | title=Encyclopedia of Couple and Family Therapy | chapter=Bonds in Couple and Family Therapy | publisher=Springer International Publishing | publication-place=Cham | year=2017 | isbn=978-3-319-15877-8 | doi=10.1007/978-3-319-15877-8_513-1 | pages=1–3 | quote=Bond is an emotional attachment between one or more individuals. To be considered an attachment bond, the relationship must have four defining characteristics: proximity maintenance, separation distress, safe haven, and secure base.}}</ref> Secure attachments are formed when caregivers are sensitive and responsive in [[social interaction]]s, and consistently present, particularly between the ages of six months and two years. As children grow, they use these attachment figures as a secure base from which to explore the world and return to for comfort. The interactions with caregivers form patterns of attachment, which in turn create internal working models that influence future relationships.<ref name="Bretherton/Mul">{{cite encyclopedia |year=1999 |title=Internal Working Models in Attachment Relationships: A Construct Revisited |encyclopedia=Handbook of Attachment:Theory, Research and Clinical Applications |publisher=Guilford Press |location=New York | veditors = Cassidy J, Shaver PR |pages=[https://archive.org/details/handbookofattach0000unse/page/89 89–114] |isbn=1-57230-087-6 |author=Bretherton I, Munholland KA |url=https://archive.org/details/handbookofattach0000unse/page/89 }}</ref> Separation anxiety or grief following the loss of an attachment figure is considered to be a normal and adaptive response for an attached infant.{{sfn|Prior|Glaser|2006|p=17}}

Research by [[Developmental psychology|developmental psychologist]] [[Mary Ainsworth]] in the 1960s and '70s expanded on Bowlby's work, introducing the concept of the "secure base", impact of maternal responsiveness and sensitivity to infant distress, and identified attachment patterns in infants: secure, avoidant, anxious, and disorganized attachment.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bernard |first1=Kristin |last2=Meade |first2=Eb |last3=Dozier |first3=Mary |date=November 2013 |title=Parental synchrony and nurturance as targets in an attachment based intervention: building upon Mary Ainsworth's insights about mother–infant interaction |journal=Attachment & Human Development |language=en |volume=15 |issue=5–6 |pages=507–523 |doi=10.1080/14616734.2013.820920 |issn=1461-6734 |pmc=3855268 |pmid=24299132}}</ref><ref name="Bretherton">{{cite journal | vauthors = Bretherton I |year=1992 |title=The Origins of Attachment Theory: John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_developmental-psychology_1992-09_28_5/page/759 |journal=Developmental Psychology |volume=28 |issue=5 |pages=759–775 |doi=10.1037/0012-1649.28.5.759}}</ref> In the 1980s, attachment theory was extended to adult relationships and [[attachment in adults]], making it applicable beyond early childhood.<ref name="Hazan, Shaver, 1987">{{cite journal | vauthors = Hazan C, Shaver P | s2cid = 2280613 | title = Romantic love conceptualized as an attachment process | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-personality-and-social-psychology_1987-03_52_3/page/511 | journal = Journal of Personality and Social Psychology | volume = 52 | issue = 3 | pages = 511–24 | date = March 1987 | pmid = 3572722 | doi = 10.1037/0022-3514.52.3.511 }}</ref> Bowlby's theory integrated concepts from [[evolutionary biology]], [[object relations theory]], [[Control theory |control systems theory]], [[ethology]], and [[cognitive psychology]], and was fully articulated in his trilogy, ''Attachment and Loss'' (1969–82).<ref name="simpson">{{cite encyclopedia |year=1999 |title=Attachment Theory in Modern Evolutionary Perspective |encyclopedia=Handbook of Attachment:Theory, Research and Clinical Applications |publisher=Guilford Press |location=New York |veditors = Cassidy J, Shaver PR |pages=[https://archive.org/details/handbookofattach0000unse/page/115 115–40] |isbn=1-57230-087-6 |author=Simpson JA |url=https://archive.org/details/handbookofattach0000unse/page/115 }}</ref>

While initially criticized by academic psychologists and psychoanalysts,<ref name="Rutter 95" /> attachment theory has become a dominant approach to understanding early social development and has generated extensive research.<ref name="Schaffer" /> Despite some criticisms related to temperament, social complexity, and the limitations of discrete attachment patterns, the theory's core concepts have been widely accepted and have influenced therapeutic practices and social and childcare policies.<ref name="Rutter 95" /><ref name="BZL" /> Recent critics of attachment theory argue that it overemphasizes maternal influence while overlooking genetic, cultural, and broader familial factors, with studies suggesting that adult attachment is more strongly shaped by [[Gene|genes]] and individual experiences than by shared upbringing.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":10" /><ref name="keller">{{cite journal |vauthors=Keller H |date=November 2018 |title=Universality claim of attachment theory: Children's socioemotional development across cultures |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America]] |volume=115 |issue=45 |pages=11414–11419 |bibcode=2018PNAS..11511414K |doi=10.1073/pnas.1720325115 |pmc=6233114 |pmid=30397121 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

==Attachment==
[[Image:Mozambique024.jpg|thumb|alt=A young mother smiles up at the camera. On her back is her baby gazing at the camera with an expression of lively interest.|right|Although it is usual for the mother to be the primary attachment figure, infants will form attachments to any carer who is sensitive and responsive in social interactions with them.]]

Within attachment theory, ''attachment'' means an [[affectional bond]] or tie between an individual and an attachment figure (usually a caregiver/guardian). Such bonds may be reciprocal between two adults, but between a child and a caregiver, these bonds are based on the child's need for safety, security, and protection—which is most important in infancy and childhood.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Murphy |first1=Anne |last2=Steele |first2=Miriam |last3=Dube |first3=Shanta Rishi |last4=Bate |first4=Jordan |last5=Bonuck |first5=Karen |last6=Meissner |first6=Paul |last7=Goldman |first7=Hannah |last8=Steele |first8=Howard |date=2014 |title=Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) Questionnaire and Adult Attachment Interview (AAI): Implications for parent child relationships |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0145213413002561 |journal=Child Abuse & Neglect |language=en |volume=38 |issue=2 |pages=224–233 |doi=10.1016/j.chiabu.2013.09.004|pmid=24670331 |s2cid=3919568 |url-access=subscription }}</ref> Attachment theory is not an exhaustive description of human relationships, nor is it synonymous with love and affection, although these may indicate that bonds exist. In child-to-adult relationships, the child's tie is called the "attachment" and the caregiver's reciprocal equivalent is referred to as the "care-giving bond".<ref name=pg15>[[#PriorGlaser06|Prior and Glaser]] p. 15.</ref> The theory proposes that children attach to carers instinctively,<ref name="BrethQuote">{{cite news|author=Bretherton I|title=The Origins of Attachment Theory: John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth|year=1992|quote=[Bowlby] begin by noting that organisms at different levels of the phylogenetic scale regulate instinctive behaviour in distinct ways, ranging from primitive reflex-like "fixed action patterns" to complex plan hierarchies with subgoals and strong learning components. In the most complex organisms, instinctive behaviours may be "goal-corrected" with continual on-course adjustments (such as a bird of prey adjusting its flight to the movements of the prey). The concept of cybernetically controlled behavioural systems organized as plan hierarchies (Miller, Galanter, and Pribram, 1960) thus came to replace Freud's concept of drive and instinct. Such systems regulate behaviours in ways that need not be rigidly innate, but – depending on the organism – can adapt in greater or lesser degrees to changes in environmental circumstances, provided that these do not deviate too much from the organism's environment of evolutionary adaptedness. Such flexible organisms pay a price, however, because adaptable behavioural systems can more easily be subverted from their optimal path of development. For humans, Bowlby speculates, the environment of evolutionary adaptedness probably resembles that of present-day hunter-gatherer societies.}}</ref> for the purpose of survival and, ultimately, genetic replication.<ref name=pg15/> The biological aim is survival and the psychological aim is security.<ref name="Schaffer"/> The relationship that a child has with their attachment figure is especially important in threatening situations. Having access to a secure figure decreases fear in children when they are presented with threatening situations. Not only is having a decreased level of fear important for general mental stability, but it also implicates how children might react to threatening situations. The presence of a supportive attachment figure is especially important in a child's developmental years.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Stupica |first1=Brandi |last2=Brett |first2=Bonnie E. |last3=Woodhouse |first3=Susan S. |last4=Cassidy |first4=Jude |date=July 2019 |title=Attachment Security Priming Decreases Children's Physiological Response to Threat |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/cdev.13009 |journal=Child Development |language=en |volume=90 |issue=4 |pages=1254–1271 |doi=10.1111/cdev.13009|pmid=29266177 |url-access=subscription }}</ref> In addition to support, attunement (accurate understanding and emotional connection) is crucial in a caregiver-child relationship. If the caregiver is poorly attuned to the child, the child may grow to feel misunderstood and anxious.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-04-04 |title=Attunement |url=https://www.evolveinnature.com/blog/2023/3/7-attunement-the-real-language-of-love |access-date=2023-08-23 |website=Evolve In Nature |language=en-US}}</ref>

Infants form attachments to ''any'' consistent caregiver who is sensitive and responsive in social interactions with them. The quality of social engagement is more influential than the amount of time spent. The biological mother is the usual principal attachment figure, but the role can be assumed by anyone who consistently behaves in a "mothering" way over a period of time. Within attachment theory, this means a set of behaviours that involves engaging in lively social interaction with the infant and responding readily to signals and approaches.<ref>Bowlby (1969) p. 365.</ref> Nothing in the theory suggests that fathers are not equally likely to become principal attachment figures if they provide most of the child care and related social interaction.<ref>[[#Holmes93|Holmes]] p. 69.</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Cosentino|first=Ashley|date=5 September 2017|title=Viewing fathers as attachment figures|url=https://ct.counseling.org/2017/09/viewing-fathers-attachment-f%E2%80%8A%E2%80%8A%E2%80%8Aigures/|url-status=live|website=Counseling today|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170924022707/http://ct.counseling.org:80/2017/09/viewing-fathers-attachment-f%E2%80%8A%E2%80%8A%E2%80%8Aigures/ |archive-date=2017-09-24 }}</ref> A secure attachment to a father who is a "secondary attachment figure" may also counter the possible negative effects of an unsatisfactory attachment to a mother who is the primary attachment figure.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lamb |first1=Michael E. |last2=Lamb |first2=Jamie E. |date=1976 |title=The Nature and Importance of the Father-Infant Relationship |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/582850 |journal=The Family Coordinator |volume=25 |issue=4 |pages=379–385 |doi=10.2307/582850 |jstor=582850 |issn=0014-7214|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

Some infants direct attachment behaviour (proximity seeking) towards more than one attachment figure almost as soon as they start to show discrimination between caregivers; most come to do so during their second year. These figures are arranged hierarchically, with the principal attachment figure at the top.<ref>Bowlby (1969) 2nd ed. pp. 304–05.</ref> The set-goal of the attachment behavioural system is to maintain a bond with an accessible and available attachment figure.<ref name=kobmad>{{cite encyclopedia|author= Kobak R, Madsen S|year=2008|title= Disruption in Attachment Bonds|encyclopedia=Handbook of Attachment: Theory, Research and Clinical Applications| veditors = Cassidy J, Shaver PR | publisher= Guilford Press|location= New York and London|pages=23–47|isbn=978-1-59385-874-2}}</ref> "Alarm" is the term used for activation of the attachment behavioural system caused by fear of danger. "Anxiety" is the anticipation or fear of being cut off from the attachment figure. If the figure is unavailable or unresponsive, separation distress occurs.<ref name="pg16">[[#PriorGlaser06|Prior and Glaser]] p. 16.</ref> In infants, physical separation can cause anxiety and anger, followed by sadness and despair. By age three or four, physical separation is no longer such a threat to the child's bond with the attachment figure. Threats to security in older children and adults arise from prolonged absence, breakdowns in communication, emotional unavailability or signs of rejection or abandonment.<ref name=kobmad/>

===Behaviours===
[[File:Kaitlyn reads a book..jpg|thumb|right|alt=A baby leans at a table staring at a picture book with intense concentration.| Insecure attachment patterns can compromise exploration and the achievement of self-confidence. A securely attached baby is free to concentrate on their environment.]]

The attachment behavioural system serves to achieve or maintain proximity to the attachment figure.{{sfn|Prior|Glaser|2006|p=17}}

Pre-attachment behaviours occur in the first six months of life. During the first phase (the first two months), infants smile, babble, and cry to attract the attention of potential caregivers. Although infants of this age learn to discriminate between caregivers, these behaviours are directed at anyone in the vicinity.

During the second phase (two to six months), the infant discriminates between familiar and unfamiliar adults, becoming more responsive toward the caregiver; following and clinging are added to the range of behaviours. The infant's behaviour toward the caregiver becomes organized on a goal-directed basis to achieve the conditions that make it feel secure.{{sfn|Prior|Glaser|2006|p=19}}

By the end of the first year, the infant is able to display a range of attachment behaviours designed to maintain proximity. These manifest as protesting the caregiver's departure, greeting the caregiver's return, clinging when frightened, and following when able.{{sfn|Karen|1998|pp=90–92}}

With the development of locomotion, the infant begins to use the caregiver or caregivers as a "safe base" from which to explore.{{sfn|Prior|Glaser|2006|p=19}}<ref>{{cite book |title=Disorders of childhood : development and psychopathology | first1 = Robin Hornik | last1 = Parritz | first2 = Michael F | last2 = Troy |date=2017-05-24 |isbn=978-1-337-09811-3 |edition=Third |location=Boston, MA |oclc=960031712}}</ref>{{Rp|71}} Infant exploration is greater when the caregiver is present because the infant's attachment system is relaxed and it is free to explore. If the caregiver is inaccessible or unresponsive, attachment behaviour is more strongly exhibited.<ref name="ainsworth 67">{{cite book |title=Infancy in Uganda: Infant Care and the Growth of Love | vauthors = Ainsworth M |publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press |year=1967 |isbn=978-0-8018-0010-8 |location=Baltimore}}</ref> Anxiety, fear, illness, and fatigue will cause a child to increase attachment behaviours.{{sfn|Karen|1998|p=97}}

After the second year, as the child begins to see the caregiver as an independent person, a more complex and goal-corrected partnership is formed.{{sfn|Prior|Glaser|2006|pp=19–20}} Children begin to notice others' goals and feelings and plan their actions accordingly.

{{for-text|coverage of this topic in [[Wolves]]|[[Attachment behaviour in wolves]]}}

===Tenets===
Modern attachment theory is based on three principles:<ref name=":9">{{cite book |title=Attachment Theory in Practice: Emotionally Focused Therapy (EFT) with Individuals, Couples and Families |last=Johnson |first=Susan M. |publisher=The Guildford Press |year=2019 |isbn=978-1-4625-3828-7 |location=New York |pages=5}}</ref>
# Bonding is an intrinsic human need.
# Regulation of emotion and fear to enhance vitality.
# Promoting adaptiveness and growth.
Common attachment behaviours and emotions, displayed in most social primates including humans, are [[Adaption|adaptive]]. The long-term evolution of these species has involved selection for social behaviours that make individual or group survival more likely. The commonly observed attachment behaviour of toddlers staying near familiar people would have had safety advantages in the environment of early adaptation and has similar advantages today. Bowlby saw the environment of early adaptation as similar to current [[hunter-gatherer]] societies.{{sfn|Bowlby|1971|p=300}} There is a survival advantage in the capacity to sense possibly dangerous conditions such as unfamiliarity, being alone, or rapid approach. According to Bowlby, proximity-seeking to the attachment figure in the face of threat is the "set-goal" of the attachment behavioural system.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Bowlby|first=John|url=https://mindsplain.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/08/ATTACHMENT_AND_LOSS_VOLUME_I_ATTACHMENT.pdf|title=Attachment and loss|publisher=[[Basic Books]]|year=1969–1982|pages=11|language=English}}</ref>

Bowlby's original account of a [[Critical period|sensitivity period]] during which attachments can form of between six months and two to three years has been modified by later researchers. These researchers have shown there is indeed a sensitive period during which attachments will form if possible, but the time frame is broader and the effect less fixed and irreversible than first proposed.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=McLeod|first=Saul|date=5 February 2017|title=Bowlby's Attachment Theory|url=https://www.simplypsychology.org/bowlby.html|website=[[Simply Psychology]]}}</ref>

With further research, authors discussing attachment theory have come to appreciate social development is affected by later as well as earlier relationships. Early steps in attachment take place most easily if the infant has one caregiver, or the occasional care of a small number of other people. According to Bowlby, almost from the beginning, many children have more than one figure toward whom they direct attachment behaviour. These figures are not treated alike; there is a strong bias for a child to direct attachment behaviour mainly toward one particular person. Bowlby used the term "monotropy" to describe this bias.{{sfn|Bowlby|1982|p=309}} Researchers and theorists have abandoned this concept insofar as it may be taken to mean the relationship with the special figure differs ''qualitatively'' from that of other figures. Rather, current thinking postulates definite hierarchies of relationships.<ref name="Rutter 95">{{cite journal | vauthors = Rutter M | title = Clinical implications of attachment concepts: retrospect and prospect | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-child-psychology-and-psychiatry-and-allied-disciplines_1995-05_36_4/page/549 | journal = Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines | volume = 36 | issue = 4 | pages = 549–71 | date = May 1995 | pmid = 7650083 | doi = 10.1111/j.1469-7610.1995.tb02314.x }}</ref><ref name="Main">{{cite encyclopedia |year=1999 |title=Epilogue: Attachment Theory: Eighteen Points with Suggestions for Future Studies |encyclopedia=Handbook of Attachment: Theory, Research and Clinical Applications |publisher=Guilford Press |location=New York |url= https://archive.org/details/handbookofattach0000unse/page/845 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/handbookofattach0000unse/page/845 845–87] |isbn=978-1-57230-087-3 |quote=although there is general agreement an infant or adult will have only a few attachment figures at most, many attachment theorists and researchers believe infants form 'attachment hierarchies' in which some figures are primary, others secondary, and so on. This position can be presented in a stronger form, in which a particular figure is believed continually to take top place ("monotropy") ... questions surrounding monotropy and attachment hierarchies remain unsettled |author=Main M |veditors=Cassidy J, Shaver PR}}</ref>

Early experiences with caregivers gradually give rise to a system of thoughts, memories, beliefs, expectations, emotions, and behaviours about the self and others. This system, called the "internal working model of social relationships", continues to develop with time and experience.{{sfn|Mercer|2006|pp=39–40}}

Internal models regulate, interpret, and predict attachment-related behaviour in the self and the attachment figure. As they develop in line with environmental and developmental changes, they incorporate the capacity to reflect and communicate about past and future attachment relationships.<ref name="Bretherton/Mul"/> They enable the child to handle new types of social interactions; knowing, for example, an infant should be treated differently from an older child, or that interactions with teachers and parents share characteristics. Even interaction with coaches share similar characteristics, as athletes who secure attachment relationships with not only their parents but their coaches will play a role in the growth of athletes in their prospective sport.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Davis |first1=Louise |last2=Brown |first2=Daniel J. |last3=Arnold |first3=Rachel |last4=Gustafsson |first4=Henrik |date=2021-08-02 |title=Thriving Through Relationships in Sport: The Role of the Parent–Athlete and Coach–Athlete Attachment Relationship |journal=Frontiers in Psychology |volume=12 |pages=694599 |doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2021.694599 |issn=1664-1078 |pmc=8366224 |pmid=34408711|doi-access=free }}</ref> This internal working model continues to develop through adulthood, helping cope with friendships, marriage, and parenthood, all of which involve different behaviours and feelings.<ref name="Bowlby 73">{{cite book |title=Separation: Anger and Anxiety | vauthors = Bowlby J |publisher=Hogarth |year=1973 |isbn=978-0-7126-6621-3 |series=Attachment and loss. Vol. 2 |location=London}}</ref>{{sfn|Mercer|2006|pp=39–40}}

The development of attachment is a transactional process. Specific attachment behaviours begin with predictable, apparently innate, behaviours in infancy.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Pilkington |first1=Pamela D. |last2=Bishop |first2=Amy |last3=Younan |first3=Rita |date=2021 |title=Adverse childhood experiences and early maladaptive schemas in adulthood: A systematic review and meta-analysis |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/cpp.2533 |journal=Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy |language=en |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=569–584 |doi=10.1002/cpp.2533 |pmid=33270299 |s2cid=227258822 |issn=1063-3995|url-access=subscription }}</ref> They change with age in ways determined partly by experiences and partly by situational factors.{{sfn|Bowlby|1971|pp=414–21}} As attachment behaviours change with age, they do so in ways shaped by relationships. A child's behaviour when reunited with a caregiver is determined not only by how the caregiver has treated the child before, but on the history of effects the child has had on the caregiver.{{sfn|Bowlby|1971|pp=394–395}}<ref name="ainsworth 69">{{cite journal | vauthors = Ainsworth MD | title = Object relations, dependency, and attachment: a theoretical review of the infant-mother relationship | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_child-development_1969-12_40_4/page/969 | journal = Child Development | volume = 40 | issue = 4 | pages = 969–1025 | date = December 1969 | pmid = 5360395 | doi = 10.2307/1127008 | jstor = 1127008 }}</ref>

=== Cultural differences ===
In Western culture child-rearing, there is a focus on single attachment to primarily the mother. This dyadic model is not the only strategy of attachment producing a secure and emotionally adept child. Having a single, dependably responsive and sensitive caregiver (namely the mother) does not guarantee the ultimate success of the child. Results from Israeli, Dutch and east African studies show children with multiple caregivers grow up not only feeling secure, but developed "more enhanced capacities to view the world from multiple perspectives."<ref name=":12">{{cite book |title=Mothers and Others-The Evolutionary Origins of Mutual Understanding |url=https://archive.org/details/mothersothersevo0000hrdy |last=Hrdy |first=Sarah Blaffer |publisher=The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-674-03299-6 |location=United States of America |pages=[https://archive.org/details/mothersothersevo0000hrdy/page/130 130], 131, 132}}</ref> This evidence can be more readily found in hunter-gatherer communities, like those that exist in rural Tanzania.<ref>{{Citation|last1=Crittenden|first1=Alyssa N.|title=Cooperative Child Care among the Hadza: Situating Multiple Attachment in Evolutionary Context|date=2013|work=Attachment Reconsidered|pages=67–83|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan US|isbn=978-1-137-38674-8|last2=Marlowe|first2=Frank W.|doi=10.1057/9781137386724_3}}</ref>

In hunter-gatherer communities, in the past and present, mothers are the primary caregivers, but share the maternal responsibility of ensuring the child's survival with a variety of different [[Allomothering|allomothers]]. So while the mother is important, she is not the only opportunity for relational attachment a child can make. Several group members (with or without blood relation) contribute to the task of bringing up a child, sharing the parenting role and therefore can be sources of multiple attachment. There is evidence of this communal parenting throughout history that "would have significant implications for the evolution of multiple attachment."<ref>{{cite book |title=Attachment Reconsidered: Cultural Perspectives on a Western Theory |last1=Quinn |first1=Naomi |last2=Mageo |first2=Jeannette Marie |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-137-38672-4 |location=United States of America |pages=73, 74}}</ref>

In "non-metropolis" India {{clarify span|text=(where "dual income nuclear families" are more the norm and dyadic mother relationship is)|
explain=dyadic mother relationship is... what? is "and" supposed to be "than"?|date=July 2023}}, where a family normally consists of 3 generations (and sometimes 4: great-grandparents, grandparents, parents, and child or children), the child or children would have four to six caregivers from whom to select their "attachment figure". A child's "uncles and aunts" (parents' siblings and their spouses) also contribute to the child's psycho-social enrichment.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Parens |first=Henri |date=1995 |title=Parenting for Emotional Growth: Lines of Development |url=https://jdc.jefferson.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=&httpsredir=1&article=1003&context=parentingemotionalgrowth |access-date=March 14, 2024 |website=Thomas Jefferson University-Jefferson Digital Commons}}</ref>

Although it has been debated for years, and there are differences across cultures, research has shown that the three basic aspects of attachment theory are, to some degree, universal.<ref name="IJzendoorn MH 2008. pp. 880">{{cite book | vauthors = Van Ijzendoorn MH, Sagi-Schwartz A | chapter = Cross-cultural patterns of attachment: Universal and contextual dimensions. | veditors = Cassidy J, Shaver PR | title = Handbook of attachment: Theory, research, and clinical applications. | url = https://archive.org/details/handbookofattach0000unse_n9k8 | edition = 2nd | location = New York, NY | publisher = Guilford Press | date = 2008 | pages = [https://archive.org/details/handbookofattach0000unse_n9k8/page/880 880]–905 }}</ref> Studies in Israel and Japan resulted in findings which diverge from a number of studies completed in Western Europe and the United States. The prevailing hypotheses are: 1) that secure attachment is the most desirable state, and the most prevalent; 2) maternal sensitivity influences infant attachment patterns; and 3) specific infant attachments predict later social and cognitive competence.<ref name="IJzendoorn MH 2008. pp. 880" />

== Empirical research and theoretical developments ==
[[John Bowlby]] initially conceptualized attachment as an [[Evolutionary systems|evolutionary system]] that would ensure infant survival. [[Mary Ainsworth]] provided empirical testing through observational studies such as the [[Strange situation|Strange Situation]] Experiment.

During the Strange Situation experiment, four participants partake in a series of eight "episodes" of experiences. These participants are a mother, a baby, a stranger and an observer.

# The mother, accompanied by the observer, carries the baby into the room and the observer leaves.
# The mother puts the baby down in a specified location, then sits quietly in her chair until the baby solicites her attention.
# The stranger enters, sits quietly for one minute, then converses with the mother for one minute, and then gradually approaches the baby. The mother then leaves the room.
# If the baby is playing with its toys, the stranger merely observes. If the baby is not playing with its toys, the stranger tries to interest the baby in the toys. If the baby is distressed, the stranger tries to comfort the baby.
# The mother enters, and pauses in the doorway so that the baby can respond to her presence. The stranger then leaves. After the baby begins to play with its toys again, the mother leaves again and says, "bye-bye".
# the baby is left alone for three minutes, unless the baby is so distressed it has to be comforted.
# The stranger enters and repeats the same behavior from the fourth episode.
# The mother returns, the stranger leaves, and the mother reunites with her baby.

These eight episodes were observed through an adjoining room, and the baby's responses were categorized into different types of attachment behaviours.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ainsworth |first=Mary D. Salter |last2=Bell |first2=Silvia M. |date=1970 |title=Attachment, Exploration, and Separation: Illustrated by the Behavior of One-Year-Olds in a Strange Situation |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1127388?read-now=1&seq=6#page_scan_tab_contents |journal=Child Development |volume=41 |issue=1 |pages=49–67 |doi=10.2307/1127388 |issn=0009-3920|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

Bretherton (1992) then followed this theoretical development, highlighting Bowlby's interdisciplinary framework. He relied on the concepts of ethology, psychoanalysis, and cognitive science. Ainsworth introduced the systematic classification of attachment styles contingent upon infant caregivers' interactive experiences.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bretherton |first=Inge |date=September 1992 |title=The origins of attachment theory: John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth. |url=https://doi.apa.org/doi/10.1037/0012-1649.28.5.759 |journal=Developmental Psychology |language=en |volume=28 |issue=5 |pages=759–775 |doi=10.1037/0012-1649.28.5.759 |issn=1939-0599|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

Building on this foundation, Main and Solomon (1990) extended the original attachment classification to identify a disorganized/disoriented attachment style. They observed infants displaying contradictory or confused behaviors when reunited with a caregiver.<ref name=":0" /> This further complicated the understanding of attachment patterning and has informed [[clinical practice]] and developmental research.

Empirical studies have further classified how early attachment is formed and passed on across generations. Beebe et al. (2010) studied four-month-old mother interactions using microanalytic methods. They determined that coordinated gazes and vocal affect predicted attachment security at twelve months using the Strange Situation Procedure.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Beebe |first=Beatrice |last2=Jaffe |first2=Joseph |last3=Markese |first3=Sara |last4=Buck |first4=Karen |last5=Chen |first5=Henian |last6=Cohen |first6=Patricia |last7=Bahrick |first7=Lorraine |last8=Howard |first8=Andrews |last9=Stanley |first9=Feldstein |date=2010-01-01 |title=The origins of 12-month attachment: A microanalysis of 4-month mother–infant interaction |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14616730903338985 |journal=Attachment & Human Development |volume=12 |issue=1-2 |pages=3–141 |doi=10.1080/14616730903338985 |issn=1461-6734 |pmc=3763737 |pmid=20390524}}</ref> Similarly, Steele et al. (1996) found intergenerational continuity regarding parents' attachment classifications and those of infants. <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Steele |first=Howard |last2=Steele |first2=Miriam |last3=Fonagy |first3=Peter |date=1996 |title=Associations among Attachment Classifications of Mothers, Fathers, and Their Infants |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1131831?origin=crossref |journal=Child Development |volume=67 |issue=2 |pages=541–555 |doi=10.2307/1131831 |issn=0009-3920|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

Another one of the most influential studies supporting the principle of attachment theory was conducted by Harry Harlow. Harlow’s research with rhesus monkeys demonstrated the critical importance of caregiving and emotional comfort in creating attachment. In these experiments, infant monkeys were separated from their biological mothers and given the choice between two inanimate surrogate mothers: one made of wire and wood and one made of foam and cloth. In addition, the monkeys were assigned one of two conditions: one condition where the wire mother provided milk while the cloth mother had no food to offer, and the other condition where the cloth mother provided food while the wire mother did not. In both conditions, the infant monkeys overwhelmingly preferred the cloth mother, clinging to it for comfort and security even though it did not provide nourishment.<ref>[https://www.psychologicalscience.org/publications/observer/obsonline/harlows-classic-studies-revealed-the-importance-of-maternal-contact.html "Harlow’s Classic Studies Revealed the Importance of Maternal Contact"]</ref> The infant monkeys' preference highlighted the importance of comfort, warmth, and emotional security over mere sustenance. Harlow’s work provided strong support for Bowlby’s claim that the need for affection and emotional security is a fundamental aspect of earlier development, also influencing later social and emotional outcomes. Clearly, children need more than just food and shelter; they require emotional attunement and a reliable source of comfort to develop a sense of security. This introduces the importance of having a “secure base.” A secure base allows children to confidently explore their environment, knowing that they have a supportive caregiver to return to when distressed. This level of responsiveness, as well as warmth and responsiveness, is critical for successful relationships and attachment.<ref>Bowlby, J. (1988). ''A Secure Base''. New York: Basic Books.</ref>

The attachment theory has also been extended into the adult relationship domain. Adult romantic attachment has been reviewed by Fraley and Shaver (2000), who advocated that attachment behaviors are observed in infancy. Seeking proximity and secure base responses were also present in adult romantic relationships<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fraley |first=R. Chris |last2=Shaver |first2=Phillip R. |date=2000-06-01 |title=Adult Romantic Attachment: Theoretical Developments, Emerging Controversies, and Unanswered Questions |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1037/1089-2680.4.2.132 |journal=Review of General Psychology |language=EN |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=132–154 |doi=10.1037/1089-2680.4.2.132 |issn=1089-2680}}</ref> This review illustrates how the attachment framework can be applied across the lifespan and highlights ongoing debates about [[Continuity of Care Document|continuity]], measurements, and individual differences.

Together, both the theoretical advances and empirical studies underscore the importance of early relational experiences. It also supports the broader application of attachment theory in various contexts across developmental stages and relationships.

==Attachment patterns==
[[File:Adult attachment patterns.svg|thumb|Attachment theory styles]]
{{blockquote|The strength of a child's attachment behaviour in a given circumstance does not indicate the "strength" of the attachment bond. Some insecure children will routinely display very pronounced attachment behaviours, while many secure children find that there is no great need to engage in either intense or frequent shows of attachment behaviour.<ref>Howe, D. (2011) Attachment across the lifecourse, London: Palgrave, p.13</ref>}}
{{blockquote|Individuals with different attachment styles have different beliefs about romantic love period, availability, trust capability of love partners and love readiness.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Honari B, Saremi AA | year = 2015 | title = The Study of Relationship between Attachment Styles and Obsessive Love Style | journal = Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences | volume = 165 | pages = 152–159 | doi = 10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.12.617 | doi-access = free }}</ref>}}

===Secure attachment===
{{Main|Secure attachment}}

A toddler who is securely attached to his or her parent (or other familiar caregiver) will explore freely while the caregiver is present, typically engages with strangers, is often visibly upset when the caregiver departs, and is generally happy to see the caregiver return. The extent of exploration and of distress are affected, however, by the child's temperamental make-up and by situational factors as well as by attachment status. A child's attachment is largely influenced by their primary caregiver's sensitivity to their needs. Parents who consistently (or almost always) respond to their child's needs will create securely attached children. Such children are certain that their parents will be responsive to their needs and communications.<ref>[[Daniel Schacter|Schacter, D.L.]] et al. (2009). Psychology, Second Edition. New York: Worth Publishers. pp.441</ref>

In the traditional Ainsworth et al. (1978) coding of the [[Strange Situation]], secure infants are denoted as "Group B" infants and they are further subclassified as B1, B2, B3, and B4.<ref name="Ainsworth, M.D.S, Blehar, M. C., Waters, E., & Wall, S.">{{cite book | vauthors = Ainsworth MD, Blehar MC, Waters E, Wall S | date = 1978 | title = Patterns of attachment: A psychological study of the strange situation. | location = Hillsdale, NJ | publisher = Earlbaum }}</ref> Although these subgroupings refer to different stylistic responses to the comings and goings of the caregiver, they were not given specific labels by Ainsworth and colleagues, although their descriptive behaviours led others (including students of Ainsworth) to devise a relatively "loose" terminology for these subgroups. B1s have been referred to as "secure-reserved", B2s as "secure-inhibited", B3s as "secure-balanced", and B4s as "secure-reactive". However, in academic publications the classification of infants (if subgroups are denoted) is typically simply "B1" or "B2", although more theoretical and review-oriented papers surrounding attachment theory may use the above terminology. Secure attachment is the most common type of attachment relationship seen throughout societies.<ref name="Ainsworth,1978a" />

Securely attached children are best able to explore when they have the knowledge of a secure base (their caregiver) to return to in times of need. When assistance is given, this bolsters the sense of security and also, assuming the parent's assistance is helpful, educates the child on how to cope with the same problem in the future. Therefore, secure attachment can be seen as the most adaptive attachment style. According to some psychological researchers, a child becomes securely attached when the parent is available and able to meet the needs of the child in a responsive and appropriate manner. At infancy and early childhood, if parents are caring and attentive towards their children, those children will be more prone to secure attachment.<ref name="Aronoff, J. 2012">{{cite journal | vauthors = Aronoff J |year=2012 |title=Parental Nurturance in the Standard Cross-Cultural Sample: Theory, Coding, and Scores | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_cross-cultural-research_2012-11_46_4/page/315 |journal=Cross-Cultural Research |volume=46 |issue=4 |pages=315–347 |doi=10.1177/1069397112450851|s2cid=147304847 }}</ref>

===Anxious - ambivalent attachment===
Anxious - ambivalent attachment is a form of insecure attachment and is also misnamed as "resistant attachment".<ref name="Ainsworth,1978a">{{cite book |title=Patterns of Attachment: A Psychological Study of the Strange Situation |vauthors=Ainsworth MD, Blehar M, Waters E, Wall S |publisher=Lawrence Erlbaum Associates |year=1978 |isbn=978-0-89859-461-4 |location=Hillsdale NJ}}</ref><ref name="Plotka 2011 pp. 81–83">{{cite book | last=Plotka | first=Raquel | title=Encyclopedia of Child Behavior and Development | chapter=Ambivalent Attachment | publisher=Springer US | publication-place=Boston, MA | year=2011 | doi=10.1007/978-0-387-79061-9_104 | pages=81–83| isbn=978-0-387-77579-1 |quote=Ambivalent attachment is a form of insecure attachment characterized by inconsistent responses of the caregivers and by the child's feelings of anxiety and preoccupation about the caregiver's availability.}}</ref> In general, a child with an anxious - ambivalent pattern of attachment will typically explore little (in the Strange Situation) and is often wary of strangers, even when the parent is present. When the caregiver departs, the child is often highly distressed showing behaviours such as crying or screaming. The child is generally ambivalent when the caregiver returns.<ref name="Ainsworth, M.D.S, Blehar, M. C., Waters, E., & Wall, S." /> The anxious - ambivalent strategy is a response to unpredictably responsive caregiving, and the displays of anger (ambivalent resistant, C1) or helplessness (ambivalent passive, C2) towards the caregiver on reunion can be regarded as a conditional strategy for maintaining the availability of the caregiver by preemptively taking control of the interaction.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Solomon J, George C, De Jong A |year=1995 |title=Children classified as controlling at age six: Evidence of disorganized representational strategies and aggression at home and at school |journal=Development and Psychopathology |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=447–463 |doi=10.1017/s0954579400006623|s2cid=146576663 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Crittenden P | date = 1999 | chapter = Danger and development: the organization of self-protective strategies | title = Atypical Attachment in Infancy and Early Childhood Among Children at Developmental Risk | url = https://archive.org/details/atypicalattachme0000unse | veditors = Vondra JI, Barnett D | location = Oxford | publisher = Blackwell | pages = [https://archive.org/details/atypicalattachme0000unse/page/145 145]–171 | isbn = 978-0-631-21592-9 }}</ref>

The C1 (ambivalent resistant) subtype is coded when "resistant behavior is particularly conspicuous. The mixture of seeking and yet resisting contact and interaction has an unmistakably angry quality and indeed an angry tone may characterize behavior in the preseparation episodes".<ref name="Ainsworth, M.D.S, Blehar, M. C., Waters, E., & Wall, S." />

Regarding the C2 (ambivalent passive) subtype, Ainsworth et al. wrote:

{{blockquote|Perhaps the most conspicuous characteristic of C2 infants is their passivity. Their exploratory behavior is limited throughout the SS and their interactive behaviors are relatively lacking in active initiation. Nevertheless, in the reunion episodes they obviously want proximity to and contact with their mothers, even though they tend to use signalling rather than active approach, and protest against being put down rather than actively resisting release ... In general the C2 baby is not as conspicuously angry as the C1 baby.<ref name="Ainsworth, M.D.S, Blehar, M. C., Waters, E., & Wall, S." />}}

Research done by McCarthy and Taylor (1999) found that children with [[Adverse childhood experiences|abusive childhood experiences]] were more likely to develop ambivalent attachments. The study also found that children with ambivalent attachments were more likely to experience difficulties in maintaining intimate relationships as adults.<ref name="mccarthy1999avoidant">{{cite news |title=Avoidant/ambivalent attachment style as a mediator between abusive childhood experiences and adult relationship difficulties |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-child-psychology-and-psychiatry_1999-03_40_3/page/465 |last1=McCarthy |first1=Gerard |last2=Taylor |first2=Alan |work=Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry |year=1999 |issue=3 |volume=40 |pages=465–477 |doi=10.1111/1469-7610.00463 |ref=mccarthy1999avoidant}}</ref>

===Dismissive - avoidant attachment===

An infant with a dismissive - avoidant pattern of attachment will avoid or ignore the caregiver—showing little emotion when the caregiver departs or returns. The infant will not explore very much regardless of who is there. Infants classified as dismissive - avoidant (A) represented a puzzle in the early 1970s. They did not exhibit distress on separation, and either ignored the caregiver on their return (A1 subtype) or showed some tendency to approach together with some tendency to ignore or turn away from the caregiver (A2 subtype). Ainsworth and Bell theorized that the apparently unruffled behaviour of the avoidant infants was in fact a mask for distress, a hypothesis later evidenced through studies of the heart-rate of avoidant infants.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Ainsworth MD, Bell SM | s2cid = 3942480 | title = Attachment, exploration, and separation: illustrated by the behavior of one-year-olds in a strange situation | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_child-development_1970-03_41_1/page/49 | journal = Child Development | volume = 41 | issue = 1 | pages = 49–67 | date = March 1970 | pmid = 5490680 | doi = 10.2307/1127388 | jstor = 1127388 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Sroufe A, Waters E |year=1977 |title=Attachment as an Organizational Construct | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_child-development_1977-12_48_4/page/1184 |journal=Child Development |volume=48 |issue=4 |pages=1184–1199 |citeseerx=10.1.1.598.3872 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-8624.1977.tb03922.x}}</ref>

Infants are depicted as dismissive - avoidant when there is:

{{blockquote|... conspicuous avoidance of the mother in the reunion episodes which is likely to consist of ignoring her altogether, although there may be some pointed looking away, turning away, or moving away ... If there is a greeting when the mother enters, it tends to be a mere look or a smile ... Either the baby does not approach his mother upon reunion, or they approach in "abortive" fashions with the baby going past the mother, or it tends to only occur after much coaxing ... If picked up, the baby shows little or no contact-maintaining behavior; he tends not to cuddle in; he looks away and he may squirm to get down.<ref name="Ainsworth, M.D.S, Blehar, M. C., Waters, E., & Wall, S." />}}

Ainsworth's narrative records showed that infants avoided the caregiver in the stressful Strange Situation Procedure when they had a history of experiencing rebuff of attachment behaviour. The infant's needs were frequently not met and the infant had come to believe that communication of emotional needs had no influence on the caregiver.

