wiki143 - User contributions [en]

Italian Jews

2025-06-25T15:53:40Z

65.112.8.24: /* History */ The link indicates a different year

{{Short description|Ethnic group}}
{{Distinguish|2=Romaniote Jews|3=Romanian Jews}}
{{more citations needed|date=May 2024}}
{{Infobox ethnic group
| group = Italian Jewish people<br/>{{Nobold|Italkim<br />{{Script/Hebrew|יהודים איטלקים}}}}
| native_name =
| native_name_lang =
| image =
| caption =
| population = 60,000
| region1 = {{ITA}}
| pop1 = 30,000 (secular and religious){{efn|As reported by the ''[[American Jewish Year Book]]'' (2007), on a total Italian population of circa 58 million people, which therefore is approx. 0.1% of the population. Greater concentrations are in [[Rome]] and [[Milan]].<ref>Cf. the demographic statistics by [[Sergio DellaPergola]], published on [http://www.ajcarchives.org/AJC_DATA/Files/AJYB727.CV.pdf ''World Jewish Population''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090326020910/http://www.ajcarchives.org/AJC_DATA/Files/AJYB727.CV.pdf |date=2009-03-26 }}, American Jewish Committee, 2007. URL accessed 13 March 2013.</ref> As data originate from records kept by the various Italian Jewish congregations (which means they register "observant" Jews who have somehow had to go through basic rituals such as the [[Brit Milah]] or [[Bar Mitzvah|Bar/Bat Mitzvah]] etc.). Excluded are therefore "ethnic Jews", lay Jews, atheist/agnostic Jews, ''et al.'' – cfr. "[[Who is a Jew?]]". If these are added, then the total population would increase, possibly to approx. 50,000 Jews in Italy, not counting recent migrations from North Africa and Eastern Europe.}}
| region2 = {{ISR}}
| pop2 = 30,000
| ref2 = <ref>{{cite web|url=http://looklex.com/e.o/israel.peoples.htm|title=Israel / Peoples - LookLex Encyclopaedia|first=Tore|last=Kjeilen|access-date=2010-02-28|archive-date=2018-10-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181004213950/http://looklex.com/e.o/israel.peoples.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref>
| langs = [[Italian language|Italian]], [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], [[Judeo-Italian languages|Judeo-Italian languages and dialects]] (historically), [[Yiddish]], [[Judaeo-Spanish|Ladino]]
| rels = [[Judaism]]
| related_groups =
| related-c = [[Jews]], [[Sephardi Jews]], [[Ashkenazi Jews]], [[Israelis]]
}}
{{Jews and Judaism sidebar|Communities}}

'''Italian Jews''' ({{langx|it|ebrei italiani}}; {{langx|he|{{Script/Hebrew|יהודים איטלקים|yehudim italkim}}}}) or '''Roman Jews''' ({{langx|it|ebrei romani|links=no}}; {{langx|he|{{Script/Hebrew|יהודים רומים|yehudim romim|links=no}}}}) can be used in a broad sense to mean all Jews living in or with roots in [[Italy]], or, in a narrower sense, to mean the '''Italkim''', an ancient community living in Italy since the [[Ancient Rome|Ancient Roman]] era, who use the Italian liturgy (or "[[Italian Nusach|Italian Rite]]") as distinct from those Jewish communities in Italy dating from medieval or modern times who use the [[Sephardic law and customs|Sephardic liturgy]] or the [[Nusach Ashkenaz]].

== Name ==
Italkim have descent from the Jews who lived in Italy during the Roman period. Their [[Nusach (Jewish custom)|Nusach]] is distinct from the [[Sephardic law and customs|Sephardic Nusach]] and the [[Nusach Ashkenaz|Ashkenazi Nusach]], and are sometimes referred to in the scholarly literature as ''Italkim'' (Hebrew for "Italians"; pl. of {{Transliteration|he|italki}}, Middle Hebrew loanword from the Latin adjective {{lang|la|italicu(m)}}, meaning "Italic", "Latin", "Roman"; {{Transliteration|he|italkit}} is also used in [[Modern Hebrew]] as the word for "Italian language" (singular). They have traditionally spoken a variety of [[Judeo-Italian languages]].{{Citation needed|date=December 2022}}

== Divisions ==
Italian Jews historically fall into four categories.

#[[Italkim]], Jews of the "[[Italian Nusach|Italian Rite]]" who have resided in Italy since Roman times; see [[#Italian Rite Jews|below]].
#[[Sephardi Jews]], in particular [[Spanish and Portuguese Jews]], i.e., Jews who arrived in Italy following their expulsion from the [[Iberian Peninsula]]. The [[Kingdom of Spain]] expelled Jews with the 1492 [[Alhambra Decree]] and the [[persecution of Jews and Muslims by Manuel I of Portugal]] led to their forced conversion to Roman Catholicism in 1497, at which time many Iberian Jews immigrated to Italy. In addition, in 1533, Iberian Sephardi Jews were forced out of the Spanish territory/colony in Italy known as the [[History of the Jews in Naples|Kingdom of Naples]] and began migrating to other parts of the Italian peninsula. These groups also include ''[[anusim]]'', [[Crypto-Judaism|crypto-Jewish]] families who left Iberia in subsequent centuries and reverted to Judaism in Italy, as well as immigration by Sephardi families which had lived in the Eastern Mediterranean following expulsion from the Iberian Peninsula before coming to Italy.
#[[Ashkenazi Jews]], living mainly in [[Northern Italy]] and [[Central Italy]].
#The Jews of [[Asti]], [[Fossano]], and [[Moncalvo]] ("Appam"). These represent the Jews [[History of the Jews in France#Expulsion from France, 1182|expelled from France]] beginning in 1182 subsequent to the [[Rhineland massacres]] after the [[First Crusade]]. Their liturgy is similar to that of the Ashkenazim, but contains some distinctive usages descended from the French Jews of the time of [[Rashi]], particularly in the services for the [[High Holy Days]].

