Yoshimi Takeuchi

2024-11-10T03:11:47Z

73.2.85.63: /* Biography */

{{Short description|Japanese academic (1910–1977)}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Yoshimi Takeuchi
| image = Takeuchi Yoshimi.JPG
| image_size =
| caption =
| birth_date = {{birth date|1910|10|2}}
| birth_place = [[Saku, Nagano]], {{JPN}}
| death_date = {{death date and age|1977|3|3|1910|10|2}}
| death_place = [[Tokyo]], Japan
| restingplace =
| native_name = 竹内好
| occupation = Sinologist
| yearsactive =
| spouse =
| children =
}}
{{nihongo|'''Yoshimi Takeuchi'''|竹内好|Takeuchi Yoshimi|born October 1910 — 3 March 1977}} was a Japanese [[Sinologist]].

== Biography ==
Yoshimi Takeuchi was a [[Sinologist]], a cultural critic and translator. He studied Chinese author [[Lu Xun]] and translated Lu's works into Japanese. His book-length study, ''Lu Xun'' (1944) ignited a significant reaction in the world of Japanese thought during and after the [[Pacific War]]. Takeuchi formed a highly successful [[Chinese literature]] study group with [[Taijun Takeda]] in 1934 and this is regarded as the beginning of modern [[Sinology]] in [[Japan]]. He was a professor at [[Tokyo Metropolitan University]] from 1953 to 1960 when he resigned in protest. He was known as a distinguished critic of Sino-Japanese issues and his complete works (vols. 17) were published by [[Chikuma Shobo]] during 1980–82.

In 1931, Takeuchi graduated from high school and entered the faculty of letters at [[Tokyo University|Tokyo Imperial University]], where he met his lifelong friend, [[Taijun Takeda]]. Together they formed the [[Chinese Literature Research Society]] ('''Chugoku Bungaku Kenkyukai''') and in 1935, they published an official organ for the group, ''Chugoku Bungaku Geppo'' in order to open up the study of contemporary [[Chinese literature]] as opposed to the "old-style" Japanese [[Sinology]]. During 1937 to 1939 he studied abroad in [[Beijing]] where he became depressed due to the [[Second Sino-Japanese War|geo-political situation]] and drank heavily. In 1940, he changed the title of the official organ from ''Chugoku Bungaku Geppo'' to ''Chugoku Bungaku'' in which he published a controversial article, "The [[Greater East Asia War]] and our resolve" in January 1942. In January 1943, he broke up the Chinese Literature Research Society and decided to discontinue the publication of ''Chugoku Bungaku'' despite the group becoming quite successful. In December, he was called up for the Chinese front and stayed there until 1946. This encounter with what he saw as the real living [[China]] and Chinese people, as opposed to the abstract China of his studies, made a deep impression on him. He threw himself into a study of the modern colloquial language<ref>Duus (1988: 770-2)</ref> and during this time, his maiden work was published, the book-length study ''[[Lu Xun]]'' (1944).

After repatriation, his essays ''On leader consciousness'' and ''What is [[modernity]]?'' became the focus of public attention in 1948 during the Japanese occupation. It is from such essays that his status as an important postwar critic was gradually acknowledged. After 1949, he was greatly moved by the foundation of the [[People's Republic of China]] (PRC) and he continued to refer to the PRC in his articles and books. In 1953, he became a full professor at [[Tokyo Metropolitan University]], a post he eventually resigned from in protest after Prime Minister Kishi Nobusuke rammed the revised [[U.S.-Japan Security Treaty]] through the [[National Diet]] with only members of his own party present in May 1960 despite the massive [[Anpo Protests]] expressing popular opposition to the new treaty.<ref name=Kapur154>{{Cite book|last=Kapur|first=Nick|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Re5hDwAAQBAJ|title=Japan at the Crossroads: Conflict and Compromise after Anpo|publisher=[[Harvard University Press]]|year=2018|location=Cambridge, Massachusetts|pages=154|isbn=9780674988484}}</ref> During the anti-treaty struggle, Takeuchi played a leading role as one of the foremost intellectuals in postwar Japan under the slogan he coined: "[[democracy]] or [[dictatorship]]?"<ref name=Kapur154/> From 1963, he argued in favor of [[Mao Zedong]] and the [[Chinese Cultural Revolution]] in his magazine ''Chugoku'' published by '''Chugoku no Kai''' until the [[Joint Communiqué of the Government of Japan and the Government of the People's Republic of China|diplomatic normalization between Japan and the PRC]] (1972). He was particularly interested in Mao's "Philosophy of base/ground" ('''konkyochi tetsugaku''') which involves the principle of making one's enemy one's own. For Takeuchi, this was similar to Lu Xun's notion of '''cheng-cha''', or endurance/resistance. In his later years, Takeuchi devoted himself to doing a new translation of [[Lu Xun]]'s works.