Ainsworth's student [[Mary Main]] theorized that avoidant behaviour in the Strange Situation Procedure should be regarded as "a conditional strategy, which paradoxically permits whatever proximity is possible under conditions of maternal rejection" by de-emphasising attachment needs.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Main M |year=1979 |title=The "ultimate" causation of some infant attachment phenomena | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_behavioral-and-brain-sciences_1979-12_2_4/page/640 |journal=Behavioral and Brain Sciences |volume=2 |issue=4 |pages=640–643 |doi=10.1017/s0140525x00064992|s2cid=144105265 }}</ref>

Main proposed that avoidance has two functions for an infant whose caregiver is consistently unresponsive to their needs. Firstly, avoidant behaviour allows the infant to maintain a conditional proximity with the caregiver: close enough to maintain protection, but distant enough to avoid rebuff. Secondly, the cognitive processes organizing avoidant behaviour could help direct attention away from the unfulfilled desire for closeness with the caregiver who is avoiding a situation in which the child is overwhelmed with emotion ("disorganized distress"), and therefore unable to maintain control of themselves and achieve even conditional proximity.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Main M | date = 1977 | chapter = Analysis of a peculiar form of reunion behaviour seen in some day-care children. | veditors = Webb R | title = Social Development in Childhood | url = https://archive.org/details/socialdevelopmen00hyma | pages = [https://archive.org/details/socialdevelopmen00hyma/page/33 33]–78 | location = Baltimore | publisher = Johns Hopkins | isbn = 978-0-8018-1946-9 }}</ref>

==={{Anchor|disorganized attachment}}Disorganized - disoriented attachment===
Beginning in 1983, Crittenden offered A/C and other new organized classifications (see below). Drawing on records of behaviours discrepant with the A, B and C classifications, a fourth classification was added by Ainsworth's colleague Mary Main.<ref name=":0">{{cite book |title=Attachment in the Preschool Years: Theory, Research, and Intervention |last1=Main |first1=Mary |last2=Solomon |first2=Judith |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-226-30630-8 |editor-last=Greenberg |editor-first=Mark T. |location=Chicago |pages=121–60 |chapter=Procedures for Identifying Infants as Disorganized/Disoriented during the Ainsworth Strange Situation |editor2-last=Cicchetti |editor2-first=Dante |editor3-last=Cummings |editor3-first=E. Mark |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WzHIfiCXE8EC&pg=PA121}}</ref> In the Strange Situation, the attachment system is expected to be activated by the departure and return of the caregiver. If the behaviour of the infant does not appear to the observer to be coordinated in a smooth way across episodes to achieve either proximity or some relative proximity with the caregiver, then it is considered 'disorganized' as it indicates a disruption or flooding of the attachment system (e.g. by fear). Infant behaviours in the Strange Situation Protocol coded as disorganized/disoriented include overt displays of fear; contradictory behaviours or affects occurring simultaneously or sequentially; stereotypic, asymmetric, misdirected or jerky movements; or freezing and apparent dissociation. Lyons-Ruth has urged, however, that it should be more widely "recognized that 52% of disorganized infants continue to approach the caregiver, seek comfort, and cease their distress without clear ambivalent or avoidant behavior".<ref>Karlen Lyons-Ruth, Jean-Francois Bureau, M. Ann Easterbrooks, Ingrid Obsuth, Kate Hennighausen & Lauriane Vulliez-Coady (2013) Parsing the construct of maternal insensitivity: distinct longitudinal pathways associated with early maternal withdrawal, Attachment & Human
Development, 15:5–6, 562–582</ref>

The benefit of this category was hinted at earlier in Ainsworth's own experience finding difficulties in fitting all infant behaviour into the three classifications used in her Baltimore study. Ainsworth and colleagues sometimes observed {{blockquote|tense movements such as hunching the shoulders, putting the hands behind the neck and tensely cocking the head, and so on. It was our clear impression that such tension movements signified stress, both because they tended to occur chiefly in the separation episodes and because they tended to be [[prodrome|prodromal]] to crying. Indeed, our hypothesis is that they occur when a child is attempting to control crying, for they tend to vanish if and when crying breaks through.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Ainsworth MD, Blehar M, Waters E, Wall S | date = 1978 | title = Patterns of Attachment: A Psychological Study of the Strange Situation | location = Hillsdale, NJ | publisher = Lawrence Erlbaum | page = 282 | isbn = 978-0-89859-461-4 }}</ref>}} Such observations also appeared in the doctoral theses of Ainsworth's students. Crittenden, for example, noted that one abused infant in her doctoral sample was classed as secure (B) by her undergraduate coders because her strange situation behaviour was "without either avoidance or ambivalence, she did show stress-related stereotypic headcocking throughout the strange situation. This pervasive behavior, however, was the only clue to the extent of her stress".<ref>{{cite thesis | vauthors = Crittenden PM | title = Mother and Infant Patterns of Attachment | degree = Ph.D. | publisher = University of Virginia | date = May 1983 | page = 73 }}</ref>

There is rapidly growing interest in disorganized attachment from clinicians and policy-makers as well as researchers.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Kochanska G, Kim S | title = Early attachment organization with both parents and future behavior problems: from infancy to middle childhood | journal = Child Development | volume = 84 | issue = 1 | pages = 283–96 | year = 2013 | pmid = 23005703 | pmc = 3530645 | doi = 10.1111/j.1467-8624.2012.01852.x }}</ref> However, the disorganized/disoriented attachment (D) classification has been criticized by some for being too encompassing, including Ainsworth herself.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Svanberg PO | date = 2009 | chapter = Promoting a secure attachment through early assessment and interventions. | veditors = Barlow J, Svanberg PO | title = Keeping the Baby in Min | pages = 100–114 | location = London | publisher = Routledge }}</ref> In 1990, Ainsworth put in print her blessing for the new 'D' classification, though she urged that the addition be regarded as "open-ended, in the sense that subcategories may be distinguished", as she worried that too many different forms of behaviour might be treated as if they were the same thing.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Ainsworth M | date = 1990 | chapter = Epilogue | title = Attachment in the Preschool Years | veditors = Greenberg MT, Ciccheti D, Cummings EM | location = Chicago, IL | publisher = Chicago University Press | pages = 463–488 }}</ref> Indeed, the D classification puts together infants who use a somewhat disrupted secure (B) strategy with those who seem hopeless and show little attachment behaviour; it also puts together infants who run to hide when they see their caregiver in the same classification as those who show an avoidant (A) strategy on the first reunion and then an ambivalent-resistant (C) strategy on the second reunion. Perhaps responding to such concerns, George and Solomon have divided among indices of disorganized/disoriented attachment (D) in the Strange Situation, treating some of the behaviours as a 'strategy of desperation' and others as evidence that the attachment system has been flooded (e.g. by fear, or anger).<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Solomon J, George C | date = 1999 | chapter = The place of disorganization in attachment theory. | veditors = Solomon J, George C | title = Attachment Disorganization | url = https://archive.org/details/attachmentdisorg0000unse | pages = [https://archive.org/details/attachmentdisorg0000unse/page/27 27] | location = NY | publisher = Guilford }}</ref>

Crittenden also argues that some behaviour classified as Disorganized/disoriented can be regarded as more 'emergency' versions of the avoidant and/or ambivalent/resistant strategies, and function to maintain the protective availability of the caregiver to some degree. Sroufe et al. have agreed that "even disorganized attachment behaviour (simultaneous approach-avoidance; freezing, etc.) enables a degree of proximity in the face of a frightening or unfathomable parent".<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Sroufe A, Egeland B, Carlson E, Collins WA | date = 2005 | title = The Development of the person: the Minnesota study of risk and adaptation from birth to adulthood | url = https://archive.org/details/developmentperso00phdl_935 | location = NY | publisher = Guilford Press | page = [https://archive.org/details/developmentperso00phdl_935/page/n261 245] | isbn = 978-1-59385-158-3 }}</ref> However, "the presumption that many indices of 'disorganization' are aspects of organized patterns does not preclude acceptance of the notion of disorganization, especially in cases where the complexity and dangerousness of the threat are beyond children's capacity for response."<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Crittenden P | date = 1999 | chapter = Danger and development: the organization of self-protective strategies | title = Atypical Attachment in Infancy and Early Childhood Among Children at Developmental Risk | url = https://archive.org/details/atypicalattachme0000unse | veditors = Vondra JI, Barnett D | location = Oxford | publisher = Blackwell | pages = [https://archive.org/details/atypicalattachme0000unse/page/159 159]–160 | isbn = 978-0-631-21592-9 }}</ref> For example, "Children placed in care, especially more than once, often have intrusions. In videos of the Strange Situation Procedure, they tend to occur when a rejected/neglected child approaches the stranger in an intrusion of desire for comfort, then loses muscular control and falls to the floor, overwhelmed by the intruding fear of the unknown, potentially dangerous, strange person."<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Crittenden P, Landini A | date = 2011 | title = Assessing Adult Attachment: A Dynamic-Maturational Approach to Discourse Analysis | location = NY | publisher = W.W. Norton | page = 269 }}</ref>

Main and Hesse<ref name="MaineHesse">{{cite book |title=Attachment in the Preschool Years: Theory, Research, and Intervention |last1=Main |first1=Mary |last2=Hesse |first2=Erik |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=1993 |isbn=978-0-226-30630-8 |editor-last=Greenberg |editor-first=Mark T. |location=Chicago |pages=161–84 |chapter=Parents' Unresolved Traumatic Experiences Are Related to Infant Disorganized Attachment Status: Is Frightened and/or Frightening Parental Behavior the Linking Mechanism? |editor2-last=Cicchetti |editor2-first=Dante |editor3-last=Cummings |editor3-first=E. Mark |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WzHIfiCXE8EC&pg=PA161}}</ref> found most of the mothers of these children had suffered major losses or other trauma shortly before or after the birth of the infant and had reacted by becoming severely depressed.<ref name="Parkes">{{cite book |title=Love and Loss | first = Colin Murray | last = Parkes |publisher=Routledge, London and New York |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-415-39041-5 |page=13}}</ref> In fact, fifty-six per cent of mothers who had lost a parent by death before they completed high school had children with disorganized attachments.<ref name=MaineHesse /> Subsequent studies, while emphasising the potential importance of unresolved loss, have qualified these findings.<ref name="pmid16818417">{{cite journal | vauthors = Madigan S, Bakermans-Kranenburg MJ, Van Ijzendoorn MH, Moran G, Pederson DR, Benoit D | title = Unresolved states of mind, anomalous parental behavior, and disorganized attachment: a review and meta-analysis of a transmission gap | journal = Attachment & Human Development | volume = 8 | issue = 2 | pages = 89–111 | date = June 2006 | pmid = 16818417 | doi = 10.1080/14616730600774458 | s2cid = 1691924 }}</ref> For example, Solomon and George found unresolved loss in the mother tended to be associated with disorganized attachment in their infant primarily when they had also experienced an unresolved trauma in their life prior to the loss.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Solomon J, George C | date = 2006 | chapter = Intergenerational transmission of dysregulated maternal caregiving: Mothers describe their upbringing and child rearing. | veditors = Mayseless O | title = Parenting representations: Theory, research, and clinical implications | url = https://archive.org/details/parentingreprese00ofra | pages = [https://archive.org/details/parentingreprese00ofra/page/265 265]–295 | location = Cambridge, UK | publisher = Cambridge University Press | isbn = 978-0-521-82887-1 }}</ref>

=== Categorization differences across cultures ===
Across different cultures deviations from the Strange Situation Protocol have been observed. A Japanese study in 1986 (Takahashi) studied 60 Japanese mother-infant pairs and compared them with Ainsworth's distributional pattern. Although the ranges for securely attached and insecurely attached had no significant differences in proportions, the Japanese insecure group consisted of only resistant children, with no children categorized as avoidant. This may be because the Japanese child rearing philosophy stressed close mother infant bonds more so than in Western cultures. In Northern Germany, Grossmann et al. (Grossmann, Huber, & Wartner, 1981; Grossmann, Spangler, Suess, & Unzner, 1985) replicated the Ainsworth Strange Situation with 46 mother infant pairs and found a different distribution of attachment classifications with a high number of avoidant infants: 52% avoidant, 34% secure, and 13% resistant (Grossmann et al., 1985). Another study in Israel found there was a high frequency of an ambivalent pattern, which according to Grossman et al. (1985) could be attributed to a greater parental push toward children's independence.

=== Later patterns and the dynamic-maturational model ===
Techniques have been developed to guide a child to verbalize their state of mind with respect to attachment. One such is the "stem story", in which a child receives the beginning of a story that raises attachment issues and is asked to complete it. This is modified for older children, adolescents and adults, where semi-structured interviews are used instead, and the way content is delivered may be as significant as the content itself.<ref name="Schaffer">{{cite book |title=Introducing Child Psychology | vauthors = Schaffer R |publisher=Blackwell |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-631-21628-5 |location=Oxford |pages=83–121}}</ref> However, there are no substantially validated measures of attachment for middle childhood or early adolescence (from 7 to 13 years of age).<ref name="AACAP-2005">{{cite journal | vauthors = Boris NW, Zeanah CH | title = Practice parameter for the assessment and treatment of children and adolescents with reactive attachment disorder of infancy and early childhood | journal = Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry | volume = 44 | issue = 11 | pages = 1206–19 | date = November 2005 | pmid = 16239871 | doi = 10.1097/01.chi.0000177056.41655.ce | url = http://www.aacap.org/galleries/PracticeParameters/rad.pdf | url-status = dead | access-date = September 13, 2009 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090824051123/http://www.aacap.org/galleries/PracticeParameters/rad.pdf | others = Work Group on Quality Issues | archive-date = August 24, 2009 }}</ref>

Some studies of older children have identified further attachment classifications. Main and Cassidy observed that disorganized behaviour in infancy can develop into a child using caregiver-controlling or punitive behaviour to manage a helpless or dangerously unpredictable caregiver. In these cases, the child's behaviour is organized, but the behaviour is treated by researchers as a form of disorganization, since the hierarchy in the family no longer follows parenting authority in that scenario.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Main M, Cassidy J | date = 1988 | title = Categories of response to reunion with the parent at age 6. | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_developmental-psychology_1988-05_24_3/page/415 | journal = Developmental Psychology | volume = 24 | issue = 3 | pages = 415–426 | doi = 10.1037/0012-1649.24.3.415 }}</ref>

American psychologist [[Patricia McKinsey Crittenden]] has elaborated classifications of further forms of avoidant and ambivalent attachment behaviour, as seen in her [[dynamic-maturational model of attachment and adaptation]] (DMM). These include the caregiving and punitive behaviours also identified by Main and Cassidy (termed A3 and C3, respectively), but also other patterns such as compulsive compliance with the wishes of a threatening parent (A4).<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Crittenden PM | date = 2008 | title = Raising Parents: Attachment, Parenting and Child Safety | location = London | publisher = Routledge }}</ref>

Crittenden's ideas developed from Bowlby's proposal: "Given certain adverse circumstances during childhood, the selective exclusion of information of certain sorts may be adaptive. Yet, when during adolescence and adulthood the situation changes, the persistent exclusion of the same forms of information may become maladaptive".<ref>{{cite book | last = Bowlby |first =John |title=Loss: Sadness and depression|page=45 |year=1980 |place=New York|publisher=Basic Books|series = Attachment and Loss|volume = III|isbn =978-0-465-04237-1}}</ref>

Crittenden theorizes the human experience of danger comprise two basic components:<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Strathearn L, Fonagy P, Amico J, Montague PR | title = Adult attachment predicts maternal brain and oxytocin response to infant cues | journal = Neuropsychopharmacology | volume = 34 | issue = 13 | pages = 2655–66 | date = December 2009 | pmid = 19710635 | pmc = 3041266 | doi = 10.1038/npp.2009.103 }}</ref>

# Emotions provoked by the potential for danger, which Crittenden refers to as "affective information." In childhood, the unexplained absence of an attachment figure would cause these emotions. A strategy an infant faced with insensitive or rejecting parenting may use to maintain availability of the attachment figure is to repress emotional information that could result in rejection by said attachment figure.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Andrea|first=Crittenden, Patricia McKinsey Landini|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/768809528|title=Assessing adult attachment : a dynamic-maturational approach to discourse analysis|date=2011|publisher=W.W Norton & Co|isbn=978-0-393-70667-3|oclc=768809528}}</ref>
# Causal or other sequentially ordered knowledge about the potential for safety or danger, which would include awareness of behaviours that indicate whether an attachment figure is available as a secure haven. If the infant represses knowledge that the caregiver is not a reliable source of protection and safety, they may use clingy and/or aggressive behaviour to demand attention and potentially increase the availability of an attachment figure who otherwise displays inconsistent or misleading responses to the infant's attachment behaviours.<ref name="landa2013">{{cite journal | vauthors = Landa S, Duschinsky R |s2cid=17508615 |title=Crittenden's dynamic–maturational model of attachment and adaptation |journal=Review of General Psychology |volume=17 |issue=3 |pages=326–338 |year=2013 |doi=10.1037/a0032102 }}</ref>

Crittenden proposes both kinds of information can be split off from consciousness or behavioural expression as a 'strategy' to maintain the availability of an attachment figure (see [[#disorganized attachment|disorganized/disoriented attachment]] for type distinctions). Type A strategies split off emotional information about feeling threatened, and Type C strategies split off temporally-sequenced knowledge about how and why the attachment figure is available.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Crittenden PM, Newman L |date=July 2010 |title=Comparing models of borderline personality disorder: Mothers' experience, self-protective strategies, and dispositional representations |journal=Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry |volume=15 |issue=3 |pages=433–51 |doi=10.1177/1359104510368209 |pmid=20603429 |s2cid=206707532}}</ref> In contrast, Type B strategies use both kinds of information without much distortion.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Crittenden PM | title = Children's strategies for coping with adverse home environments: an interpretation using attachment theory | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_child-abuse-neglect_1992_16_3/page/329 | journal = Child Abuse & Neglect | volume = 16 | issue = 3 | pages = 329–43 | year = 1992 | pmid = 1617468 | doi = 10.1016/0145-2134(92)90043-q | access-date = | doi-access = free }}</ref> For example, a toddler may have come to depend upon a Type C strategy of tantrums to maintain an unreliable attachment figure's availability, which may cause the attachment figure to respond appropriately to the child's attachment behaviours. As a result of learning the attachment figure is becoming more reliable, the toddler's reliance on coercive behaviours is reduced, and a more secure attachment may develop.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Benoit |first1=Diane |title=Infant-parent attachment: Definition, types, antecedents, measurement and outcome |journal=Paediatrics & Child Health |date=October 2004 |volume=9 |issue=8 |pages=541–545 |doi=10.1093/pch/9.8.541|pmid=19680481 |pmc=2724160 }}</ref>

===Significance of patterns===
Research based on data from longitudinal studies, such as the [[National Institute of Child Health and Human Development]] Study of Early Child Care and the Minnesota Study of Risk and Adaption from Birth to Adulthood, and from cross-sectional studies, consistently shows associations between early attachment classifications and peer relationships as to both quantity and quality. Lyons-Ruth, for example, found that "for each additional withdrawing behavior displayed by mothers in relation to their infant's attachment cues in the Strange Situation Procedure, the likelihood of clinical referral by service providers was increased by 50%."<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Lyons-Ruth K, Bureau JF, Easterbrooks MA, Obsuth I, Hennighausen K, Vulliez-Coady L | title = Parsing the construct of maternal insensitivity: distinct longitudinal pathways associated with early maternal withdrawal | journal = Attachment & Human Development | volume = 15 | issue = 5–6 | pages = 562–82 | year = 2013 | pmid = 24299135 | pmc = 3861901 | doi = 10.1080/14616734.2013.841051 }}</ref>

There is an extensive body of research demonstrating a significant association between attachment organizations and children's functioning across multiple domains.<ref name="PPP">{{cite book |title=Psychotherapy of abused and neglected children |url=https://archive.org/details/psychotherapyabu00pear |vauthors=Pearce JW, Pezzot-Pearce TD |publisher=Guilford press |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-59385-213-9 |edition=2nd |location=New York and London |pages=[https://archive.org/details/psychotherapyabu00pear/page/17 17]–20}}</ref> Early insecure attachment does not necessarily predict difficulties, but it is a liability for the child, particularly if similar parental behaviours continue throughout childhood.{{sfn|Karen|1998|pp=248–66}} Compared to that of securely attached children, the adjustment of insecure children in many spheres of life is not as soundly based, putting their future relationships in jeopardy. Although the link is not fully established by research and there are other influences besides attachment, secure infants are more likely to become socially competent than their insecure peers. Relationships formed with peers influence the acquisition of social skills, intellectual development and the formation of social identity. Classification of children's peer status (popular, neglected or rejected) has been found to predict subsequent adjustment.<ref name="Schaffer" /> Insecure children, particularly avoidant children, are especially vulnerable to family risk. Their social and behavioural problems increase or decline with deterioration or improvement in parenting. However, an early secure attachment appears to have a lasting protective function.<ref name="bercasapp">{{cite encyclopedia |year=2008 |title=The Influence of Early Attachments on Other Relationships |encyclopedia=Handbook of Attachment: Theory, Research and Clinical Applications |publisher=Guilford Press |location=New York and London |pages=333–47 |isbn=978-1-59385-874-2 |vauthors=Berlin LJ, Cassidy J, Appleyard K |veditors=Cassidy J, Shaver PR}}</ref> As with attachment to parental figures, subsequent experiences may alter the course of development.<ref name="Schaffer" />

Studies have suggested that infants with a high-risk for [[autism spectrum disorders]] (ASD) may express attachment security differently from infants with a low-risk for ASD.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Haltigan JD, Ekas NV, Seifer R, Messinger DS | title = Attachment security in infants at-risk for autism spectrum disorders | journal = Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders | volume = 41 | issue = 7 | pages = 962–7 | date = July 2011 | pmid = 20859669 | pmc = 4486071 | doi = 10.1007/s10803-010-1107-7 }}</ref> Behavioural problems and social competence in insecure children increase or decline with deterioration or improvement in quality of parenting and the degree of risk in the family environment.<ref name=bercasapp/>

Some authors have questioned the idea that a [[wikt:taxonomy|taxonomy]] of categories representing a qualitative difference in attachment relationships can be developed. Examination of data from 1,139 15-month-olds showed that variation in attachment patterns was continuous rather than grouped.<ref name="FraSpe">{{cite journal | vauthors = Fraley RC, Spieker SJ | title = Are infant attachment patterns continuously or categorically distributed? A taxometric analysis of strange situation behavior | journal = Developmental Psychology | volume = 39 | issue = 3 | pages = 387–404 | date = May 2003 | pmid = 12760508 | doi = 10.1037/0012-1649.39.3.387 }}</ref> This criticism introduces important questions for attachment typologies and the mechanisms behind apparent types. However, it has relatively little relevance for attachment theory itself, which "neither requires nor predicts discrete patterns of attachment."<ref name="WatBea">{{cite journal | vauthors = Waters E, Beauchaine TP | title = Are there really patterns of attachment? Comment on Fraley and Spieker (2003) | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_developmental-psychology_2003-05_39_3/page/417 | journal = Developmental Psychology | volume = 39 | issue = 3 | pages = 417–22; discussion 423–9 | date = May 2003 | pmid = 12760512 | doi = 10.1037/0012-1649.39.3.417 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.128.1029 }}</ref>

There is some evidence that gender differences in attachment patterns of [[Adaption|adaptive]] significance begin to emerge in middle childhood. There has been a common tendency observed by researchers that males demonstrate a greater tendency to engage in criminal behaviour which is suspected to be related to males being more likely to experience inadequate early attachments to primary caregivers.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hayslett-Mccall |first1=Karen L. |last2=Bernard |first2=Thomas J. |date=February 2002 |title=Attachment, masculinity, and self-control |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/136248060200600101 |journal=Theoretical Criminology |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=5–33 |doi=10.1177/136248060200600101 |s2cid=143624197 |issn=1362-4806|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Insecure attachment and early psycho[[social stress]] indicate the presence of environmental risk (for example poverty, mental illness, instability, minority status, violence). Environmental risk can cause insecure attachment, while also favouring the development of strategies for earlier reproduction. Different reproductive strategies have different adaptive values for males and females: Insecure males tend to adopt avoidant strategies, whereas insecure females tend to adopt anxious/ambivalent strategies, unless they are in a very high risk environment. [[Adrenarche]] is proposed as the endocrine mechanism underlying the reorganization of insecure attachment in middle childhood.<ref name="delguid">{{cite journal | vauthors = Del Giudice M | title = Sex, attachment, and the development of reproductive strategies | journal = The Behavioral and Brain Sciences | volume = 32 | issue = 1 | pages = 1–21; discussion 21–67 | date = February 2009 | pmid = 19210806 | doi = 10.1017/S0140525X09000016 | s2cid = 5396375 }}</ref>

==Changes in attachment during childhood and adolescence==
Childhood and adolescence allows the development of an internal working model useful for forming attachments. This internal working model is related to the individual's state of mind which develops with respect to attachment generally and explores how attachment functions in relationship dynamics based on childhood and adolescent experience. The organization of an internal working model is generally seen as leading to more stable attachments in those who develop such a model, rather than those who rely more on the individual's state of mind alone in forming new attachments.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Main |first1=Mary |last2=Kaplan |first2=Nancy |last3=Cassidy |first3=Jude |title=Security in Infancy, Childhood, and Adulthood: A Move to the Level of Representation |journal=Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development |date=1985 |volume=50 |issue=1/2 |pages=66–104 |doi=10.2307/3333827|jstor=3333827 }}</ref>

Age, cognitive growth, and continued social experience advance the development and complexity of the internal working model. Attachment-related behaviours lose some characteristics typical of the infant-toddler period and take on age-related tendencies. The preschool period involves the use of negotiation and bargaining.<ref name="Waters">{{cite journal |vauthors=Waters E, Kondo-Ikemura K, Posada G, Richters J |year=1991 |title=Learning to love: Mechanisms and milestones |journal=Minnesota Symposia on Child Psychology |location=Hillsdale, NJ |publisher=Erlbaum |volume=23 |issue=Self–Processes and Development |veditors=Gunnar M, Sroufe T}}</ref> For example, four-year-olds are not distressed by separation if they and their caregiver have already negotiated a shared plan for the separation and reunion.<ref name="marbrit">{{cite encyclopedia |year=2008 |title=Normative Development: The Ontogeny of Attachment |encyclopedia=Handbook of Attachment: Theory, Research and Clinical Applications |publisher=Guilford Press |location=New York and London |pages=269–94 |isbn=978-1-59385-874-2 |vauthors=Marvin RS, Britner PA |veditors=Cassidy J, Shaver PR}}</ref>

Ideally, these social skills become incorporated into the internal working model to be used with other children and later with adult peers. As children move into the school years at about six years old, most develop a goal-corrected partnership with parents, in which each partner is willing to compromise in order to maintain a gratifying relationship.<ref name="Waters" /> By middle childhood, the goal of the attachment behavioural system has changed from proximity to the attachment figure to availability. Generally, a child is content with longer separations, provided contact—or the possibility of physically reuniting, if needed—is available. Attachment behaviours such as clinging and following decline and self-reliance increases. By middle childhood (ages 7–11), there may be a shift toward mutual [[coregulation]] of secure-base contact in which caregiver and child negotiate methods of maintaining communication and supervision as the child moves toward a greater degree of independence.<ref name="Waters" />

The attachment system used by adolescents is seen as a "safety regulating system" whose main function is to promote physical and psychological safety. There are 2 different events that can trigger the attachment system. Those triggers include, the presence of a potential danger or stress, internal and external, and a threat of accessibility and/or availability of an attachment figure. The ultimate goal of the attachment system is security, so during a time of danger or inaccessibility the behavioural system accepts felt security in the context of the availability of protection. By adolescence we are able to find security through a variety of things, such as food, exercise, and social media.<ref>{{cite book | last1 = Kerns | first1 = Kathryn A. | first2 = Rhonda A. | last2 = Richardson | title = Attachment in Middle Childhood. | publisher = Guilford Press | date = 2005 }}</ref> Felt security can be achieved through a number of ways, and often without the physical presence of the attachment figure. Higher levels of maturity allows adolescent teens to more capably interact with their environment on their own because the environment is perceived as less threatening. Adolescents teens will also see an increase in cognitive, emotional and behavioural maturity that dictates whether or not teens are less likely to experience conditions that activate their need for an attachment figure. For example, when teenagers get sick and stay home from school, surely they want their parents to be home so they can take care of them, but they are also able to stay home by themselves without experiencing serious amounts of distress.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = McElhaney KB, Allen JP, Stephenson JC, Hare AL | chapter = Attachment and Autonomy During Adolescence | veditors = Lerner RM, Steinberg L | title = Part II: Domains of Individual Development in Adolescence | series = Handbook of Adolescent Psychology | publisher = Wiley-Blackwell | date = 30 October 2009 | doi = 10.1002/9780470479193.adlpsy001012 | isbn = 978-0-470-47919-3 }}</ref> Additionally, the social environment that a school fosters impacts adolescents attachment behaviour, even if these same adolescents have not had issues with attachment behaviour previously. High schools that have a permissive environment compared to an authoritative environment promote positive attachment behaviour. For example, when students feel connected to their teachers and peers because of their permissive schooling environment, they are less likely to skip school. Positive-attachment behaviour in high schools have important implications on how a school's environment should be structured.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Keppens |first1=Gil |last2=Spruyt |first2=Bram |date=November 2019 |title=The School as a Socialization Context: Understanding the Influence of School Bonding and an Authoritative School Climate on Class Skipping |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0044118X17722305 |journal=Youth & Society |language=en |volume=51 |issue=8 |pages=1145–1166 |doi=10.1177/0044118X17722305 |s2cid=149330059 |issn=0044-118X|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

Here are the attachment style differences during adolescence:<ref name=":8">{{cite journal |last1=Freeman |first1=Harry |last2=Brown |first2=B. Bradford |date=2001 |title=Primary Attachment to Parents and Peers during Adolescence: Differences by Attachment Style |journal=Journal of Youth and Adolescence |language=en |volume=30 |issue=6 |pages=653–674 |doi=10.1023/A:1012200511045 |s2cid=35110543 |issn=0047-2891}}</ref>

* Secure adolescents are expected to hold their mothers at a higher rate than all other support figures, including father, significant others, and best friends.
* Insecure adolescents identify more strongly with their peers than their parents as their primary attachment figures. Their friends are seen as a significantly strong source of attachment support.
* Dismissing adolescents rate their parents as a less significant source of attachment support and would consider themselves as their primary attachment figure.
* Preoccupied adolescents would rate their parents as their primary source of attachment support and would consider themselves as a much less significant source of attachment support.<ref name=":8" />

==Attachment styles in adults==
{{Main|Attachment in adults}}{{See also|Attachment measures}}
Attachment theory was extended to adult [[romantic relationship]]s in the late 1980s by Cindy Hazan and [[Phillip Shaver]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Hazan|first1=Cindy|last2=Shaver|first2=Phillip|date=1987|title=Romantic love conceptualized as an attachment process.|url=https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1987-21950-001|journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology|volume=52|issue=3|pages=511–524|doi=10.1037/0022-3514.52.3.511|pmid=3572722|s2cid=2280613 |via=APA PsycNet|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Four styles of attachment have been identified in adults: secure, anxious-preoccupied, dismissive-avoidant and fearful-avoidant. These roughly correspond to infant classifications: secure, insecure-ambivalent, insecure-avoidant and disorganized/disoriented.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Hazan|first1=Cindy|last2=Shaver|first2=Phillip R.|date=1990|title=Love and work: An attachment-theoretical perspective.|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.59.2.270|journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology|volume=59|issue=2|pages=270–280|doi=10.1037/0022-3514.59.2.270|issn=0022-3514|url-access=subscription}}</ref>

=== Securely attached ===

Securely attached adults have been "linked to a high need for achievement and a low fear of failure (Elliot & Reis, 2003)". They will positively approach a task with the goal of mastering it and have an appetite for exploration in achievement settings (Elliot & Reis, 2003). Research shows that securely attached adults have a "low level of personal distress and high levels of concern for others".<ref name="ams">{{cite journal | vauthors = Ahmad S, Mohammad H, Shafique Z |date=2018 |title=The impact of attachment styles on helping behavior in adults |journal=Journal of Social Sciences and Humanity Studies |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=24–29}}</ref> Due to their high rates of [[self-efficacy]], securely attached adults typically do not hesitate to remove a person having a negative impact from problematic situations they are facing.<ref name="ams"/> This calm response is representative of the securely attached adult's emotionally regulated response to threats that many studies have supported in the face of diverse situations. Adult secure attachment comes from an individual's early connection with their caregiver(s), genes and their romantic experiences.<ref name="levine">{{cite book| vauthors = Levine A, Heller R |year=2011 |title=Attached: The new science of adult attachment and how it can help you find and keep love |location=New York, NY |publisher= Penguin Group}}</ref>

Within romantic relationships, a securely attached adult will appear in the following ways: excellent conflict resolution, mentally flexible, effective communicators, avoidance of manipulation, comfortable with closeness without fearfulness of being enmeshed, quickly forgiving, viewing sex and emotional intimacy as one, believing they can positively impact their relationship, and caring for their partner in the way they want to be cared for. In summation, they are great partners who treat their partners very well, as they are not afraid to give positively and ask for their needs to be met. Securely attached adults believe that there are "many potential partners that would be responsive to their needs", and if they come across an individual who is not meeting their needs, they will typically lose interest quickly.<ref name="levine"/>

=== Anxious-preoccupied ===
[[Anxious-preoccupied_attachment|Anxious preoccupied]] adults seek high levels of intimacy, approval and responsiveness from partners, becoming overly dependent. They tend to be less trusting, have less positive views about themselves than their partners, and may exhibit high levels of emotional expressiveness, worry and impulsiveness in their relationships. The anxiety that adults feel prevents the establishment of satisfactory defence exclusion. Thus, it is possible that individuals that have been anxiously attached to their attachment figure or figures have not been able to develop sufficient defences against separation anxiety. Because of their lack of preparation these individuals will then overreact to the anticipation of separation or the actual separation from their attachment figure. The anxiety comes from an individual's intense and/or unstable relationship that leaves the anxious or preoccupied individual relatively defenceless.<ref name="Sperling, Michael B. 1994">{{cite book | last1 = Sperling | first1 = Michael B. | first2 = William H. | last2 = Berman | title = Attachment in Adults: Clinical and Developmental Perspectives | publisher = Guilford Press | date = 1994 }}</ref>