Historically these communities remained separate: in a given city there was often an "Italian [[synagogue]]" and a "Spanish synagogue", and occasionally a "German synagogue" as well. In many cases these have since amalgamated, but a given synagogue may have services of more than one rite.

Today there are further categories:
*The [[Jews of San Nicandro]] who are [[conversion to Judaism|converts]], descendants of the ''[[neofiti]]'' (''anusim'') of [[San Nicandro Garganico]];
*[[Persian Jews]] living in [[Rome]] and [[Milan]];
*[[History of the Jews in Libya|Libyan Jews]] living in Rome and [[Livorno]].

== History ==
{{main|History of the Jews in the Roman Empire|History of the Jews in Italy}}
Italian Jews can be traced as far back as the 2nd century BCE: tombstones and dedicatory inscriptions survive from this period. At that time they mostly lived in the far South of Italy, with a branch community in Rome, and were generally Greek-speaking. It is thought that some families (for example the Adolescenti) are descendants of Jews deported from Judaea by the emperor Titus in 70 CE. In early medieval times there were major communities in southern Italian cities such as [[Bari]] and [[Otranto]]. Medieval Italian Jews also produced important [[Halakha|halachic]] works such as the ''Shibbole ha-Leḳeṭ'' of [[Zedekiah ben Abraham Anaw]]. Following the expulsion of the Jews from the Kingdom of Naples in 1533, the centre of gravity shifted to Rome and the north.

Two of the most famous of Italy's Jews were [[Obadiah ben Jacob Sforno]] (1475–1550) and [[Moshe Chaim Luzzatto]] (1707–1746) whose written religious and ethical works are still widely studied.

The Italian Jewish community as a whole has numbered no more than 50,000 since it was fully [[Jewish emancipation|emancipated]] in 1861. During the Second [[Aliyah]] (between 1904 and 1914) many Italian Jews moved to [[Israel]], and there is an Italian synagogue and cultural centre in [[Jerusalem]]. Around 7,700 Italian Jews were deported and murdered during the [[Holocaust]].<ref name="bh.org.il">{{cite web |title=The Jews of Italy |url=https://dbs.bh.org.il/place/italy |publisher=[[The Museum of the Jewish People at Beit Hatfutsot]] |access-date=25 June 2018 |archive-date=23 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191023075130/https://dbs.bh.org.il/place/italy |url-status=dead }}</ref>

== Italian Rite Jews ==
{{see also|Italian Nusach}}
[[File:Marco MARCUOLA, Un mariage juif (titre attribué) Venise, vers 1780.jpg|thumb|left|Jewish wedding in Venice, 1780 [[Musée d'Art et d'Histoire du Judaïsme]]]]

The [[Italian Nusach|Italian Rite]] community traditionally has used [[Italian Hebrew]], a pronunciation system similar to that of conservative [[Iberian Jews]].{{Citation needed|date=December 2022}}

===Graeco-Italian Jews in Italy===

The medieval pre-expulsion Jews of Southern Italy (the [[History of the Jews in Apulia|Jews of Apulia]], [[History of the Jews in Calabria|Calabria]], and [[History of the Jews in Sicily|Sicily]]) are often subsumed under the designation of "Italian Jews", and from a geographical point of view this is correct. In truth, however, Southern Italy, divided into the provinces of [[Sicily (theme)|Sicily]] and the [[Catepanate of Italy]], belonged to the [[Byzantine Empire]] till 1071. Accordingly, the medieval Jewish communities of Southern Italy were linguistically a part of the [[Yevanic language|Yevanic area]]<ref>{{Cite book |last=Spolsky |first=Bernard |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5Xk9AwAAQBAJ |title=The Languages of the Jews: A Sociolinguistic History |date=2014-03-27 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-139-91714-8 |language=en}}</ref> and as concerns customs and liturgy a part of the Romaniote area.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Langer |first=Ruth |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mX29cTDSmicC |title=Cursing the Christians?: A History of the Birkat HaMinim |date=2012-01-12 |publisher=OUP USA |isbn=978-0-19-978317-5 |page=203 |language=en}}</ref> Even after the [[Byzantine Empire]] had lost the Southern Italian provinces, the Kehillot in Apulia, Calabria and Sicily maintained connections to their coreligionists in [[Greece]] and [[Constantinople]].<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FdsyAQAAQBAJ |title=Jews in Byzantium: Dialectics of Minority and Majority Cultures |date=2011-10-14 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-21644-0 |language=en}}</ref><ref>Joshua Holo, Byzantine Jewry in the Mediterranean Economy. 2009</ref> Nevertheless, Jews in rural areas of [[Emirate of Sicily]] and [[Apulia]] are known to have made some use of [[Judeo-Arabic]] and [[Judeo-Latin]] languages in addition to Greek.<ref>Metcalfe, A. Muslims and Christians in Norman Sicily: Arabic-Speakers and the End of Islam. 2014</ref><ref>Safran, L. The Medieval Salento: Art and Identity in Southern Italy, p. 215. 2014</ref>