==Yu Dafu==
In his graduation thesis, Takeuchi discussed [[Yu Dafu]]. He concluded:

<blockquote>
[[Yu Dafu]]—he was an agonal poet. He pursued self-agony with a sincere manner and brought abnormal influence in the Chinese literary world by coming to light in bold expression. Because his agony sums up his young contemporaries' agony.<ref>''Takeuchi Yoshimi zenshu'' (vol.17, p.160)</ref>
</blockquote>

"Not <[[politics]]> (accommodating oneself to external authority) but <[[literature]]> (digging down self-agony). [[Yu Dafu]] did not reign over the people but was connected with others' agony. Takeuchi described his style as 'art of the strength that devoting oneself solely to weakness'."<ref>Oguma (2002: 398-9), ''Takeuchi Yoshimi zenshu'' (vol.14, p. 62)</ref>

==Japan as a humiliation==
===Shina and Chugoku===
Takeuchi felt guilty about the [[Second Sino-Japanese War]] in 1937. At that time, Tokyo called [[China]] as not "[[Shina (word)|Shina]]" but "Chugoku" for directing friendship between [[Japan]] and the [[Wang Jingwei regime]]. In Japanese, "Shina" is a discriminatory word for China. Takeuchi attempted to culturally resist such a manner in a period of a [[total war]].

However, as he knew the [[Greater East Asia War]] was also to some extent intended and characterized as a war to liberate [[East Asia|East]] and [[Southeast Asia]]n [[nation]]s, Takeuchi pathetically declared his resolve (1942) for what he saw as a war of [[justice]], which is generally interpreted as his cooperation with the war effort. After defeat in 1945, however, he knew that the declared aims of the war were deceptive and he tried to explain its [[aporia]]s of both the liberation of [[colonies]] and anti-[[imperialism]].

===Overcoming modernity===
<blockquote>
"Overcoming modernity" was one of the catchwords that took hold of Japanese [[intellectuals]] during the war. Or perhaps it was one of the ''magic words''. "Overcoming modernity" served as a [[symbol]] that was associated with the "[[Greater East Asia War|Greater East Asian War]]".<ref>Calichman (2005: 103)</ref>

In denouncing the [[intelligentsia]] for their wartime collaboration, it is common to lump these two symposiums<ref>"[[Overcoming modernity]]" and "[[World-Historical Standpoint]]" symposiums</ref> together.<ref>Calichman (2005: 105)</ref>

Rather my task is to distinguish among the symbolization of the symposiums, its ideas, and those who exploited these ideas.<ref>Calichman (2005: 108)</ref>

It is difficult if not virtually impossible to strip the [[ideology]] from ideas, or to extract the ideas from ideology. But we must recognize the relative independence of ideas from the [[systems]] or [[institutions]] that exploit them, we must risk the difficulty of distinguishing the actual ideas. Otherwise it would be impossible to draw forth the [[energy]] buried within them. In other words, it would be impossible to form [[tradition]].<ref>Calichman (2005: 110)</ref>
</blockquote>

After the defeat of 1945, Japanese journalism was full of discussion surrounding the issue of war responsibility, particularly that [[intellectuals]] and a famous wartime symposium entitled "Overcoming Modernity" which involved literary critic, [[Kobayashi Hideo]] and Kyoto-school philosopher, [[Nishida Kitaro]]. Wartime intellectuals were classified into three groups: ''Literary World'', the "Japanese Romantics" (such as Yasuda Yojiro) and the [[Kyoto School]]. The "Overcoming Modernity" symposium was held in wartime [[Japan]] in (1942) and sought to interpret [[Japanese imperialism]]’s Asian mission in a positive historical light, as not any kind of simple fawning on [[Fascism]], but rather ultimately, a step in the proper direction of Japan's destiny as an integral part of [[Asia]]. This was only a step, however, as, according to Takeuchi, while highlighting the [[aporia]]s of [[modernity]], the "Overcoming Modernity" debates failed to make those aporias themselves the subject of [[thought]].