In terms of adult relationships, if an adult experiences this inconsistent behaviour from their romantic partner or acquaintance, they might develop some of the aspects of this attachment type. Besides, insecurity and distress about relationships can be driven by individuals who exhibit inconsistent connection or emotionally abusive behaviours.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-11-03 |title=Preoccupied Attachment Style: How It Develops & How To Cope |url=https://www.simplypsychology.org/anxious-preoccupied-attachment.html |access-date=2023-08-27 |language=en-US}}</ref> However, a secure relationship can also reduce anxious behaviour and be a resource for safety and support.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Simpson |first1=Jeffry A. |last2=Overall |first2=Nickola C. |date=February 2014 |title=Partner Buffering of Attachment Insecurity |journal=Current Directions in Psychological Science |language=en |volume=23 |issue=1 |pages=54–59 |doi=10.1177/0963721413510933 |issn=0963-7214 |pmc=4157676 |pmid=25214722}}</ref>

=== Dismissive-avoidant ===

Dismissive-avoidant adults desire a high level of independence, often appearing to avoid attachment altogether.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Pettigrew |first=Thomas F. |date=2016-01-04 |title=In Pursuit of Three Theories: Authoritarianism, Relative Deprivation, and Intergroup Contact |url=https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev-psych-122414-033327 |journal=Annual Review of Psychology |language=en |volume=67 |issue=1 |pages=1–21 |doi=10.1146/annurev-psych-122414-033327 |pmid=26361053 |s2cid=207668034 |issn=0066-4308}}</ref> They view themselves as self-sufficient, invulnerable to attachment feelings and not needing close relationships.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Aluisy |first=Ana |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/974240408 |title=Reinvent your relationship. A Therapist's Insights to having the Relationship You've Always Wanted |date=2016 |publisher=Morgan James Publishing |isbn=978-1-63047-896-4 |location=[United States] |oclc=974240408}}</ref> They tend to suppress their feelings, dealing with conflict by distancing themselves from partners of whom they often have a poor opinion.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Zahra |first=Fatima Tu |date=2022-10-06 |title=Attachment Security and Attachment Styles in Romantic Relationships |url=https://acspublisher.com/journals/index.php/sajssh/article/view/2662 |journal=South Asian Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities |volume=3 |issue=5 |pages=42–53 |doi=10.48165/sajssh.2022.3504 |s2cid=252863935 |issn=2582-7065|doi-access=free }}</ref> Adults lack the interest of forming close relationships and maintaining emotional closeness with the people around them. They have a great amount of distrust in others, but at the same time possess a positive model of self; they would prefer to invest in their own ego skills. They try to create high levels of self-esteem by investing disproportionately in their abilities or accomplishments. These adults maintain their positive views of self, based on their personal achievements and competence rather than searching for and feeling acceptance from others. These adults will explicitly reject or minimize the importance of emotional attachment and passively avoid relationships when they feel as though they are becoming too close. They strive for self-reliance and independence. When it comes to the opinions of others about themselves, they are very indifferent and are relatively hesitant to internalize positive feedback from their peers. Dismissive avoidance is considered to be the result of defensive deactivation and disconnection to avoid potential rejection, and is in some cases amplified by a genuine disinterest in social connection.<ref name="No Man Is an Island: The Need to Be">{{cite journal | last1 = Carvallo | first1 = Mauricio | last2 = Gabriel | first2 = Shira | year = 2006 | title = No Man Is an Island: The Need to Belong and Dismissing Avoidant Attachment Style | journal = PsycEXTRA Dataset | volume = 32| issue = 5| pages = 697–709 | doi = 10.1037/e511092014-160 | pmid = 16702161 }}</ref>

Adults with dismissive-avoidant patterns are less likely to seek social support than other attachment styles.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lopez |first1=F. G. |title=Oxford handbook of positive psychology |date=2009 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-986216-0 |pages=(pp. 405–415) |url=https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2009-05143-038 |access-date=29 March 2023}}</ref> They are likely to fear intimacy and lack confidence in others.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hazen, C. & Shaver, P. |title=Romantic love conceptualized as an attachment process. |journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology |date=1987 |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=511–524 |doi=10.1037/0022-3514.52.3.511|pmid=3572722 |s2cid=2280613 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Collins, N. L., & Read, S. J. |title=Adult attachment, working models, and relationship quality in dating couples |journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology |date=1990 |volume=58 |issue=4 |pages=644–663 |doi=10.1037/0022-3514.58.4.644|pmid=14570079 |s2cid=3143987 }}</ref> Because of their distrust they cannot be convinced that other people have the ability to deliver emotional support.<ref name="No Man Is an Island: The Need to Be"/> Under a high cognitive load, however, dismissive-avoidant adults appear to have a lowered ability to suppress difficult attachment-related emotions, as well difficulty maintaining positive self-representations.<ref name="Attachment-Related Strategies Durin">{{cite journal |last1=Mikulincer, M., Dolev, T., & Shaver, P. R. |title=Attachment-Related Strategies During Thought Suppression: Ironic Rebounds and Vulnerable Self-Representations. |journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology |date=2004 |volume=87 |issue=6 |pages=940–956 |doi=10.1037/0022-3514.87.6.940|pmid=15598116 }}</ref> This suggests that hidden vulnerabilities may underlie an active denial process.<ref name="Attachment-Related Strategies Durin"/><ref>{{cite book |last1=Brown, D. P., & Elliott, D. S. |title=Attachment disturbances in adults: Treatment for comprehensive repair |date=2016 |publisher=W W Norton & Co. |page=111 |edition=1}}</ref>

=== Fearful-avoidant ===

Fearful-avoidant adults have mixed feelings about close relationships, both desiring and feeling uncomfortable with emotional closeness. The dangerous part about the contrast between wanting to form social relationships while simultaneously fearing the relationship is that it creates mental instability. This mental instability then translates into mistrusting the relationships they do form and also viewing themselves as unworthy. Furthermore, fearful-avoidant adults also have a less pleasant outlook on life compared to anxious-preoccupied and dismissive avoidant groups.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dan |first=O |date=2020 |title=The relationship between individuals with fearful-avoidant adult attachment orientation and early neural responses to emotional content: An event-related potentials (ERPs) study. |url=https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2019-66179-001 |journal=Neuropsychology |volume=34 |issue=2 |pages=155–167 |doi=10.1037/neu0000600 |pmid=31682140 |s2cid=207891295 |via=APA PsychArticles|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Like dismissive-avoidant adults, fearful-avoidant adults tend to seek less intimacy, suppressing their feelings.<ref name="Hazan, Shaver, 1987"/><ref name="Hazan, Shaver,1990">{{cite journal |vauthors=Hazan C, Shaver PR |s2cid=53487697 |year=1990 |title=Love and work: An attachment theoretical perspective |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-personality-and-social-psychology_1990-08_59_2/page/270 |journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology |volume=59 |issue=2 |pages=270–80 |doi=10.1037/0022-3514.59.2.270}}</ref><ref name="Hazan, Shaver,1994">{{cite journal |vauthors=Hazan C, Shaver PR |year=1994 |title=Attachment as an organizational framework for research on close relationships |journal=Psychological Inquiry |volume=5 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1207/s15327965pli0501_1}}</ref><ref name="BarthoHoro">{{cite journal | vauthors = Bartholomew K, Horowitz LM | s2cid = 3547883 | title = Attachment styles among young adults: a test of a four-category model | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-personality-and-social-psychology_1991-08_61_2/page/226 | journal = Journal of Personality and Social Psychology | volume = 61 | issue = 2 | pages = 226–44 | date = August 1991 | pmid = 1920064 | doi = 10.1037/0022-3514.61.2.226 }}</ref>

According to research studies, an individual with a fearful avoidant attachment might have had childhood trauma or persistently negative perceptions and actions from their family members. Apart from these, genetic factors and personality may also have an impact on how an individual behaves with parents as well as how they understand their relationships in their adulthood.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-10-28 |title=What is a fearful avoidant attachment? |url=https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/fearful-avoidant-attachments |access-date=2023-08-27 |website=www.medicalnewstoday.com |language=en}}</ref>

=== Assessing and measuring attachment ===

Two main aspects of adult attachment have been studied. The organization and stability of the mental working models that underlie the attachment styles is explored by social psychologists interested in romantic attachment.<ref name="Fraley, Shaver, 2000">{{cite journal |vauthors=Fraley RC, Shaver PR |year=2000 |title=Adult romantic attachment: Theoretical developments, emerging controversies, and unanswered questions |journal=Review of General Psychology |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=132–54 |citeseerx=10.1.1.471.8896 |doi=10.1037/1089-2680.4.2.132|s2cid=15620444 }}</ref><ref name="Pietro">{{cite journal |vauthors=Pietromonaco PR, Barrett LF |s2cid=17413696 |year=2000 |title=The internal working models concept: What do we really know about the self in relation to others? |journal=Review of General Psychology |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=155–75 |doi=10.1037/1089-2680.4.2.155}}</ref> Developmental psychologists interested in the individual's state of mind with respect to attachment generally explore how attachment functions in relationship dynamics and impacts relationship outcomes. The organization of mental working models is more stable while the individual's state of mind with respect to attachment fluctuates more. Some authors have suggested that adults do not hold a single set of working models. Instead, on one level they have a set of rules and assumptions about attachment relationships in general. On another level they hold information about specific relationships or relationship events. Information at different levels need not be consistent. Individuals can therefore hold different internal working models for different relationships.<ref name="Pietro" /><ref name="Rholes, Simpson, 2004">{{cite encyclopedia |year=2004 |title=Attachment theory: Basic concepts and contemporary questions |encyclopedia=Adult Attachment: Theory, Research, and Clinical Implications |publisher=Guilford Press |location=New York |pages=3–14 |isbn=978-1-59385-047-0 |vauthors=Rholes WS, Simpson JA |veditors=Rholes WS, Simpson JA}}</ref>

There are a number of different measures of adult attachment, the most common being self-report questionnaires and coded interviews based on the [[Attachment measures#Adult Attachment Interview .28AAI.29|Adult Attachment Interview]]. The various measures were developed primarily as research tools, for different purposes and addressing different domains, for example romantic relationships, platonic relationships, parental relationships or peer relationships. Some classify an adult's state of mind with respect to attachment and attachment patterns by reference to childhood experiences, while others assess relationship behaviours and security regarding parents and peers.<ref name="crofrasha">{{cite encyclopedia |year=2008 |title=Measurement of Individual Differences in Adolescent and Adult Attachment |encyclopedia=Handbook of Attachment: Theory, Research and Clinical Applications |publisher=Guilford Press |location=New York and London |pages=599–634 |isbn=978-1-59385-874-2 |vauthors=Crowell JA, Fraley RC, Shaver PR |veditors=Cassidy J, Shaver PR}}</ref>

=== Associations of adult attachment with other traits ===

Adult attachment styles are related to individual differences in the ways in which adults experience and manage their emotions. Recent meta-analyses link insecure attachment styles to lower [[emotional intelligence]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Walker|first1=Sarah|last2=Double|first2=Kit S|last3=Kunst|first3=Hannah|last4=Zhang|first4=Michael|last5=MacCann|first5=Carolyn|date=2022|title=Emotional intelligence and attachment in adulthood: A meta-analysis|journal=Personality and Individual Differences|volume=184|page=111174|doi=10.1016/j.paid.2021.111174 | issn=0191-8869 |url=https://psyarxiv.com/36zcr/ }}</ref> and lower trait mindfulness.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Stevenson|first1=Jodie C.|last2=Emerson|first2=Lisa-Marie|last3=Millings|first3=Abigail|date=December 2017|title=The Relationship Between Adult Attachment Orientation and Mindfulness: a Systematic Review and Meta-analysis|journal=Mindfulness|language=en|volume=8|issue=6|pages=1438–1455|doi=10.1007/s12671-017-0733-y|issn=1868-8527|pmc=5693974|pmid=29201245}}</ref>

==History==
{{Main|History of attachment theory}}

===Maternal deprivation===
{{Main|Maternal deprivation}}

The early thinking of the [[Object relations theory|object relations school]] of [[psychoanalysis]], particularly [[Melanie Klein]], influenced Bowlby. However, he profoundly disagreed with the prevalent psychoanalytic belief that infants' responses relate to their internal fantasy life rather than real-life events. As Bowlby formulated his concepts, he was influenced by case studies on disturbed and delinquent children, such as those of [[William Goldfarb]] published in 1943 and 1945.<ref>{{cite journal | title = Review of evidence on effects of deprivation. II: Retrospective and follow-up studies | journal = Bulletin of the World Health Organization | volume = 3 | issue = 3 | pages = 380–95 | date = 1951 | pmid = 20603943 | pmc = 2554009 | quote = With monotonous regularity each put his finger on the child's inability to make relationships as being the central feature from which all other disturbances sprang, and on the history of institutionalization or, as in the case quoted, of the child's being shifted about from one foster-mother to another as being its cause. }}</ref><ref name="Bowlby 44">{{cite journal | vauthors = Bowlby J |year=1944 |title=Forty-four juvenile thieves: Their characters and home life |journal=International Journal of Psychoanalysis |volume=25 |issue=19–52 |pages=107–27}}</ref>

[[File:Prayer Time in the Nursery--Five Points House of Industry.png|right|280px|thumb|alt=Two rows of little boys, about 20 in total, kneel before their beds in the dormitory of a residential nursery. Their eyes are shut and they are in an attitude of prayer. They wear long white night gowns and behind them are their iron-framed beds.|Prayer time in the Five Points House of Industry residential nursery, 1888. The maternal deprivation hypothesis published in 1951 spurred a shift away from the use of residential nurseries in favour of foster homes.<ref name=rut/>]]

Bowlby's contemporary [[René Spitz]] observed separated children's grief, proposing that "[[psychotoxicity|psychotoxic]]" results were brought about by inappropriate experiences of early care.<ref name="spitz1">{{cite journal | vauthors = Spitz RA | title = Hospitalism; an inquiry into the genesis of psychiatric conditions in early childhood | journal = The Psychoanalytic Study of the Child | volume = 1 | pages = 53–74 | year = 1945 | pmid = 21004303 | doi = 10.1080/00797308.1945.11823126 }}</ref><ref name="spitz">{{cite journal | vauthors = Spitz RA |year=1951 |title=The psychogenic diseases in infancy |journal=The Psychoanalytic Study of the Child |volume=6 |pages=255–75 |doi=10.1080/00797308.1952.11822915}}</ref> A strong influence was the work of social worker and psychoanalyst [[James Robertson (psychoanalyst)|James Robertson]] who filmed the effects of separation on children in hospital. He and Bowlby collaborated in making the 1952 documentary film ''A Two-Year Old Goes to the Hospital'' which was instrumental in a campaign to alter hospital restrictions on visits by parents.<ref name="Schwartz">{{cite book |first=Joseph |last=Schwartz |title=Cassandra's Daughter: A History of Psychoanalysis |url=https://archive.org/details/cassandrasdaught0000schw_l4i4 |publisher=Viking/Allen Lane |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-670-88623-4 |location=New York |page=[https://archive.org/details/cassandrasdaught0000schw_l4i4/page/225 225]}}</ref>

In his 1951 monograph for the [[World Health Organization]], [[Maternal deprivation|''Maternal Care and Mental Health'']], Bowlby put forward the hypothesis that "the infant and young child should experience a warm, intimate, and continuous relationship with his mother in which both find satisfaction and enjoyment", the lack of which may have significant and irreversible mental health consequences. This was also published as ''Child Care and the Growth of Love'' for public consumption. The central proposition was influential but highly controversial.<ref name="WHO 62">{{cite book |title=Deprivation of Maternal Care: A Reassessment of its Effects |publisher=World Health Organization |year=1962 |series=Public Health Papers |location=Geneva |chapter=Preface |issue=14}}</ref> At the time there was limited empirical data and no comprehensive theory to account for such a conclusion.<ref>{{cite book |title=A Secure Base: Clinical Applications of Attachment Theory | vauthors = Bowlby J |publisher=Routledge |year=1988 |isbn=978-0-415-00640-8 |location=London |page=24}}</ref> Nevertheless, Bowlby's theory sparked considerable interest in the nature of early relationships, giving a strong impetus to, (in the words of Mary Ainsworth), a "great body of research" in an extremely difficult, complex area.<ref name="WHO 62" />

Bowlby's work (and Robertson's films) caused a virtual revolution in a hospital visiting by parents, hospital provision for children's play, educational and social needs, and the use of residential nurseries. Over time, orphanages were abandoned in favour of foster care or family-style homes in most developed countries.<ref name="rut">{{cite encyclopedia |year=2008 |title=Implications of Attachment Theory and Research for Child Care Policies |encyclopedia=Handbook of Attachment: Theory, Research and Clinical Applications |publisher=Guilford Press |location=New York and London |pages=958–74 |isbn=978-1-59385-874-2 | vauthors = Rutter M | veditors=Cassidy J, Shaver PR}}</ref>

Bowlby's work about parental provisions after child birth implicates that maternal deprivation negatively influences the attachment behaviour trajectory of a child's life. If a mother experiences post-partum anxiety, stress, or depression, the attachment they have with their child can be disrupted. It is important for pregnant women to have mental-health support pre and post-partum because mental illness often results in low feelings of attachment to their infant.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Reilly |first1=Nicole |last2=Brake |first2=Elloise |last3=Briggs |first3=Nancy |last4=Austin |first4=Marie-Paule |date=2019-11-01 |title=Trajectories of clinical and parenting outcomes following admission to an inpatient mother-baby unit |journal=BMC Psychiatry |volume=19 |issue=1 |pages=336 |doi=10.1186/s12888-019-2331-0 |issn=1471-244X |pmc=6825337 |pmid=31675945 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

===Formulation of the theory===
Following the publication of ''Maternal Care and Mental Health'', Bowlby sought new understanding from the fields of evolutionary biology, ethology, [[developmental psychology]], [[cognitive science]] and control systems theory. He formulated the innovative proposition that mechanisms underlying an infant's emotional tie to the caregiver(s) emerged as a result of [[evolutionary pressure]]. He set out to develop a theory of motivation and behaviour control built on science rather than Freud's psychic energy model. Bowlby argued that with attachment theory he had made good the "deficiencies of the data and the lack of theory to link alleged cause and effect" of ''Maternal Care and Mental Health''.<ref name="Bowlby 86">{{cite web |url=http://www.garfield.library.upenn.edu/classics1986/A1986F063100001.pdf |title=Citation Classic, ''Maternal Care and Mental Health'' | vauthors = Bowlby J |date=December 1986 |publisher=Current Contents |access-date=July 13, 2008 |volume=50 |issue=18}}</ref>

====Ethology====
Bowlby's attention was drawn to [[ethology]] in the early 1950s when he read [[Konrad Lorenz]]'s work.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Bretherton |first=Inge |year=1992 |title=The origins of attachment theory: John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth |url=http://www.psychology.sunysb.edu/attachment/online/inge_origins.pdf |journal=Developmental Psychology |volume=28 |issue=5 |pages=759–775 |doi=10.1037/0012-1649.28.5.759}}</ref> Other important influences were ethologists [[Nikolaas Tinbergen]] and [[Robert Hinde]].{{sfn|Holmes|1993|p=62}} Bowlby subsequently collaborated with Hinde.<ref name="3 vans">{{cite journal | vauthors = Bowlby J | title = John Bowlby and ethology: an annotated interview with Robert Hinde | journal = Attachment & Human Development | volume = 9 | issue = 4 | pages = 321–35 | date = December 2007 | pmid = 17852051 | doi = 10.1080/14616730601149809 | s2cid = 146211690 }}</ref> In 1953 Bowlby stated "the time is ripe for a unification of psychoanalytic concepts with those of ethology, and to pursue the rich vein of research which this union suggests."<ref name="bowlby 53">{{cite journal | vauthors = Bowlby J |year=1953 |title=Critical Phases in the Development of Social Responses in Man and Other Animals |journal=New Biology |volume=14 |pages=25–32}}</ref> Konrad Lorenz had examined the phenomenon of "[[Imprinting (psychology)|imprinting]]", a behaviour characteristic of some birds and mammals which involves rapid learning of recognition by the young, of a [[wikt:conspecific|conspecific]] or comparable object. After recognition comes a tendency to follow.
[[File:Moose-Imprinting-sr81-15.jpg|thumb|right |alt=A young woman in rubber boots is walking with arms crossed through a muddy clearing in a birch wood, followed by a young moose calf running through a puddle|This bottle-fed young moose has developed an attachment to its caregiver (at [[Kostroma Moose Farm]]).]]

Certain types of learning are possible, respective to each applicable type of learning, only within a limited age range known as a [[critical period]]. Bowlby's concepts included the idea that attachment involved learning from experience during a limited age period, influenced by adult behaviour. He did not apply the imprinting concept in its entirety to human attachment. However, he considered that attachment behaviour was best explained as instinctive, combined with the effect of experience, stressing the readiness the child brings to social interactions.{{sfn|Bowlby|1982|pp=220-23}} Over time it became apparent there were more differences than similarities between attachment theory and imprinting so the analogy was dropped.<ref name="Rutter 95" />

Ethologists expressed concern about the adequacy of some research on which attachment theory was based, particularly the generalization to humans from animal studies.<ref name="crnic">{{cite encyclopedia |year=1982 |title=Animal models of human behavior: Their application to the study of attachment |encyclopedia=The development of attachment and affiliative systems |publisher=Plenum |location=New York |pages=31–42 |isbn=978-0-306-40849-6 |vauthors=Crnic LS, Reite ML, Shucard DW |veditors=Emde RN, Harmon RJ}}</ref><ref name="Brann">{{cite encyclopedia |year=1972 |title=Human non-verbal behaviour: A means of communication |encyclopedia=Ethological studies of child behaviour |publisher=Cambridge University Press | veditors = Blurton-Jones N |pages=37–64 |isbn=978-0-521-09855-7 |quote=... it must be emphasized that data derived from species other than man can be used only to ''suggest'' hypotheses that may be worth applying to man for testing by critical observations. In the absence of critical evidence derived from observing man such hypotheses are no more than intelligent guesses. There is a danger in human ethology ... that interesting, but untested, hypotheses may gain the status of accepted theory. [One author] has coined the term 'ethologism' as a label for the present vogue [in 1970] ... for uncritically invoking the findings from ethological studies of other species as necessary and sufficient explanations ... Theory based on superficial analogies between species has always impeded biological understanding ... We conclude that a valid ethology of man must be based primarily on data derived from man, and not on data obtained from fish, birds, or other primates |vauthors=Brannigan CR, Humphries DA}}</ref> Schur, discussing Bowlby's use of ethological concepts (pre-1960) commented that concepts used in attachment theory had not kept up with changes in ethology itself.<ref name="schur">{{cite journal | vauthors = Schur M | title = Discussion of Dr. John Bowlby's paper | journal = The Psychoanalytic Study of the Child | volume = 15 | pages = 63–84 | year = 1960 | pmid = 13749000 | doi = 10.1080/00797308.1960.11822568 | quote = Bowlby ... assumes the fully innate, unlearned character of most complex behavior patterns ... (whereas recent animal studies showed) ... both the early impact of learning and the great intricacy of the interaction between mother and litter" ... (and applies) ... "to human behavior an instinct concept which neglects the factor of development and learning far beyond even the position taken by Lorenz [the ethological theorist] in his early propositions }}</ref> Ethologists and others writing in the 1960s and 1970s questioned and expanded the types of behaviour used as indications of attachment.<ref name="SchafEm">{{cite journal |vauthors=Schaffer HR, Emerson PE |year=1964 |title=The development of social attachment in infancy |journal=Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, Serial No. 94 |volume=29 |issue=3}}</ref> Observational studies of young children in natural settings provided other behaviours that might indicate attachment; for example, staying within a predictable distance of the mother without effort on her part and picking up small objects, bringing them to the mother but not to others.<ref name="anderson">{{cite encyclopedia |year=1972 |title=Attachment behaviour out of doors |encyclopedia=Ethological studies of child behaviour |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge | veditors = Blurton-Jones N |pages=199–216 |isbn=978-0-521-09855-7 | vauthors = Anderson JW }}</ref> Although ethologists tended to be in agreement with Bowlby, they pressed for more data, objecting to psychologists writing as if there were an "entity which is 'attachment', existing over and above the observable measures."<ref name="jones">{{cite encyclopedia |year=1972 |title=Behaviour of children and their mothers at separation and greeting |encyclopedia=Ethological studies of child behaviour |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge | veditors = Blurton-Jones N |pages=217–48 |isbn=978-0-521-09855-7 |vauthors=Jones NB, Leach GM}}</ref> [[Robert Hinde]] considered "attachment behaviour system" to be an appropriate term which did not offer the same problems "because it refers to postulated control systems that determine the relations between different kinds of behaviour."<ref name="Hinde 82">{{cite book |title=Ethology | vauthors = Hinde R |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1982 |isbn=978-0-00-686034-1 |location=Oxford |page=229}}</ref>

====Psychoanalysis====
[[Image:Evacuation of Schoolchildren in Japan.JPG|thumb|left|alt=Several lines of school children march diagonally from top right to bottom left. Each carries a bag or bundle and each raises their right arm in the air in a salute. Adults stand in a line across the bottom right hand corner making the same gesture.|Evacuation of smiling Japanese school children in [[World War II]] from the book ''Road to Catastrophe'']]

[[Psychoanalysis|Psychoanalytic]] concepts influenced Bowlby's view of attachment, in particular, the observations by [[Anna Freud]] and [[Dorothy Burlingham]] of young children separated from familiar caregivers during World War II.<ref name="anna">{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/Freud_Burlingham_1943_War_and_Children_k |title=War and children |vauthors=Freud A, Burlingham DT |publisher=Medical War Books |year=1943 |isbn=978-0-8371-6942-2}}</ref> However, Bowlby rejected psychoanalytical explanations for early infant bonds including "[[Drive theory (psychoanalysis)|drive theory]]" in which the motivation for attachment derives from gratification of hunger and libidinal drives. He called this the "[[Cupboard Love|cupboard-love]]" theory of relationships. In his view it failed to see attachment as a psychological bond in its own right rather than an instinct derived from feeding or sexuality.{{sfn|Holmes|1993|pp=62–63}} Based on ideas of primary attachment and [[Neo-Darwinism]], Bowlby identified what he saw as fundamental flaws in psychoanalysis: the overemphasis of internal dangers rather than external threat, and the view of the development of personality via linear ''phases'' with [[regression (psychology)|''regression'']] to fixed points accounting for psychological distress. Bowlby instead posited that several lines of development were possible, the outcome of which depended on the interaction between the organism and the environment. In attachment this would mean that although a developing child has a propensity to form attachments, the nature of those attachments depends on the environment to which the child is exposed.{{sfn|Holmes|1993|pp=64–65}}

From early in the development of attachment theory there was criticism of the theory's lack of congruence with various branches of psychoanalysis. Bowlby's decisions left him open to criticism from well-established thinkers working on similar problems.<ref name="Steele">{{cite journal |vauthors=Steele H, Steele M |year=1998 |title=Attachment and psychoanalysis: Time for a reunion |journal=Social Development |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=92–119 |doi=10.1111/1467-9507.00053}}</ref><ref name="Cass 98">{{cite journal | vauthors = Cassidy J |year=1998 |title=Commentary on Steele and Steele: Attachment and object relations theories and the concept of independent behavioral systems |journal=Social Development |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=120–26 |doi=10.1111/1467-9507.00054}}</ref><ref name="Steele 98">{{cite journal |vauthors=Steele H, Steele M |year=1998 |title=Debate: Attachment and psychoanalysis: Time for a reunion |journal=Social Development |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=92–119 |doi=10.1111/1467-9507.00053}}</ref>

====Internal working model====
The philosopher [[Kenneth Craik]] had noted the ability of thought to predict events. He stressed the survival value of natural selection for this ability. A key component of attachment theory is the attachment behaviour system where certain behaviours have a predictable outcome (i.e. proximity) and serve as self-preservation method (i.e. protection).<ref name="Cassidy, Jude 2013">{{cite journal | vauthors = Cassidy J, Jones JD, Shaver PR | title = Contributions of attachment theory and research: a framework for future research, translation, and policy | journal = Development and Psychopathology | volume = 25 | issue = 4 Pt 2 | pages = 1415–34 | date = November 2013 | pmid = 24342848 | pmc = 4085672 | doi = 10.1017/s0954579413000692 }}</ref> All taking place outside of an individual's awareness, This [[Internal Working Model of Attachment|internal working model]] allows a person to try out alternatives mentally, using knowledge of the past while responding to the present and future. Bowlby applied Craik's ideas to attachment, when other psychologists were applying these concepts to adult perception and cognition.<ref name="JLaird">{{cite book |title=Mental models |url=https://archive.org/details/mentalmodelstowa0000john | vauthors = Johnson-Laird PN |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=1983 |isbn=978-0-674-56881-5 |location=Cambridge, MA |pages=[https://archive.org/details/mentalmodelstowa0000john/page/179 179]–87}}</ref>

Infants absorb all sorts of complex social-emotional information from the social interactions that they observe. They notice the helpful and hindering behaviours of one person to another. From these observations they develop expectations of how two characters should behave, known as a "secure base script." These scripts provide as a template of how attachment related events should unfold and they are the building blocks of ones internal working models.<ref name="Cassidy, Jude 2013"/> An infant's internal working model is developed in response to the infant's experience based internal working models of self, and environment, with emphasis on the caregiving environment and the outcomes of his or her proximity-seeking behaviours. Theoretically, secure child and adult script, would allow for an attachment situation where one person successfully utilizes another as a secure base from which to explore and as a safe haven in times of distress. In contrast, insecure individuals would create attachment situations with more complications.<ref name="Cassidy, Jude 2013"/> For example, If the caregiver is accepting of these proximity-seeking behaviours and grants access, the infant develops a secure organization; if the caregiver consistently denies the infant access, an avoidant organization develops; and if the caregiver inconsistently grants access, an ambivalent organization develops.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Main M, Kaplan N, Cassidy J |year=1985 |title=Security in Infancy, Childhood, and Adulthood: A Move to the Level of Representation |journal=Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development |volume=50 |issue=1/2 |pages=66–104 |doi=10.2307/3333827 |jstor=3333827}}</ref> In retrospect, internal working models are constant with and reflect the primary relationship with our caregivers. Childhood attachment directly influences our adult relationships.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ravitz |first1=Paula |last2=Maunder |first2=Robert |last3=Hunter |first3=Jon |last4=Sthankiya |first4=Bhadra |last5=Lancee |first5=William |date=2010-10-01 |title=Adult attachment measures: A 25-year review |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022399909003304 |journal=Journal of Psychosomatic Research |language=en |volume=69 |issue=4 |pages=419–432 |doi=10.1016/j.jpsychores.2009.08.006 |pmid=20846544 |issn=0022-3999|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

A parent's internal working model that is operative in the attachment relationship with her infant can be accessed by examining the parent's mental representations.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Lieberman AF |title=Attachment and psychopathology | url = https://archive.org/details/attachmentpsycho0000unse |pages=[https://archive.org/details/attachmentpsycho0000unse/page/277 277]–292 |year=1997 | veditors = Atkinson L, Zucker KJ |chapter=Toddlers' internalization of maternal attributions as a factor in quality of attachment |place=New York, NY, US |publisher=Guilford Press |isbn=978-1-57230-191-7 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Zeanah CH, Keener MA, Anders TF | title = Adolescent mothers' prenatal fantasies and working models of their infants | journal = Psychiatry | volume = 49 | issue = 3 | pages = 193–203 | date = August 1986 | pmid = 3749375 | doi = 10.1080/00332747.1986.11024321 }}</ref> Recent research has demonstrated that the quality of maternal attributions as markers of maternal mental representations can be associated with particular forms of maternal psychopathology and can be altered in a relative short time-period by targeted psychotherapeutic intervention.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Schechter DS, Moser DA, Reliford A, McCaw JE, Coates SW, Turner JB, Serpa SR, Willheim E | title = Negative and distorted attributions towards child, self, and primary attachment figure among posttraumatically stressed mothers: what changes with Clinician Assisted Videofeedback Exposure Sessions (CAVES) | journal = Child Psychiatry and Human Development | volume = 46 | issue = 1 | pages = 10–20 | date = February 2015 | pmid = 24553738 | pmc = 4139484 | doi = 10.1007/s10578-014-0447-5 }}</ref>

====Cybernetics====
The theory of control systems ([[cybernetics]]), developing during the 1930s and 1940s, influenced Bowlby's thinking.<ref name="Robbins">{{cite journal | vauthors = Robbins P, Zacks JM | s2cid = 17846200 | title = Attachment theory and cognitive science: commentary on Fonagy and Target | journal = Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association | volume = 55 | issue = 2 | pages = 457–67; discussion 493–501 | year = 2007 | pmid = 17601100 | doi = 10.1177/00030651070550021401 }}</ref> The young child's need for proximity to the attachment figure was seen as balancing [[Homeostasis|homeostatically]] with the need for exploration. (Bowlby compared this process to physiological homeostasis whereby, for example, blood pressure is kept within limits). The actual distance maintained by the child would vary as the balance of needs changed. For example, the approach of a stranger, or an injury, would cause the child exploring at a distance to seek proximity. The child's goal is not an object (the caregiver) but a state; maintenance of the desired distance from the caregiver depending on circumstances.<ref name="Cassidy"/>

====Cognitive development====
Bowlby's reliance on [[Jean Piaget|Piaget]]'s theory of cognitive development gave rise to questions about object permanence (the ability to remember an object that is temporarily absent) in early attachment behaviours. An infant's ability to discriminate strangers and react to the mother's absence seemed to occur months earlier than Piaget suggested would be cognitively possible.<ref name="fraiberg">{{cite journal | vauthors = Fraiberg S | title = Libidinal object constancy and mental representation | journal = The Psychoanalytic Study of the Child | volume = 24 | pages = 9–47 | year = 1969 | pmid = 5353377 | doi = 10.1080/00797308.1969.11822685 }}</ref> More recently, it has been noted that the understanding of mental representation has advanced so much since Bowlby's day that present views can be more specific than those of Bowlby's time.<ref name="waters2">{{cite journal | vauthors = Waters HS, Waters E | title = The attachment working models concept: among other things, we build script-like representations of secure base experiences | journal = Attachment & Human Development | volume = 8 | issue = 3 | pages = 185–97 | date = September 2006 | pmid = 16938702 | doi = 10.1080/14616730600856016 | s2cid = 11443750 }}</ref>

====Behaviourism====
In 1969, Gerwitz discussed how mother and child could provide each other with positive reinforcement experiences through their mutual attention, thereby learning to stay close together. This explanation would make it unnecessary to posit innate human characteristics fostering attachment.<ref name= "Gewirtz">{{cite journal| vauthors = Gewirtz N|year=1969|title=Potency of a social reinforcer as a function of satiation and recovery| url = https://archive.org/details/sim_developmental-psychology_1969-01_1_1/page/2|journal= Developmental Psychology|volume= 1|pages= 2–13|doi= 10.1037/h0026802}}</ref> Learning theory, ([[behaviourism]]), saw attachment as a remnant of dependency with the quality of attachment being merely a response to the caregiver's cues. The main predictors of attachment quality are parents being sensitive and responsive to their children. When parents interact with their infants in a warm and nurturing manner, their attachment quality increases. The way that parents interact with their children at four months is related to attachment behaviour at 12 months, thus it is important for parents' sensitivity and responsiveness to remain stable. The lack of sensitivity and responsiveness increases the likelihood for attachment disorders to development in children.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Volling |first=B |date=2002 |title=Parents' emotional availability and infant emotional competence: Predictors of parent-infant attachment and emerging self-regulation. |url=https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2002-06713-010 |journal=Journal of Family Psychology |volume=164 |issue=4 |pages=447–465 |doi=10.1037/0893-3200.16.4.447 |pmid=12561291 |via=APA PsycArticles|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Behaviourists saw behaviours like crying as a random activity meaning nothing until reinforced by a caregiver's response. To behaviourists, frequent responses would result in more crying. To attachment theorists, crying is an inborn attachment behaviour to which the caregiver must respond if the infant is to develop emotional security. Conscientious responses produce security which enhances autonomy and results in less crying. Ainsworth's research in Baltimore supported the attachment theorists' view.<ref>[[#Karen98|Karen]] pp. 166–73.</ref>

In the last decade, [[Behavior analysis of child development|behaviour analysts]] have constructed models of attachment based on the importance of [[Contingency (philosophy)|contingent]] relationships. These behaviour analytic models have received some support from research<ref name="kassow">{{cite journal| vauthors = Kassow DZ, Dunst CJ|year=2004|title= Relationship between parental contingent-responsiveness and attachment outcomes|journal= Bridges|volume= 2|issue= 4|pages= 1–17}}</ref> and meta-analytic reviews.<ref name="dunst">{{cite journal| vauthors = Dunst CJ, Kassow DZ |year=2008|title= Caregiver Sensitivity, Contingent Social Responsiveness, and Secure Infant Attachment|journal=Journal of Early and Intensive Behavior Intervention|volume= 5|issue=1|pages= 40–56|doi=10.1037/h0100409|issn=1554-4893|doi-access=free}}</ref>

====Developments since 1970s====
In the 1970s, problems with viewing attachment as a trait (stable characteristic of an individual) rather than as a type of behaviour with organizing functions and outcomes, led some authors to the conclusion that attachment behaviours were best understood in terms of their functions in the child's life.<ref name="Sroufe, Waters, 1977">{{cite journal |vauthors=Sroufe LA, Waters E |year=1977 |title=Attachment as an organizational construct |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_child-development_1977-12_48_4/page/1184 |journal=Child Development |volume=48 |issue=4 |pages=1184–99 |doi=10.2307/1128475 |jstor=1128475}}</ref> This way of thinking saw the secure base concept as central to attachment theory's logic, coherence, and status as an organizational construct.<ref name="WatCum">{{cite journal | vauthors = Waters E, Cummings EM | title = A secure base from which to explore close relationships | journal = Child Development | volume = 71 | issue = 1 | pages = 164–72 | year = 2000 | pmid = 10836570 | doi = 10.1111/1467-8624.00130 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.505.6759 | s2cid = 15158143 }}</ref> Following this argument, the assumption that attachment is expressed identically in all humans cross-culturally was examined.<ref name="Tronick">{{cite journal |vauthors=Tronick EZ, Morelli GA, Ivey PK |s2cid=1756552 |year=1992 |title=The Efe forager infant and toddler's pattern of social relationships: Multiple and simultaneous |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_developmental-psychology_1992-07_28_4/page/568 |journal=Developmental Psychology |volume=28 |issue=4 |pages=568–77 |doi=10.1037/0012-1649.28.4.568}}</ref> The research showed that though there were cultural differences, the three basic patterns, secure, avoidant and ambivalent, can be found in every culture in which studies have been undertaken, even where communal sleeping arrangements are the norm. The selection of the secure pattern is found in the majority of children across cultures studied. This follows logically from the fact that attachment theory provides for infants to adapt to changes in the environment, selecting optimal behavioural strategies.<ref name="ijzsag">{{cite encyclopedia |year=2008 |title=Cross-Cultural Patterns of Attachment; Universal and Contextual Dimensions |encyclopedia=Handbook of Attachment: Theory, Research and Clinical Applications |publisher=Guilford Press |location=New York and London |pages=880–905 |isbn=978-1-59385-874-2 |vauthors=van IJzendoorn MH, Sagi-Schwartz A |veditors=Cassidy J, Shaver PR}}</ref> How attachment is expressed shows cultural variations which need to be ascertained before studies can be undertaken; for example [[Kisii people|Gusii]] infants are greeted with a handshake rather than a hug. Securely attached Gusii infants anticipate and seek this contact. There are also differences in the distribution of insecure patterns based on cultural differences in child-rearing practices.<ref name=ijzsag/> The scholar [[Michael Rutter]] in 1974 studied the importance of distinguishing between the consequences of attachment deprivation upon intellectual retardation in children and lack of development in the emotional growth in children.<ref>{{cite book | first = Michael | last = Rutter | date = 1974 | title = The Qualities of Mothering | url = https://archive.org/details/qualitiesofmothe0000unse | location = New York, N.Y. | isbn = 978-0-87668-189-3 }}</ref> Rutter's conclusion was that a careful delineation of maternal attributes needed to be identified and differentiated for progress in the field to continue.