== Ashkenazi Jews in Italy ==
There have been Ashkenazi Jews living in the North of Italy since at least as early as the late Middle Ages. In Venice, they were the oldest Jewish community in the city, antedating both the Sephardic and the Italian groups. Following the invention of printing, Italy became a major publishing centre for Hebrew and Yiddish books for the use of German and other northern European Jews. A notable figure was [[Elijah Levita]], who was an expert Hebrew grammarian and [[Masorete]] as well as the author of the Yiddish romantic epic [[Bovo-Bukh]].

Another distinctive community was that of [[Asti]], [[Fossano]] and [[Moncalvo]], which was descended from Jews expelled from France in 1394: this community includes the well-known Lattes family. Only the Asti synagogue is still in use today. Their rite, known as ''Afam'' (from the Hebrew initials for those three cities), is similar to the Western Ashkenazic, but has some peculiarities drawn from the old French rite, particularly on the [[High Holy Days]]. These variations are found on loose-leaf sheets which the community used in conjunction with the normal Ashkenazi prayer-book; they are also printed by Goldschmidt.<ref>Daniel Goldschmidt, ''Meḥqare Tefillah u-Fiyyut'' (On Jewish Liturgy): Jerusalem 1978.</ref> This rite was the only surviving descendant of the original French rite, as known to [[Rashi]], used anywhere in the world: French Ashkenazim since 1394 have used the [[Nusach Ashkenaz|German-Ashkenazic rite]]. The rite died out in the 1950s.<ref>See Daniel Goldschmidt, introduction to Rosh Hashanah Machzor.</ref>

In musical tradition and in pronunciation, Italian Ashkenazim differ considerably from the Ashkenazim of other countries, and show some assimilation to the other two communities. Exceptional are the north-eastern communities such as that of Gorizia, which date from Austro-Hungarian times and are much closer to the German and Austrian traditions.

== Sephardi Jews in Italy ==
Since 1442, when the Kingdom of Naples came under Spanish rule, considerable numbers of Sephardi Jews came to live in Southern Italy. Following the expulsion of the Jews from Spain in 1492, from Portugal in 1495 and from the Kingdom of Naples in 1533, many moved to central and northern Italy. One famous refugee was [[Isaac Abarbanel]].

Over the next few centuries they were joined by a steady stream of [[converso]]s leaving Spain and Portugal. In Italy they ran the risk of prosecution for Judaizing, given that in law they were baptized Christians; for this reason they generally avoided the Papal States. The Popes did allow some Spanish-Jewish settlement at [[Ancona]], as this was the main port for the Turkey trade, in which their links with the Ottoman Sephardim were useful. Other states found it advantageous to allow the conversos to settle and mix with the existing Jewish communities, and to turn a blind eye to their religious status; while in the next generation, the children of conversos could be brought up as fully Jewish with no legal problem, as they had never been baptized.

The main places of settlement were as follows.
# [[Venice]]. The [[Republic of Venice|Venetian Republic]] often had strained relations with the Papacy; on the other hand they were alive to the commercial advantages offered by the presence of educated Spanish-speaking Jews, especially for the Turkey trade. Previously the Jews of Venice were tolerated under charters for a fixed term of years, periodically renewed. In the early 16th century these arrangements were made permanent, and a separate charter was granted to the "Ponentine" (western) community. The price paid for this recognition was the confinement of the Jews to the newly established [[Venetian Ghetto]]. Nevertheless, for a long time the Venetian Republic was regarded as the most welcoming state for Jews, equivalent to the Netherlands in the 17th century or the United States in the 20th century.
# Sephardic immigration was also encouraged by the [[House of Este|Este princes]], in their possessions of [[Reggio Emilia|Reggio]], [[Modena]] and [[Ferrara]] (these cities also had established Italian-rite and Ashkenazi communities). In 1598, following the extinction of the male line of d'Este dukes of Ferrara, that city was repossessed by the Papal States, leading to some Jewish emigration from there (although overall the community survived as a distinct and significant entity up until the 20th century).
# In 1593, [[Ferdinando I de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany]], granted Portuguese Jews charters to live and trade in [[Pisa]] and [[Livorno]] (see [[Jewish community of Livorno]]).

On the whole the Spanish and Portuguese Jews remained separate from the native Italian Jews, though there was considerable mutual religious and intellectual influence between the groups.

The ''[[Spanish Synagogue (Venice)|Scola Spagnola]]'' of [[Venice]] was originally regarded as the "mother synagogue" for the Spanish and Portuguese community worldwide, as it was among the earliest to be established, and the first prayer book was published there: later communities, such as Amsterdam, followed its lead on ritual questions. With the decline in the importance of Venice in the 18th century, the leading role passed to [[Jewish community of Livorno|Livorno]] (for Italy and the Mediterranean) and Amsterdam (for western countries). The Livorno synagogue was destroyed in the Second World War: a modern building was erected in 1958–1962.