Critic Odagiri Hideo criticized the symposium as an "[[ideological]] campaign consisting in the defense and theorization of the [[militaristic]] ''[[Emperor of Japan|tennō]]'' state and the submission to its war system". His view was accepted widely in post-war Japan. However, Takeuchi strongly opposed this easy pseudo-leftist formula.

<blockquote>
The [[Pacific War]]'s dual aspects of [[Colonialism|colonial]] invasion and anti-[[imperialism]] were united, and it was by this time impossible to separate these aspects.<ref>Calichman (2005: 125)</ref>

For the [[Kyoto School]], it was [[dogma]] that was important; they were indifferent to reality. I don't even think that they represented a "defense of the ''fait accompli'' that might makes right." These philosophers disregarded the facts.<ref>Calichman (2005: 135)</ref>

Yasuda was at one and the same time a "born [[demagogue]]" and a "spiritual treasure"; he could not have been a spiritual treasure were he not also a demagogue. This is the Japanese spirit itself. Yasuda represents something illimitable, he is an extreme type of Japanese [[universalist]] from which there is no escape. ... The [[intellectual]] role played by Yasuda was that of eradicating [[thought]] through the destruction of all categories. ... This<ref>Yasuda's texts</ref> may be the voice of [[heaven]] or earth, but it is not human [[language]]. It must be a revelation of the "souls of our Imperial ancestors." There is not even any usage of the "imperial we." This is a [[medium (spirituality)|medium]]. And the role that everyone had "eagerly anticipated" was that of the medium itself, who appears at the end as the "lead actor in a great [[farce]]." Yasuda played this role brilliantly. By destroying all [[values]] and categories of thought, he relieved the thinking subject of all responsibility.<ref>Calichman (2005: 143–144)</ref>

[[Hideo Kobayashi|Kobayashi Hideo]] was able to divest all meaning from facts, but he could not go beyond this. ''Literary World'' could only wait for the "medium" that was Yasuda to come and announce the disarmament of ideas.<ref>Calichman (2005: 144)</ref>

In sum, the "Overcoming Modernity" symposium marked the final attempt at forming [[thought]], an attempt that, however, failed. Such formation of thought would at least take as its point of departure the aim of transforming the [[logic]] of [[total war]]. It failed in that it ended in the destruction of thought.<ref>Calichman (2005: 145)</ref>
</blockquote>

In wartime 1942, Takeuchi declared a resolve on the war without fanatical [[chauvinism]]. In the postwar, Takeuchi's discussion was centred on the dual aspects of the [[Greater East Asia War]]. He attempted to resist war characteristics by using his own logic. However, for him, the wartime symposiums failed in the end. "Overcoming Modernity" resulted in [[school|scholastic]] chaos. [[Kobayashi Hideo]] of ''Literary World'', who beat "World-Historical Standpoint" of the [[Kyoto School]], was unworthy at this time. On behalf of such Kobayashi, Yasuda Yojuro of the Japanese Romantics showed only contempt.

===National literature criticism===
During 1951 to 1953, Takeuchi argued with literary critic, [[Sei Itō]] over the nature of a national literature (cf. [[Treaty of San Francisco]]). In 1954, Takeuchi published ''Kokumin Bungaku-ron'' [Theory of a national literature]. He criticized Japanese [[modernism]] for avoiding the problem of the "[[nation]]". Takeuchi envisaged national literature as needing to address the aporia of the nation as a cultural practice.