The biggest challenge to the notion of the universality of attachment theory came from studies conducted in Japan where the concept of ''[[amae]]'' plays a prominent role in describing family relationships. Arguments revolved around the appropriateness of the use of the Strange Situation procedure where ''amae'' is practised. Ultimately research tended to confirm the universality hypothesis of attachment theory.<ref name=ijzsag/> Most recently a 2007 study conducted in [[Sapporo]] in Japan found attachment distributions consistent with global norms using the six-year Main and Cassidy scoring system for attachment classification.<ref name="Behrens">{{cite journal | vauthors = Behrens KY, Hesse E, Main M | title = Mothers' attachment status as determined by the Adult Attachment Interview predicts their 6-year-olds' reunion responses: a study conducted in Japan | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_developmental-psychology_2007-11_43_6/page/1553 | journal = Developmental Psychology | volume = 43 | issue = 6 | pages = 1553–1567 | date = November 2007 | pmid = 18020832 | doi = 10.1037/0012-1649.43.6.1553 }}</ref><ref name="MainCass">{{cite journal |vauthors=Main M, Cassidy J |year=1988 |title=Categories of response to reunion with the parent at age 6: Predictable from infant attachment classifications and stable over a 1-month period |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_developmental-psychology_1988-05_24_3/page/415 |journal=Developmental Psychology |volume=24 |issue=3 |pages=415–26 |doi=10.1037/0012-1649.24.3.415}}</ref>

Critics in the 1990s such as [[Judith Rich Harris|J. R. Harris]], [[Steven Pinker]] and [[Jerome Kagan]] were generally concerned with the concept of infant determinism ([[nature versus nurture]]), stressing the effects of later experience on personality.<ref name="harris">{{cite book |title=The Nurture Assumption: Why Children Turn Out the Way They Do |title-link=The Nurture Assumption | vauthors = Harris JR |publisher=Free Press |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-684-84409-1 |location=New York |pages=[https://archive.org/details/nurtureassumptio00harr_0/page/1 1–4] |author-link=Judith Rich Harris}}</ref><ref name="pinker">{{cite book |title=The Blank Slate: The Modern Denial of Human Nature |title-link=The Blank Slate | vauthors = Pinker S |publisher=Allen Lane |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-14-027605-3 |location=London |pages=372–99 |author-link=Steven Pinker}}</ref><ref name="kagan">{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/threeseductiveid00kaga_0/page/83 |title=Three Seductive Ideas | vauthors = Kagan J |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-674-89033-6 |location=Cambridge, MA |pages=[https://archive.org/details/threeseductiveid00kaga_0/page/83 83–150]}}</ref> Building on the work on [[temperament]] of [[Stella Chess]], Kagan rejected almost every assumption on which attachment theory's cause was based. Kagan argued that heredity was far more important than the transient developmental effects of early environment. For example, a child with an inherently difficult temperament would not elicit sensitive behavioural responses from a caregiver. The debate spawned considerable research and analysis of data from the growing number of longitudinal studies. Subsequent research has not borne out Kagan's argument, possibly suggesting that it is the caregiver's behaviours that form the child's attachment style, although how this style is expressed may differ with the child's temperament.<ref name=vbv/> Harris and Pinker put forward the notion that the influence of parents had been much exaggerated, arguing that socialization took place primarily in peer groups. H. Rudolph Schaffer concluded that parents and peers had different functions, fulfilling distinctive roles in children's development.<ref name="schaffer">{{cite book |title=Introducing Child Psychology | vauthors =Schaffer HR |publisher=Blackwell |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-631-21627-8 |location=Oxford |page=113}}</ref>

Psychoanalyst/psychologists [[Peter Fonagy]] and [[Mary Target]] have attempted to bring attachment theory and psychoanalysis into a closer relationship through cognitive science as [[mentalization]]. Mentalization, or theory of mind, is the capacity of human beings to guess with some accuracy what thoughts, emotions and intentions lie behind behaviours as subtle as facial expression.<ref name="Fonagy et al.">{{cite book |title=Affect regulation, mentalization, and the development of the self |vauthors=Fonagy P, Gergely G, Jurist EL, Target M |publisher=Other Press |year=2002 |isbn=978-1-59051-161-9 |location=New York}}</ref> It has been speculated that this connection between theory of mind and the internal working model may open new areas of study, leading to alterations in attachment theory.{{sfn|Mercer|2006|pp=165–68}} Since the late 1980s, there has been a developing rapprochement between attachment theory and psychoanalysis, based on common ground as elaborated by attachment theorists and researchers, and a change in what psychoanalysts consider to be central to psychoanalysis. [[Object relations]] models which emphasise the autonomous need for a relationship have become dominant and are linked to a growing recognition in psychoanalysis of the importance of infant development in the context of relationships and internalized representations. Psychoanalysis has recognized the formative nature of a child's early environment including the issue of childhood trauma. A psychoanalytically based exploration of the attachment system and an accompanying clinical approach has emerged together with a recognition of the need for measurement of outcomes of interventions.<ref name="fogeta">{{cite encyclopedia |year=2008 |encyclopedia=Handbook of Attachment: Theory, research and Clinical Applications |publisher=Guilford Press |location=New York and London |pages=783–810 |isbn=978-1-59385-874-2 |contribution=Psychoanalytic Constructs and Attachment Theory and Research |veditors=Cassidy J, Shaver PR |vauthors=Fonagy P, Gergely G, Target M|title=Handbook of Attachment, Second Edition: Theory, Research, and Clinical Applications }}</ref>

One focus of attachment research has been the difficulties of children whose attachment history was poor, including those with extensive non-parental child care experiences. Concern with the effects of child care was intense during the so-called "day care wars" of the late-20th century, during which some authors stressed the deleterious effects of day care.<ref name="belsky">{{cite journal | vauthors = Belsky J, Rovine MJ | title = Nonmaternal care in the first year of life and the security of infant-parent attachment | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_child-development_1988-02_59_1/page/157 | journal = Child Development | volume = 59 | issue = 1 | pages = 157–67 | date = February 1988 | pmid = 3342709 | doi = 10.2307/1130397 | jstor = 1130397 }}</ref> As a result of this controversy, training of child care professionals has come to stress attachment issues, including the need for relationship-building by the assignment of a child to a specific care-giver. Although only high-quality child care settings are likely to provide this, more infants in child care receive attachment-friendly care than in the past.{{sfn|Mercer|2006|pp=160–63}} A [[natural experiment]] permitted extensive study of attachment issues as researchers followed thousands of Romanian orphans adopted into Western families after the end of the [[Nicolae Ceaușescu]] regime. The English and Romanian Adoptees Study Team, led by [[Michael Rutter]], followed some of the children into their teens, attempting to unravel the effects of poor attachment, adoption, new relationships, physical problems and medical issues associated with their early lives. Studies of these adoptees, whose initial conditions were shocking, yielded reason for optimism as many of the children developed quite well. Researchers noted that separation from familiar people is only one of many factors that help to determine the quality of development.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Rutter M | s2cid = 10334844 | title = Nature, nurture, and development: from evangelism through science toward policy and practice | journal = Child Development | volume = 73 | issue = 1 | pages = 1–21 | date = January–February 2002 | pmid = 14717240 | doi = 10.1111/1467-8624.00388 }}</ref> Although higher rates of atypical insecure attachment patterns were found compared to native-born or early-adopted samples, 70% of later-adopted children exhibited no marked or severe attachment disorder behaviours.<ref name=PPP/>

Authors considering attachment in non-Western cultures have noted the connection of attachment theory with Western family and child care patterns characteristic of Bowlby's time.<ref name="MC">{{cite encyclopedia |year=1985 |title=Infant temperament, mother's mode of interaction, and attachment in Japan: An interim report |encyclopedia=Growing Points of Attachment Theory and Research: Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development |volume=50 1–2, Serial No. 209 |pages=276–97 |isbn=978-0-226-07411-5 |vauthors=Miyake K, Chen SJ |veditors=Bretherton I, Waters E}}</ref> As children's experience of care changes, so may attachment-related experiences. For example, changes in attitudes toward female sexuality have greatly increased the numbers of children living with their never-married mothers or being cared for outside the home while the mothers work. This social change has made it more difficult for childless people to adopt infants in their own countries. There has been an increase in the number of older-child adoptions and adoptions from third-world sources in first-world countries. Adoptions and births to same-sex couples have increased in number and gained legal protection, compared to their status in Bowlby's time.{{sfn|Mercer|2006|pp=152–56}} Regardless of whether parents are genetically related, adoptive parents attachment roles they will still influence and affect their child's attachment behaviours throughout their lifetime.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Raby |first1=Kenneth Lee |last2=Dozier |first2=Mary |date=February 2019 |title=Attachment across the lifespan: insights from adoptive families |journal=Current Opinion in Psychology |language=en |volume=25 |pages=81–85 |doi=10.1016/j.copsyc.2018.03.011 |pmc=6158124 |pmid=29621692}}</ref> Issues have been raised to the effect that the [[wikt:dyadic|dyadic]] model characteristic of attachment theory cannot address the complexity of real-life social experiences, as infants often have multiple relationships within the family and in child care settings.<ref name="McHale">{{cite journal | vauthors = McHale JP | title = When infants grow up in multiperson relationship systems | journal = Infant Mental Health Journal | volume = 28 | issue = 4 | pages = 370–392 | date = July 2007 | pmid = 21512615 | pmc = 3079566 | doi = 10.1002/imhj.20142 }}</ref> It is suggested these multiple relationships influence one another reciprocally, at least within a family.<ref name="Zhang">{{cite journal | vauthors = Zhang X, Chen H | title = Reciprocal influences between parents' perceptions of mother-child and father-child relationships: a short-term longitudinal study in Chinese preschoolers | journal = The Journal of Genetic Psychology | volume = 171 | issue = 1 | pages = 22–34 | year = 2010 | pmid = 20333893 | doi = 10.1080/00221320903300387 | s2cid = 35227740 }}</ref>

Principles of attachment theory have been used to explain adult social behaviours, including mating, social dominance and hierarchical power structures, in-group identification,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Milanov M, Rubin M, Paolini S | title = Adult attachment styles as predictors of different types of ingroup identification. | journal = Bulgarian Journal of Psychology | date = 2013 | volume = 1 | issue = 4 | pages = 175–186 | url = https://docs.google.com/file/d/0BycrcvpKCBNWZTRseVpja2Rjejg/edit?usp=sharing&pli=1 }}</ref> group coalitions, membership in cults and totalitarian systems<ref>{{cite book |last1=Stein |first1=Alexandra |title=Terror, love and brainwashing : attachment in cults and totalitarian systems |isbn=978-1-138-67797-5|year=2017 |publisher=Routledge }}</ref> and negotiation of reciprocity and justice.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Bugental DB | s2cid = 8499316 | title = Acquisition of the algorithms of social life: a domain-based approach | journal = Psychological Bulletin | volume = 126 | issue = 2 | pages = 187–219 | date = March 2000 | pmid = 10748640 | doi = 10.1037/0033-2909.126.2.187 }}</ref> Those explanations have been used to design parental care training, and have been particularly successful in the design of child abuse prevention programmes.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Bugental DB, Ellerson PC, Lin EK, Rainey B, Kokotovic A, O'Hara N | s2cid = 32696082 | title = A cognitive approach to child abuse prevention | journal = Journal of Family Psychology | volume = 16 | issue = 3 | pages = 243–58 | date = September 2002 | pmid = 12238408 | doi = 10.1037/0893-3200.16.3.243 }}</ref>

While a wide variety of studies have upheld the basic tenets of attachment theory, research has been inconclusive as to whether self-reported early attachment and later depression are demonstrably related.<ref name="Ma_attachment">{{cite journal | vauthors = Ma K |title=Attachment theory in adult psychiatry. Part 1: Conceptualizations, measurement and clinical research findings |journal=Advances in Psychiatric Treatment|volume=12 |pages=440–449 |year=2006|issue=6 |url=http://apt.rcpsych.org/cgi/content/full/12/6/440 |access-date=2010-04-21| doi=10.1192/apt.12.6.440 |doi-access=free |url-access=subscription }}</ref>

==Neurobiology of attachment==
In addition to longitudinal studies, there has been [[Psychophysiology|psychophysiological]] research on the neurobiology of attachment.<ref name="foxhane">{{cite encyclopedia |year=2008 |title=Studying the Biology of Human Attachment |encyclopedia=Handbook of Attachment: Theory, Research and Clinical Applications |publisher=Guilford Press |location=New York and London |pages=811–29 |isbn=978-1-59385-874-2 |vauthors=Fox NA, Hane AA |veditors=Cassidy J, Shaver PR}}</ref> Research has begun to include [[neural development]],<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Landers MS, Sullivan RM | title = The development and neurobiology of infant attachment and fear | journal = Developmental Neuroscience | volume = 34 | issue = 2–3 | pages = 101–14 | date = 2012 | pmid = 22571921 | pmc = 3593124 | doi = 10.1159/000336732 }}</ref> [[behaviour genetics]] and [[temperament]] concepts.<ref name= vbv/> Generally, temperament and attachment constitute separate developmental domains, but aspects of both contribute to a range of interpersonal and intrapersonal developmental outcomes.<ref name="vbv">{{cite encyclopedia |year=2008 |title=Attachment and Temperament |encyclopedia=Handbook of Attachment: Theory, Research and Clinical Applications |publisher=Guilford Press |location=New York and London |pages=192–216 |isbn=978-1-59385-874-2 |vauthors=Vaughn BE, Bost KK, van IJzendoorn MH |veditors=Cassidy J, Shaver PR}}</ref> Some types of temperament may make some individuals susceptible to the stress of unpredictable or hostile relationships with caregivers in the early years.<ref name="marshall2005">{{cite journal |vauthors=Marshall PJ, Fox NA |year=2005 |title=Relationship between behavioral reactivity at 4 months and attachment classification at 14 months in a selected sample |journal=Infant Behavior and Development |volume=28 |issue=4 |pages=492–502 |doi=10.1016/j.infbeh.2005.06.002}}</ref> In the absence of available and responsive caregivers it appears that some children are particularly vulnerable to developing attachment disorders.{{sfn|Prior|Glaser|2006|p=219}}

The quality of caregiving received at infancy and childhood directly affects an individual's neurological systems which controls stress regulation.<ref name=foxhane/> In psychophysiological research on attachment, the two main areas studied have been [[Autonomic nervous system|autonomic response]]s, such as heart rate or respiration, and the activity of the [[hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis]], a system that is responsible for the body's reaction to [[stress (biology)|stress]].<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Adam EK, Klimes-Dougan B, Gunnar MR | chapter = Social regulation of the adrenocortical response to stress in infants, children, and adolescents. | veditors = Coch D, Dawson G, Fischer KW | title = Human behavior and the developing brain: Atypical development. | location = New York, NY | publisher = Guilford Press | date = 2007 | pages = 264–304 }}</ref> Infants' physiological responses have been measured during the Strange Situation procedure looking at individual differences in infant temperament and the extent to which attachment acts as a moderator. Recent studies convey that early attachment relationships become molecularly instilled into the being, thus affecting later immune system functioning.<ref name="Cassidy, Jude 2013"/> Empirical evidence communicates that early negative experiences produce pro inflammatory phenotype cells in the immune system, which is directly related to cardiovascular disease, autoimmune diseases, and certain types of cancer.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Chung HY, Cesari M, Anton S, Marzetti E, Giovannini S, Seo AY, Carter C, Yu BP, Leeuwenburgh C | title = Molecular inflammation: underpinnings of aging and age-related diseases | journal = Ageing Research Reviews | volume = 8 | issue = 1 | pages = 18–30 | date = January 2009 | pmid = 18692159 | pmc = 3782993 | doi = 10.1016/j.arr.2008.07.002 }}</ref>

Recent{{when|date=January 2020}} improvements involving methods of research have enabled researchers to further investigate the neural correlates of attachment in humans. These advances include identifying key brain structures, neural circuits, neurotransmitter systems, and neuropeptides, and how they are involved in attachment system functioning and can indicate more about a certain individual, even predict their behaviour.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Coan JA | chapter = Toward a neuroscience of attachment. | veditors = Cassidy J, Shaver PR | title = Handbook of attachment: Theory, research, and clinical applications. | url = https://archive.org/details/handbookofattach0000unse_n9k8 | edition = 2nd | location = New York, NY | publisher = Guilford Press | date = 2008 | pages = [https://archive.org/details/handbookofattach0000unse_n9k8/page/241 241]–265 }}</ref> There is initial evidence that caregiving and attachment involve both unique and overlapping brain regions.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Bartels A, Zeki S | title = The neural correlates of maternal and romantic love | journal = NeuroImage | volume = 21 | issue = 3 | pages = 1155–66 | date = March 2004 | pmid = 15006682 | doi = 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2003.11.003 | s2cid = 15237043 }}</ref> Another issue is the role of inherited genetic factors in shaping attachments: for example one type of [[Polymorphism (biology)#Genetic polymorphism|polymorphism]] of the gene coding for the [[Dopamine receptor D2|D2]] [[dopamine receptor]] has been linked to anxious attachment and another in the gene for the [[5-HT2A receptor|5-HT2A]] [[serotonin receptor]] with avoidant attachment.<ref>{{cite journal|author1-link=Omri Gillath | vauthors = Gillath O, Shaver PR, Baek JM, Chun DS | title = Genetic correlates of adult attachment style |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_personality-and-social-psychology-bulletin_2008-10_34_10/page/1396 | journal = Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin | volume = 34 | issue = 10 | pages = 1396–405 | date = October 2008 | pmid = 18687882 | doi = 10.1177/0146167208321484 | s2cid = 39668634 }}</ref>

Studies show that attachment in adulthood is simultaneously related to biomarkers of immunity. For example, individuals with an avoidance attachment style produce higher levels of the pro inflammatory cytokine interleukin-6 (IL-6) when reacting to an interpersonal stressor,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Gouin JP, Glaser R, Loving TJ, Malarkey WB, Stowell J, Houts C, Kiecolt-Glaser JK | title = Attachment avoidance predicts inflammatory responses to marital conflict | journal = Brain, Behavior, and Immunity | volume = 23 | issue = 7 | pages = 898–904 | date = October 2009 | pmid = 18952163 | pmc = 2771542 | doi = 10.1016/j.bbi.2008.09.016 }}</ref> while individuals representing an anxious attachment style tend to have elevated cortisol production and lower numbers of T cells.<ref>Jaremka L, Glaser R, Loving T, Malarkey W, Stowell J, Kiecolt-Glaser J. Attachment anxiety is linked to alterations in cortisol production and cellular immunity. Psychological Science. Advance online publication 2013</ref> Although children vary genetically and each individual requires different attachment relationships, there is consistent evidence that maternal warmth during infancy and childhood creates a safe haven for individuals resulting in superior immune system functioning.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Chen E, Miller GE, Kobor MS, Cole SW | title = Maternal warmth buffers the effects of low early-life socioeconomic status on pro-inflammatory signaling in adulthood | journal = Molecular Psychiatry | volume = 16 | issue = 7 | pages = 729–37 | date = July 2011 | pmid = 20479762 | pmc = 2925055 | doi = 10.1038/mp.2010.53 }}</ref> One theoretical basis for this is that it makes biological sense for children to vary in their susceptibility to rearing influence.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |year=2008 |title=Precursors of Attachment Security |encyclopedia=Handbook of Attachment: Theory, Research and Clinical Applications |publisher=Guilford Press |location=New York and London |pages=295–316 |isbn=978-1-59385-874-2 |vauthors=Belsky J, Pasco Fearon RM |veditors=Cassidy J, Shaver PR}}</ref>

== Crime ==
Attachment theory has often been applied in the discipline of [[criminology]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ranu |first1=Jasmin |last2=Kalebic |first2=Natasha |last3=Melendez-Torres |first3=G. J. |last4=Taylor |first4=Pamela J. |date=2022-09-17 |title=Association Between Adverse Childhood Experiences and a Combination of Psychosis and Violence Among Adults: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/15248380221122818 |journal=Trauma, Violence, & Abuse |volume=24 |issue=5 |language=en |pages=2997–3013 |doi=10.1177/15248380221122818 |pmid=36117458 |s2cid=252363546 |issn=1524-8380}}</ref> It has been used in an attempt to identify causal mechanisms in criminal behaviour – with uses ranging from [[offender profiling]], better understanding types of offence and the pursuit of preventative policy. It has been found that disturbances early on in child-caregiver relationships are a risk factor in criminality. Attachment theory in this context has been described as "perhaps the most influential of contemporary psychoanalytically oriented theories of crime".<ref>{{cite book |title=Psychology and Crime: An Introduction to Criminological Psychology |last=Hollin |first=Clive R. |publisher=Routledge |year=2013 |location=USA & Canada |pages=62}}</ref>

=== History ===
The origins of attachment theory within criminology can be found in the work of [[August Aichhorn]]. In applying psychoanalysis to [[pedagogy]], he argued that abnormal child relationships are the underlying problem causing delinquency.<ref>{{cite book |title=Wayward Youth |url=https://archive.org/details/waywardyouth0000aich_y0c9 |last=Aichhorn |first=August |publisher=The Viking Press |year=1935 |location=the University of Michigan}}</ref>

The intersection of crime and attachment theory was further researched by John Bowlby. In his first published work, ''Forty-four Juvenile Thieves'', he studied a sample of 88 children (44 juvenile thieves and 44 non-delinquent controls) and determined that child-mother separation caused delinquent character formation, particularly in the development of an "affectionless character" often seen in the persistent offender. 17 of the juvenile thieves had been separated from their mothers for longer than six months during their first five years, and only 2 children from the control group had such a separation. He also found that 14 of the thieves were "affectionless characters" distinguishing them from others by their lack of affection, no emotional ties, no real friendships, and having "no roots in their relationships".<ref name=":2">{{cite journal |last=Bowlby |first=John |date=Jan 1, 1944 |title=Forty-four Juvenile Thieves: their Characters and Home-Life |journal=International Journal of Psycho-Analysis |volume=25}}</ref>

=== Age distribution of crime ===
Two theories about why the crime peaks around the late teenage years and early twenties are called the developmental theory and life-course theory, and both involve attachment theory. Developmental perspectives argue that individuals who have disrupted childhood attachments will have criminal careers that continue long into adulthood.<ref name=":4">{{cite journal | vauthors = Moffitt TE, Caspi A | title = Childhood predictors differentiate life-course persistent and adolescence-limited antisocial pathways among males and females | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_development-and-psychopathology_spring-2001_13_2/page/355 | journal = Development and Psychopathology | volume = 13 | issue = 2 | pages = 355–75 | date = 2001 | pmid = 11393651 | doi = 10.1017/S0954579401002097 | s2cid = 29182035 }}</ref> [[Life course approach|Life course perspectives]] argue that relationships at every stage of the life course can influence an individual's likelihood of committing crimes.<ref name=":5">{{cite journal |vauthors=Sampson RJ, Laub JH |date=2005 |title=A Life-Course View of the Development of Crime |journal=Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science |volume=602 |pages=12–45 |doi=10.1177/0002716205280075 |s2cid=45146032}}</ref>

=== Types of offences ===
Disrupted attachment patterns from childhood have been identified as a risk factor for domestic violence.<ref name=":6">{{cite web | vauthors = Gilchrist E, Johnson R, Takriti R, Weston S, Anthony Beech A, Kebbell M | url = http://rds.homeoffice.gov.uk/rds/pdfs2/r217.pdf | archive-url = http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20110218141158/http://rds.homeoffice.gov.uk/rds/pdfs2/r217.pdf | url-status = dead | archive-date = 2011-02-18 | title = Domestic Violence offenders: characteristics and offending related needs | date = 2003 | work = Research, Development and Statistics Directorate | publisher = United Kingdom Home Office | access-date = 2019-03-29 }}</ref> These disruptions in childhood can prevent the formation of a secure attachment relationship, and in turn adversely affecting a healthy way to deal with stress.<ref name=":7">{{cite journal |last1=Kesner |first1=John E. |last2=Julian |first2=Teresa |last3=McKenry |first3=Patrick C. |date=1997-06-01 |title=Application of Attachment Theory to Male Violence Toward Female Intimates |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-family-violence_1997-06_12_2/page/211 |journal=Journal of Family Violence |language=en |volume=12 |issue=2 |pages=211–228 |doi=10.1023/A:1022840812546 |s2cid=26203922 |issn=1573-2851}}</ref> In adulthood, lack of coping mechanisms can result in violent behaviour.<ref>{{cite book |title=Frustration and aggression |url=https://archive.org/details/frustrationaggre00doll |last1=Dollard |first1=John |last2=Miller |first2=Neal E. |last3=Doob |first3=Leonard W. |last4=Mowrer |first4=O. H. |last5=Sears |first5=Robert R. |date=1939 |publisher=Yale University Press |location=New Haven |doi=10.1037/10022-000}}</ref> Bowlby's theory of functional anger states that children signal to their caregiver that their attachment needs are not being met by use of angry behaviour. This perception of low support from partner has been identified as a strong predictor of male violence. Other predictors have been named as perceived deficiency in maternal love in childhood, low self-esteem.<ref name=":7" /> It has also been found that individuals with a dismissive attachment style, often seen in an antisocial/narcissistic-narcissistic subtype of offender, tend to be emotionally abusive as well as violent. Individuals in the borderline/emotionally dependent subtype have traits which originate from insecure attachment in childhood, and tend to have high levels of anger.<ref name=":6" />

It has been found that sexual offenders have significantly less secure maternal and paternal attachments compared with non-offenders which suggests that insecure attachments in infancy persist into adulthood.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Smallbone S, Dadds M |date=October 1998 |title=Childhood Attachment and Adult Attachment in Incarcerated Adult Male Sex Offenders |journal=Journal of Interpersonal Violence |volume=13 5}}</ref> In a recent study, 57% of sexual offenders were found to be of a preoccupied attachment style.<ref>{{cite book |title=What Works in Therapeutic Prisons | vauthors = Brown J, Miller S, Northey S, O'Neill D |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |year=2014 |isbn=978-1-137-30620-3 |location=London |chapter=Attachments: The Multiple Sorting Task Procedure |doi=10.1057/9781137306210}}</ref> There is also evidence that suggests subtypes of sexual crime can have different attachment styles. Dismissive individuals tend to be hostile towards others, and are more likely to offend violently against adult women. By contrast, child abusers are more likely to have preoccupied attachment styles as the tendency to seek approval from others becomes distorted and attachment relationships become sexualized.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Ward T, Beech A |date=2006 |title=An integrated theory of sexual offending |journal=Aggression and Violent Behavior |volume=11 |pages=44–63 |doi=10.1016/j.avb.2005.05.002}}</ref>

=== Uses within probation practice ===
Attachment theory has been of special interest within probation settings. When put into practice, probation officers aim to learn their probationer's attachment history because it can give them insight into how the probationer will respond to different scenarios and when they are the most vulnerable to reoffend. One of the primary strategies of implementation is to set up the probation officer as a secure base. This secure base relationship is formed by the probation officer being reliable, safe, and in tune with the probationer, and is intended to help give them a partly representational secure relationship that they have not been able to form.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ansbro |first=Maria |date=September 2022 |title=Using attachment theory in probation practice |url=https://www.justiceinspectorates.gov.uk/hmiprobation/wp-content/uploads/sites/5/2022/09/v2.0-Academic-Insights-Ansbro-Sep-22.pdf |access-date=17 April 2024 |website=justiceinspectorates.gov.uk}}</ref>

==Practical applications==
As a theory of [[Developmental psychology|socioemotional development]], attachment theory has implications and practical applications in social policy, decisions about the care and welfare of children and mental health.

===Child care policies===
Social policies concerning the care of children were the driving force in Bowlby's development of attachment theory. The difficulty lies in applying attachment concepts to policy and practice.<ref name="rut08">{{cite encyclopedia |year=2008 |title=Implications of Attachment Theory and Research for Child Care Policies |encyclopedia=Handbook of Attachment: Theory, Research and Clinical Applications |publisher=Guilford Press |location=New York and London |pages=[https://archive.org/details/handbookofattach0000unse_n9k8/page/958 958–74] |isbn=978-1-60623-028-2 | vauthors = Rutter M |veditors=Cassidy J, Shaver PR |url= https://archive.org/details/handbookofattach0000unse_n9k8/page/958 }}</ref> In 2008 [[C.H. Zeanah]] and colleagues stated, "Supporting early child-parent relationships is an increasingly prominent goal of mental health practitioners, community-based service providers and policy makers ... Attachment theory and research have generated important findings concerning early child development and spurred the creation of programs to support early child-parent relationships."<ref name="BZL">{{cite encyclopedia |year=2008 |title=Prevention and Intervention Programs for Supporting Early Attachment Security |encyclopedia=Handbook of Attachment: Theory, Research and Clinical Applications |publisher=Guilford Press |location=New York and London |pages=[https://archive.org/details/handbookofattach0000unse_n9k8/page/745 745–61] |isbn=978-1-60623-028-2 |vauthors=Berlin L, Zeanah CH, Lieberman AF |veditors=Cassidy J, Shaver PR |url=https://archive.org/details/handbookofattach0000unse_n9k8/page/745 }}</ref> Additionally, practitioners can use the concepts of attachment theory that suggests deep relationships which builds attachment security towards mental health interventions. Attachment security has been found to strengthen one's ability to cope with stress, anxiety, and maintain that, in turn, can contribute to the person's well-being and mental health<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Chen |first1=Jia |last2=Jordan |first2=Lucy P. |date=2019-07-17 |title=Psychological Well-Being of Coresiding Elderly Parents and Adult Children in China: Do Father–Child and Mother–Child Relationships Make a Difference? |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0192513x19862845 |journal=Journal of Family Issues |volume=40 |issue=18 |pages=2728–2750 |doi=10.1177/0192513x19862845 |s2cid=199177299 |issn=0192-513X|url-access=subscription }}</ref> For example, previous studies have demonstrated that individuals who demonstrate avoidance attachment styles experiences less stress and distress when presented with ostracism.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Yaakobi |first1=Erez |last2=Williams |first2=Kipling D. |date=May 2016 |title=Recalling an Attachment Event Moderates Distress after Ostracism |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/per.2050 |journal=European Journal of Personality |volume=30 |issue=3 |pages=258–273 |doi=10.1002/per.2050 |s2cid=147614160 |issn=0890-2070|url-access=subscription }}</ref> However, finding quality childcare while at work or school is an issue for many families. NIHD recent study convey that top notch day care contributes to secure attachment relationships in children.<ref>{{cite journal | author = NICHD Early Child Care Research Network | year = 1997 | title = The effects of infant child care on infant-mother attachment security: Results of the NICHD study of early child care | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_child-development_1997-10_68_5/page/860 | journal = Child Development | volume = 68 | issue = 5| pages = 860–879 | doi = 10.2307/1132038 | jstor = 1132038 }}</ref>

People have commented on this matter stating that "legislative initiatives reflecting higher standards for credentialing and licensing childcare workers, requiring education in child development and attachment theory, and at least a two-year associate degree course as well as salary increases and increased stature for childcare positions".<ref name="Sweeney GM 2007. pp. 332">{{cite book | vauthors = Sweeney GM | chapter = Why childhood attachment matters: Implications for personal happiness, families and public policy. | veditors = Loveless S, Homan T | title = The family in the new millennium. | url = https://archive.org/details/familyinnewmille0000unse | location = Westport, CT | publisher = Praeger | date = 2007 | pages = [https://archive.org/details/familyinnewmille0000unse/page/332 332]–346 }}</ref> Corporations should implement more flexible work arrangements that recognize child care as essential for all its employees. This includes re-examination of parental leave policies. Too many parents are forced to return to work too soon post childbirth because of company policy or financial necessity. No matter the reason this inhibits early parent child bonding.<ref name="Cassidy, Jude 2013" /> In addition to this, there should be increased attention to the training and screening of childcare workers. In his article reviewing attachment theory, Sweeney suggested, among several policy implications, "legislative initiatives reflecting higher standards for credentialing and licensing childcare workers, requiring education in child development and attachment theory, and at least a two-year associate degree course as well as salary increases and increased stature for childcare positions".<ref name="Sweeney GM 2007. pp. 332" />

Historically, attachment theory had significant policy implications for hospitalized or institutionalized children, and those in poor quality daycare.{{sfn|Karen|1998|pp=252–58}} Controversy remains over whether non-maternal care, particularly in group settings, has deleterious effects on social development. It is plain from research that poor quality care carries risks but that those who experience good quality alternative care cope well although it is difficult to provide good quality, individualized care in group settings.<ref name=rut08/>

Attachment theory has implications in [[Family law|residence]] and [[Contact (law)|contact]] disputes,{{sfn|Karen|1998|pp=252–58}} and applications by foster parents to adopt foster children. In the past, particularly in North America, the main theoretical framework was psychoanalysis. Increasingly attachment theory has replaced it, thus focusing on the quality and continuity of caregiver relationships rather than economic well-being or automatic precedence of any one party, such as the biological mother. [[Michael Rutter|Rutter]] noted that in the UK, since 1980, family courts have shifted considerably to recognize the complications of attachment relationships.<ref name="rut99">{{cite encyclopedia |year=1999 |title=Implications of Attachment Theory for Child Care Policies |encyclopedia=Handbook of Attachment: Theory, Research and Clinical Applications |publisher=Guilford Press |location=New York |url=https://archive.org/details/handbookofattach0000unse/page/823 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/handbookofattach0000unse/page/823 823–44] |isbn=978-1-57230-087-3 |vauthors=Rutter M, O'Connor TG |veditors=Cassidy J, Shaver PR}}</ref> Children tend to have attachment relationships with both parents and often grandparents or other relatives. Judgements need to take this into account along with the impact of step-families. Attachment theory has been crucial in highlighting the importance of social relationships in dynamic rather than fixed terms.<ref name=rut08/>

Attachment theory can also inform decisions made in [[social work]], especially in [[Humanistic psychology|humanistic social work]] ([[Microsociology|Petru Stefaroi]]),<ref name="Stefaroi">{{cite journal | vauthors = Stefaroi P | date = 2012 | title = Humanistic Paradigm of Social Work or Brief Introduction in Humanistic Social Work. | journal = Social Work Review | volume = 10 | issue = 1 | pages = 161–174 | quote = ICID 985513 }}</ref><ref name="Stefaroi P.">{{cite book | vauthors = Stefaroi P | date = 2014 | title = Humane & Spiritual Qualities of the Professional in Humanistic Social Work: Humanistic Social Work – The Third Way in Theory and Practice | location = Charleston, SC | publisher = Createspace }}</ref> and court processes about [[foster care]] or other placements. Considering the child's attachment needs can help determine the level of risk posed by placement options.<ref name="0to3">{{cite journal |vauthors=Goldsmith DF, Oppenheim D, Wanlass J |year=2004 |title=Separation and Reunification: Using Attachment Theory and Research to Inform Decisions Affecting the Placements of Children in Foster Care |url= http://www.zerotothree.org/site/DocServer/AttachmentandFosterCare.pdf?docID=2542 |url-status=dead |journal=Juvenile and Family Court Journal |volume=Spring |issue=2 |pages=1–14 |doi=10.1111/j.1755-6988.2004.tb00156.x |s2cid=144988504 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071013210209/http://www.zerotothree.org/site/DocServer/AttachmentandFosterCare.pdf?docID=2542 |archive-date=2007-10-13 |access-date=2009-06-19}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Crittenden PM, Farnfield S, Landini A, Grey B |s2cid=46679519 |year=2013 |title=Assessing attachment for family court decision making |journal=Journal of Forensic Practice |volume=15 |issue=4 |pages=237–248 |doi=10.1108/jfp-08-2012-0002}}</ref> Within adoption, the shift from "closed" to "open" adoptions and the importance of the search for biological parents would be expected on the basis of attachment theory. Many researchers in the field were strongly influenced by it.<ref name=rut08/>