In addition to Spanish and Portuguese Jews strictly so called, Italy has been host to many [[Sephardi Jews]] from the eastern Mediterranean. [[Dalmatia]] and many of the Greek islands, where there were large Jewish communities, were for several centuries part of the [[Republic of Venice|Venetian Republic]], and there was a "Levantine" community in Venice. This remained separate from the "Ponentine" (i.e. Spanish and Portuguese) community and close to their eastern roots, as evidenced by their use in the early 18th century of a hymn book classified by [[Weekly Maqam|maqam]] in the Ottoman manner (see [[Pizmonim]]).<ref>Moshe Hacohen, ''Ne'im Zemirot Yisrael'', BL Add 26967, cited [[Edwin Seroussi]], "In Search of Jewish Musical Antiquity in the 18th-Century Venetian Ghetto: Reconsidering the Hebrew Melodies in Benedetto Marcello's ''Estro Poetico-Armonico''", [[Jewish Quarterly Review|JQR]] (NS) vol 93 p 173.</ref> (Today both synagogues are still in use, but the communities have amalgamated.) Later on the community of Livorno acted as a link between the Spanish and Portuguese and the eastern Sephardic Jews and as a clearing house of musical and other traditions between the groups. Many Italian Jews today have "Levantine" roots, for example in [[Corfu]], and before the Second World War Italy regarded the existence of the eastern Sephardic communities as a chance to expand Italian influence in the Mediterranean.

In the 18th and 19th centuries, many Italian Jews (mostly but not exclusively from the Spanish and Portuguese group) maintained a trading and residential presence in both Italy and countries in the Ottoman Empire: even those who settled permanently in the Ottoman Empire retained their Tuscan or other Italian nationality, so as to have the benefit of the [[Capitulations of the Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Capitulations]]. Thus in Tunisia there was a community of ''Juifs Portugais'', or ''L'Grana'' (Livornese), separate from, and regarding itself as superior to, the native Tunisian Jews (''Tuansa''). Smaller communities of the same kind existed in other countries, such as Syria, where they were known as ''Señores Francos'', though they generally were not numerous enough to establish their own synagogues, instead meeting for prayer in each other's houses. European countries often appointed Jews from these communities as their consular representatives in Ottoman cities.

Between the two World Wars [[Libya]] was an Italian colony and, as in other North African countries, the colonial power found the local Jews useful as an educated elite. Following Libyan independence, and especially after the Six-Day War in 1967, many Libyan Jews left either for Israel or for Italy, and today most of the "Sephardi" synagogues in Rome are in fact Libyan.

==Genetics==
{{further|Genetic studies on Jews}}
A 2000 genetic study by M. F. Hammer et al. found that the paternal haplogroups of Jews in Rome are of Middle Eastern origin with low level European admixture. A strong genetic connection between Jews in Rome and other Jewish populations from Europe, North Africa and the Middle East was noted. According to the study, the results suggest that modern Jews "descend from a common Middle Eastern ancestral population".<ref>M. F. Hammer et al (2000): [https://www.pnas.org/content/97/12/6769 Jewish and Middle Eastern non-Jewish populations share a common pool of Y-chromosome biallelic haplotypes]. PNAS.</ref>

A 2010 study on Jewish ancestry by Atzmon and Ostrer et al. stated "Two major groups were identified by principal component, phylogenetic, and identity by descent (IBD) analysis: Middle Eastern Jews and European/Syrian Jews. The IBD segment sharing and the proximity of European Jews to each other and to southern European populations suggested similar origins for European Jewry and refuted large-scale genetic contributions of Central and Eastern European and Slavic populations to the formation of Ashkenazi Jewry", as both groups – the Middle Eastern Jews and European/Syrian Jews – shared common ancestors in the Middle East about 2500 years ago. The study examines genetic markers spread across the entire genome and shows that the Jewish groups share large swaths of DNA, indicating close relationships and that each of the Jewish groups in the study (Iranian, Iraqi, Syrian, Greek, Italian, Turkish and Ashkenazi) has its own genetic signature but is more closely related to the other Jewish groups than to their fellow non-Jewish countrymen. Ashkenazi, Italian, and Sephardi Jews were all found to share Middle Eastern and Southern European ancestry.<ref>{{cite news |last=Saey |first=Tina Hesman |date=3 June 2010 |title=Tracing Jewish roots |url=http://www.sciencenews.org/view/generic/id/59938/title/Tracing_Jewish_roots |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100606115758/http://www.sciencenews.org/view/generic/id/59938/title/Tracing_Jewish_roots |archive-date=2010-06-06 |work=ScienceNews}}</ref> Atzmon–Ostrer's team found that the SNP markers in genetic segments of 3 million DNA letters or longer were 10 times more likely to be identical among Jews than non-Jews.<ref name="Atzmon2010">{{cite journal |first1=Gil |last1=Atzmon |first2=Li |last2=Hao |first3=Itsik |last3=Pe'Er |first4=Christopher |last4=Velez |first5=Alexander |last5=Pearlman |first6=Pier Francesco |last6=Palamara|first7=Bernice |last7=Morrow |first8=Eitan |last8=Friedman |first9=Carole |last9=Oddoux |first10=Edward |last10=Burns |first11=Harry |last11 =Ostrer |name-list-style=amp |title=Abraham's Children in the Genome Era: Major Jewish Diaspora Populations Comprise Distinct Genetic Clusters with Shared Middle Eastern Ancestry |journal=[[American Journal of Human Genetics]] |volume=86 |issue=6 |pages=850–59 |year=2010 |doi=10.1016/j.ajhg.2010.04.015 |pmid=20560205 |pmc=3032072}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Genes Set Jews Apart, Study Finds |url=http://www.americanscientist.org/science/pub/-674 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131109005918/http://www.americanscientist.org/science/pub/-674 |archive-date=2013-11-09 |access-date=8 November 2013 |newspaper=[[American Scientist]]}}</ref> It is suggested that Sephardi, Ashkenazi and Italian Jews commonly descend from a group of Jews from the Middle East who, having migrated to Italy, intermarried with Italians during the Roman era. The ancestors of Ashkenazi Jews are then thought to have left Italy for Central Europe (and from there eventually Eastern Europe), with the ancestors of Italkic{{Clarify|date=December 2022|reason=What does "Italkic" mean?}} Jews remaining in Italy.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/06/10/science/10jews.html|title=Studies Show Jews' Genetic Similarity|date=10 June 2010|work=The New York Times}}</ref>