===Foresight and mistakes===
In 1960, the Japanese government rammed a revised version of the [[Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security]] through the [[House of Representatives of Japan|House of Representatives]]. Takeuchi saw it undemocratic and he decided to resign as professor of [[Tokyo Metropolitan University]]. Takeuchi attempted to generalize war experiences of the Japanese people to establish Japanese democratic subjectivity. As a result, he failed to accomplish his goal. Takeuchi said, "Now, I think the Japanese nation will die out. Maybe, there is a possibility to be restored to life in the future. However, [[Japan]] is stateless in the present."

=="Asia as method" ==
=== Lu Xun===
"According to Takeuchi, the core part of [[Lu Xun]] 'is awareness of the [[literature]] which was acquired through a confrontation with [[politics]]'. Literature in itself is directly powerless. However, as a result, literature could be involved in politics by devoting literature to literature. A writer could be powerful if he would dig down mental "darkness" and realize self-denial and self-innovation without dependence. Lu Xun was aware of this, so Takeuchi calls it "reform" ('eshin').<ref>Oguma (2002: 414), ''Takeuchi Yoshimi zenshu'' (vol.1, pp.55)</ref>

===Chinese modernity and Japanese modernity===
For Takeuchi, Japanese society was [[authoritarian]] and discriminatory. Takeuchi criticized Japanese [[modernists]] and modernization theorists who adopted a stopgap measure and recognized [[Japan]] as superior to [[Asia]] aiming at though [[revolutions]]. Takeuchi argued that Chinese [[modernity]] qualitatively surpassed the Japanese model. However, those modernists looked down on Asia and concluded Japan was not Asian. Generally speaking, the Japanese Meiji modernists had a tendency to interpret Asia as backward.

For Takeuchi, [[Japan]] and his greatest "darkness" were nothing but the issue of [[war responsibility]]. In ''What is [[modernity]]?'' (1948), Takeuchi stated:

<blockquote>
"[[Ultranationalism]] and [[Japanese nationalism|Japanism]] were once fashionable. These were to have banished [[Europe]]; they were not to have banished the ''[[slave]]'' structure that accommodates Europe. Now [[modernism]] is fashionable as a reaction against these [[ideologies]], but the structure that accommodates [[modernity]] is still not problematized. [[Japan]], in other words, attempts to replace the master; it does not seek [[independence]]. This is equivalent to treating [[Tojo Hideki]] as a backward student, so that other honor students remain in power in order to preserve the honor student culture itself.  It is impossible to negate Tojo by opposing him: one must go beyond him. To accomplish this, however, one must even utilize him."<ref>Calichman (2005:79-80)</ref>
</blockquote>

"<[[Crime against peace|Class-A war criminals]]> and <Non-class-A war criminals> are supplement relations.<ref>See [[International Military Tribunal for the Far East]] and [[war crime]].</ref> It is meaningless to declare '[[Japanese nationalism|Japanism]]' to oppose with the [[West]]. Likewise, it is meaningless to declare Western [[modernism]] to oppose with 'Japanism'. In order to deny <Tojo>, you must not oppose with <Tojo> and must surpass <Tojo> by facing up to your image of <Tojo>. And it was equal to war-time Takeuchi himself who adopted <December 8> and criticized the [[Greater East Asia Writers' Congress]].<ref>"In autumn of 1942, [[Nihon Bungaku Hokokukai]] requested Takeuchi (the [[Chinese Literature Research Society]]) for a cooperation to their meeting. However, Takeuchi refused it from the front. Takeuchi stated that he did not consent this meeting from the aspect of the choice of the personnel because it did not represent both Japanese and Chinese [[literature]] circles for honour of the both sides. He also stated that the reason "was because I was sure to be able to realize December 8 in the literature". For Takeuchi, he was going to do seriously <[[Resistance movement|resistance]]> in aggressive reality by advocating <true liberation of [[East Asia]]>." (Oguma, 2002:408))</ref><ref>Oguma (2002: 429-30)</ref>

===Japanese Asianism===
Takeuchi admitted modern Japanese [[Pan-Asianism|Asianism]] ended with an empty official slogan "[[Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere]]" and Japanese defeat of 1945 after all. In post-war [[Japan]], the [[Greater East Asia War]] thoroughly denied at all. Takeuchi questioned Japanese [[pacifism]] which led to lose the attitudes and responsibilities towards Asia as an Asian nation. Takeuchi depressed such a situation. He set to reviewing Japanese modern history through Asianism.