===Clinical practice in children===
Although attachment theory has become a major scientific theory of [[Developmental psychology|socioemotional development]] with one of the widest research lines in modern psychology, it has, until recently, been less used in clinical practice.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cassidy |first1=Jude |last2=Jones |first2=Jason D. |last3=Shaver |first3=Phillip R. |title=Contributions of attachment theory and research: A framework for future research, translation, and policy |journal=Development and Psychopathology |date=November 2013 |volume=25 |issue=4pt2 |pages=1415–1434 |doi=10.1017/S0954579413000692|pmid=24342848 |pmc=4085672 }}</ref> The attachment theory focused on the attention of the child when the mother is there and the responses that the child shows when the mother leaves, which indicated the attachment and bonding of the mother and the child. The attention therapy is done while the child is being restrained by the therapists and the responses displayed were noted. The tests were done to show the responses of the child.{{citation needed|date=March 2020}}

This may be partly due to lack of attention paid to clinical application by Bowlby himself and partly due to broader meanings of the word 'attachment' used among practitioners. It may also be partly due to the mistaken association of attachment theory with the [[pseudoscience|pseudoscientific]] interventions misleadingly known as [[attachment therapy]] or holding therapy.<ref name="Ziv">{{cite encyclopedia |year=2005 |title=Attachment-Based Intervention programs: Implications for Attachment Theory and Research |encyclopedia=Enhancing Early Attachments: Theory, Research, Intervention and Policy |publisher=Guilford Press |location=New York and London |series=Duke series in child development and public policy |page=63 |isbn=978-1-59385-470-6 | vauthors = Ziv Y |veditors=Berlin LJ, Ziv Y, Amaya-Jackson L, Greenberg MT}}</ref>

====Prevention and treatment====
{{Main|Attachment-based therapy}}

In 1988, Bowlby published a series of lectures indicating how attachment theory and research could be used in understanding and treating child and family disorders. His focus for bringing about change was the parents' internal working models, parenting behaviours and the parents' relationship with the therapeutic intervenor.<ref name="berlinetal">{{cite encyclopedia |year=2008 |title=Prevention and Intervention Programs for Supporting Early Attachment Security |encyclopedia=Handbook of Attachment: Theory, Research and Clinical Applications |publisher=Guilford Press |location=New York and London |pages=745–61 |isbn=978-1-59385-874-2 |vauthors=Berlin LJ, Zeanah CH, Lieberman AF |veditors=Cassidy J, Shaver PR}}</ref> Ongoing research has led to a number of individual treatments and prevention and intervention programs.<ref name=berlinetal/> In regards to personal development, children from all the age groups were tested to show the effectiveness of the theory that is being theorized by Bowlby. They range from individual therapy to public health programs to interventions designed for foster caregivers. For infants and younger children, the focus is on increasing the responsiveness and sensitivity of the caregiver, or if that is not possible, placing the child with a different caregiver.{{sfn|Prior|Glaser|2006|pp=231–32}}<ref name="BakermansKranenburg">{{cite journal | vauthors = Bakermans-Kranenburg MJ, van IJzendoorn MH, Juffer F | s2cid = 7504386 | title = Less is more: meta-analyses of sensitivity and attachment interventions in early childhood | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_psychological-bulletin_2003-03_129_2/page/195 | journal = Psychological Bulletin | volume = 129 | issue = 2 | pages = 195–215 | date = March 2003 | pmid = 12696839 | doi = 10.1037/0033-2909.129.2.195 }}</ref> An assessment of the attachment status or caregiving responses of the caregiver is invariably included, as attachment is a two-way process involving attachment behaviour and caregiver response. Some programs are aimed at foster cares because the attachment behaviours of infants or children with attachment difficulties often do not elicit appropriate caregiver responses. Modern prevention and intervention programs have proven successful.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Hoffman KT, Marvin RS, Cooper G, Powell B | s2cid = 6672909 | title = Changing toddlers' and preschoolers' attachment classifications: the Circle of Security intervention | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-consulting-and-clinical-psychology_2006-12_74_6/page/1017 | journal = Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology | volume = 74 | issue = 6 | pages = 1017–26 | date = December 2006 | pmid = 17154732 | doi = 10.1037/0022-006x.74.6.1017 }}</ref>

====Reactive attachment disorder and attachment disorder====
{{Main|Reactive attachment disorder|Attachment disorder}}
One atypical attachment pattern is considered to be an actual disorder, known as ''reactive attachment disorder'' or RAD, which is a recognized psychiatric diagnosis ([[ICD-10]] F94.1/2 and [[DSM-IV-TR]] 313.89). Against common misconception, this is not the same as 'disorganized attachment'. The essential feature of reactive attachment disorder is markedly disturbed and developmentally inappropriate social relatedness in most contexts that begins before age five years, associated with gross pathological care. There are two subtypes, one reflecting a disinhibited attachment pattern, the other an inhibited pattern. RAD is not a description of insecure attachment styles, however problematic those styles may be; instead, it denotes a lack of age-appropriate attachment behaviours that may appear to resemble a clinical disorder.<ref name="Thompson (2000)">{{cite journal | vauthors = Thompson RA | s2cid = 18055255 | title = The legacy of early attachments | journal = Child Development | volume = 71 | issue = 1 | pages = 145–52 | year = 2000 | pmid = 10836568 | doi = 10.1111/1467-8624.00128 }}</ref> Although the term "reactive attachment disorder" is now popularly applied to perceived behavioural difficulties that fall outside the DSM or ICD criteria, particularly on the Web and in connection with the pseudo-scientific attachment therapy, "true" RAD is thought to be rare.<ref name="chaffin">{{cite journal | vauthors = Chaffin M, Hanson R, Saunders BE, Nichols T, Barnett D, Zeanah C, Berliner L, Egeland B, Newman E, Lyon T, LeTourneau E, Miller-Perrin C | s2cid = 11443880 | title = Report of the APSAC task force on attachment therapy, reactive attachment disorder, and attachment problems | journal = Child Maltreatment | volume = 11 | issue = 1 | pages = 76–89 | date = February 2006 | pmid = 16382093 | doi = 10.1177/1077559505283699 }}</ref>

"Attachment disorder" is an ambiguous term, which may refer to reactive attachment disorder or to the more problematic insecure attachment styles (although none of these are clinical disorders). It may also be used to refer to proposed new classification systems put forward by theorists in the field,{{sfn|Prior|Glaser|2006|pp=223–25}} and is used within attachment therapy as a form of unvalidated diagnosis.<ref name="chaffin" /> One of the proposed new classifications, "secure base distortion" has been found to be associated with caregiver traumatization.<ref name="schecter">{{cite journal | vauthors = Schechter DS, Willheim E | title = Disturbances of attachment and parental psychopathology in early childhood | journal = Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America | volume = 18 | issue = 3 | pages = 665–86 | date = July 2009 | pmid = 19486844 | pmc = 2690512 | doi = 10.1016/j.chc.2009.03.001 }}</ref>

===Clinical practice in adults and families===
As attachment theory offers a broad, far-reaching view of human functioning, it can enrich a therapist's understanding of patients and the therapeutic relationship rather than dictate a particular form of treatment.<ref name="Slade 2008">{{cite encyclopedia |year=2008 |title=Attachment Theory and Research: Implications for the theory and practice of individual psychotherapy with adults |encyclopedia=Handbook of Attachment: Theory, Research and Clinical Applications |publisher=Guilford Press |location=New York and London |pages=762–82 |isbn=978-1-59385-874-2 | vauthors = Slade A |veditors=Cassidy J, Shaver PR}}</ref> Some forms of [[Attachment-based psychotherapy|psychoanalysis-based therapy]] for adults—within [[relational psychoanalysis]] and other approaches—also incorporate attachment theory and patterns.<ref name="Slade 2008" /><ref name="Sable">{{cite book |title=Attachment & Adult Psychotherapy | vauthors = Sable P |publisher=Aaronson |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-7657-0284-5 |location=Northvale, NJ}}</ref>

==Criticism==
In his 1984 book ''[[The Nature of the Child]]'', [[Jerome Kagan]] challenged central assumptions of attachment theory, particularly the notion that the quality of early attachments to caregivers is a primary determinant of a child’s future well-being. Through a series of essays, Kagan argued that the emphasis on early attachment experiences is often overstated and insufficiently supported by empirical evidence. He proposed that a child’s temperament and later development are more strongly influenced by biological factors and cognitive maturation than by early relational experiences alone.<ref name=":11">{{Cite book |last=Kagan |first=Jerome |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lPVBJBxojTkC&q=the+nature+of+the+child&dq=the+nature+of+the+child&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&ovdme=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiggv_I7OiNAxVtMdAFHTIbFmIQ6AF6BAgEEAM#the%20nature%20of%20the%20child |title=Nature Of The Child |date=1984-10-10 |publisher=Basic Books |isbn=978-0-465-04850-2 |language=en}}</ref>

A 2010 study in the ''Journal of Personality'' looked at twins in Italy using the [[ACE model|ACE Model]] and found that their shared environment (including shared aspects of their upbringing) was "completely irrelevant" in explaining their adult attachment styles.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Picardi |first=Angelo |last2=Fagnani |first2=Corrado |last3=Nisticò |first3=Lorenza |last4=Stazi |first4=Maria Antonietta |date=2010 |title=A Twin Study of Attachment Style in Young Adults |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2010.00707.x |journal=Journal of Personality |language=en |volume=79 |issue=5 |pages=965–992 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-6494.2010.00707.x |issn=1467-6494}}</ref> Instead, levels of attachment-related anxiety and avoidance in the adult twins were completely explained by their genes and their unshared environment (aspects of the environment that were different for the twins).<ref name=":1" />

A 2013 study from Utah State suggests an individual can have different attachment styles in relation to different people and that "parents' time away from their child was not a significant predictor of attachment."<ref name=":3">{{cite web |last1=Benware |first1=Jared |title=Predictors of F ors of Father-Child and Mother-Child A ather-Child and Mother-Child Attachment in T ttachment in TwoParent Families |url=https://digitalcommons.usu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=&httpsredir=1&article=2731&context=etd |publisher=Utah State University}}</ref> Attachment theory models are heavily focused on attachment to the mother, not other family members and peers, also noted by [[Rosjke Hasseldine]].<ref name="field">{{cite journal | vauthors = Field T | s2cid = 15251864 | title = Attachment and separation in young children | journal = Annual Review of Psychology | volume = 47 | issue = 1 | pages = 541–61 | date = February 1996 | pmid = 8624142 | doi = 10.1146/annurev.psych.47.1.541 }}</ref> [[Salvador Minuchin]] suggested that attachment theory's focus on the mother-child relation ignores the value in other familial influences: "The entire family—not just the mother or primary caretaker—including father, siblings, grandparents, often cousins, aunts and uncles, are extremely significant in the experience of the child...And yet, when I hear attachment theorists talk, I don't hear anything about these other important figures in a child's life."<ref>{{cite web |last1=Wylie |first1=Mary Sykes |title=Do We Still Need Attachment Theory? |date=March 2011 |url=https://www.psychotherapynetworker.org/blog/details/1103/do-we-still-need-attachment-theory |publisher=Psychotherapy Networker}}</ref> 

A 2016 article from the ''Psychological Bulletin'' suggests that one's attachment could largely be due to [[heredity]]; hence, the authors point to the need to focus research on nonshared environmental effects, requiring "behavioral genetic designs that afford differentiating [[heritability]] from shared and nonshared environmental influences".<ref name=":10">{{cite web |last1=Barbaro |first1=Nicole |title=Rethinking the Transmission Gap: What Behavioral Genetics and Evolutionary Psychology Mean for Attachment Theory |url=http://toddkshackelford.com/downloads/Barbaro-et-al-PsychBull.pdf |publisher=Psychological Bulletin}}</ref>

A 2018 paper critiques attachment theory’s claim to universality, highlighting its basis in [[Western world|Western]] [[Middle class|middle]] [[Middle class|class]] values and its neglect of diverse cultural [[Caregiver|caregiving]] practices. It argues that applying Western parenting norms in non-Western contexts without understanding local cultures is scientifically flawed and ethically questionable.<ref name="keller" />

== See also ==
{{Portal|Psychology|Zoology}}

{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
*[[Atlas personality]]
*[[Attachment parenting]]
*[[Attachment theory and psychology of religion]]
*[[Fathers as attachment figures]]
*[[Human bonding]]
*[[Nurture kinship]]
*[[Relationship science]]
{{div col end}}


== Citations ==
{{Reflist}}

== General and cited references ==
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book |last=Bowlby |first=J |title=Child Care and the Growth of Love |publisher=Penguin Books |year=1953 |isbn=978-0-14-020271-7 |location=London |postscript=. Version of WHO publication ''Maternal Care and Mental Health'' published for sale to the general public.}}
* {{cite book |last=Bowlby |first=J |title=Attachment and Loss (Vol. 1: Attachment) |publisher=Penguin Books |year=1971 |isbn=978-0-14-021276-1 |edition=1st |location=London |orig-year=1969}}
* {{cite book |last=Bowlby |first=J |url=https://archive.org/details/makingbreakingof00bowl |title=The Making and Breaking of Affectional Bonds |publisher=Tavistock Publications |year=1979 |isbn=978-0-422-76860-3 |location=London}}
* {{cite book |last=Bowlby |first=J |title=Attachment and Loss (Vol. 1: Attachment) |publisher=Basic Books |year=1982 |isbn=978-0-465-00543-7 |edition=2nd |location=New York |lccn=00266879 |oclc=11442968 |id=NLM 8412414 }}
* {{cite book |last=Bowlby | first = J |title=Attachment |url=https://archive.org/details/attachmentloss00bowl |publisher=Basic Books |year=1999 |isbn=0-465-00543-8 |edition=2nd |series=Attachment and Loss Vol. I |location=New York |oclc=11442968 |id=NLM 8412414 |orig-year=1982|lccn=00266879 }}
* {{cite book |last=Craik |first=K |title=The Nature of Explanation |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1967 |isbn=978-0-521-09445-0 |location=Cambridge |orig-year=1943}}
* {{cite journal | vauthors = Elliot AJ, Reis HT | title = Attachment and exploration in adulthood | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-personality-and-social-psychology_2003-08_85_2/page/317 | journal = Journal of Personality and Social Psychology | volume = 85 | issue = 2 | pages = 317–31 | date = August 2003 | pmid = 12916573 | doi = 10.1037/0022-3514.85.2.317 }}
* {{cite book |last=Holmes |first=J |title=John Bowlby & Attachment Theory |publisher=Routledge |year=1993 |isbn=041507729X |series=Makers of modern psychotherapy |location=London }}
* {{cite book |last=Karen |first=R |title=Becoming Attached: First Relationships and How They Shape Our Capacity to Love |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1998 |isbn=0-19-511501-5 |location=Oxford and New York |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/becomingattached00kare }}
* {{cite book |last=Mercer |first=J |title=Understanding Attachment: Parenting, child care, and emotional development |url=https://archive.org/details/understandingatt0000merc |publisher=Praeger Publishers |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-275-98217-1 |location=Westport, CT |lccn=2005019272 |oclc=61115448 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Prior |first1=V |last2=Glaser |first2=D |title=Understanding Attachment and Attachment Disorders: Theory, Evidence and Practice |publisher=Jessica Kingsley Publishers |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-84310-245-8 |series=Child and Adolescent Mental Health, RCPRTU |location=London and Philadelphia }}
* {{cite book |last=Tinbergen |first=N |title=The Study of Instinct |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1951 |isbn=978-0-19-857722-5 |location=Oxford}}
{{refend}}

== Further reading ==
{{Library resources box|by=no|onlinebooks=no|about=yes|wikititle=attachment theory}}
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book |last=Schore |first=Allan N. |title=Affect Regulation and the Origin of the Self: The Neurobiology of Emotional Development |url=https://archive.org/details/affectregulation0000scho |date=1994 |publisher=L. Erlbaum Associates |isbn=978-1-135-69392-3 |location=Hillsdale, N.J.}}
* {{cite web | url = https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/1990/02/becoming-attached/308966/ | first = Robert | last = Karen | title = Becoming Attached | work = [[The Atlantic Monthly]] | date = February 1990 }}
{{refend}}

{{Attachment theory}}
{{Human psychological development}}
{{Parenting}}
{{Evolutionary psychology}}
{{Infants and their care}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Attachment Theory}}
[[Category:Attachment theory| ]]
[[Category:Adoption, fostering, orphan care and displacement]]
[[Category:Ethology]]
[[Category:Evolutionary biology]]
[[Category:Evolutionary psychology]]
[[Category:Human development]]
[[Category:Interpersonal relationships]]
[[Category:Object relations theory]]
[[Category:Psychoanalytic theory]]

Molepolole

2025-06-19T07:35:09Z

89.243.41.89: /* Sites of interest */ link

{{Infobox settlement
|official_name = Molepolole
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|elevation_footnotes =<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fallingrain.com/world/BC/06/Molepolole.html|title=Molepolole, Botswana Page|publisher=Falling Rain Genomics, Inc.}}</ref>
|elevation_m = 1189
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|area_code =5<ref name="Areacode">{{Cite web |url=http://www.countryareacode.net/de/botsuana |title=Countryareacode Botsuana |date=2019-01-13 |access-date=2019-01-13}}</ref>
|iso_code = BW-KW
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'''Molepolole''' is a large village in [[Kweneng District]], [[Botswana]].

The people who reside in Molepolole are called [[Bakwena]], who are one of the eight major tribes in Botswana. The Bakwena Kgosi (Chief), [[Sebele I]] was among the three chiefs who went to England to seek protection from the British in the colonial era.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Parsons|first=Neil|date=2007-03-06|title=Unravelling History and Cultural Heritage in Botswana|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/03057070600995350?needAccess=true&|journal=Journal of Southern African Studies|volume=32|issue=4|pages=667–682|language=en|doi=10.1080/03057070600995350|s2cid=145185548 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Molepolole serves as the capital of the [[Bakwena]]. It was named after the Molepolole river.

It is one of the largest traditional villages in Africa with a population of over 73,102 people as of 2011.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Kweneng East Sub District: Population and Housing Census Selected Indicators 2011. vol. 4.0|url=http://www.statsbots.org.bw/sites/default/files/publications/Kweneng%20East%20Sub%20District.pdf|date=2015|access-date=26 May 2020}}</ref> It lies 50 kilometres west of the national capital [[Gaborone]] and acts as gateway for exploring the [[Kalahari Desert]].

It has a large traditional [[kgotla]] and the [[Scottish Livingstone Hospital]], is found in Molepolole.

==History==
[[File:Seven Years in South Africa, page 424, mission house in Molopolole.jpg|thumb|left|Mission house in Molepolole, 1870s]]
[[File:Bakwena royal cemetery.jpg|thumb|left|Bakwena Royal Cemetery, formerly a royal kraal at Ntsweng]]
Ntsweng was the capital of Bakwena before they moved to Molepolole. Ntsweng is a historic site located a few kilometers southeast of Molepolole. The area was first occupied by Bakwena, led by [[Sechele I]] (ruled 1829–92), in 1864. It was abandoned in 1937 when Bakwena were forced to move to Molepolole by Kgari II, assisted by the colonial administrators.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Schapera|first1=Issac|title=Native land tenure in the Bechuanaland protectorate|date=1943|publisher=[[Lovedale Press]]|location=Alice}}</ref> Ntsweng today consists of a large area covered with traces of occupation. Most notable are the patterns of stones laid on their edges that form house foundations which are still visible on the surface. There are also the ruins of what used to be Sebele II's office which is at present referred to as Mmakgosi's house. The ruins of that building are situated next to an area which used to be the royal [[kraal]] at Ntsweng but is now the royal cemetery. Several clusters of ruins seem to represent different wards. Analyses of the settlement layout and soil samples suggest cattle were often kept in the center of each ward. This seems to follow the "central cattle pattern", a conceptual model for the organization of settlements among southern Bantu, where the central placement of the kraal reflects the central role of cattle in the culture and ideology of the people.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Badenhorst|first=Shaw|date=2009|title=The Central Cattle Pattern During the Iron Age of Southern Africa: A Critique of its Spacial Features|journal=South African Archaeological Bulletin|volume=64|issue=190|pages=148–155}}</ref>

==Government and infrastructure==
[[File:Scottish Livingstone Hospital 228.jpg|thumb|right|280px|Scottish Livingston Hospital]]
*The [[Botswana Prison Service]] (BPS) operates the Molepolole Prison.<ref name=Prisons>"[http://www.gov.bw/Global/Prisons%20and%20rehabilitation%5B1%5D.pdf Prisons and Rehabilitation]." ([https://web.archive.org/web/20131122211101/http://www.gov.bw/Global/Prisons%20and%20rehabilitation%5b1%5d.pdf Archive]) [[Government of Botswana]]. Retrieved on 26 March 2013.</ref>
*Molepolole Police Station
*[[Scottish Livingstone Hospital|Scottish Livingston Hospital]]
*Mafenyatlala Mall
*[[Molepolole Stadium]]

==Education==
[[File:Kgari sechele secondary school.jpg|thumb|right|280px|Kgari Sechele Secondary School]]
Molepolole is the home to a number of educational institutions that offers education from primary school to tertiary level. The tertiary institutions in Molepolole include Molepolole College of Education which offers diploma in education and Institute of Health Sciences which offers diploma in Nursing. Kgari Sechele Senior Secondary School is the only government-run senior secondary school in Molepolole and it offers Botswana General Certificate of Secondary Education (BGCSE).

There are 8 government-run junior secondary schools in Molepolole namely:

* Masilo Junior Secondary School,
* Boitshoko Junior Secondary School,
* Kwena-Sereto Junior Secondary School,
* Sedumedi Junior Secondary School,
* Motswasele Junior Secondary School,
* Tshegetsang Junior Secondary School,
* Dithejwane Junior Secondary School and
* Moruakgomo Junior Secondary School.

There are 17 government run primary schools in Molepolole namely;

* Phuthadikobo Primary School,
* Bokaa Primary School,
* Magokotswane Primary School,
* Suping Primary School,
* Kutlwano Primary School,
* Boribamo Primary School,
* Neale Primary School,
* Bakwena National Primary School,
* Kealeboga Primary School,
* Sebele Primary School,
* Lewis Memorial Primary School,
* Bonewamang Primary School,
* Cannon Gordon Memorial Primary School,
* Borakalalo Primary School,
* Lephaleng Primary School,
* Louw Primary School and
* Lekgwapheng Primary School.

Private schools include Bluebows English medium school which offers pre-school, primary school and secondary school and Kweneng International Secondary School. The other 4 privately owned schools are Shepherd English Medium, Al-haq English Medium, Kgomotso English Medium Primary School (now Regent Hill) and Emmanuel Adventist Academy (formerly Meadows English Medium) which offer pre-primary and primary education only. There is also Nampol Technical College which is a privately run tertiary institution.

==Vegetation found in Molepolole==
Molepolole is the home to many species of plants that thrive in the semi-arid environment.
<gallery>
File:THE PLANTS WHICH ARE FOUND IN MOLEPOLOLE, BOTSWANA.pdf|Some of the plants found in Molepolole
File:Mokgopeetsane River.JPG|Mokgopeetsane River in Molepolole
</gallery>

==Sites of interest==

*Maphefo - This is an abandoned Kwena village site, situated {{convert|20|-|25|mi|km|order=flip|abbr=on}} north-northeast of Molepolole.
*Maokagane Hills - Near "Kopong" caves. Among these hills are a) an iron smelting site; b) rock paintings and c) the Lowe cave at Kopong.
*Ga Kala - in the Kopong hills. Old mining site about an hour's walk SE of Lentswe-le-tau, north of the Mochudi-Molepolole road. Lentswe-le-tau - An iron smelting site.
*Kopong Hills - A cave; rock engravings in the hills and rock engravings some {{convert|18|mi|km|order=flip|abbr=on}} north of Molepolole. Also Kopong water caves.
*Molepolole - a) Execution Rock - Kobokwe; b) Sokwane, grave of [[Motswasele II]] situated NE of Molepolole; c) Footprints on the rock in Molepolole Hill; d) Burial cairns of Sechele I, Sebele I and Sebele II on kraal site of old Molepolole village site where Sebele I also stayed with favourite wife after village had moved to Borakalalo 1899/1900.
*Borakalalo - a) Molepolole since 1899/1900; b) LMS Church in Borakalalo; c) Anglican Church built 1916.
*Mokgophaneng - Sebele's cattle post and settlement of some Bakwena who left Molepolole Hill.
*Legaga La Ga Kabokwe - Livingstone and Sechele's Cave about {{convert|2|mi|km|0|order=flip|abbr=on}} from Molepolole on Molepolole-Thamaga road. This cave is said to be the home of a spirit.
*Dithubaruba - Kwena capital after Dimawe and Kolobeng; [[David Livingstone|Livingstone]] arrived here in 1853.
*Dithejwane - Situated {{convert|8|mi|km|order=flip|abbr=on}} SSW of Molepolole on Kanye road. Has stone wall and hut foundation remains.
*[[Kolobeng Mission]] - a) Old Kwena capital until 1853. Dam on Kolobeng River for irrigation; b) Livingstone's house and workshop; c) Sechele's square house designed by Livingstone; d) Grave of Elizabeth Livingstone born and died there 1850.
*Dimawe - Old Kwena capital after Kolobeng, settled in August 1851 and [[Battle of Dimawe|attacked by Boers]] in August 1852.
*Letlhakeng Valley - Rock engravings.
*[[Kobokwe Cave]] - A cave in the hill along Molepolole-Thamaga Road

==See also==

*[[List of cities in Botswana]]

==References==
{{Commons category}}
{{Reflist}}

{{Kweneng District}}
{{Capitals of Districts of Botswana}}
{{Botswana largest cities}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:District capitals in Botswana]]
[[Category:Kweneng District]]

Kittel

2025-06-19T06:53:25Z

89.243.41.89: Hatnote

{{Short description|Jewish religious men's garment}}
{{about|the Jewish robe|the surname|Kittel (surname)|the book|Introduction to Solid State Physics}}
{{redirect|Kittl|the German software company|Kittl (design platform)}}
[[image:kittel.jpg|right|thumb|220px|A kittel]]

A '''''kittel''''' ({{langx|yi|קיטל}} {{IPA|yi|ˈkɪtl̩|}}) is a white linen or cotton [[robe]]<ref>{{cite web |last=Stoll |first=Ira |url=https://www.algemeiner.com/2017/09/26/new-york-times-blunders-again-on-jewish-literacy/ |title=''New York Times'' Blunders Again on Jewish Literacy |website=[[Algemeiner Journal]] |date=September 26, 2017 |quote=Actually, a kittel—worn by some Jewish men at their weddings, on Yom Kippur, or when leading a Passover Seder—doesn’t have to be made of linen. The website of the Judaica store Eichler's has a choice of 26 in either 100% cotton or a polyester/cotton blend, but none in linen.}}</ref> worn by some religious [[Ashkenazi Jews]] on holidays, in the [[synagogue]] or at home when leading the Passover seder. Grooms sometimes wear kittels. It is also customary for Jews to be buried in a kittel, at which time it is referred to as a [[tachrichim]].

==History==
In Ashkenazic tradition, married men wear a kittel in the synagogue on [[Yom Kippur]].<ref>{{cite web | title=Ask the Rabbi #207 | website=Ohr Somayach | date=1998-09-19 | url=http://ohr.edu/ask/ask207.htm#Q6 | at=Yiddels and Kittels}}</ref> In less-traditional synagogues, religious Jews—both men and women—wear a kittel.<ref>{{cite web | title=What Is A Kittel? | website=My Jewish Learning | date=2010-11-24 | url=https://www.myjewishlearning.com/article/kittel/}}</ref> Some wear a ''kittel'' when leading the [[Passover Seder]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Eider |first=Shimon |authorlink=Shimon Eider |title=Halachos of Pesach |year=1998 |publisher=Feldheim publishers |isbn=0-87306-864-5}}</ref>
[[File:רוני אלשיך.jpg|thumb]]
In some communities, the [[hazzan]] wears a kittel on the first night of [[Selichot]], on [[Hoshana Rabbah]] or the seventh day of the [[Jewish holiday]] of [[Sukkot]], the [[musaf]] prayers of [[Sukkot#Shemini Atzeret and Simchat Torah|Shemini Atzeret]] and the first day of [[Passover]], where the [[Geshem]] (prayers for rain or dew) are recited.

In some communities, a [[bridegroom]] wears a ''kittel'' on his [[wedding]] day.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.religionfacts.com/judaism/things/kittel.htm |title=Kittel: Jewish Ceremonial Robe |website=religionfacts.com}}</ref>

In some communities, it is known by the [[Western Yiddish]] term ''sargenes'', related to the Old French ''[[serge (fabric)|serge]]'' as well as Latin ''sericum''.<ref>{{Jewish Encyclopedia|article=Sargenes (called also Kittel)|url=https://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/13202|first1=Kaufmann|last1=Kohler|first2=Judah David|last2=Eisenstein|volume=11|page=62–63|no-prescript=1}}</ref> The sargenes is worn like a [[tachrichim]], covering the head and face.

==Symbolism==
As a tachrichim or burial shroud, the kittel signifies simple attire that assures equality for all in death. Because Jewish law dictates that the dead are buried without anything else in the [[coffin]] other than simple linen clothes, a kittel has no pockets.

The wearing of a kittel on the High Holidays is symbolically linked to its use as tachrichim and to the verse "our sins shall be made as white as snow" ({{bibleverse-lb||Isaiah|1:18|HE}}).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.askmoses.com/en/article/561,2080037/Why-is-a-kittel-worn-on-Yom-Kippur.html |title=Why is a kittel worn on Yom Kippur |website=askmoses.com |first=Simcha |last=Bart |access-date=2009-09-30 |archive-date=2011-06-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110607070303/http://www.askmoses.com/en/article/561,2080037/Why-is-a-kittel-worn-on-Yom-Kippur.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> The white color is said to symbolize purity, which partly explains its use during [[Jewish view of marriage|weddings]]. It is also felt to signify unity with the [[bride]] (who also wears white) and the beginning of a new life together. Another reason it is worn at the wedding is because it has no pockets, showing that the couple is marrying for love, not for what they possess.{{citation needed|date=October 2009}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{High Holidays}}

[[Category:Bereavement in Judaism]]
[[Category:Jewish religious clothing]]
[[Category:Rosh Hashanah]]
[[Category:Yom Kippur]]
[[Category:Yiddish words and phrases]]
[[Category:Jewish ritual objects]]
[[Category:Yiddish words and phrases in Jewish law]]

Airlangga University

2025-06-19T06:36:05Z

89.243.41.89: Link

{{Short description|Public university in Surabaya, Indonesia}}
{{Infobox university
| name = Airlangga University
| native_name = {{lang|id|Universitas Airlangga}}
| image = Logo-Branding-UNAIR-biru.png
| caption = Seal of UNAIR
| motto = Excellence with Morality
| established = {{start date and age|1954|11|10}}
| type = [[Public university]]
| rector = Prof. Dr. [[Muhammad Madyan]], S.E., M.Si., M.Fin.
| academic_staff = 2,207
| students = 35,985
| undergrad = 33,642
| postgrad = 2,343
| city = [[Surabaya]]
| state = [[East Java]]
| country = [[Indonesia]]
| campus = [[Urban area|Urban]] A Campus B Campus C Campus Banyuwangi Campus
| free_label = Student newspaper
| free = ''UNAIR News''
| colours = {{scarf|start}} {{cell|#FFCA05}} {{cell|#14487F}}{{scarf|end}}
| sports_nickname = UNAIR
| mascot = Garuda Mukti<ref>[http://news.unair.ac.id/2016/01/23/siswa-siswi-sma-terinspirasi-sakralnya-aula-garuda-mukti/ The meanings of a Garuda Mukti] added from Unair News on July, 24th 2016</ref>
| website = [https://www.unair.ac.id/en/ www.unair.ac.id] (engl.)
| logo =
| coor = {{coord|7|16|18|S|112|45|29|E|region:ID-JI_type:edu|display=inline,title}}
| affiliations = [[Accreditation Service for International Colleges|ASIC]],<ref>{{cite web|title=International Directory|url=https://www.asicuk.com/international-directory|publisher=ASIC|access-date=11 March 2021}}</ref> [[ASEAN University Network|AUN]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aunsec.org/membership.php|title=Membership of ASEAN Universities Network|publisher=ASEAN Universities Network (AUN)|access-date=4 August 2016|archive-date=30 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200430230140/http://www.aunsec.org/membership.php|url-status=dead}}</ref> ABEST21,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.abest21.org/member/organization/index.html|title=ABEST21 Members|access-date=2020-06-03|archive-date=2019-12-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191230142630/http://www.abest21.org/member/organization/index.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Austrian-South-East Asian Academic University Network|ASEA-UNINET]],<ref>{{cite web|title=Indonesian Member|url=https://asea-uninet.org/network-members/member-universities/indonesian-universities/}}</ref> ASIIN,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.asiin-ev.de/pages/de/asiin/akkreditierung-studiengaenge/akkreditierte-studiengaenge.php?suchbegriff=&siegel=&staat=Indonesia&suchtyp=erweitert|title=Accredited Study Programme|publisher=Akkreditierungsagentur für Studiengänge der Ingenieurwissenschaften, der Informatik, der Naturwissenschaften und der Mathematik (ASIIN)|access-date=14 September 2021}}</ref> [[ASAIHL]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.seameo.org/asaihl/|title=Who is ASAIHL?}}</ref> [[Foundation for International Business Administration Accreditation|FIBAA]],<ref>{{cite web|title=Accrediter Programmes|url=https://www.en-fibaa.org/nc/en/procedures-at-programme-level/prog-according-to-fibaa-quality-standards/accredited-programmes.html?menu=weitere|publisher=FIBAA|access-date=11 March 2021|archive-date=30 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211130083742/https://www.en-fibaa.org/nc/en/procedures-at-programme-level/prog-according-to-fibaa-quality-standards/accredited-programmes.html?menu=weitere|url-status=dead}}</ref> APHEA,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.aphea.be/Pages/A3.PROGRAMMES/Accredited_Programmes.html|title = Accredited Programmes}}</ref> [[Accrediting Commission for Education in Nursing|ACEN]]
| pushpin_map = Indonesia_Surabaya
| pushpin_map_caption = Main campus location
}}

'''Airlangga''' '''University''' ([[Indonesian language|Indonesian]]: {{Lang|id|Universitas Airlangga}}; {{langx|jv|ꦈꦤꦶꦮ꦳ꦼꦂꦱꦶꦠꦱ꧀ꦄꦲꦶꦂꦭꦁꦒ}}, abbreviated as '''UNAIR'''<ref>{{Cite web |date=May 14, 2014 |title=About UNAIR: Legal Basis |url=https://unair.ac.id/en/about-unair-legal-basis/ |access-date=June 20, 2024 |website=Universitas Airlangga}}</ref>) is the second-oldest university in [[Indonesia]] and also a research [[public university]] located in [[Surabaya]], [[East Java]]. Despite being officially established by Indonesian Government Regulation in 1954, {{Lang|id|Universitas Airlangga|italic=no}} was first founded in 1948 as a distant branch of the [[University of Indonesia]], with roots dating back to 1913. It started with a medical school and a school of dentistry. Now {{Lang|id|Universitas Airlangga|italic=no}} hosts 16 faculties with more than 35,000 students (during the 2015-2016 academic year) and 1,570 faculty members. {{Lang|id|Universitas Airlangga|italic=no}} has university hospitals for the faculties of Medicine, Veterinary Medicine, Nursing, and Dentistry, as well as a tropical infection hospital for its Institute of Tropical Disease. The university is also equipped with biosafety level three facilities.

Consistently ranked highly in major world university rankings, {{Lang|id|Universitas Airlangga|italic=no}} has long been considered one of the "Big 5" universities in Indonesia, along with [[University of Indonesia|the University of Indonesia]], [[Bandung Institute of Technology]], [[Bogor Agricultural University]], and [[Gadjah Mada University]].

{{Lang|id|Universitas Airlangga|italic=no}} has international partnerships worldwide, including with [[University of Bonn|the University of Bonn]], [[Seoul National University]], and [[University of Adelaide|the University of Adelaide]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://international.unair.ac.id/baru/?page_id=831 |title=International Partnership List |access-date=2013-04-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141129030929/http://international.unair.ac.id/baru/?page_id=831 |archive-date=2014-11-29 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

==History==
{{Unreferenced section|date=January 2025}}
Before {{Lang|id|Universitas Airlangga|italic=no}} was established on October 11, 1847, the proposal to educate young [[Javanese people|Javanese]] to become health experts was submitted to the [[Dutch people|Dutch]] colonial government. On May 8, 1913 — through Edict No. 4211 of the Governor General of the Netherlands-Indies — '''NIAS''' ('''''[[Nederlandsch Indische Artsen School]]''''') (Netherlands Indies School of Doctors) was founded as a medical education center in [[Surabaya]]. The first medical institution was located in Jl. Kedungdoro 38, [[Surabaya]]. In 1923, NIAS was moved to its present-day location of the Faculty of Medicine of {{Lang|id|Universitas Airlangga|italic=no}}, on Jl. Major General Moestopo, Surabaya.