The results of a 2013 study by Behar et al. showed that Italian Jews show genetic connection to Sephardic, North African and Ashkenazic Jewish groups, Italians and Cypriots and Middle Eastern populations.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Behar|first1=Doron M.|last2=Metspalu|first2=Mait|last3=Baran|first3=Yael|last4=Kopelman|first4=Naama M.|last5=Yunusbayev|first5=Bayazit|last6=Gladstein|first6=Ariella|last7=Tzur|first7=Shay|last8=Sahakyan|first8=Hovhannes|last9=Bahmanimehr|first9=Ardeshir|last10=Yepiskoposyan|first10=Levon|last11=Tambets|first11=Kristina|date=December 2013|title=No evidence from genome-wide data of a Khazar origin for the Ashkenazi Jews|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25079123/|journal=Human Biology|volume=85|issue=6|pages=859–900|doi=10.3378/027.085.0604|issn=1534-6617|pmid=25079123|s2cid=2173604}}</ref>

== Culture ==
Italian [[Jewish culture]] has flourished through the passage of time, with tradition regarding Italian [[Jewish identity]], and transformations to the lives of those in Italian Jewish communities. With the spread of Jewish settlement throughout Italy came the eventual pride for the country of Italy, and the opportunities that arose to celebrate both cultures.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Klein|first=Shira|title=Italy's Jews from Emancipation to Fascism|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2018|isbn=9781108424103|pages=57–84}}</ref>

Italian Jewish food tradition is an identifiable part of their culture that has made an impact to this day on culinary tradition. Italian Jews maintained means of kosher within the context of their culinary traditions at home. The unique aspect of how they maintained kosher is that each individual family followed kosher within their own unique standard. Some Italian Jews ate pork, while others refrained, but would instead eat rabbit. Not only did this allow for new traditions to be established, kosher also maintained different meanings established in every household. Additionally, Italian Jewish households would enjoy meals that blended the culinary traditions of both Italians and Jews. One popular tradition that came to be within culinary tradition was the preparing of goose salami for Passover. These various culinary traditions made their way into restaurants and specialty markets, eventually to be seen in the newspapers. This led to widespread support for the Italian Jewish food tradition and the transformation of it through the years, many of which tradition can be found in cookbooks and passed along through generations of Italian Jewish families.<ref name=":0" />

Northern Italy was a location in which Ashkenazi Jews came to establish Italian Jewish food traditions. Another significant aspect of this tradition was observing the religious ways of challah, from its ingredients, to its preparation, to the very moment it is shared amongst those gathered. With that said, the passage of time allowed for the transformation of such traditions to remain in respect to Ashkenazi Jews, while continuing to grow in food tradition and expand throughout Italy.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Zahava|first=Weishouse|title=The Jews in Italy: Their Contribution to the Development and Diffusion of Jewish Heritage|publisher=Academic Studies Press|year=2019|isbn=9781644690253|editor-last=Perani|editor-first=Mauro}}</ref>

==See also==
{{portal|Italy|Judaism}}
* [[History of the Jews in Italy]]
** [[History of the Jews in Apulia]]
** [[History of the Jews in Calabria]]
** [[History of the Jews in Livorno]]
** [[History of the Jews in Naples]]
** [[History of the Jews in the Roman Empire]]
** [[History of the Jews in Sardinia]]
** [[History of the Jews in Sicily]]
** [[History of the Jews in Trieste]]
** [[History of the Jews in Turin]]
** [[History of the Jews in Venice]]
* [[List of Italian Jews]]
* [[Israel–Italy relations]]
* [[Jews of San Nicandro]]
* [[Italian Nusach]]