Takeuchi edited an anthology of Asianism in which he commented that Asianism is not an ideology but a trend and that it is impossible to distinguish between "invasion" and "solidarity" in Japanese Asianism. He explained that "Asianism" originated from [[Tokichi Tarui]] and [[Yukichi Fukuzawa]] in the 1880s. The former Tarui argued for unionizing [[Japan]] and [[Korea]] equally to strengthen Greater East Asian security. Takeuchi appreciated Tarui's work as an unprecedented masterpiece. The latter Fukuzawa argued for Japan casting off Asia who was barbarian and vulgar company.<ref>Fukuzawa was not a non-Pan-Asianist at all. His thesis just relied on a realist view.</ref> Takeuchi appreciated Fukuzawa's article as a stronger appeal to the [[general public|public]] than Tarui's. The victories of the [[First Sino-Japanese War]] and the [[Russo-Japanese War]] made Japanese solidarity with Asia further and further. After the victories of the above wars, Japan inclined to build a "new order" in [[East Asia]]. Japan could not be a hope of Asia. Takeuchi indicated Japanese structural defect derived from wrong honours. He interpreted Japanese Asianism as Ko-A (raising Asia) taken over Datsu-A (casting off Asia).

For Takeuchi, [[Asia]] is not a geographical concept but a concept against "modern [[Europe]]", and so, [[Japan]] is non-Asian. When the Japanese accomplish to overcome modernity, they can be Asian. By "modern Europe", it is feudal class society full of [[discrimination]] and [[authoritarianism]]. "Asia" could be liberation from [[imperialism]], which cut off a relationship between dominant and subject. Perhaps, his views were non-realist and progressive in a sense.

Takeuchi wished [[Japan]] to be Asianized. The concept of Asia is nothing but an ideal for him. He said: "In a political dimension, post-war [[Asian-African Conference|Bandung conference]] made an idea of Asianness in history". Referring to [[Rabindranath Tagore]] and [[Lu Xun]], Takeuchi addressed:

<blockquote>
Rather the [[Orient]] must re-embrace the [[West]], it must change the West itself in order to realize the latter's outstanding cultural [[values]] on a greater scale. Such a rollback of [[culture]] or values would create universality. The Orient must change the West in order to further elevate those universal values that the West itself produced. This is the main problem facing East-West relations today, and it is at once a [[political]] and cultural issue.<ref>Calichman (2005: 165)</ref>
</blockquote>

===The origin of peace===
After 1945, Takeuchi has called upon the normalization between [[China]] and [[Japan]]. In 1972, the [[Joint Communiqué of the Government of Japan and the Government of the People's Republic of China]] was concluded. Takeuchi criticized the Japanese attitudes towards the past. The issues of history have been a big concern in the [[Sino-Japanese relations]].

==Major works==
* ''What Is Modernity?: Writings of Takeuchi Yoshimi'', Columbia University Press (2005) edited, translated, and with an introduction by [[Richard F. Calichman]]
**''Ways of introducing [[culture]]: focusing upon [[Lu Xun]]'' (1948)
**''What is [[modernity]]?'' (1948)
**''The question of [[politics]] and [[literature]]'' (1948)
**''[[Hu Shih]] and [[John Dewey|Dewey]]'' (1952)
**''[[Overcoming modernity]]'' (1959)
**''[[Asia]] as method'' (1960)