Lonkhuizen, the director of the Department of Health, proposed the establishment of a School of Dentistry in [[Surabaya]]. He received approval from R.J.F. Van Zaben, the succeeding director of NIAS, and the new school was opened in July 1928. Later on, the school was better known as '''STOVIT''' ('''''School tot Opleiding van Indische Tandartsen''''') (School for Training Indies Dentists) with 21 students. Later during the [[Japanese people|Japanese]] occupation, STOVIT was renamed '''''Ika-Shika Daigaku''''' (医科歯科大学) (College of Medicine and Dentistry) under the supervision of Takeda as its first director (1942–1945), while NIAS was closed down.

Two years later, the [[Netherlands Indies Civil Administration|post-WW II Dutch colonial government]] took over ''Ika-Shika Daigaku'' and then changed its name to '''''Tandheelkundig Instituut''''' (Institute of Dentistry) and NIAS was reopened as '''''Faculteit der Geneeskunde''''' (Faculty of Medicine). In 1948, the dentistry institute changed its status to '''''Universitair Tandheelkundig Instituut''''' (UTI) (Institute of College Dentistry). Later after [[United States of Indonesia|Republik Indonesia Serikat (RIS)]] gained its official independence in 1950, UTI was renamed '''LIKG''' (Lembaga Ilmu Kedokteran Gigi) (Institute of Dentistry) for four years, under the leadership of Prof. M. Knap and Prof. M. Soetojo. In 1948, both schools became part of [[University of Indonesia|the University of Indonesia]]'s Faculty of Medicine and Faculty of Dentistry.

{{Lang|id|Universitas Airlangga|italic=no}} was established by Government Regulation (''Peraturan Pemerintah'') No. 57/1954 and was inaugurated by [[Sukarno|the first president of the Republic of Indonesia, Sukarno]] on November 10, 1954, coinciding with the celebration of the ninth national [[Hari Pahlawan|Heroes' Day]]. In the same year, the Faculty of Law of {{Lang|id|Universitas Airlangga|italic=no}} (formerly a branch of the Faculty of Law, Economics and Social Politics of [[Universitas Gadjah Mada|Gadjah Mada University]], [[Yogyakarta]]) was established.

==Namesake and Coat of Arms==
The name ''Airlangga'' is taken from the name of the reigning king of East Java in 1019–1042, Rakai Halu Sri Lokeswara Dharmawangsa Airlangga Anantawikramattungadewa (well known as [[Airlangga|Prabu Airlangga]]). {{Lang|id|Universitas Airlangga|italic=no}}'s Coat of Arms is the mythical bird [[Garuda]] ("Garudamukha") — the magical bird ridden by [[Vishnu]] — who carries an urn containing the eternal water "[[Amrita|Amerta]]". This symbol represents {{Lang|id|Universitas Airlangga|italic=no}} as the source of eternal knowledge.

The colors of the flag of {{Lang|id|Universitas Airlangga|italic=no}} are dominated by yellow and blue; yellow symbolizing golden greatness and blue symbolising the depth of the soul of a warrior. These colors are taken from the veil that covered Vishnu's statue at the founding ceremony of {{Lang|id|Universitas Airlangga|italic=no}} by [[Sukarno|the first president of the Republic of Indonesia]] on November 10, 1954.

== Campuses ==
[[File:Universitas Airlangga.jpg|left|thumb|288x288px|Universitas Airlangga's main entrance.]]
{{Lang|id|Universitas Airlangga|italic=no}}'s faculty campuses are as follows:

* Dharmahusada (A) Campus in Jalan Moestopo (Faculty of Medicine and Faculty of Dentistry).
* Dharmawangsa (B) Campus in Jalan Airlangga (Faculty of Economics and Business, Faculty of Pharmacy, Faculty of Law, Faculty of Social and Political Science, Faculty of Psychology, Faculty of Humanities, and Postgraduate School) with Faculty of Vocational Studies in Jalan Srikana.
* MERR (C) Campus in Jalan Ir. H. Soekarno, Mulyorejo (Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Public Health, Faculty of Sciences and Technology, Faculty of Marine and Fishery, Faculty of Advanced Technology and Multidisciplinary, and Faculty of Nursing).
* Giri Campus, [[Banyuwangi (city)|Banyuwangi]] (an outside regional campus for Aquaculture, Medicine, Veterinary Medicine, and Public Health majors).

== Faculties ==
There are 16 faculties in {{Lang|id|Universitas Airlangga|italic=no}} (including postgraduate school and School of Advanced Technology and Multidisciplinary) and 132 study programs offered:<ref>{{in lang|id}} [http://www.unair.ac.id/unair.php?id=1 Academic profile of {{Lang|id|Universitas Airlangga|italic=no}}]</ref>

* Faculty of Medicine
* Faculty of Dentistry
* Faculty of Law
* Faculty of Economics and Business
* Faculty of Pharmacy
* Faculty of Veterinary Medicine
* Faculty of Social and Political Sciences
* Faculty of Science and Technology
* Faculty of Psychology
* Faculty of Public Health
* Faculty of Humanities
* Faculty of Fisheries and Marine
* Faculty of Nursing
* Faculty of Vocational Studies
* Postgraduate School
* Faculty of Advanced Technology and Multidiscipline

== Rankings ==
{{Infobox university rankings
| QS_Asia = 52 | QS_Asia_year = 2025 | QS_Asia_ref = <ref name="topuniversities.com">{{cite web | url=https://www.topuniversities.com/universities/airlangga-university | title=Airlangga University }}</ref>
| QS_W= 308| QS_W_year = 2025 | QS_W_ref = <ref name="topuniversities.com"/>
| QS_W_Employability = 301-500 | QS_W_Employability_year = 2022 | QS_W_Employability_ref=<ref name="topuniversities">{{cite web | url=https://www.topuniversities.com/universities/airlangga-university | title=Airlangga University}}
</ref>}}

The QS Asia University Rangkings 2024 has ranks {{Lang|id|Universitas Airlangga|italic=no}} as number 67. The QS Asian University Ranking 2014 placed {{Lang|id|Universitas Airlangga|italic=no}} as the best university in the "Citations per paper" category.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.topuniversities.com/university-rankings/asian-university-rankings/2014#sorting=1776156+region=+country=+faculty=+stars=false+search=|title=QS University Rankings: Asia 2014}}</ref> In 2010, {{Lang|id|Universitas Airlangga|italic=no}} was ranked 466th worldwide according to the Top 500 QS World University Rankings 2010, as well as ranked 86th in the Top 200 QS Asian University Rankings 2011 (third in Indonesia after the University of Indonesia and Gadjah Mada University). In the Webometrics Ranking of World Universities 2011, {{Lang|id|Universitas Airlangga|italic=no}} was placed fourth in Indonesia and 22nd in the Southeast Asia region.

{{Lang|id|Universitas Airlangga|italic=no}} has two internationally standardized quality management certificates. For this reason, {{Lang|id|Universitas Airlangga|italic=no}} has been the destination for foreign students who choose to study in Indonesia, particularly from Malaysia, Japan, Timor Leste, China, Thailand, and some European and African countries.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.studyoverseas.com/university/Universitas_Airlangga/|title=Universitas Airlangga - International Student Admissions & Application|website=www.studyoverseas.com|access-date=2018-12-25}}</ref>

The Faculty of Medicine and Faculty of Pharmacy are among the best life science schools in Indonesia, ranked 45th in Asia<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.topuniversities.com/university-rankings/asian-university-rankings/2011/subject-rankings/life-science-biomedicine|title=Asian University Rankings - Life Sciences and Medicine|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120419052013/http://www.topuniversities.com/university-rankings/asian-university-rankings/2011/subject-rankings/life-science-biomedicine|archive-date=2012-04-19|url-status=dead}}</ref> and 356th in the world by QS World University Rankings 2011.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.topuniversities.com/institution/airlangga-university/wur|title=Universitas Airlangga, QS World University Rangkings 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120129203808/http://www.topuniversities.com/institution/airlangga-university/wur|archive-date=2012-01-29|url-status=dead}}</ref> The Faculty of Medicine is affiliated with the Dr. Soetomo Regional General Hospital, the biggest hospital in Eastern Indonesia and one of the central referral hospitals in the country.

=== Subject ===
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}

''[[QS World University Rankings]]'' by Subject 2025<ref name="QSSubject">{{cite web |title=QS World University Rankings by Subject 2025 |url=https://www.topuniversities.com/subject-rankings |website=topuniversities.com |access-date=8 April 2025}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
!World rank
!Subject
|-
!'''51 – 100'''
|
* Veterinary Science
|-
!'''101 – 150'''
|
* Accounting & Finance
|-
!'''151 – 200'''
|
* Nursing
* Law & Legal Studies
|-
!'''201 – 250'''
|
* Economics & Econometrics
|-
!'''251 – 300'''
|
* Modern Languages
* Pharmacy & Pharmacology
* Business & Management Studies
* Politics
|-
!'''301 – 350'''
|
* Linguistics
* Medicine
* Sociology
|-
!'''351 – 400'''
|
*
|-
!'''401 – 450'''
|
*
|-
!'''451 – 500'''
|
*
|-
!'''501 – 550'''
|
*
|-
!'''551 – 600'''
|
* Biological Sciences
* Chemistry
|-
!'''601 – 650'''
|
*
|-
!'''651 – 700'''
|
*
|-
|-
!'''701 – 750'''
|
* Computer Science and Information Systems
|}

{{col-break|gap=0.5em}}
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="width: 100%; font-size: 90%"
|+ [[QS World University Rankings|QS]] World University Rankings by Subject 2025<ref name="QSSubject" />
! Subject !! Global !! National
|-
! {{Left|Arts & Humanities}}
! data-sort-value="394" | {{Rise|size=9}} 394
! data-sort-value="3" | {{Same position|size=9}} 3
|-
! {{Left|Engineering and Technology}}
! data-sort-value="451-500" | {{Rise|size=9}} 451-500
! data-sort-value="5" | {{Same position|size=9}} 5
|-
! {{Left|Life Sciences & Medicine}}
! data-sort-value="359" | {{Rise|size=9}} 359
! data-sort-value="2" | {{Same position|size=9}} 2
|-
! {{Left|Natural Sciences}}
! data-sort-value="-" | {{Same position|size=9}} -
! data-sort-value="-" | {{Same position|size=9}} -
|-
! {{Left|Social Sciences & Management}}
! data-sort-value="270" | {{Rise|size=9}} 270
! data-sort-value="3" | {{Same position|size=9}} 3
|-
|}
{{col-end}}

==Notable alumni==
* [[Taheri Noor]], a former member of the [[People's Representative Council]] (1990-1997)
* [[Anas Urbaningrum]], former Member of [[People's Representative Council|House of Representative]] and [[National Progressive Fraction|Head of Democratic Fraction]] 2009-2014 (resigned in 2010).<ref name="Castle2011">{{cite book|last=Castle|first=James|title=Indonesia: Political Pulse 2010|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tr9bxrs-Sb4C&pg=PA105|accessdate=18 July 2012|date=2011-03-01|publisher=Equinox Publishing|isbn=9789793780856|pages=105–}}</ref>
* [[Ayu Maulida|Raden Roro Ayu Maulida Putri]], model, [[People’s Consultative Assembly|Indonesian People’s Consultative Assembly Ambassador]], [[COVID-19 Response Acceleration Task Force|Indonesian COVID-19 Response Acceleration Task Force]] speaker, Winner of Face of Asia 2019, [[Puteri Indonesia 2020]], and [[Miss Universe 2020|Miss Universe Indonesia 2020]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.unair.ac.id/2020/03/07/bangga-alumni-unair-kembali-raih-mahkota-puteri-indonesia-2020/|title=Bangga! Alumni UNAIR Kembali Raih Mahkota Puteri Indonesia 2020|date=March 7, 2020|language=Indonesian|publisher=Airlangga University News}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.unair.ac.id/2016/12/27/sempat-tak-direstui-ibunda-karir-model-cantik-asal-fh-semakin-bersinar/|title=Sempat Tak Direstui Ibunda, Karir Model Cantik Asal FH Semakin Bersinar|publisher=Airlangga University News|accessdate=March 8, 2019|language=Indonesian|archive-date=October 18, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181018131336/http://news.unair.ac.id/2016/12/27/sempat-tak-direstui-ibunda-karir-model-cantik-asal-fh-semakin-bersinar/|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* [[Elvira Devinamira|Elvira Devinamira Wirayanti]], actress, model, [[Puteri Indonesia 2014]], then the [[Miss Universe 2014|Top-15]] and winner of [[Miss Universe 2014|Best National Costume]] in the [[Miss Universe 2014]].<ref name="Law Degree (1)">{{cite web|url=http://news.unair.ac.id/en/2016/05/30/putri-indonesia-2014-conferred-bachelor-of-law-after-pageant-contest/|title=Putri Indonesia 2014 Conferred Bachelor of Law after Pageant Contest|publisher=Airlangga University|accessdate=May 30, 2016}}</ref><ref name="Law Degree (2)">{{cite web|url=http://alumni.unair.ac.id/site/article/read/780/berawal-dari-cak-dan-ning-surabaya.html|title=Universitas Airlangga Pencapaian Alumni Berawal dari Cak dan Ning Surabaya|publisher=Airlangga University|accessdate=June 2, 2020}}</ref><ref name="Law Degree (3)">{{cite web |date=July 17, 2017 |editor-last=Prasetyo |editor-first=Suryo Eko |title=Bahagia Akhirnya Putri Indonesia Arek Suroboyo itu Diwisuda |url=https://www.jawapos.com/nasional/pendidikan/17/07/2017/bahagia-akhirnya-putri-indonesia-arek-suroboyo-itu-diwisuda/ |accessdate=July 17, 2017 |publisher=[[Jawa Pos]]}}</ref>
* [[Erni Suyanti Musabine]], veterinarian involved in the conservation of [[Sumatran tiger]]s<ref>{{cite news |author=Defrina Sukma Satiti|title=Erni Suyanti, UNAIR Alumnus 'Kartini', Savior of Sumatran Tiger |url=https://news.unair.ac.id/2016/04/23/erni-suyanti-unair-alumnus-kartini-savior-of-sumatran-tiger/?lang=en |work=UNAIR News |date=23 April 2016}}</ref>
* [[Ignasius Jonan]], former director of [[PT Kereta Api Indonesia|PT. Kereta Api Indonesia]] and current [[Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources (Indonesia)|Minister of Energy and Mineral Resources of Indonesia]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Praditya |first=Ilyas Istianur |date=11 July 2014 |title=Ignasius Jonan, Mimpi Bawa PT KAI Sekelas Perusahaan Eropa |url=http://bisnis.liputan6.com/read/2073020/ignasius-jonan-mimpi-bawa-pt-kai-sekelas-perusahaan-eropa |accessdate=16 April 2016 |website=Liputan6.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Anam |first=Khairul |date=26 October 2014 |title=Jokowi Announces Names of Cabinet Members |publisher=[[Tempo (Indonesian magazine)|Tempo]] |url=http://en.tempo.co/read/news/2014/10/26/055617136/Jokowi-Announces-Names-of-Cabinet-Members |accessdate=16 April 2016}}</ref>
* [[Khofifah Indar Parawansa]], former [[Ministry of Social Affairs (Indonesia)|Minister of Social Affairs of Indonesia]], and current [[List of governors of East Java|Governor of East Java]].<ref>{{cite web |last1= |first1= |date=25 November 2016 |editor-last=Ebo |editor-first=Aloysius Gonsaga Angi |title=Khofifah Kembali Pimpin Muslimat NU |url=http://nasional.kompas.com/read/2011/07/17/00540887/Khofifah.Kembali.Pimpin.Muslimat.NU |website=KOMPAS.com |language=id}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Khofifah Kembali Pimpin Muslimat NU |url=https://www.antaranews.com/berita/31013/khofifah-kembali-pimpin-muslimat-nu |access-date=8 December 2016 |website=Antaranews.com}}</ref>
* [[Muhammad Hatta Ali]], current [[Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Indonesia]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Parlina |first=Ina |last2=Christanto |first2=Dicky |date=9 February 2012 |title=High hopes for new justice |url=https://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2012/02/09/high-hopes-new-justice.html |access-date=2023-03-17 |website=The Jakarta Post |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=Prasetia |first=Andhika |date=30 April 2020 |title=Jadi Ketua MA, Syarifuddin Bacakan Sumpah Jabatan di Depan Jokowi |url=https://news.detik.com/berita/d-4996955/jadi-ketua-ma-syarifuddin-bacakan-sumpah-jabatan-di-depan-jokowi |accessdate=24 June 2020 |work=Detik.com |language=id}}</ref>
* [[Padi (band)]], Indonesian music band, all of its members studied at Universitas Airlangga.
* [[Prigi Arisandi]], 2011 [[Goldman Environmental Prize]] awardee.<ref>{{cite news |last=Prameshwara |first=Bubup |date=21 April 2011 |title=Prigi Arisandi: Aksi Nyata Pelestarian Lingkungan Hidup |language=Indonesian |newspaper=Kompasiana |url=https://www.kompasiana.com/bubup/5500b582a33311531850fa01/prigi-arisandi-aksi-nyata-pelestarian-lingkungan-hidup |url-status=live |accessdate=31 May 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120630021957/http://sosok.kompasiana.com/2011/04/21/prigi-arisandi-aksi-nyata-pelestarian-lingkungan-hidup/ |archive-date=30 June 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.goldmanprize.org/pressroom/2011_print/pressreleases|title=2011 Goldman Environmental Prize Recipients|publisher=[[Goldman Environmental Prize]]|accessdate=30 May 2012|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120604225246/http://www.goldmanprize.org/pressroom/2011_print/pressreleases|archivedate=4 June 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.goldmanprize.org/pressroom/2011_print/bios/islands |title=2011 Recipient for Islands: Prigi Arisandi |publisher=[[Goldman Environmental Prize]] |accessdate=30 May 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111112021336/http://www.goldmanprize.org/pressroom/2011_print/bios/islands |archive-date=12 November 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
* [[Soekarwo]], former [[List of governors of East Java|Governor of East Java]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://news.unair.ac.id/2016/11/18/9-alumnus-unair-duduki-posisi-strategis-di-pemerintahan |title=9 Alumnus UNAIR Duduki Posisi Strategis di Pemerintahan - Unair News |access-date=2021-12-14 |archive-date=2022-07-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220706043120/https://news.unair.ac.id/2016/11/18/9-alumnus-unair-duduki-posisi-strategis-di-pemerintahan/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>
* [[Tarmizi Taher]], former [[Ministry of Religious Affairs (Indonesia)|Minister of Religious Affairs of Indonesia]] in 1993-1998.<ref>News on the Official Website of the Government of Philippines [http://www.gov.ph/news/?i=16605 2006 GUSI Peace Prize]</ref><ref>Gusi Peace Prize Foundation [http://www.gusipeaceprize.com.ph/awardee_dtls.php?id=23&m=archive&s=awardee&sk=2 Profile of Awardee]</ref><ref>Gusi Peace Prize Award Ceremony [http://www.gusipeaceprize.com.ph/videoaward.php?id=16 Broadcast of the Acceptance Speech]</ref>
* [[Yahya Zaini]], former Member of Parliament in the [[People's Representative Council]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Nadlir |first=Mohamad |date=December 17, 2017 |editor-last=Meiliana |editor-first=Diamanty |title=Yahya Zaini Yakin Golkar Tak Buka Pendaftaran Caketum lain |url=https://nasional.kompas.com/read/2017/12/17/16371681/yahya-zaini-yakin-golkar-tak-buka-pendaftaran-caketum-lain |access-date=17 December 2018 |website=KOMPAS.com |language=id}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Pristiawan |first=Ferio |date=20 July 2018 |editor-last=Subagja |editor-first=Indra |title=Yahya Zaini: Golkar Tetap Dukung Jokowi Jika Ambil JK Jadi Cawapres |url=https://m.kumparan.com/@kumparannews/yahya-zaini-golkar-tetap-dukung-jokowi-jika-ambil-jk-jadi-cawapres-27431110790549670 |access-date=17 December 2018 |website=kumparan |language=id-ID}}</ref>
* [[Lo Siaw Ging]], doctor from [[Surakarta]] who provided free medical treatment to the poor for 50 years

==External links==
*[http://www.unair.ac.id/ Universitas Airlangga]

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Universities in Indonesia}}
{{ASEAN University Network}}
{{ASAIHL}}

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Airlangga}}
[[Category:Universities and colleges established in 1948]]
[[Category:Educational institutions in Surabaya]]
[[Category:1948 establishments in Indonesia]]
[[Category:Universities in East Java]]
[[Category:Indonesian state universities]]
[[Category:Airlangga University]]

Template:Lists of aviation accidents and incidents

2025-06-19T04:42:41Z

89.243.41.89: +1

{{#invoke:Navbox|navbox
| name = Lists of aviation accidents and incidents
| state = {{{state|<includeonly>{{{1|collapsed}}}</includeonly>}}}
| title = Lists of [[aviation accidents and incidents]]
| border = {{{border|}}}
| bodyclass = hlist

| below =
* ''Italics'' indicates that the list is a [[Help:Categories|category page]].

| group1 = By type
| list1 =
* ''[[:Category:Lists of aviation accidents and incidents|All]]''
* [[Ground collision]]
* [[List of aircraft hijackings|Hijacking]]
**[[List of hijackings of Indian aeroplanes|India]]
**[[List of hijackings of Turkish airplanes|Turkey]]
* [[List of mid-air collisions|Mid-air collision]]
** [[List of mid-air collisions and incidents in the United Kingdom|United Kingdom]]
* [[Suicide by pilot|Pilot suicide]]
* [[List of aircraft shootdowns|Shootdown]]
* [[List of aircraft structural failures|Structural failure]]
* [[Wheel-well stowaway]]

| group2 = Commercial
| list2 =
* [[List of accidents and incidents involving airliners by airline|by airline]]
** [[List of accidents and incidents involving airliners by airline (A–C)|A–C]]
*** [[Aeroflot accidents and incidents|Aeroflot]]
*** [[Aerolíneas Argentinas accidents and incidents| Aerolíneas Argentinas]]
*** [[Air France accidents and incidents|Air France]]
*** [[List of American Airlines accidents and incidents|American Airlines]]
*** [[Cubana de Aviación accidents and incidents|Cubana de Aviación]]
** [[List of accidents and incidents involving airliners by airline (D–O)|D–O]]
*** [[List of Deutsche Luft Hansa accidents and incidents|Deutsche Luft Hansa]]
*** [[Ethiopian Airlines accidents and incidents|Ethiopian Airlines]]
*** [[List of Garuda Indonesia accidents and incidents|Garuda Indonesia]]
*** [[List of Japan Airlines incidents and accidents|Japan Airlines]]
*** [[List of KLM accidents and incidents|KLM]]
*** [[Korean Air incidents and accidents|Korean Air]]
** [[List of accidents and incidents involving airliners by airline (P–Z)|P–Z]]
* [[List of accidents and incidents involving airliners by location|by location worldwide]]
** [[List of accidents and incidents involving airliners in the United Kingdom|United Kingdom]]
** [[List of accidents and incidents involving airliners in the United States|United States]]
* [[List of accidents and incidents involving commercial aircraft|by year]]
* [[List of fatal accidents to commercial cargo aircraft|cargo]]
* [[List of airliner shootdown incidents|shootdown]]
* [[Timeline of airliner bombing attacks|bombing]]
* ''[[:Category:Airliner accidents and incidents involving controlled flight into terrain|controlled flight into terrain]]''

| group3 = Military
| list3 = {{#invoke:Navbox|navbox|subgroup
| group1 = [[List of accidents and incidents involving military aircraft|By year]]
| list1 =
* [[List of accidents and incidents involving military aircraft before 1925|Pre-1925]]
* [[List of accidents and incidents involving military aircraft (1925–1934)|1925–1934]]
* [[List of accidents and incidents involving military aircraft (1935–1939)|1935–1939]]
* [[List of accidents and incidents involving military aircraft (1940–1942)|1940–1942]]
* [[List of accidents and incidents involving military aircraft (1943–1944)|1943–1944]]
* [[List of accidents and incidents involving military aircraft (1945–1949)|1945–1949]]
* [[List of accidents and incidents involving military aircraft (1950–1954)|1950–1954]]
* [[List of accidents and incidents involving military aircraft (1955–1959)|1955-1959]]
* [[List of accidents and incidents involving military aircraft (1960–1969)|1960–1969]]
* [[List of accidents and incidents involving military aircraft (1970–1974)|1970–1974]]
* [[List of accidents and incidents involving military aircraft (1975–1979)|1975–1979]]
* [[List of accidents and incidents involving military aircraft (1980–1989)|1980–1989]]
* [[List of accidents and incidents involving military aircraft (1990–1999)|1990–1999]]
* [[List of accidents and incidents involving military aircraft (2000–2009)|2000–2009]]
* [[List of accidents and incidents involving military aircraft (2010–2019)|2010–2019]]
* [[List of accidents and incidents involving military aircraft (2020–present)|2020–present]]

| group2 = By conflict
| list2 =
* [[List of aircraft losses of the Vietnam War|Vietnam War]]
* ''[[:Category:Accidents and incidents involving United States Air Force aircraft|USAF]]''
* [[List of fatal accidents and incidents involving Royal Air Force aircraft from 1945|''RAF'']]
* [[List of accidents and incidents involving Philippine Air Force aircraft|''PAF'']]
* [[List of Soviet aircraft losses during the Soviet–Afghan War|Soviet Afghan War]]
* Falklands War
** [[Argentine air forces in the Falklands War#Casualties and aircraft losses|Argentine]]
** [[British air services in the Falklands War#Casualties and aircraft losses|British]]
* [[List of aviation shootdowns and accidents during the Yugoslav Wars|Yugoslav Wars]]
* [[List of aviation accidents and incidents in the war in Afghanistan|U.S war in Afghanistan]]
* [[List of aviation shootdowns and accidents during the Iraq War|Iraq War]]
* [[List of aviation shootdowns and accidents during the Libyan Civil War (2011)|Libyan Civil War 2011 and NATO intervention]]
* [[List of aviation shootdowns and accidents during the Libyan crisis|''Libyan Crisis'']]
* [[List of aviation shootdowns and accidents during the Syrian civil war|''Syrian civil war'']]
* [[List of aircraft losses during the Russo-Ukrainian War|''Russo-Ukrainian War'']]
* [[List of aviation shootdowns and accidents during the Saudi Arabian-led intervention in Yemen|''Saudi-led intervention in Yemen and later US intervention'']]
*[[List of aviation shootdowns and accidents during the Iran-Israel War|''Iran-Israel War'']]
}}

| group4 = Other
| list4 =
* ''[[:Category:Aviation accidents and incidents by aircraft|by aircraft]]''
* [[List of air rage incidents|Air rage]]
* [[List of airship accidents|Airships]]
* [[List of ballooning accidents|Ballooning]]
* Air shows
** [[List of air show accidents and incidents in the 20th century|20th century]]
** [[List of air show accidents and incidents in the 21st century|21st century]]
* [[List of aircraft by tail number|By registration]]
* [[List of accidents and incidents involving commercial aircraft|Commercial aviation]]
* [[List of accidents and incidents involving general aviation|General aviation]]
* [[List of accidents and incidents involving helicopters|Helicopters]]
* [[List of news aircraft accidents and incidents|News aircraft]]
* [[List of spaceflight-related accidents and incidents|Spaceflight]]
* [[List of sole survivors of aviation accidents and incidents|Sole survivors]]
* [[List of unrecovered and unusable flight recorders|Unrecovered and unusable flight recorders]]

| group5 = Deaths
| list5 =
* [[List of fatalities from aviation accidents|by aircraft misadventure]]
* [[List of accidents and disasters by death toll#Aviation|by death toll]]
* [[List of fatalities from aviation accidents|of notable people]]
* [[List of deadliest aircraft accidents and incidents|at least 50 fatalities]]
* [[List of aircraft accidents and incidents by number of ground fatalities|by number of ground fatalities]]
* [[List of fatal accidents and incidents involving commercial aircraft in the United States|in the United States]]

| group6 = Location
|list6 =
* [[List of aviation accidents and incidents in the Channel Islands|Channel Islands]]
* [[List of aviation accidents and incidents in Guatemala|Guatemala]]
* [[List of aviation accidents and incidents in Indonesia|Indonesia]]
* [[List of aviation accidents and incidents in the Isle of Man|Isle of Man]]
* [[List of aviation accidents and incidents in the Netherlands|Netherlands]]
* [[List of aviation accidents and incidents in Norway|Norway]]
* United States
** [[List of US aircraft near-miss incidents since 2023|Near-miss incidents in the United States since 2023]]
** [[List of accidents and incidents at John F. Kennedy International Airport|John F. Kennedy International Airport]]
** [[List of accidents and incidents at LaGuardia Airport|LaGuardia Airport]]

| group7 = Related topics
| list7 =
* [[Accident analysis]]
* ''[[:Category:Organizations investigating aviation accidents and incidents|Air crash investigators]]''
* [[Aviation archaeology]]
* [[Aviation safety]]

}}<noinclude>
{{navbox documentation |state=collapsed}}

[[Category:Aviation accidents and incidents navigational boxes| ]]
</noinclude>

Coagula

2025-06-18T08:05:43Z

89.243.41.89: /* Development */ link

{{short description|DC Comics' first transgender superhero}}
{{about|the comics character|the magazine|Coagula Art Journal{{!}}''Coagula Art Journal''}}
{{use mdy dates|date=June 2025}}
{{Infobox comics character
| character_name = Coagula
| image = Coagula.jpg
| caption =
| publisher = [[DC Comics]]
| debut = {{cite comic |date={{nowrap|September 1993}} |title= [[Doom Patrol]] |story=The Laughing Game |issue=70}}
| creators = [[Rachel Pollack]]
| real_name = Kate Godwin
| affiliations = Doom Patrol
| powers = [[Alchemy]]
}}

'''Coagula''' ('''Kate Godwin''') is a character from [[DC Comics]]' ''[[Doom Patrol]]'' series, the first [[transgender]] superhero by the publisher. Created by [[Rachel Pollack]] in response to other poorly written trans comic characters, the [[transgender sexuality|lesbian]] Coagula obtained her powers—to coagulate and dissolve material—from having sex with Doom Patrol member, [[Negative Man#Rebis|Rebis]]. An actively-written character from September 1993 through February 1995, Coagula cameoed in other comics until her resurrection in 2024.

==Character==
===Description===
Coagula is a [[transgender sexuality|transgender lesbian]], former prostitute and [[programmer]].<ref name="2013-12-15 Heroines of My Life" /> After having sex with former Doom Patrol member [[Negative Man#Rebis|Rebis]] ("an alchemical [[hermaphrodite]]"), Coagula gained<ref name="1994-Summer" /> "[[alchemy|alchemical]] powers<ref name="2013-12-15 Heroines of My Life" /> […] the power to dissolve things on the one hand and coagulate them on the other hand".<ref name="1994-Summer" /> She tried to join the [[Justice League]], but "it's implied that she was rejected in part for being an out transgender lesbian activist"; she instead joined the [[Doom Patrol]].<ref name="2013-11-14 Toast" />

===History===
Coagula first appears in issue 70—"The Laughing Game"—defeating The Codpiece, a spurned man-turned-villain with a multifunctional, mechanical [[codpiece]]. After her introduction in the next few issues, Coagula takes center stage in "The Teiresias Wars", a five-part story combining "[[Greek mythology]] with [Pollack's] twisted retelling of the [[Tower of Babel]]". The character last featured in {{cite comic |issue=87 |title=Doom Patrol |story=Imagine Ari's Friend (Part Four of Four: A Cry for the Great Face) |date=February 1995}}<ref name="2013-11-14 Toast" /> She was abruptly killed off in a flashback, a decision that was controversial with her fans, and an example of the [[women in refrigerators]] trope.<ref name="2024-06-08 Screen Rant" />

In ''[[DC Pride 2022]]'', Coagula cameoed in the stories "Super Pride"<ref name="2022-06-07 The Beat" /> and "Up at Bat".<ref name="2022-06-07 Jadzia Axelrod" />

In 2024, DC published a 96-page [[one-shot (comics)|one-shot]] tribute to Pollack under the [[DC Pride (comics)|''DC Pride'']] banner: ''DC Pride: A Celebration of Rachel Pollack''.<ref name="2024-06-08 Screen Rant" /> It was scheduled for [[Pride Month]] 2024.<ref name="2024-03-13 ICv2" /> Its first story, "Shining Through the Wreckage", depicts [[Robotman (Cliff Steele)|Robotman]] and [[Will Magnus]] bringing Coagula back to life.<ref name="2024-06-08 Screen Rant" />

==Development==
After creating the trans character [[Wanda Mann]] for [[The Sandman (comic book)|''The Sandman'']], [[Neil Gaiman]] solicited feedback from his friend, [[Rachel Pollack]]. She felt Gaiman had poorly written Mann, and said "she would remedy that by putting her own trans character, Coagula, into ''Doom Patrol''"; in 2023, Gaiman admitted he would write Mann differently if creating the comic contemporaneously.<ref name="2023-09-26 Xtra" /> Coagula became comics' first transgender [[superheroine]].<ref name="2023-09-26 Xtra" />

Pollack described the ''Doom Patrol'' series as being "all about people that had problems with their bodies", outsiders even among the superpowered beings of the DC comics universe. Pollack wanted to add a trans woman to that universe, not as token inclusionism, but in a way that "{{nowrap|[h]er}} transness and experiences informed the story." She based Coagula partly on her own trans experiences, inspired by another trans woman friend—Chelsea Goodwin—simply asking, "Oh, can I be a character? I’ve always wanted to be a character in a comic book." Pollack derived Coagula's real name (Kate Godwin) from activist and theorist [[Kate Bornstein]] and her friend's surname.<ref name="2022-07-20 Polygon" />

The synergy of Coagula's name and powers are derived from the [[Latin]] phrase {{langx |la |text=solve et coagula |label=none}}.<ref name="1994-Summer" /> Pollack wrote Coagula's past to include prostitution and programming because those were the most common professions for [[trans woman|trans women]] in the early-to-mid 1990s.<ref name="2013-12-15 Heroines of My Life" />

==Legacy==
The Coagula character allowed Pollack to expose readers to [[outline of transgender topics|transgender topics]] before being killed off,<ref name="2015-10-27 ComicMix" /> garnering positive feedback from readers who finally saw themselves represented in the pages of comics.<ref name="2013-11-14 Toast" /> Contemporary fans of Coagula wrote letters to DC, with Pollack remembering "including one or two letters from people who quite simply said their lives were saved by this. [That] it kept them from killing themselves, this character."<ref name="2022-07-20 Polygon" />

In 2022, [[Polygon (website)|''Polygon'']]'s Jessica Crets called Coagula "among the deepest portrayals of the trans experience in mainstream superhero comics".<ref name="2022-07-20 Polygon" />

==See also==
* {{annotated link|Lord Fanny}}
* {{annotated link|Nia Nal}}

==References==
{{reflist |refs=



<ref name="1994-Summer">{{cite interview |last=Gaiman |first=Neil |subject-link=Neil Gaiman |last2=Pollack |first2=Rachel |subject-link2=Rachel Pollack |interviewer=[[Erik Davis]] |title=The Gods of the Funny Books |url=http://www.techgnosis.com/gaiman.html |work=[[Gnosis (magazine)|Gnosis]] |date=Summer 1994 |access-date=2020-08-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120529061952/http://www.techgnosis.com/gaiman.html |archive-date=2012-05-29 |url-status=dead |quote=An Interview with Neil Gaiman and Rachel Pollack}}</ref>

<ref name="2013-11-14 Toast">{{cite web |url=https://the-toast.net/2013/11/14/women-refrigerators-coagula/ |title=Women Out Of Refrigerators: Coagula |last=Lloyd-Davies |first=Madeleine |date=2013-11-14 |website=[[The Toast (website)|The Toast]] |language=en |access-date=2024-03-29 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112031720/https://the-toast.net/2013/11/14/women-refrigerators-coagula/ |archive-date=2020-11-12}}</ref>

<ref name="2013-12-15 Heroines of My Life">{{cite interview |last=Pollack |first=Rachel |subject-link=Rachel Pollack |interviewer=Monika Kowalska |title=Interview with Rachel Pollack |url=http://theheroines.blogspot.com/2013/12/interview-with-rachel-pollack.html |work=The Heroines of My Life |date=2013-12-15 |access-date=2024-03-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190918113434/http://theheroines.blogspot.com/2013/12/interview-with-rachel-pollack.html |archive-date=2019-09-18}}</ref>

<ref name="2015-10-27 ComicMix">{{cite web |url=https://www.comicmix.com/2015/10/27/joe-corallo-coagula-dcs-first-and-only-transgender-superhero/ |title=Coagula, DC's First And Only Transgender Superhero |last=Corallo |first=Joe |date=2015-10-27 |publisher=[[ComicMix]] |language=en |access-date=2024-03-29 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201024093816/https://www.comicmix.com/2015/10/27/joe-corallo-coagula-dcs-first-and-only-transgender-superhero/ |archive-date=2020-10-24}}{{unreliable source?|date=June 2025}}</ref>