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

== References ==
{{reflist|30em}}

== Further reading ==
* Sacerdoti, Annie, ''A Guide to Jewish Italy'' (2004) {{ISBN|0-8478-2653-8}}, {{ISBN|978-0-8478-2653-7}}
* [[Robert Bonfil|Bonfil, Robert]], ''Rabbis and Jewish Communities in Renaissance Italy'' (Littman Library of Jewish Civilization) (1989) {{ISBN|0-19-710064-3}}, {{ISBN|978-0-19-710064-6}}
* ''The Jews of Italy: Memory And Identity'', eds Dr Barbara Garvin & Prof. Bernard Cooperman, Studies and Texts in Jewish History and Culture VII, University Press of Maryland (Bethesda 2000), {{ISBN|1-883053-36-6}}
* Schwarz, Guri, "After Mussolini: Jewish Life and Jewish Memory in Post-Fascist Italy", Vallentine Mitchell (London, Portland (OR), 2012.
* Ferrara degli Uberti, Carlotta, "Fare gli ebrei Italiani. Autorappresentazioni di una minoranza (1861-1918)", Il Mulino (Bologna), 2010.
* Pacifici Noja, Ugo G. and Silvia (2010). Il cacciatore di giusti: storie di non ebrei che salvarono i figli di Israele dalla Shoah. Cantalupa Torinese: Effatà.
* Ferrara degli Uberti, Carlotta, "Making Italian Jews: Family, Gender, Religion and the Nation 1861–1918, Palgrave MacMillan (London) 2017.
* '' Ebreo chi? Sociologia degli ebrei italiani'' ( Jewish who? A sociology of the Italian Jews today) Ugo G. Pacifici Noja and Giorgio Pacifici eds., with contributions of Umberto Abenaim, Massimiliano Boni, Angelica Edna Calo Livne, Enzo Campelli, Renata Conforty Orvieto, Sergio Della Pergola, Roberto Della Rocca, Anna Foa, Silvia \Maiocchi, Natan Orvieto, Rossana Ottolenghi, Giorgio Pacifici, Ugo G. Pacifici Noja, Vittorio Pavoncello, Gian Stefano Spoto, Claudio Vercelli, with a foreword of Furio Colombo, Jaca Book, Milan, 2017 {{ISBN|978-88-16-41419-8}}
*{{cite book |last1=Guetta |first1=Alessandro |title=Italian Jewry in the Early Modern Era: Essays in Intellectual History |date=2014 |publisher=[[Academic Studies Press]] |location=Boston |doi=10.2307/j.ctt21h4w96|jstor=j.ctt21h4w96|isbn=9781618112088 |url=https://directory.doabooks.org/handle/20.500.12854/29472 }} {{open access}}

=== Italian rite prayer books ===
* ''Mahzor kefi ha-nahug li-kehal Roma'', Casal Maggiore 1486
* ''Ḥelek me-ha-maḥzor kefi minhag k"k Roma'', Bologna 1540
* ''Maḥzor ke-minhag Roma'', Mantua 1557
* ''Siddur mebarekhah: ke-minhag k"k Italiani'', Venice 1618
* ''Siddur Benè Romì'', Milan 2002
* ''The Complete Italian Machazor'', ed. Emanuele Artom, Jerusalem 2005 [http://italian-machazor.com/eng7.htm]
* ''Mahzor Ke-Minhag Roma'', ed. Robert Bonfil, Jerusalem 2012, {{ISBN|978-965-493-621-7}}

The Italian rite is also set out in one chapter of Goldschmidt, ''Meḥqare Tefillah u-Fiyyut'' (On Jewish Liturgy), Jerusalem 1978

=== Discography ===
* ''Italian Jewish Musical Traditions from the [[Leo Levi]] Collection (1954–1961)'' (Anthology of Music Traditions in Israel, 14, edited by Francesco Spagnolo): contains examples of Italian liturgical music from the Italiani/Bené Romi, Sephardi and Ashkenazi traditions
* ''Talile Zimra - Singing Dew'': ''The Florence-Leghorn Jewish Musical Tradition'', Beth Hatefutsot, 2002
* Adler Israel, ''Hosha’ana Rabbah in Casale Monferrato 1732: Dove in the Clefts of the Rock'', Jewish Music Research Center, Hebrew University of Jerusalem: Jerusalem 1990 (Yuval Music series Volume: 2), book and CD

== External links ==
* [https://primolevicenter.org/ Centro Primo Levi Center New York: Italian Jewish Studies]

{{Jews and Judaism}}
{{Demographics of Israel}}

[[Category:Italian Jews| ]]
[[Category:Culture of Italy]]
[[Category:Italki Jews topics| ]]
[[Category:Jewish Italian history| ]]
[[Category:Jews and Judaism in Italy| ]]
[[Category:Jewish ethnic groups]]

Samuel Swinton Jacob

2024-12-13T20:34:57Z

65.112.8.24: Capitalization

{{Short description|British officer and colonial architect (1841–1917)}}
{{EngvarB|date=September 2014}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2014}}

{{Infobox person
| honorific_prefix = [[Sir]]
| name = Samuel Swinton Jacob
| honorific_suffix = {{post nominals|country=GBR|KCIE|CVO|size=100}}
| image = Sir Samuel Swinton Jacob.jpg
| birth_date = {{Birth-date|14 January 1841}}
| death_date = {{d-da|4 December 1917|14 January 1841}}
| resting_place = [[Brookwood Cemetery]]
}}

'''Sir Samuel Swinton Jacob''', {{post-nominals|sep=,|country=GBR|KCIE|CVO}} (14 January 1841 – 4 December 1917), known as '''Sir Swinton Jacob''',<ref name="Ref-1"/> was a [[British Army]] officer and colonial engineer, architect and writer, best known for the numerous Indian public buildings he designed in the [[Indo-Saracenic]] style.