==See also==
*[[Lu Xun]]
*[[Masao Maruyama (scholar)|Masao Maruyama]]
*[[Nationalism]]
*[[Orientalism]]
*[[Pan-Asianism]]
*[[Postcolonialism]]
*[[Shūichi Katō (critic)|Shuichi Kato]]
*[[Shunsuke Tsurumi]]
*[[Walter Benjamin]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Bibliography==
* [[William G. Beasley|Beasley, William G.]] (1987) "[[Japan]] and [[Pan-Asianism]]: Problems of Definition" in Hunter (1987)
* [[Richard Calichman|Calichman, Richard F.]] (2004) ''Takeuchi Yoshimi: displacing the [[west]]'', Cornell University East Asia Program
*Calichman, Richard F. [ed. and trans.] (2005) ''What Is [[Modernity]]?: Writings of Takeuchi Yoshimi'', Columbia University Press
*Calichman, Richard F. [ed. and trans.] (2008) ''[[Overcoming Modernity]]: [[Cultural identity|Cultural Identity]] in Wartime Japan'', Columbia University Press
* [[Kuan-Hsing Chen|Chen, Kuan-Hsing]] & [[Chua Beng Huat]] [eds.] (2007) ''The Inter-Asia [[cultural studies]] reader'', Routledge
* [[Peter Duus|Duus, Peter]] [ed.] (1988) ''The Cambridge history of Japan: The twentieth century'', vol. 6, Cambridge University Press
* [[Andrew Gordon (historian)|Gordon, Andrew]] [ed.] (1993) ''Postwar Japan as history'', University of California Press
* [[Janet Hunter|Hunter, Janet]] [ed.] (1987) ''Aspects of Pan-Asianism'', Suntory Toyota International Centre for Economics and Related Disciplines, London School of Economics and Political Science
*{{cite book |last = Kapur |first = Nick |year = 2018 |title = Japan at the Crossroads: Conflict and Compromise after Anpo |publisher = Harvard University Press |isbn = 9780674988484 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Re5hDwAAQBAJ}}
* [[Peter J. Katzenstein|Katzenstein, Peter J.]] & [[Takashi Shiraishi]] [eds.] (1997) ''Network Power: Japan and [[Asia]]'', Cornell University Press
* [[J. Victor Koschmann|Koschmann, J. Victor]] (1993) "[[Intellectual]]s and [[Politics]]" in Gordon (1993), pp. 395–423
* Koschmann, J. Victor (1997) "Asianism's Ambivalent Legacy" in Katzenstein et al. (1997), pp. 83–110
* [[Gavan McCormack|McCormack, Gavan]] (1996/2001) ''The Emptiness of Japanese Affluence'', M.E. Sharp
*[[Eiji Oguma|Oguma, Eiji]] (2002) ''"Minshu" to "Aikoku": Sengo-Nihon no Nashonarizumu to Kokyosei'', Shinyosha, pp. 394–446, pp. 883–94
* [[Lawrence Olson|Olson, Lawrence]] (1992) ''Ambivalent moderns: portraits of Japanese cultural identity'', Rowman & Littlefield
* [[Sven Saaler|Saaler, Sven]] & J. Victor Koschmann [eds.] (2007) ''Pan-Asianism in Modern Japanese History: [[Colonialism]], [[Regionalism (politics)|regionalism]] and borders'', Routledge
* [[Sun Ge|Sun, Ge]] (2001) "How does Asia mean?" in Chen et al. (2007)
* Takeuchi, Yoshimi (1980–82) ''Takeuchi Yoshimi zenshu'', vols.1-17, Chikuma Shobo
* Takeuchi, Yoshimi; [[Tetsushi Marukawa|Marukawa, Tetsushi]] & [[Masahisa Suzuki]] [eds.] (2006) ''Takeuchi Yoshimi Serekushon: "Sengo Shiso" wo Yomi-naosu'', vols.1-2, Nihon Keizai Hyoron-sha
* [[Stefan Tanaka|Tanaka, Stefan]] (1993) ''Japan's [[Orient]]: rendering pasts into history'', University of California Press

==External links==
{{commons category|Yoshimi Takeuchi}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20101203210852/http://www.ny.us.emb-japan.go.jp/en/c/vol_12-1/title_01.html Takeuchi Yoshimi: Rethinking "Westernization" by Richard Calichman, Consulate-General of Japan in New York]
*[http://www.iias.nl/nl/46/IIAS_NL46_2425.pdf Takeuchi Yoshimi and the dilemmas of resistance to global capitalist modernity1]

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Takeuchi, Yoshimi}}
[[Category:1910 births]]
[[Category:1977 deaths]]
[[Category:Academic staff of the University of Tokyo]]
[[Category:Japanese sinologists]]
[[Category:People from Nagano Prefecture]]
[[Category:University of Tokyo alumni]]

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Yoshimi Takeuchi