<ref name="2022-06-07 The Beat">{{cite web |url=https://www.comicsbeat.com/dc-round-up-pride-poison-ivy-reviews/ |title=DC Round-Up: Pride & Poison Ivy spotlight DC's LGBTQ+ community |last=McCreery |first=Cori |date=2022-06-07 |website=[[ComicsBeat|The Beat: The News Blog of Comics Culture]] |language=en |access-date=2024-03-29 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220608104105/https://www.comicsbeat.com/dc-round-up-pride-poison-ivy-reviews/ |archive-date=2022-06-08 |quote=DC kicks off June with their second-annual DC PRIDE anthology, and the debut of a new POISON IVY miniseries.}}</ref>

<ref name="2022-06-07 Jadzia Axelrod">{{cite tweet |last=Axelrod |first=Jadzia |user=planetx |number=1534174891272032262 |date=2022-06-07 |title=At some point I'll do proper annotation thread of the whole story, but yes, that is indeed the great Kate Godwin standing with Lee Serrano at the Gotham Trans Wellness Conference. I like to imagine Kate as well-known in the Gotham trans community, a respected queer elder. |language=en |access-date=2024-03-29 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220609200912/https://twitter.com/planetx/status/1534174891272032262 |archive-date=2022-06-09}}</ref>

<ref name="2022-07-20 Polygon">{{cite web |url=https://www.polygon.com/23269050/dc-comics-trans-supehero-doom-patrol-rachel-pollack-coagula-kate-godwin |title=30 years later, DC Comics' first transgender superhero is still the genre's best |last=Crets |first=Jessica |date=2022-07-20 |website=[[Polygon (website)|Polygon]] |language=en |access-date=2024-01-07 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230422012545/https://www.polygon.com/23269050/dc-comics-trans-supehero-doom-patrol-rachel-pollack-coagula-kate-godwin |archive-date=2023-04-22 |quote=Coagula, the Doom Patrol, and pioneering writer Rachel Pollack}}</ref>

<ref name="2023-09-26 Xtra">{{cite magazine |last1=Doyle |first1=Jude Ellison S. |author-link1=Jude Doyle |date=2023-09-26 |title=Rachel Pollack's vision of spirituality may be her greatest accomplishment |url=https://xtramagazine.com/culture/rachel-pollack-womens-spirituality-257312 |url-status=live |magazine=[[Xtra Magazine]] |language=en |issn=0829-3384 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240105075857/https://xtramagazine.com/culture/rachel-pollack-womens-spirituality-257312 |archive-date=2024-01-05 |access-date=2025-04-26 |quote=Tarot legend and comics writer Rachel Pollack's legacy is epic}}</ref>

<ref name="2024-03-13 ICv2">{{cite magazine |last1=Griepp |first1=Milton |author-link1=Milton Griepp |date=2024-03-13 |title=DC Plans Pride Anthology, Rachel Pollack Tribute, Covers Collection, OGNs, Pride-Themed Variants |url=https://icv2.com/articles/news/view/56476/dc-plans-pride-anthology-rachel-pollack-tribute-covers-collection-ogns-pride-themed-variants |url-status=live |magazine=[[ICv2]] |language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240314213047/https://icv2.com/articles/news/view/56476/dc-plans-pride-anthology-rachel-pollack-tribute-covers-collection-ogns-pride-themed-variants |archive-date=2024-03-14 |access-date=2024-03-15 |quote=In Publishing Program for Pride Month}}</ref>

<ref name="2024-06-08 Screen Rant">{{cite web |last1=Epps |first1=Justin |date=2024-06-08 |title=After 22 Years, DC Comics Brings Its First Trans Hero Back into Official Continuity |url=https://screenrant.com/dc-coagula-trans-hero-doom-patrol-return/ |website=[[Screen Rant]] |language=en |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240608233042/https://screenrant.com/dc-coagula-trans-hero-doom-patrol-return/ |archive-date=2024-06-08 |access-date=2025-03-18}}</ref>

}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite comic |writer=[[Rachel Pollack]] |penciller=[[Scot Eaton]] |inker=[[Tom Sutton]] |colorist=Tom Ziuko |letterer=[[John Workman]] |editor=[[Tom Peyer]] & [[Lou Stathis]] |title=[[Doom Patrol]] |story=The Laughing Game |date=September 1993 |issue=70}}
* {{cite interview |last=Pollack |first=Rachel |subject-link=Rachel Pollack |interviewer=Annie Mok |title=A Superhero on Your Own Terms: An Interview With Rachel Pollack |url=https://thenib.com/a-superhero-on-your-own-terms-an-interview-with-rachel-pollack |work=[[The Nib]] |date=2019-09-13 |access-date=2021-03-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201026072641/https://thenib.com/a-superhero-on-your-own-terms-an-interview-with-rachel-pollack |archive-date=2020-10-26 |url-status=live |quote=Talking to the Doom Patrol and Tarot Wisdom author about just going out and living your life.}}
* {{cite web |url=https://screenrant.com/dc-weirdest-villain-codpiece-comic/ |title=DC's Weirdest Villain is So Much Crazier Than You Think |last=Phelan |first=Kevin |date=2020-07-12 |website=[[Screen Rant]] |language=en |access-date=2021-04-28 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210207195907/https://screenrant.com/dc-weirdest-villain-codpiece-comic/ |archive-date=2021-02-07 |quote=There's {{sic|not}} shortage of bizarre villains in the DC Universe, but few rival the strangeness of when the Doom Patrol were confronted by Codpiece.}}

{{Doom Patrol|state=collapsed}}

[[Category:comics characters introduced in 1993]]
[[Category:DC Comics female superheroes]]
[[Category:DC Comics LGBTQ superheroes]]
[[Category:Doom Patrol]]
[[Category:fictional characters with elemental transmutation abilities]]
[[Category:fictional lesbians]]
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Paul Naschy

2025-06-18T07:58:18Z

89.243.41.89: /* Complete filmography */ correction, see linked article

{{short description|Spanish actor and filmmaker (1934-2009)}}
{{More citations needed|date=October 2023}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=November 2015}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Paul Naschy
| image = PaulNaschyPic.jpg
| imagesize =
| alt =
| caption =
| birth_name = Jacinto Molina Álvarez
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1934|09|06}}
| birth_place = [[Madrid]], Spain
| death_date = {{Death date and age|2009|11|30|1934|09|06}}
| death_place = Madrid, Spain
| othername =
| occupation = Actor, [[film director]], [[screenwriter]]
| yearsactive =
| spouse = {{marriage|Elvira Primavera|1969}}
| children = 2
}}

'''Jacinto Molina Álvarez''' (September 6, 1934 – November 30, 2009)<ref>[http://www.scifiworld.es/noticias.php?id_noticia=5556 Hasta Siempre, Paul] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091204202338/http://www.scifiworld.es/noticias.php?id_noticia=5556 |date=December 4, 2009 }}, Scifiworld.es</ref> known by his stage name '''Paul Naschy''', was a Spanish film actor, [[screenwriter]], and director working primarily in [[horror film]]s. His portrayals of numerous classic horror figures—[[werewolf|The Wolfman]], [[Frankenstein's monster]], [[Count Dracula]], [[Quasimodo]], [[Fu Manchu]] and a [[Mummy (undead)|mummy]]—earned him recognition as the Spanish [[Lon Chaney]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.dreadcentral.com/news/34759/the-mooring-finds-distro/|title=The Mooring Finds Distro|first=Steve|last=Barton|date=June 20, 2012|website=Dread Central}}</ref> Naschy also starred in dozens of action films, historical dramas, [[crime film]]s, TV shows and documentaries. He also wrote the screenplays for most of his films and directed a number of them as well, signing many of them "Jacinto Molina". Naschy was bestowed Spain's [[Gold Medal of Merit in the Fine Arts]] in 2001.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.elmundo.es/elmundo/2001/02/16/cultura/982341305.html|website=[[El Mundo (Spain)|El Mundo]]|date=17 February 2001|title=El Gobierno concede 16 Medallas de Oro al Mérito en las Bellas Artes}}</ref>

==Biography==
Naschy was born as Jacinto Molina Alvarez in [[Madrid]] in 1934, and grew up during the [[Spanish Civil War]], a period of great turmoil in Spanish history. His father Enrique Molina was a successful furrier, and Naschy grew up in very comfortable surroundings, at one point living in his parents' country mansion. Naschy went to college initially to become an architect. After college, he started out as a professional weightlifter, but soon gravitated to acting and filmmaking.<ref>Howarth, Troy (2018). ''Human Beasts: The Films of Paul Naschy''. WK Books. p. 13.{{ISBN|978-1718835894}}.</ref> His favorite film character from childhood was the Wolf Man, dating back to when he saw the classic Universal film ''[[Frankenstein Meets the Wolf Man]]'' (1943) as a child. At times, he tried his hand at designing record album covers, writing pulp western novels and drawing comic book stories, but did not meet with much success. In his 20s, Naschy moved back and forth between professional weightlifting and acting, but wasn't able to secure important roles, usually obtaining just bit parts.

Naschy had an uncredited bit part in the classic 1961 Biblical epic ''[[King of Kings (1961 film)|King of Kings]]'' and the experience drew him further into filmmaking. Naschy also played uncredited bit parts in the following films: ''El Principe Encadenado'' / ''The Chained Prince'' (1960, a.k.a. '''''King of the Vikings''''', playing a Mongol chieftain); '''''Operation Plus Ultra''''' (1966, playing a masked surgeon); '''''Las Viudas''''' / ''The Widows'' (1966, acting as assistant director in the "Luna de Miel" segment only); and ''La Esclava del Paraiso'' / '''''Slave of Paradise''''' (1968, a.k.a. '''''1001 Nights''''', playing a palace servant named Chantal). Naschy allegedly acted as an assistant director on two other films, ''Aventura en el Palacio Viejo'' (1967) and ''Cronica de Nueve Meses'' (1967)<ref>Naschy, Paul. Paul Naschy: Memoirs of a Wolfman. Midnight Marquee Press. pg 1 of filmography section</ref>

While appearing as an extra in an episode of the American TV show ''[[I Spy (1965 TV series)|I Spy]]'' that was being filmed in a remote country site in Spain in 1966, Naschy met horror icon [[Boris Karloff]] on the set, a thrill he never forgot. (Karloff was in a very poor mood that day, apparently depressed and in poor health. This encounter led to a posthumously produced film biography on Naschy being entitled ''Paul Naschy: The Man Who Saw Frankenstein Cry''.)

===Horror Icon===
In 1968, at age 34, he wrote a screenplay for a werewolf movie entitled ''[[The Mark of the Wolfman]]'' (about a Polish werewolf named Count Waldemar Daninsky) and managed to interest a Spanish film company called Maxper Producciones Cinematograficas into financing it. Naschy never intended to play "El Hombre Lobo" (as the doomed lycanthrope came to be called in Spain), he just wound up with the part when the producer could not find a suitable actor (they had tried to hire [[Lon Chaney Jr.]], but at age 62, the fabled Hollywood horror star was far too sickly to travel).

The German distributors insisted he change his name from Jacinto Molina because it sounded too Spanish, which would have hurt the film's chances at the box offices in various countries outside of Spain. He created the name "Paul Naschy".... "Paul" after Pope Paul VI, and "Naschy" as a Germanic sounding version of "Imre Nagy", one of Naschy's weightlifting idols. Naschy later wrote and starred in 11 sequels featuring his Waldemar Daninsky werewolf character, and spun off a very successful acting and screenwriting career in the process.

Naschy wrote the screenplays for most of the films he starred in, especially the horror movies. His most prolific year was 1972, during which time he wrote and starred in no less than seven movies.

During the 1970s, he worked for some of the best Euro-horror film directors in the business, including [[León Klimovsky]], [[Carlos Aured]], [[Javier Aguirre (director)|Javier Aguirre]], [[José Luis Madrid]], [[Juan Piquer Simón]], [[Francisco Lara Polop]] and [[José Luis Merino]]. Naschy's favorite director was [[León Klimovsky]], with whom he made eight horror and action films. Naschy praised Klimovsky's professional workmanlike attitude, but he always felt that Klimovsky rushed through the filming and never allowed for enough retakes that might have improved some of their films. He also enjoyed working for director Carlos Aured, and was proud of the films they did together. Naschy's favorite co-star (and co-producer) was Julia Saly, and he worked with her on fourteen of his films.

===Career Downturn===
In 1976, he decided to try his hand at directing as well, choosing the costume drama [[Inquisition (film)|''Inquisition'']] as his first project. He did well for about eight years, even producing and directing a number of successful Japanese/Spanish co-productions and made-for-Spanish-TV documentaries, but by 1985, his feature films were no longer breaking even, and after losing a lot of money on his ill-conceived spy spoof ''[[Operation Mantis]]'' (1985), Naschy's production company, Aconito Films, wound up in bankruptcy. (Aconito is the scientific term for the herb [[Aconitum|wolfsbane]]). Naschy had three partners in the company...Augusto Boue (who dumped his shares in the business the moment things got bad), Masurao Takeda (who died soon after the bankruptcy from pancreatic cancer) and Julia Saly (who retired from acting completely after ''Mantis'' flopped).

On June 20, 1984, Naschy's father Enrique Molina died of a heart attack while fishing alone on the shores of a lake. Some boys playing in the woods discovered his body, too late to revive him.<ref name="memoirs">Naschy, Paul. ''Paul Naschy: Memoirs of a Wolfman''. Midnight Marquee Press.</ref> The unexpected sudden loss of his father (with whom he had always been very close), coinciding with the bankruptcy of his film company, plunged Naschy into a two-year period of depression. Suddenly no one in the film industry wanted to finance projects with him, and some of his best friends turned their backs on him when he needed them the most. Naschy claimed in interviews that he even considered suicide during this period.

He only returned to filmmaking in 1987 with his supposed "comeback film" ''El Aullido del Diablo''. Naschy's son Sergio played a major role in the film, along with famed horror icons Howard Vernon and Caroline Munro. The film was very poorly distributed unfortunately (shown only on local Spanish TV), and even today is still not available in English.

Naschy's career took a second downturn when he suffered a near-fatal heart attack himself on August 27, 1991, triggered by weightlifting in a local gym. He was hospitalized for more than a week, then had major heart surgery performed on September 5. A rumor circulated throughout horror film fandom that Naschy had died, since he disappeared from the film scene for a while after his operation. He had to later contact a number of fanzine publishers in various countries to inform them that he was still very much alive.

In 1996, Naschy wrote and starred in his 11th werewolf film ''[[Licántropo]]'', which he thought would be a big comeback film for him, but the movie did not do well at all, critically or financially. He continued to appear in a number of low budget horror films and crime dramas, however, during the following decade, during which time he won a number of prestigious fan awards and appeared as a celebrated guest at many horror film conventions during the 1990s and the 2000s (both in the United States and in Europe). But he was still doing poorly financially, and complained bitterly in interviews about the state of the corrupt Spanish film industry which he said practiced favoritism and [[cronyism]]. In 1997, Naschy wrote a detailed autobiography entitled ''Paul Naschy: Memoirs of a Wolf Man''<ref name="ReferenceA">Naschy, Paul. Paul Naschy: Memoirs of a Wolfman. Midnight Marquee Press.</ref> (which included his filmography as well).

Naschy even traveled to Hollywood briefly in 2003 to appear in two shot-on-video (adult content) horror films directed by [[Donald F. Glut]] and [[Fred Olen Ray]], two former horror fans-turned-directors who must have treated him like royalty on the set. (Filming got a bit complicated due to a language barrier since Naschy had never learned to speak English. Also, Naschy had brought his wife and son Sergio along with him, and the day after they arrived, his wife was hospitalized with a stomach virus, so Naschy was a bit preoccupied during the shoot.) During his sojourn in Hollywood, Naschy even visited Universal Studios as well as the famed "Ackermansion" museum of [[Forrest J Ackerman]], the editor of the legendary magazine ''[[Famous Monsters of Filmland]]''.

===Personal life===
On October 24, 1969, Naschy married Elvira Primavera, the daughter of an Italian diplomat living in Spain, and they remained happily married 40 years later at the time of his death. His wife was always very supportive of his filmmaking projects and was undoubtedly one of the factors that led to his success. He was survived by his widow Elvira and his two sons, Bruno and Sergio Molina.

Naschy died of [[pancreatic cancer]] on November 30, 2009, at a hospital in Madrid, Spain at the age of 75. He struggled desperately to stay alive for over one year after being diagnosed with the cancer in 2008, but the end was inevitable.<ref>He was truly the "Spanish Lon Chaney". [http://www.bloody-disgusting.com/news/18247 R.I.P. Paul Naschy]</ref> Although his life ended in relatively poor financial straits, Naschy always received a tremendous outpouring of love from his many fans at the conventions he attended and died knowing he would always be regarded as a major horror film icon.<ref name="ReferenceA" />

A hardcover book entitled ''Muchas Gracias, Señor Lobo''<ref>Benzel, Thorsten (2012). Muchas Gracias, Senor Lobo. Creepy Images.</ref> was published in Germany after Naschy's death, collecting hundreds of rare photos, lobby cards, posters, etc. that had been used to promote Naschy's films over the decades in a number of different countries. A comprehensive film biography entitled ''Paul Naschy: The Man Who Saw Frankenstein Cry'' (a reference to Naschy's meeting Boris Karloff on the set of "I Spy" in 1966) has also been released on DVD.

===Most famous characters===
The [[werewolf]] '''''Count Waldemar Daninsky''''' (known in Spain as '''''El Hombre Lobo''''') is without a doubt Paul Naschy's most famous horror character, since he played Daninsky in 12 different films. In fact, Naschy holds the record for the greatest number of roles as a werewolf, easily beating out [[Lon Chaney Jr.]], who played a werewolf only seven times during his career (even counting his ''[[House of Terror (1960 film)]]'' and his appearance on [[Route 66 (TV series)|''Route 66'' (TV series)]].)<ref name="auto8">Howarth, Troy (2018). Human Beasts: The Films of Paul Naschy. WK Books. {{ISBN|978-1718835894}}.</ref>

Unlike the Chaney Universal films, however, which formed a somewhat chronological storyline from picture to picture, Naschy's Daninsky films were not connected to each other plotwise. Each film was more or less a free-standing story that was not meant to relate to the other films in the series in the way the old Universal films did. Daninsky's lycanthropy had a different origin in each film (which many Naschy fans find confusing). This was probably for the best, however, since in the 1970s, Euro-horror films were often theatrically distributed in the U.S. several years after they were completed, and they probably would have all been released out of order anyway.

Naschy's only other recurring character was the villainous medieval warlock '''''Alaric de Marnac''''' (who appeared in Naschy's ''[[Horror Rises from the Tomb]]'' (1972) and returned to life again in a sequel, ''[[Panic Beats]]'' (1983)). Naschy claims he based this character on a real-life medieval nobleman named [[Gilles de Rais]], a serial killer on whose life story Naschy also based the lead character in his 1974 film ''El Mariscal del Infierno'' (''The Devil's Possessed'')<ref>Howarth, Troy (2018). Human Beasts: The Films of Paul Naschy. WK Books. p. 318. ISBN 978-1718835894.</ref>

==The ''Hombre Lobo'' Series==
Naschy's 12 ''Hombre Lobo'' films are not a series in the strictest sense. They seem to be a collection of unrelated plotlines, but all of which involve a werewolf named Count Waldemar Daninsky. Both ''La Furia del Hombre Lobo'' (1970) and ''La Maldicion de la Bestia'' (1975) refer to an origin involving Waldemar's being bitten by a yeti (and there is a brief yeti reference in ''La Noche de Walpurgis'' (1970) as well), but the other films presented him with entirely different origin stories. The fact that these films have also been retitled by the various film distributors many times over the years only adds to the confusion. Despite the numerous plot inconsistencies and convoluted flashbacks, however, Naschy's Wolf Man series as a whole is still considered his most famous work by most of his many fans.<ref name="memoirs" /> Only 11 of the 12 ''Hombre Lobo'' films actually exist today. ''Las Noches del Hombre Lobo'' (1968), which Naschy claimed was the 2nd film in the series, is considered a lost film today.

In order of production, the 12 ''Hombre Lobo'' films are as follows:

# ''[[La Marca del Hombre Lobo]]'' / '''''The Mark of the Wolf Man''''' (1968) a.k.a. '''''Frankenstein's Bloody Terror''''' (U.S.), a.k.a. ''The Vampires of Dr. Dracula'' (Germany/France), a.k.a. ''Hell's Creatures'' (U.K./Australia), a.k.a. ''The Nights of Satan'' (Italy), a.k.a. ''Hell Creature'' (Pakistan/Turkey) and re-released years later in Germany as ''Hexen des Grauens'' / ''The Witches of Horror''; directed by Enrique Eguiluz; originally filmed in 3-D and Hi-Fi 70mm, but it was only shown that way in Munich, Germany; first released theatrically in Spain in July 1968; in Germany in Feb. 1969; in England in Feb. 1970; and in the U.S. in a shortened version as ''Frankenstein's Bloody Terror'' in 1971; released to U.S. late-night television (edited) in 1974; released on DVD (unedited/ letterboxed) as ''Frankenstein's Bloody Terror''.<ref>Benzel, Thorsten (2012). ''Muchas Gracias, Senor Lobo''. Creepy Images. p. 12</ref>
# ''[[Las Noches del Hombre Lobo]]'' / '''''The Nights of the Wolf Man''''' (1968) directed in Paris allegedly by "Rene Govar". This is a lost film today, and no one (not even Paul Naschy) has ever seen it. But Naschy insisted that he wrote the screenplay and stayed in Paris for a week to star in it. The French director of the film, Rene Govar (who suspiciously only directed this one film), is said to have died in a car accident in Paris a week after the filming was completed, and no one ever paid the lab bill that was outstanding. Hence it is thought the lab confiscated the negative and probably just discarded it later. Naschy claimed he only became aware decades later that the film had never been released anywhere. Some Naschy historians think the project was scrapped before it was greenlighted and the script was later rewritten to become the fourth film in the series, ''La Furia del Hombre Lobo'' (1970). This is very possible, since Naschy remembered both films had virtually the same plot. No reference books have ever turned up any stills from the film or information on its director, Rene Govar. Naschy himself could not even recall the names of any of his co-stars on the project, but it remains on the list since Naschy swore the film existed.
# ''[[Los Monstruos del Terror]]'' / '''''The Monsters of Terror''''' (1969) a.k.a. '''''Dracula vs. Frankenstein''''' (U.K./France/Germany/Yugoslavia), a.k.a. ''Dracula and the Wolf Man vs. Frankenstein'' (Belgium), a.k.a. ''Operation Terror'' (Mexico), a.k.a. ''Reincarnator'' (French re-release title), a.k.a. '''''Assignment Terror''''' (U.S. TV title); the film's original shooting title was ''The Man Who Came From Ummo''; co-directed by Hugo Fregonese and Tulio Demichelli (who finished the film after Fregonese quit midway through); first released theatrically in Germany on February 27, 1970, and in Spain on August 28, 1971; shown in the U.S. (on late night TV only) in 1973 as ''Assignment Terror'' (because the title ''Dracula vs. Frankenstein'' had already been used in the U.S. by Al Adamson for [[Dracula vs. Frankenstein|his 1971 film]]); eventually released on U.S. video (in splicy pan-and-scan format) as ''Dracula vs. Frankenstein'';<ref>Benzel, Thorsten (2012). ''Muchas Gracias, Senor Lobo''. Creepy Images. p. 62</ref> released on Blu-ray in the United States by Scorpion Releasing in 2019.
# ''[[La Furia del Hombre Lobo]]'' / '''''The Fury of the Wolf Man''''' (1970) a.k.a. ''Wolf Man Never Sleeps'' (Sweden); directed by Jose Maria Zabalza; only released theatrically (edited) in Spain and Argentina in 1975; shown in the U.S. (on late night TV only) in 1974 (edited) as ''Fury of the Wolf Man''; released on video/ DVD as ''Fury of the Wolf Man'' (the DVDs are edited, and the old Charter Video VHS edition actually contains more nudity than the DVD release).<ref>Benzel, Thorsten (2012). ''Muchas Gracias, Senor Lobo''. Creepy Images. p. 63</ref> The Swedish theatrical version ''Wolf Man Never Sleeps'' (sic) is the most complete of all. Released on blu-ray by Scorpion Releasing in the United States in 2020.
# ''[[La Noche de Walpurgis]]'' / '''''Walpurgis Night''''' ([[1970 in film|1970]]) a.k.a. '''''The Werewolf vs. the Vampire Woman''''' (U.S.), a.k.a. ''Shadow of the Werewolf'' (U.K.), a.k.a. ''Night of the Vampires'' (Germany), a.k.a. ''Night of the Bloody Witches'' (Germany, re-release title), a.k.a. ''The Black Mass of Countess Dracula'' (Italy), a.k.a. '''''Werewolf Shadow''''' (Canada), a.k.a. ''Fury of the Vampires'' (France), a.k.a. ''Night of the Werewolves'' (Belgium); directed by [[León Klimovsky]]; Naschy's most famous and highest-grossing horror film, this was made in 70mm Stereo Technicolor; first released theatrically in Spain in May 1971, in Germany in October 1971 and in England in Oct. 1972; released theatrically in the U.S. in 1972 as ''The Werewolf vs. the Vampire Woman'' (accompanied by a movie tie-in novelization in paperback); released on VHS as both ''Blood Moon'' and ''The Werewolf vs. the Vampire Woman''; released later on DVD uncut as '''''Werewolf Shadow''''' (sic).<ref>Benzel, Thorsten (2012). ''Muchas Gracias, Senor Lobo''. Creepy Images. p. 71</ref>
# ''[[Dr. Jekyll y el Hombre Lobo]]'' / '''''Dr. Jekyll and the Wolfman''''' (1971) a.k.a. '''''Dr. Jekyll and the Werewolf''''' (U.K.), a.k.a. ''Night of the Bloody Wolves'' (Germany); directed by [[León Klimovsky]], co-starring [[Jack Taylor (actor)|Jack Taylor]]; first released theatrically in Spain on November 19, 1972, in Germany on April 19, 1974, and in the U.K. in 1974; released theatrically in the U.S. in 1973 as ''Dr. Jekyll and the Wolfman''; available on DVD uncut (in Spanish/subtitled) as ''Dr. Jekyll and the Wolfman''.<ref>Benzel, Thorsten (2012). ''Muchas Gracias, Senor Lobo''. Creepy Images.</ref>
# ''[[El Retorno de Walpurgis]]'' / '''''The Return of Walpurgis''''' (1973) a.k.a. '''''Curse of the Devil''''' (U.S./U.K./Canada), a.k.a. ''Night of the Diabolical Orgy'' (Germany), a.k.a. ''Die Todeskralle des Grausamen Wolfes'' / ''Death Claws of the Cruel Wolf'' (alternate German title), a.k.a. ''Night of the Killer'' (Mexico), a.k.a. ''L'Empreinte de Dracula'' / ''The Mark of Dracula'' (France), a.k.a. ''Return of the Loup Garous'' (Belgium); directed by Carlos Aured; first released theatrically in Spain on September 21, 1973, and in Germany and England in August 1974; it was only released theatrically in the U.S. in 1976 as ''Curse of the Devil''; released on DVD uncut as ''Curse of the Devil'', and on a German Blu-ray from Subkultur as ''Die Todeskralle des Grausamen Wolfes''.<ref>Benzel, Thorsten (2012). ''Muchas Gracias, Senor Lobo''. Creepy Images. p. 221</ref><ref name="auto1">Howarth, Troy (2018). Human Beasts: The Films of Paul Naschy. WK Books. p. 318. {{ISBN|978-1718835894}}.</ref>
# ''[[La Maldicion de la Bestia]]'' / '''''The Curse of the Beast''''' (1975) a.k.a. '''''Night of the Howling Beast''''' (U.S.), a.k.a. '''''The Werewolf and the Yeti''''' (international release title), a.k.a. ''In the Claws of the Werewolf'' (France), a.k.a. ''Curse of the Beast'' (Mexico), a.k.a. ''Loup Garou'' / ''The Werewolf'' (Belgium); directed by Miguel Iglesias Bonns; Naschy won Best Actor Award for "Curse of the Beast" at the October 1975 Sitges International Film Festival in Spain; first released theatrically in Spain on January 9, 1975; theatrically released in the U.S. in 1977 as ''Night of the Howling Beast''; released on VHS home video alternately as ''The Werewolf and the Yeti'', ''Night of the Howling Beast'', and ''Hall of the Mountain King''; released on Blu-ray by Shout Factory as part of their Paul Naschy Collection.<ref>Benzel, Thorsten (2012). ''Muchas Gracias, Senor Lobo''. Creepy Images. p. 305</ref>
# ''[[El Retorno del Hombre Lobo]]'' / '''''The Return of the Wolf Man''''' ([[1980 in film|1980]]) a.k.a. '''''The Craving''''' (U.S.), a.k.a. ''The Werewolf'' (Germany), '''''Night of the Werewolf''''' (later DVD release title); written and directed by Paul Naschy; this was Naschy's all-time favorite ''Hombre Lobo'' film, being a remake of his earlier ''Walpurgis Night''; first released theatrically in Spain and Mexico in 1981 and in Germany in 1984; released theatrically in the U.S. in 1985 as '''''The Craving'''''; released on U.S. home video in 1986 as ''The Craving''; recently released on Blu-ray as ''Night of the Werewolf''.<ref>Benzel, Thorsten (2012). ''Muchas Gracias, Senor Lobo''. Creepy Images. p. 345</ref>
# ''[[La Bestia y la Espada Magica]]'' / '''''The Beast and the Magic Sword''''' (1983); a Spanish/Japanese co-production; written, co-produced and directed by Paul Naschy; Naschy's wife and two sons appeared in a brief cameo in this film; released theatrically only in Spain in Nov. 1983; never released theatrically in Japan; never dubbed into English nor shown in the U.S.; released to Blu-ray by [[Mondo Macabro]] in 2020.<ref>Benzel, Thorsten (2012). ''Muchas Gracias, Senor Lobo''. Creepy Images. p. 363</ref>
# ''[[Licántropo|Licántropo: El Asesino de la Luna Llena]]'' / '''''Licantropo: the Full Moon Killer''''' (1996), a.k.a. ''Lycanthropus: The Moonlight Murders'' (U.S.); directed by Francisco Gordillo; film was only shown theatrically in Spain in April 1997; no U.S. theatrical release; released directly to U.S. DVD dubbed into English as ''Lycanthropus: The Full Moon Killer''.<ref name="memoirs" />
# '''''[[Tomb of the Werewolf]]''''' (2004); directed in Hollywood by [[Fred Olen Ray]], co-starring [[Michelle Bauer]]; the original shooting title was '''''The Unliving'''''; filmed on video in English (Naschy did not know English so he spoke his lines phonetically); no theatrical release; distributed directly to DVD (edited) as ''Tomb of the Werewolf'' in 2004 and then later reissued as an uncensored DVD (with behind the scenes material) as ''The Unliving'' by Retromedia Entertainment in 2015.

Naschy played generic werewolves in four other films that were not part of the Hombre Lobo series....

*''[[Buenas Noches, Señor Monstruo]]'' / '''''Good Night, Mr. Monster''''' (1982) Naschy played a generic werewolf in this children's Spanish TV musical/comedy; he reportedly did the show just for the money; never shown outside of Spain; never dubbed into English.
*''[[El Aullido del Diablo]]'' / '''''The Howl of the Devil''''' (1987) written and directed by Paul Naschy, co-starring [[Caroline Munro]], [[Howard Vernon]] and Naschy's real-life son Sergio Molina in a major role; Naschy plays an insane ex-actor who dresses up as various famous monsters in this film, in one scene specifically playing the werewolf Waldemar Daninsky (Sergio actually addresses the werewolf as "Waldemar" in the scene), but it is only a very brief cameo; no theatrical release anywhere; shown only on Spanish TV in 1988; never dubbed into English; finally became available on Blu-ray from Mondo Macabro in 2021 (in Spanish/ subtitled).<ref name="memoirs" />
*''[[Aqui Huele A Muerto (Pues Yo No He Sido)]]'' / '''''It Smells Like Death Here (Well, It Wasn't Me)''''' (1990); directed by Alvaro de Heredia and starring Spanish comedians Martes y Trece (Josema Yuste and Millan Salcedo), Naschy is limited to a glorified cameo which climaxes in an all-out monster mash reminiscent of the Universal Monsters movies, but in which he of course plays a generic werewolf; never dubbed into English nor shown outside of Spain; a Region 2 DVD is available, however.
*''[[Um Lobisomem na Amazônia]]'' / '''''A Werewolf in The Amazon''''' (2005) a.k.a. ''Amazonia Misteriosa''; filmed in Brazil, directed by Ivan Cardoso; Naschy plays a mad doctor who transforms into a werewolf in this ultra-modern semi-sequel to H. G. Wells' novel ''[[The Island of Dr. Moreau]]''; Naschy's real voice can be heard throughout the film speaking all his lines in Spanish; the film was never dubbed into English nor shown theatrically outside of Spain and Brazil; available in Spanish/subtitled on DVD from Camp Motion Pictures.