==Early life and education==
[[File:Samuel Swinton Jacob portrait.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Samuel Swinton Jacob as a young man]]
Jacob was born in 1841 to Colonel William Jacob<ref name="Ref-1">{{cite news |title=Death of Sir Swinton Jacob |work=[[The Times]] |date=7 December 1917 |issue=41655 |page=7 }}</ref> (of the [[Bombay Army|Bombay Artillery]] and a member of a distinguished military family) and Jane Swinton, granddaughter of Captain Samuel Swinton [[Royal Navy|RN]], who was the inspiration for the story of ''The Scarlet Pimpernel''. He was educated at [[Cheam School]] and then at the [[Addiscombe Military Seminary|East India Company Military College]] at [[Addiscombe]] where he was one of the last cohort of graduates in 1858 before the college was taken over by the government.<ref>{{cite news |title=Military College at Addiscombe |work=[[The Times]] |date=11 December 1858 |issue=23174 |page=8 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=H. M. |last=Vibart |title=Addiscombe: its heroes and men of note |place=Westminster |publisher=Archibald Constable |year=1894 |ol=23336661M |pages=298, 700 }}</ref>

==Career==
Jacob was commissioned into the [[Bombay Artillery]] in 1858, qualifying five years later as a surveyor and engineer. After initial service with the Bombay Staff Corps in the Public Works Department, and a brief spell with the Aden Field Force in 1865–6, he was appointed in 1867 as chief engineer of the state of [[Jaipur]] in Rajasthan, India.<ref>Colonel F. W. M. Spring, 'Bombay Artillery: List of Officers' (1902), entry 500.</ref> He was to spend the remainder of his working life in this position until he retired at the age of 71.<ref name="Ref-1"/>

At the time he became chief engineer and took charge of the Public Works Department of Jaipur, it had only been in existence for seven years, having been founded in 1860.

[[File:Swinton Jacob Brookwood.jpg|thumb|right|The grave of Sir Swinton Jacob in [[Brookwood Cemetery]] in 2018]]
He was promoted to lieutenant-colonel on 6 February 1885,<ref>''London Gazette'', 10 February 1885.</ref> and to colonel on 26 February 1889.<ref>''London Gazette'', 26 February 1889.</ref> During the summer of 1902, he accompanied the Maharaja of Jaipur as a political officer during a visit to the United Kingdom to attend the [[Coronation of King Edward VII and Queen Alexandra]]. The coronation was originally scheduled for late June, but was postponed until 16 August 1902 when the King fell ill, prolonging their stay in London.<ref>{{Cite newspaper The Times |title=Court Circular |date=13 August 1902 |page=8 |issue=36845}}</ref>

=== Later career ===
Among his honours were the [[Kaisar-i-Hind Gold Medal]] for Public Service on 9 November 1901.<ref>{{London Gazette |issue=27374 |date=9 November 1901 |page=7288 |supp=y}}</ref><ref>''The Times'', 9 November 1901, Issue 36608.</ref> In the [[1902 Coronation Honours]] list published on 26 June 1902 (the original date for the subsequently postponed coronation of King Edward VII), Jacob was made a [[Knight Commander of the Indian Empire]] (KCIE).<ref>{{Cite newspaper The Times |title=The Coronation Honours |date=26 June 1902 |page=5 |issue=36804}}</ref><ref>{{London Gazette |issue=27448 |supp=y |date=26 July 1902 |pages=4189–4197 }}</ref>

He had no sooner retired to England in 1911 then he was recruited by the secretary of state for India to assist [[Edwin Lutyens]] and [[Herbert Baker]] in the design of New Delhi. Failing health soon forced him to withdraw from the assignment.<ref name="Ref-1" />

He died at [[Weybridge]] on 4 December 1917<ref name="Ref-1" /> and was buried in [[Brookwood Cemetery]] in [[Surrey]].

== Personal life ==
He was married to Mary Brown (daughter of Robert Brown of Edinburgh) from 1874 until his death.<ref name="Ref-1" />

==Style==
[[File:Albert hall original.JPG|thumb|right|Albert Hall Museum, Jaipur]]
Jacob's department was responsible for the construction of everything in the state of Jaipur ranging from walls, outhouses, guard houses, roads, canals to major public buildings.

Compared with many British officials in India he was noted for his respect for local building traditions and skills, which led to his incorporating many Indian architectural features into his building designs. As a result, he became – with F. S. Growse, [[Robert Fellowes Chisholm]], Charles Mant, [[Henry Irwin]], [[William Emerson (British architect)|William Emerson]], [[George Wittet]] and [[Frederick William Stevens|Frederick Stevens]] – a pioneer of the [[Indo-Saracenic]] style of architecture.

For the benefit of other contemporary architects, Jacob published from 1890 to 1913 the ''Jeypore Portfolio of Architectural Details'', containing numerous drawings, in 12 volumes.<ref>Thomas R. Metcalfe, [http://www.historytoday.com/thomas-r-metcalfe/tradition-created-indo-saracenic-architecture-under-raj A Tradition Created: Indo-Saracenic Architecture under the Raj], in: History Today, Volume 32, Issue 9, 1982.</ref>

===Notable buildings===
*All Saint's Church, [[Jaipur]]. Designed by Jacob and opened for worship at Christmas 1876.
*[[Albert Hall Museum]], Jaipur. Also called the Government Central Museum. Located on [[Ram Niwas Bagh]], it was built between 1880 and 1887 after the original design by [[Frederick de Fabeck]], for which the then [[Edward VII|Prince of Wales]] had laid the [[foundation stone]] in 1876, was abandoned. Maharaja [[Ram Singh II|Ram Singh]] initially wanted the building to be a town hall, but his successor, [[Sawai Madho Singh]], decided it should be a museum for the art of Jaipur.
*Jaipur Gate, 1886 (with [[Thomas Holbein Hendley]]). The "exotic" structure of Indian teak was carved in [[Shekhawati]] and transported to London for an exhibition. In 1926 it was moved to [[Hove]], East Sussex, where it still stands outside [[Hove Museum of Creativity]].<ref name="Antram197">{{cite book|last1=Antram|first=Nicholas|last2=Morrice|first2=Richard|title=Brighton and Hove|series=Pevsner Architectural Guides|publisher=Yale University Press|location=London|year=2008|isbn=978-0-300-12661-7|page=197}}</ref>
*Jubilee Buildings, [[Jodhpur]], 1887–96.<ref>Vibuti Sachdev & [[Giles Tillotson]], "Building-Jaipur-the-Making-of-an-Indian-City" p. 118 s.]</ref>
*The Delhi State Election Commission's Office on Lothian Road near [[Kashmiri Gate (Delhi)|Kashmiri Gate]] in Delhi. Built 1890 to 1891, two-storey building housed [[St. Stephen's College, Delhi]] from 1891 till 1941, when it shifted to its present campus.<ref>{{cite web |title=College to poll office, a 123-year-old quiet journey |publisher=Hindustan Times |url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/India-news/NewDelhi/College-to-poll-office-a-123-year-old-quiet-journey/Article1-1058877.aspx| date = 12 May 2013| accessdate = 23 September 2013| url-status = dead| archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20131031193954/http://www.hindustantimes.com/India-news/NewDelhi/College-to-poll-office-a-123-year-old-quiet-journey/Article1-1058877.aspx| archivedate = 31 October 2013| df = dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ststephens.edu/StStephens/httpdocs/history/glimpses.htm |title=St. Stephen's College - Glimpses of St. Stephen's College |accessdate=2013-07-26 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080325230401/http://www.ststephens.edu/StStephens/httpdocs/history/glimpses.htm |archivedate=25 March 2008 |df=dmy-all }}. Retrieved 17 April 2008</ref>
* Bikaner House, [[Mount Abu]]. Built 1893 as a summer residence for the Maharaja of [[Bikaner]]. It has now been converted into the Palace Hotel.
*[[Laxmi Niwas Palace]], [[Bikaner]]. Built 1896–1902 and then extended from 1902 until 1926 into the [[Lalgarh Palace]].
* [[Umed Bhawan Palace]], [[Kota, Rajasthan|Kota]]. Built in 1904. Now houses a WelcomHeritage hotel.<ref>[http://www.welcomheritagehotels.com/hotel/umed-bhawan-palace-kota WelcomHeritage Umed Bhawan Palace]</ref>
*[[King George Medical College]], [[Lucknow]]. Built 1905. Now called the King George Medical University.
*[[Peshawar Museum]], [[Peshawar]]. Built 1907 as Victoria Memorial Hall.
*[[Rambagh Palace]], designed by Jacob in 1905, built 1909–16 by [[Chiman Lal]] and [[Bhola Nath]].<ref>Sachdev/Tillotson, "Building Jaipur the Making of an Indian City" p. 126 s.</ref>
*[[Daly College]], [[Indore]], 1912.

== Gallery ==
<gallery widths="260px" heights="150px" perrow="4">
File:Rajasthan-Jaipur-Albert-Hall-Museum-cupola-towers-Apr-2004-00.JPG|Albert Hall Museum, Jaipur
File:Laxmi Niwas Palace.jpg|Laxmi Niwas Palace, Bikaner
File:Lalgarh palace bikaner2.jpg|Lalgarh Palace, Bikaner
File:Daly College, Indore.jpg|Daly College, Indore
File:Umed Bhawan Palace cour interieure.jpg|Umed Bhawan Palace, Kota, Rajasthan
File:Jaipur Gate at Hove Museum and Art Gallery (IoE Code 365600).JPG|Jaipur Gate, [[Hove]]
File:Gorton castle Shimla.jpg|Gorton Castle, Shimla
</gallery>

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
*{{cite book|author=Mitchell, Shelby, Nanji, Ameeta|title= India Sublime: Princely Palace Hotels of Rajasthan|location=New York|publisher=Rizzoli|year=2007|type = hardback| isbn = 978-0-8478-2979-8}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Jacob, Samuel Swinton}}
[[Category:1841 births]]
[[Category:1917 deaths]]
[[Category:Bombay Artillery officers]]
[[Category:Graduates of Addiscombe Military Seminary]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Kaisar-i-Hind Medal]]
[[Category:British people in colonial India]]
[[Category:People educated at Cheam School]]
[[Category:Knights Commander of the Order of the Indian Empire]]
[[Category:Commanders of the Royal Victorian Order]]
[[Category:19th-century English architects]]
[[Category:20th-century British architects]]
[[Category:Burials at Brookwood Cemetery]]