==Complete filmography==
Note* - Paul Naschy starred in many other horror films that did not feature el Hombre Lobo, as well as a number of crime films, historical dramas, action thrillers, etc. Below is the complete list of all his movies, in strict chronological order of production.<ref name="memoirs" />

*''[[I Spy (1965 TV series)|I Spy]]'' (American television series) 1966, Naschy played a very, ''very'' small part in the episode titled "Mainly on the Plains", which starred Boris Karloff, Robert Culp and Bill Cosby (he plays one of a group of teenagers having a picnic in one very brief sequence, although Karloff ''was'' in the scene with them). Broadcast February, 1967<ref name="auto6">Howarth, Troy (2018). ''Human Beasts: The Films of Paul Naschy''. WK Books. p. 296.{{ISBN|978-1718835894}}</ref>
*''Agonizando en el Crimen'' ('''''Agonizing in Crime''''') 1967, directed by Enrique Eguiluz (a crime drama) (never dubbed in English or released in the U.S.); Naschy played one of the police officials hunting a serial killer, credited as David Molba (Naschy later used his friendship with director Eguiluz to get his film ''The Mark of the Wolf Man'' made).
*''[[La Furia de Johnny Kidd]]'' ('''''[[Fury of Johnny Kid]]''''') 1967, a.k.a. ''Ultimate Gunfighter'', a.k.a. ''Dove si Spara di Piu''; an Italian/Spanish co-production directed by Gianni Puccini, who died in Italy soon after finishing the film; Naschy had a very small uncredited role in this spaghetti Western, in which he is shown arm-wrestling another gunfighter in a bar (never released in the U.S., this may actually be a lost film).
*''[[La Marca del Hombre Lobo]]'' (The Mark of the Wolf Man) 1968, directed by Enrique Eguiluz (a.k.a. '''''Frankenstein's Bloody Terror''''', a.k.a. ''Hell's Creatures'').
*''[[Las Noches del Hombre Lobo]]'' (The Nights of the Wolf Man) 1968, directed by Rene Govar (a lost film today, if indeed it was actually completed); this film was never released anywhere, but Naschy insisted he starred in it!
*''Plan Jack 03'' / ''Plan Jack Cero Tres'' (1968) a short film noir spoof written and directed by Cecilia Bartolome as a college project; Naschy plays a Humphrey Bogart-type character (never released in the U.S.).
*''[[Los Monstruos del Terror]]'' (The Monsters of Terror) 1969, directed by Hugo Fregonese and Tulio Demichelli (a.k.a. '''''Assignment Terror''''', a.k.a. ''Dracula vs. Frankenstein'').
*''[[La Furia del Hombre Lobo]]'' (The Fury of the Wolf Man) 1970, directed by Jose Maria Zabalza.
*''El Vertigo del Crimen'' ('''''The Vertigo of Crime''''') 1970, a.k.a. ''Bombones para Cecilia''; a crime drama directed by Pascual Cervera; Naschy plays a sadistic criminal gang leader (never released in the U.S.).
*''[[La Noche de Walpurgis]]'' (Walpurgis Night) 1970, directed by Leon Klimovsky (a.k.a. ''Werewolf Shadow'', a.k.a. '''''The Werewolf vs the Vampire Woman''''').
*''[[Dr. Jekyll y el Hombre Lobo]]'' (Dr. Jekyll and the Wolf Man) 1971, directed by Leon Klimovsky.
*''Jack el Destripador de Londres'' (Jack the Ripper of London) 1971, a.k.a. '''''[[Seven Murders for Scotland Yard]]''''' (U.S.), a.k.a. ''Sette Cadaveri per Scotland Yard'' / ''Seven Corpses for Scotland Yard'' (Italy); a [[giallo]] directed by Jose Luis Madrid; first released in Italy in 1971 and in Spain in July 1972; released theatrically in the U.S. in 1976 as ''Seven Murders for Scotland Yard''.
*''Los Crimenes de Petiot'' ('''''[[The Crimes of Petiot]]''''') 1972, a crime drama directed by Jose Luis Madrid; Naschy plays Boris Villowa, who is secretly a serial killer named [[Marcel Petiot]]; Petiot was a serial killer in real life, but the film does not follow his story closely; filmed in Berlin in January 1972 in Techniscope; released only in Spain in July 1973 (never dubbed in English nor released legally on DVD).
*''[[Horror rises from the tomb|El Espanto Surge de la Tumba]]'' ('''''Horror Rises From the Tomb''''') 1972, a.k.a. ''Blood Mass for the Devil'' (Germany), a.k.a. ''Blood Mass of the Zombies'' (1980 German re-release title), a.k.a. ''Horror Rises From the Tomb'' (U.S. and England); the Spanish title technically translates as either "Fright Rises From the Grave" or "The Spook Rises From the Grave" (as "el Espanto" does not translate as "horror" in Spanish); Naschy plays a dual role in this film; also starred Helga Line and Emma Cohen; directed by Carlos Aured, this film introduced the medieval warlock [[Alaric de Marnac]], who returned later in Naschy's 1983 sequel ''[[Panic Beats]]''; filmed at Naschy's father's palatial estate; first released in Spain in April 1973 and in Germany in March 1976; released theatrically in the U.S. in a Spanish-language print called ''El Espanto Surge de la Tumba'' for Spanish theaters only, then later released to U.S. Cable TV in 1974 in English (edited) as ''Horror Rises From the Tomb''; later released to VHS and DVD (unedited) as ''Horror Rises From the Tomb''.
*''La Orgia de los Muertos'' (The Orgy of the Dead) 1972, a.k.a. '''''[[The Hanging Woman]]''''' (U.S.), a.k.a. ''Zombies - Terror of the Living Dead'' (U.K.), a.k.a. ''Les Orgies Macabres'' (France), a.k.a. ''Bracula, Terror of the Living Dead'' (Australia); directed by Jose Luis Merino in March 1972; first released in Spain in 1974, and in Germany in April 1976 as ''Der Totenchor der Knochenmanner''/ ''Death Chorus of the Skeletons''; re-released in Germany in 1977 as ''Die Bestie aus dem Totenreich''/ ''The Beast from the Death Realm''; it was shown in the U.K. on a double bill with the Italian horror film ''Baba Yaga''; released theatrically in the U.S. in 1974 as ''The Hanging Woman'', and later reissued as ''Beyond the Living Dead''; released on VHS and DVD as ''[[The Hanging Woman]]'', ''[[Return of the Zombies]]'' and ''Beyond the Living Dead''.
*''[[La rebelión de las muertas]]'' (The Rebellion of the Dead Women) 1972, (a.k.a. '''''Walk of the Dead''''' (US/Canadian 1974 release title), a.k.a. '''''[[Vengeance of the Zombies]]''''' (1974 international release title), a.k.a. ''Rebellion of the Living Dead'' (Feb. 1974 German release title), a.k.a. ''Invocation of the Devil'' (April 1974 German re-release title), a.k.a. ''Blood Lust of the Zombies'' (yet another 1980 German re-release title), a.k.a. ''Revenge of the Living Dead'' (Italy); directed by Leon Klimovsky; at least three differently edited versions of this film exist; first theatrically released in Spain on June 27, 1973, and in Germany in February 1974; released theatrically in the U.S. in December 1973 as ''Vengeance of the Zombies'', then re-released in the U.S. in May 1980 as ''Walk of the Dead''; released on VHS and DVD as ''Vengeance of the Zombies''.
*''[[Count Dracula's Great Love|El Gran Amor de Conde Dracula]]'' (The Great Love of Count Dracula) 1972, a.k.a. '''''Count Dracula's Great Love''''' (U.S.), a.k.a. ''Dracula's Virgin Lovers'' (U.K.), a.k.a. ''The Diabolical Loves of Nosferatu'' (Italy), a.k.a. ''La Orgia de Dracula'' (Mexico); directed by Javier Aguirre; first released in Spain on May 12, 1973; released in the U.S. and England in 1974 as ''Count Dracula's Great Love'' and ''Dracula's Virgin Lovers'', respectively; re-released in the U.S. in 1979 as ''Cemetery Girls''; released to dvd as both ''Cemetery Girls'' and ''Count Dracula's Great Love''. (Note: contrary to some sources, this film was ''never'' released under the title ''Vampire Playgirls'').
*''El Jorobado de la Morgue'' (Hunchback of the Morgue) 1972, directed by Javier Aguirre; One of Naschy's all-time greatest horror films (Naschy won Best Actor Award for "Hunchback" at the 1973 Paris Festival of Fantastic Films); first released in Spain on July 13, 1973, in Germany on February 8, 1974, as ''Die Stunde der Grausamen Leichen''/''The Hour of the Cruel Corpses'', and in Italy as ''Il Mostro dell'Obitorio''; theatrically released in the U.S. in September 1975 as '''''Hunchback of the Morgue'''''; released on VHS video in the U.S. as ''The Rue Morgue Massacres''; released on DVD and on Shout Factory's Blu-ray as part of their ''Paul Naschy Collection 2'' Blu-ray set as ''Hunchback of the Morgue''.<ref>Howarth, Troy (2018). Human Beasts: The Films of Paul Naschy. WK Books. p. 103. {{ISBN|978-1718835894}}.</ref><ref name="memoirs" />
*'''''Disco Rojo''''', 1972 (a.k.a. ''La Ruleta Paulista''); a Spanish-Portuguese action film directed by Rafael Romero Marchent; Naschy played Sergio Meleter, a villainous drug lord (never dubbed in English nor released in the U.S.).
*''[[Blue Eyes of the Broken Doll|Los Ojos Azules de la Muneca Rota]]'' (The Blue Eyes of the Broken Doll) 1973, a.k.a. '''''House of Psychotic Women''''' (VHS title); directed by Carlos Aured; first released in Spain in August 1974, and in the U.S. in April 1976; a slightly edited version exists that is missing a scene in which a pig is slaughtered on screen; released on VHS as ''House of Psychotic Women'' (slightly edited), released direct to TV in the U.S. as '''''House of Doom''''' (even more heavily edited); released on DVD as '''''Blue Eyes of the Broken Doll''''' (complete and unedited).
*''La Venganza de la Momia'' ('''''The Mummy's Revenge''''') 1973, Naschy plays a dual role in this film as both the Mummy and his modern day descendant; directed by Carlos Aured, this film was produced in both a censored version (for Spain and Mexico) and an international version containing nudity, but the uncensored version appears to have never been shown anywhere and apparently no longer even exists; first released only in Spain and Mexico in 1973, then later re-released in Spain on October 27, 1975; an English-dubbed version was shown in terrible full-screen pan-and-scan in 1974 in the U.S. (shown on cable TV only) as ''The Mummy's Revenge''; that English-dubbed version is available on low quality bootleg VHS only;<ref name="auto">Howarth, Troy (2018). Human Beasts: The Films of Paul Naschy. WK Books. p. 130. {{ISBN|978-1718835894}}.</ref> a beautiful print is available today letterboxed on DVD but in Spanish only (with English subtitles).
*''[[Último deseo]]'' ('''''The Final Desire''''') filmed in April 1973, a.k.a. '''''The People Who Own the Dark''''' (1979 U.S. release title with a new music soundtrack substituted); film's original working title was to be ''Planeta Ciego''; directed by [[León Klimovsky]], written by Vicente Aranda and Joaquin Jorda, and co-starring Julia Saly, [[Antonio Mayans]], Maria Perschy and Nadiuska; this film was made in both an edited "clothed" and unedited "nude" version; the film first premiered in May 1976 at the Cannes Film Market; it was not theatrically released in Spain until November 28, 1976, and in the U.S. in 1979; available on DVD as ''The People Who Own the Dark'', and also on Blu-ray from Code Red.<ref name="auto"/>
*''El Asesino Esta Entre Los Trece'' (The Killer is One of Thirteen) filmed in May 1973; a forgettable giallo written and directed by Javier Aguirre, guest-starring Naschy in a very small role as a chauffeur; co-starred Patty Shepard, Jack Taylor and Dyanik Zurakowska; theatrically released only in Spain in 1973; (never dubbed in English nor released in the U.S.)<ref>Howarth, Troy (2018). Human Beasts: The Films of Paul Naschy. WK Books. p. 131. {{ISBN|978-1718835894}}.</ref>
*''Las ratas no duermen de noche'' (Rats Don't Sleep At Night) filmed in June 1973, a.k.a. '''''Crimson'''''; a Eurocine French/Spanish co-production directed by Juan Fortuny with music by [[Daniel J. White]]; first released (censored) in Spain on June 7, 1976; released in France in September 1976 as ''The Man With the Severed Head''; later released on DVD in the more adult version entitled ''Crimson''. (Both versions of the film are now included on the Blu-ray from Kino/Redemption.)<ref>Howarth, Troy (2018). Human Beasts: The Films of Paul Naschy. WK Books. p. 132. {{ISBN|978-1718835894}}.</ref>
*''[[El Retorno de Walpurgis]]'' (The Return of Walpurgis) 1973, directed by Carlos Aured (a.k.a. '''''Curse of the Devil''''').
*''Una Libelula Para Cada Muerto'' (A Dragonfly For Each Corpse) 1973, a.k.a. ''Il Giustiziere Sfida la Polizia''/ ''The Vigiliante Challenges the Police'' (Italian), a.k.a. ''Redkiller''; a [[giallo]] directed by Leon Klimovsky and co-starring Erika Blanc; first theatrically released in Spain on November 17, 1975, and in Italy in 1977; it came out on VHS Home Video in Germany in the 1980s as''Todeskreis Libelle''; never dubbed in English nor shown in the U.S.; recently released on Shout Factory's Blu-Ray as part of their ''Paul Naschy Collection 2'' set (in Spanish/ subtitled).<ref name="auto1"/>
*''Tarzan en las Minas del Rey Salomon'' (''[[Tarzan in King Solomon's Mines]]'') 1973; directed by Jose Luis Merino, this film was unauthorized by the [[Edgar Rice Burroughs]] estate; David Carpenter played Tarzan and Naschy played a big game hunter; co-starred sexy model Nadiuska (whom Naschy disliked working with); theatrically released only in Spain (never dubbed in English nor released in the U.S.)
*''Todos los Gritos del Silencio'' (All the Screams of Silence) made in 1974, a slasher film directed by Ramon Barco (who Naschy said ruined the film); released theatrically only in Spain in August 1976 (never dubbed in English).
*''[[El Mariscal del Infierno]]'' (The Marshal from Hell) 1974; a.k.a. '''''The Devil's Possessed''''' (English-dubbed international title); directed by Leon Klimovsky; Naschy's script was based on the true-life medieval activities of [[Gilles de Rais]], who was also Naschy's inspiration for his Alaric de Marnac character; theatrically released in Spain and Belgium in 1974; the international English-dubbed version was apparently released direct to VHS and DVD only as ''The Devil's Possessed'', as well as on Shout Factory's Blu-ray as part of their ''Paul Naschy Collection 2'' set.<ref name="memoirs" /><ref name="auto1"/>
*''La Diosa Salvaje'' (The Savage Goddess) made in 1974 (a.k.a. ''Kilma, la Regina della Jungla'' / ''Kilma, Queen of the Jungle'' (Italy), a.k.a. ''Tanrica'' (Turkey)); directed by Miguel Iglesias Bonns, co-starring Maria Perschy; released only in Spain in March 1975 (never dubbed in English)
*''Los Pasajeros'' (The Passengers) made in 1974, a macabre arthouse film directed by Jose Antonio Barrero; Naschy plays an eccentric millionaire named Mr. Aquenatos; released theatrically only in Spain in 1980 (never dubbed in English)
*''[[La cruz del diablo]]'' ('''''The Devil's Cross''''') (1974) based on the works of [[Gustavo Adolfo Becquer]], this film was directed by British Hammer Films veteran John Gilling; Naschy wrote the original screenplay (intending to star in the film as well) but he lost creative control of the project and was replaced in the film by another actor; Naschy later wanted his name removed entirely from the credits, to no avail; theatrically released only in Spain on March 29, 1975; available on DVD in Spanish language/ subtitled only (never dubbed in English nor released in the U.S.).
*''Exorcismo'' ('''''Exorcism''''') filmed in November 1974, a.k.a. ''The Nights of Satan'' (Italy), a.k.a. ''Night of the Exorcist'' (Argentina); directed by Juan Bosch; Naschy claimed he wrote this film long before ''[[The Exorcist (film)|The Exorcist]]'' came out; Naschy plays Father Dunning, a heroic role for once; first released in Spain on March 10, 1975; a Spanish language print played in the U.S. in Spanish-speaking theaters only; the film was later released directly to VHS and DVD in the U.S. as '''''Exorcism'''''; also on Shout Factory's Blu-ray as part of their ''Paul Naschy Collection 2'' set.<ref name="auto1"/>
*''[[La Maldicion de la Bestia]]'' (The Curse of the Beast) 1975, directed by Miguel Iglesias Bonns (released on VHS as ''The Werewolf and the Yeti'', ''Hall of the Mountain King'' (the least complete version of all), and as '''''Night of the Howling Beast'''''); released on Shout Factory's Blu-ray as part of their ''Paul Naschy Collection 2'' set.<ref name="auto5">Howarth, Troy (2018). Human Beasts: The Films of Paul Naschy. WK Books. p. 319. {{ISBN|978-1718835894}}.</ref>
*''Muerte de un Quinqui'' (Death of a Hoodlum) 1975, crime drama directed by Leon Klimovsky; Naschy plays Marcos, a crazed criminal who terrorizes a helpless family; co-starred Julia Saly (never dubbed in English nor released in the U.S.).
*''Docteur Justice'' (Dr. Justice) 1975, (a.k.a. ''Ambicion Fallida'' / ''Failed Ambition'' (Spain)) a.k.a. ''La Petroliera Fantasma'' (Italy), a.k.a. ''Karate Killers''; directed by Christian-Jaque; a crime drama based on a French comic book called ''Dr. Justice''; starred Gert (''Goldfinger'') Fröbe and John Phillip Law; Naschy has only a small part in this film (never dubbed in English or released in the U.S.).
*''[[Inquisicion]]'' ('''''Inquisition''''') 1976, first film ever directed by Paul Naschy; this Italian/Spanish co-production co-starred Julia Saly; first released in Spain in 1978; this film was not theatrically shown anywhere outside of Spain; an English-dubbed version was released directly to VHS (and later DVD) in the U.S. as ''Inquisition''.
*'''''Secuestro''''' (The Kidnapping) made in 1976, a crime drama inspired by the Patricia Hearst case, directed by Leon Klimovsky; Naschy plays one of the kidnappers in the film, and co-wrote the script with Antonio Fos; released only in Spain in June 1977; a fair-quality, subtitled bootleg copy exists (never released in the U.S.).
*''Comando Txikia: Muerte de un Presidente'' ('''''Death of a President''''') 1977; an action film directed by Jose Luis Madrid; Naschy only acted in this film and did not help to write it; co-starred Julia Saly; it was based on the 1973 real life assassination of Spanish prime minister Carrero Blanco by four anarchists; Naschy plays one of the assassins named Pocholo; shown only in Spain in 1978 (never released in the U.S.).
*'''''El Francotirador''''' (The Sniper) filmed in January 1977, this controversial action film was directed by Carlos Puerto; co-written by Naschy, who also played the lead role of Lucas, the sniper; released only in Spain in January 1978; (never released in the U.S.)
*''Pecado Mortal'' (Mortal Sin) 1977, drama directed by Miguel Angel Diez; Naschy only puts in a very brief cameo appearance in this film playing a police inspector (never released in the U.S.).
*''El Transexual'' ('''''The Transsexual''''') filmed April 1977, a controversial social drama inspired by the true life story of Brazilian-Spanish transvestite [[Lorena Capelli]], who died during a sex change operation; co-written by Naschy (who also starred in it as Sergio, a journalist) and directed by Jose Jara; shown only in Spain in October 1977 (never released in the U.S.); only a low quality bootleg copy of this film exists today.<ref name="auto8"/>
*''[[El huerto del francés]]'' ('''''The Frenchman's Garden'''''), a.k.a. ''La Casa que Abre de Noche'' (Mexico); filmed November 1977; a crime drama based on a true story, co-written (with Antonio Fos) and directed by Paul Naschy (his second directing job); co-starred [[Julia Saly]]; Naschy played the lead role of the serial killer "El Francés"; theatrically released only in Spain and Mexico in June 1978 (never dubbed in English or released in the U.S.); Released on Blu-ray by Mondo Macabro.
*''Madrid al Desnudo'' (Madrid In The Nude) filmed in 1978; a controversial comedy/satire on Madrid's upper class, directed and written by Naschy, based on the 1977 novel by Eduarda Targioni; shown only in Spain in March 1979 (never released in the U.S.).
*'''''El Caminante''''' (The Traveler) filmed September 1978; co-written (with Eduarda Targiani) and directed by Naschy who plays the Devil in this highly acclaimed fantasy film (Naschy won awards for this film in 1978 at Eurocon and in 1979 at both the 9th Annual Fantastic Film Festival in Paris and the International Festival of Imaginary Cinema and Sci-Fi in Madrid); the film was theatrically released only in Spain on April 21, 1980 (never released in the U.S. or anywhere outside of Spain); released on Blu-ray by Mondo Macabro under the title '''''The Devil Incarnate'''''.<ref name="auto5"/>
*''Amor Blanco'' (1979 Japanese film, a.k.a. ''Howaito rabu'') Naschy produced this film, but did not appear in it; released only in Spain in August 1979 (never released in the U.S.).<ref name="auto6"/>
*''Los Cantabros'' (The Cantabrians) a Japanese-Spanish co-production filmed in January 1980; this [[Sword and Sandal|peplum]] was written and directed by Paul Naschy; Naschy took over this project from Spanish horror film director [[Amando de Ossorio]] who had originally been hired to direct it, and Joacquin Gomez who had written the original story idea; Naschy totally rewrote Gomez's script which infuriated him; the film co-starred Julia Saly; shown only in Spain in 1981 (never dubbed in English or released in the U.S.).
*''El Carnival de las Bestias'' ('''''The Carnival of the Beasts''''') 1980, a.k.a. ''The Pig'' (an alternate Spanish title was ''Bestias Humanas'' / ''Human Beasts''); written and directed by Paul Naschy, this film was a Spanish/Japanese co-production dealing with cannibalism; co-starred Julia Saly; theatrically released only in Spain and Mexico on December 3, 1980; the film was never shown in Japan; later released on DVD as '''''Human Beasts'''''; recently released on Shout Factory's Blu-ray as part of their ''Paul Naschy Collection'' set.<ref name="auto5"/>
*''[[El Retorno del Hombre Lobo]]'' ('''''The Return of the Wolf Man''''') a.k.a. '''''The Craving'''''; filmed August 1980; written and directed by Paul Naschy and co-starring Julia Saly; released in Spain and Mexico (as ''Return of the Wolf Man'') in April 1981, in Germany (as ''The Werewolf'') in 1984, and in the U.S. (as ''The Craving'') in January 1985; released on Shout Factory's Blu-ray box set under the title '''''Night of the Werewolf''''' as part of their ''Paul Naschy Collection''.<ref name="auto5"/>
*''[[Misterio en la Isla de los Monstruos]]'' ('''''Mystery on Monster Island''''') 1981, a.k.a. ''Das Geheimnis der Monsterinsel'' (Germany); directed by Juan Piquer Simon, said to be based on a Jules Verne story; Paul Naschy and Peter Cushing each play a small role in this action-adventure film, but do not share any scenes; theatrically released in Spain, France, Germany and Belgium in 1981; only released directly to TV and VHS in the U.S. and England; released on DVD by 20th Century Fox on a double bill with ''Gorilla at Large''.<ref name="auto5"/>
*''El dragon negro''/ ''The Black Dragon'' (1981), a Japanese TV miniseries directed by Yasutada Nagano; Naschy played a Mafia drug dealer (never released in the U.S.).<ref name="auto6"/>
*''La Batalla del Porro'' (The Battle of the Dullard) Released in Spain only in 1981, this comedy was directed by Joan Minguell (never released in the U.S.).
*''La mascara negra''/ ''The Black Mask'' (1982) directed by Jose Paramo; Naschy played a character named Sandro Coltini in episode #6 of this 11-part TV series (never released in the U.S.)
*''Buenas Noches, Señor Monstruo'' (Good Night, Mr. Monster) 1982, directed by Antonio Mercero; Naschy played a generic werewolf in this children's musical comedy (never released in the U.S.).
*''Mi Amigo el Vagabundo'' ('''''My Friend, the Vagabond''''') filmed January 1983; this Spanish-Japanese co-production was written and directed by and starred Paul Naschy; co-starred Julia Saly and Naschy's son Sergio Molina; it was produced by Naschy's own company Aconito Films; released only in Spain in August 1984 (never released in the U.S.).
*''Latidos de Panico'' ('''''[[Panic Beats]]''''') filmed in March 1983; written and directed by Paul Naschy, this Japanese-Spanish co-production featured the return of Naschy's medieval warlock Alaric de Marnac; this film was the first produced by Naschy's own company "Aconito Films" and co-starred Julia Saly; theatrically released only in Spain on May 20, 1983; later released directly to DVD in the U.S by Mondo Macabro in Spanish/subtitled format only.<ref name="auto5"/>
*''[[La Bestia y la Espada Magica]]'' ('''''The Beast and the Magic Sword''''') 1983, written and directed by Paul Naschy; this was a Spanish/Japanese co-production; Naschy's wife, Elvira, and his two sons played a cameo in one scene; released only in Spain on November 24, 1983 (never dubbed in English or released theatrically anywhere outside of Spain); the film is available today on DVD in Spanish with subtitles only.
*''El Ultimo Kamikaze'' ('''''The Last Kamikaze''''') 1983, an action film written and directed by Paul Naschy for his own company Aconito Films; this was a Spanish/Japanese co-production that was shot in Spain, France, the U.S. and Egypt; co-starred Julia Saly; released only in Spain in April 1984 (never released in the U.S.).
*''La tercera mujer'' (''The Third Woman'') 1984, a 13-episode Japanese TV series directed by Nagano; Naschy plays an Interpol agent hunting a killer; never shown anywhere outside of Japan.<ref>Howarth, Troy (2018). ''Human Beasts: The Films of Paul Naschy''. WK Books. p. 297.{{ISBN|978-1718835894}}</ref>
*'''''Operation Mantis''''' (1984) a Japanese-Spanish co-production spy spoof directed by Paul Naschy, and co-starring Julia Saly; this was the film that resulted in Naschy's production company (Aconito Films) going bankrupt; Naschy blamed the screenplay written by Joaquin Oristrell; released only in Spain in February 1985 (never released in the U.S.); Note* - Naschy's father, Enrique Molina, died during this time period.
*''Mordiendo la Vida'' (''Biting Life'') 1986; a crime drama directed by Martin Garrido; Naschy played a vicious crimelord named El Murciano; never released outside of Spain.
*''Pez'' (1986) a short directed by Santiago Aguilar, R. Barbe and Luis Guridi; Naschy played Dr. Larruskain
*''Shh...'' (1986) a short directed by Santiago Aguilar and Luis Guridi; Naschy just co-starred in it
*''El Aullido del Diablo'' ('''''Howl of the Devil''''') 1987, written and directed by Paul Naschy (starring Caroline Munro and Howard Vernon); features a brief cameo of Naschy made up as el Hombre Lobo and stars Naschy's son, Sergio Molina, in a major role; released directly to TV (only in Spain) in 1988; (never dubbed in English or released theatrically anywhere); recently released on Blu-ray in Spanish with subtitles.
*''Horror en el Musea de Cera'' ('''''Horror in the Wax Museum''''') 1988, written and directed by Paul Naschy, shot entirely on video; Naschy played a crazy psychology professor; the film also would've starred his son Sergio, but the project was never completed (a lost film)
*''Shadows of Blood'' (1988), an amateurish crime drama shot entirely on video in the Netherlands; directed by Sydney Ling; Naschy played a serial killer and later said he regretted appearing in this "film" as it turned out to be almost unwatchable (never released in the U.S.).
*''El Ultimo Guateque 2'' (The Last Dance II) (1988) a drama directed by Juan Jose Porto; Naschy plays a newspaper editor; released only in Spain in June 1988 (never released in the U.S.)
*''Aqui Huele a Muerto...Pues yo no he sido!'' (It Smells Like Death Here... Well, It Wasn't Me!) (1989) a juvenile horror spoof featuring the comedy team of "Martes y Trece", this film was directed by Alvaro de Heredia; intended as an homage to ''Abbott and Costello Meet Frankenstein''; released only in Spain in January 1990 (never released in the U.S.).
* ''[[Brigada Central]]'' (1990), made for Spanish TV, directed by Pedro Maso; Naschy played a character named Chaves
*''La Hija de Fu Manchu '72'' (The Daughter of Fu Manchu '72) 1990, a short directed by Santiago Aguilar and Luis Guridi; Naschy played Dr. Fu Manchu; never released outside of Spain.<ref name="auto4">Howarth, Troy (2018). ''Human Beasts: The Films of Paul Naschy''. WK Books. p. 298.{{ISBN|978-1718835894}}</ref>
*''Olla de Grillos''/ ''Madhouse'' (1991) a.k.a. ''Bedlam''; a children's series of live episodes shown on Spanish TV in which Naschy was to play various monsters; his heart attack on August 27, 1991, forced him to break his contract after appearing in only three episodes.<ref name="auto4"/>
*'''''State of Mind''''' (1992), a Belgian/French/Dutch co-production directed by Reginald Adamson (produced by Sydney Ling); this was a violent crime drama co-starring Fred Williamson (as a cop hunting a serial killer) and Naschy in what amounts to a cameo appearance as a prison warden who gets murdered in a shower scene; the film took more than seven years to get distributed just in Spain; Troma Films has since released the film on DVD in the U.S.
*''La Casa De Alba'' (1992) a Spanish/Japanese co-production of which little is known; it was a documentary format, 13-episode TV series shown only in Japan. Naschy's involvement was as a production manager.
*''El angel mas caido'' (1993) a short directed by Ivan Bousas; Naschy only acted in it
*''La Noche del Ejecutor'' ('''''The Night of the Executioner''''') (1993), a very low budget, gruesome vigilante movie written and directed by Paul Naschy, very similar to ''Death Wish'' (1974); Naschy's son Sergio Molina had a small role; the film went direct to video in Spain only (never released theatrically anywhere)
*''El Necrofago'', 1994, a short directed by Gonzalo J. Fuentes (never released in the U.S.)
*''Los Resucitados'' (The Resurrected) (1995), an unfinished project which Naschy starred in, based on a story by [[Gustavo Adolfo Becquer]]; the film's post-production was only completed 24 years later, and it was released on DVD (in Spain only) in 2019 by a company called "Red Rum".
*''Hambre Mortal'' (Mortal Hunger) (1996) a short satirical homage written and directed by Toni Escalonilla; Naschy played a character called Uncle Carlos (never released in the U.S.)
*''La mala estrella'' (1996) a short directed by Jose Maria Gonzalez andJose Carlos Ruiz; Naschy just acted in it
*''[[Licántropo|Licántropo: El Asesino de la Luna Llena]]'' ('''''Lycantropus: The Full Moon Murderer''''') (1996) a.k.a. ''Lycantropus: The Moonlight Murders''; directed by Francisco Gordillo; this was the 11th film in the "Hombre Lobo" series; shown theatrically only in Spain in April 1997; available in the U.S. on DVD in English language.
*''Cientificamente Perfectos'' (Scientifically Perfect) (1996), a minor sci-fi/special effects film directed by a woman named Francesc X. Capell; Naschy has a small role as a police commissioner; screened at the San Sebastian Film Festival in 1996; theatrically released only in Spain in 1997 (never released in the U.S.)
*''El Ojo de la Medusa'' (The Eye of the Medusa) 1997, a crime drama directed by Jose Cabanach; Naschy plays a vicious gangster who sleeps with a police detective's wife; the two men settle their differences with a game of Russian Roulette; (this film was apparently never completed, as it has never been released theatrically anywhere).
*''Quando el Mundo se Acabe te Seguire Amando'' (I'll Still Love You When the World Ends) 1998; a romantic drama directed by Pilar Sueiro; Naschy played a character called Hugo (never released in the U.S.)
*''Querido Maestro'' (1998), Naschy played a gym teacher in 11 episodes of this Spanish TV series (never released in the U.S.).<ref name="auto3">Howarth, Troy (2018). ''Human Beasts: The Films of Paul Naschy''. WK Books. p. 299.{{ISBN|978-1718835894}}</ref>
*''Rondadores Nocturno 2'' (1999), a short co-written by Naschy, in which he played "the Redeemer's Spirit" (never released in the U.S.).<ref name="auto3"/>
*''Erase Otra Vez'' (Once Upon A Time Again) a.k.a. ''Once Upon Another Time'' (2000), a Spanish Dogma film written and directed by Juan Pinzas; Naschy played a gardener (never released in the U.S.).
*''La Gran Vida'' (2000) a.k.a. '''''Living It Up'''''; a big budget Salma Hayek comedy directed by Antonio Cuadri; Naschy has a small role as a cab driver; released direct to DVD by Columbia Tri-Star.<ref name="auto5"/>
*''Animas''/ ''Souls'' (2000) a short directed by Danie Ortiz-Entrambasaguas; Naschy played a character called Fernando Luciano
*''Antivicio'' (2000), a Spanish TV show; Naschy played a police official in only one episode, directed by Manuel Estudillo<ref name="auto3"/>
*''El Comisario'' (2000), a Spanish TV show; Naschy played an internal affairs officer in only one episode, directed by Jose Paino<ref name="auto3"/>
*'''''School Killer''''' (2001), a horror film directed by Carlos Gil; Naschy plays a major role (a killer who returns from the grave to murder teenagers); never dubbed in English; released on DVD by Image Entertainment in Spanish/subtitled only as ''School Killer''.
*''Octavia'' (2002), a drama directed by Basilio Patino; Naschy plays a small role as a police inspector; the film was shown at the San Sebastian International Film Festival in 2002, and then released theatrically in Spain only (never released in the U.S.)
*''Mucha Sangre'' (2002), an adult sci-fi/comedy directed by Pepe de las Heras; Naschy plays an eccentric gangster named Mr. Vicuna who is actually an alien invader from space; the film is over the top in the gore and sex department; released only on a German DVD subtitled from Splendid Entertainment.<ref name="auto5"/>
*''El Lado Oscuro'' (The Dark Side) 2002, directed by Luciano Berriatua; Naschy played 4 different roles in this film including Dr. Van Helsing, Jesus Christ, Paracelsus and a cult leader; it was shown once at a Spanish film festival in November 2002 and then completely disappeared; (never released anywhere, theatrically or on DVD).
*''El quinto rincon''/ ''The Fifth Corner'' (2002), a short in which Naschy plays a boxing coach; based on a story by Jesus M. Balmaseda (never released in the U.S.)
*''El Corazon Delator'' (The Tell-Tale Heart) 2003, a 10-minute short horror film written and directed by Alfonso Suarez, based on the famous Edgar Allan Poe story; Naschy played the lunatic (never released in the U.S.)
*'''''Countess Dracula's Orgy of Blood''''' (2003), directed in Hollywood by [[Don Glut]], this adult sex-and-horror film was shot back-to-back with Fred Olen Ray's ''Tomb of the Werewolf'' in 2003; Naschy played a Spanish priest named Father Jacinto, speaking all of his lines in Spanish (subtitled); filmed on video; released direct to DVD in 2004 by Retromedia/Image.<ref name="auto7">Howarth, Troy (2018). Human Beasts: The Films of Paul Naschy. WK Books. p. 320. {{ISBN|978-1718835894}}.</ref>
*'''''[[Tomb of the Werewolf]]''''' (a.k.a. '''''The Unliving''''') (2003), a sleazy adult horror film directed in Hollywood by [[Fred Olen Ray]], co-starring [[Michelle Bauer]]; Naschy's final appearance as Waldemar Daninsky, speaking his lines phonetically in stilted English; filmed on video; released direct to DVD in 2004 (as ''Tomb of the Werewolf'') and re-released in a director's cut in 2015 by Retromedia/Image as ''The Unliving'' (with added commentary tracks).<ref name="auto7"/>
*'''''Rojo Sangre''''' (''Blood Red'') filmed in August 2003; directed by Christian Molina (no relation); Naschy plays an aging ex-horror film actor in this violent horror thriller; shown theatrically only in Spain in April 2004, and screened at the 2005 Fantasporto Festival in Portugal;<ref>(www.fantasporto.com; although many sources refer to Fantasporto as a spanish festival, it's important to note that it is actually a long held portuguese initiative, established in the city of Oporto-Portugal since 1981)</ref> released in the U.S. directly to DVD by Media Blasters/Fangoria in 2005.<ref name="auto7"/>
*'''''[[Rottweiler (film)|Rottweiler]]''''' (2004), sci-fi horror film directed by [[Brian Yuzna]] in Spain; Naschy plays the villain but he's only in the film for a few scenes; it premiered at a Spanish film festival in December 2004; shown theatrically only in Spain in June 2005; available on DVD from Lionsgate (in Spanish language only).
*''Um Lobisomem na Amazonia'' ('''''A Werewolf in the Amazon''''') (2005), a.k.a. ''Amazonia Misteriosa''; a sexy horror/comedy directed in Rio de Janeiro by Ivan Cardoso; story loosely based on H. G. Wells' novel ''[[The Island of Dr. Moreau]]''; the film premiered at the Rio de Janeiro Film Festival in September 2005; later released direct to DVD in 2015 by Camp Motion Pictures.<ref name="auto7"/>
*''El Perdon''/ ''The Pardon'' (2006), a short written and directed by Angel Gomez Hernandez that starred both Naschy and his old director friend Carlos Aured; Naschy and Aured had had a falling out back in 1973, and only patched up their relationship when they co-starred in this short film 33 years later (never released in the U.S.).<ref name="auto2">Howarth, Troy (2018). ''Human Beasts: The Films of Paul Naschy''. WK Books. p. 300.{{ISBN|978-1718835894}}</ref>
*''The Vampyre by John W. Polidori'' (2007) a short directed by Alejandro Ballesteros and Antonio Curdado, in which Naschy played Lord Ruthven (never released in the U.S.).<ref name="auto2"/>
*''La duodécima hora'' (The Twelfth Hour) (2007), directed by Juanma Ruiz and Rodrigo Plaza; a faux-documentary about a hidden mystery involved in the filming of F. W. Murnau's ''[[Nosferatu]]''; it was shown only at limited film festival screenings in Spain and South America; this film is today available only on the Internet.
*''Lagrimas de papel'' / ''Paper Tears'' (2008) short film written and directed by Angel Gomez Hernandez; Naschy played a character named Pablo<ref>Howarth, Troy (2018). Human Beasts: The Films of Paul Naschy. WK Books. p. 300. {{ISBN|978-1718835894}}.</ref>

===Posthumously released projects===
Naschy died on November 30, 2009, in Madrid, Spain.

*'''''Empusa''''' (filmed in Summer 2007) a vampire film directed in Spain by Paul Naschy (shot entirely on video); film was to be co-written and co-directed by Paul Naschy and Carlos Aured, but Aured dropped out of the project midway through and Naschy finished shooting the film; Naschy's original screenplay title was ''Gaviotas'' (''Seagulls'') but producer Angel Mora changed it to ''Empusa'' later on; [[Antonio Mayans]] co-starred and co-produced the film; Naschy died in 2009 before the film was completed and producer Mora finished the post-production work himself; the film was first shown at the Sitges Film Festival in 2010, posthumously; it was only released theatrically (in Spain) in October 2014; released on DVD (in Spanish/ subtitled) from Tema in Spain (Region 2 only)<ref>{{IMDb title|1926245|Empusa (2010)}}</ref>
*''La Herencia Valdemar'' ('''''The Valdemar Legacy''''') filmed in 2009; directed in Spain by Jose Luis Aleman, based on the works of [[H.P. Lovecraft]]; Naschy plays Jervas, the family retainer in this film; released theatrically in January 2010 posthumously.
*''La Herencia Valdemar 2: La Sombra Prohibida'' ('''''The Valdemar Legacy 2: The Forbidden Shadow''''') filmed in 2009; directed in Spain by Jose Luis Aleman (who died soon after finishing the film); Naschy doesn't appear that much (as Jervas) in Part Two (the bulk of his scenes are in Part One); first shown at the Sitges Film Festival in October 2010; released theatrically in Spain only in January 2011; Sony later released both of the Valdemar films together in a Blu-ray set as a double feature in Spain only.
*''The Great Croton''/ ''Croton el Grande'' (filmed in 2009) directed by Luis Colombo; scripted by Naschy, but he died before he was able to star in it, so Damian Varea played "Croton"; co-starred [[Antonio Mayans]] (who was also the film's production manager) and Luis Colombo (who was also the cinematographer); shown only at Spanish film festivals in 2011, posthumously.<ref name="auto2"/>
*''O Apóstolo''/ ''The Apostle'' (filmed in 2009) an animated film in which Naschy did the voice of a character (the Archbishop); premiered at the Malaga Film Festival in April 2012 posthumously, then was released theatrically (briefly) in Spain in October 2012; it went on to win several festival prizes afterward.
* ''Culto al terror'' (2017) Argentinian-made documentary by Gustavo Mendoza about the horror film convention circuit; interviews celebrities such as Naschy, Robert Englund, Barbara Crampton, Dario Argento and others.

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Bibliography==
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20130113035309/http://www.creepy-images.com/shop/product_info.php?products_id=21 Publisher of the "Muchas Gracias, Senor Lobo" hardcover]
*{{cite book
| last=Naschy | first=Paul
| title=Paul Naschy: Memoirs of a Wolfman
| year=2000
| publisher=[[Midnight Marquee Press]]
| isbn=1-887664-38-6
}}
*''Tapes From the Attic: Paul Naschy''; Video Watchdog Volume #66 (December 2000) Tim Lucas, Shane M. Dallmann, and Richard Harland Smith.

==External links==
*{{IMDb name | id = 1909936 | name = Paul Naschy}}
*[http://www.naschy.com The Mark of Naschy]
*[http://www.santoandfriends.com Santo and Friends] (filmography of Mexican horror films)
*[http://www.searchmytrash.com/articles/paulnaschy(7-07).shtml Biography on (re)Search my Trash]
*[https://naschycast.podbean.com/ Specialist Paul Naschy podcast]

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Naschy, Paul}}
[[Category:1934 births]]
[[Category:2009 deaths]]
[[Category:Male actors from Madrid]]
[[Category:Spanish male film actors]]
[[Category:Deaths from pancreatic cancer in Spain]]
[[Category:Spanish horror film directors]]