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Real Audiencia of Quito

2025-06-06T15:20:10Z

50.70.245.104: /* Structure */

{{Short description|Administrative region of the Spanish Empire in northwestern South America (1563-1822)}}
{{infobox Former Subdivision
|common_name = Quito
|native_name = Real Audiencia de Quito
|conventional_long_name = Real Audiencia of Quito
|status_text =
|nation = the [[Viceroyalty of Nueva Granada]]
|subdivision = Real Audiencia
|p1 = Viceroyalty of Peru
|flag_p1 = Flag of New Spain.svg
|image_p1 =
|life_span = 1563–1822
|s1 = Gran Colombia
|flag_s1 = Flag_of_the_Gran_Colombia_(1819-1820).svg
|image_s1 =
|image_flag =
|image_coat = Escudo de Quito.svg
|flag_type =
|flag =
|symbol =
|symbol_type =
|national_motto =
|national_anthem =
|image_map = Real Audiencia de Quito 1779.jpg
|image_map_caption = Royal Audiencia of Quito, a map of 1779 by Francisco Requena y Herrera
|capital = Quito
|coordinates = {{Coord|0|15|S|78|35|W|display=inline,title}}
|area =
|government_type = Audiencia Real
|title_leader = President of the Audiencia
|title_deputy =
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|legislature =
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|era = [[Spanish Empire]]
|event_pre =
|date_pre =
|year_pre =
|event_start =
|date_start = 29 August
|year_start = 1563
|event1 =
|date_event1 =
|event_end = Incorporation into [[Gran Colombia|Colombia]]
|date_end = 24 May
|year_end = 1822
|event_post = Independence of [[Ecuador]]
|date_post = 13 May 1830
|stat_year1 (up to 5) =
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|today = Ecuador, Colombia, Peru, Brazil
|footnotes =
}}

[[Image:Real Audiencia de Quito.jpg|bottom|thumb|Real Audiencia de Quito, Real Cédula de 1563]]

The '''{{lang|es|Real Audiencia}} of Quito''' (sometimes referred to as {{lang|es|la Presidencia de Quito}} or {{lang|es|el Reino de Quito}}) was an administrative unit in the [[Spanish Empire]] which had political, military, and religious jurisdiction over territories that today include [[Ecuador]], parts of northern [[Peru]], parts of southern [[Colombia]] and parts of northern [[Brazil]]. It was created by Royal Decree on 29 August 1563 by [[Philip II of Spain]] in the city of [[Guadalajara, Spain|Guadalajara]].{{refn|Volume I, Book II, Title XV, Law 10 of the {{lang|es|Recopilación de Leyes de Indias}}}}<ref>{{Cite book| author = Spain|title = Recopilación de las Leyes de Indias. Titulo Quince. De las Audiencias y Chancillerias Reales de las Indias| year = 1680| location = Madrid| id = [http://www.congreso.gob.pe/ntley/Imagenes/LeyIndia/0102015.pdf Spanish-language facsimile of the original]}}</ref> It ended in 1822 with the incorporation of the area into the [[Gran Colombia|Republic of Gran Colombia]].

==Structure==
The 1563 decree established its structure and district:
<blockquote>In the [[Quito|City of San Francisco of El Quito]], in Peru, shall reside another Royal ''Audiencia'' and Chancellery of ours, with a president; four judges of civil cases [''oidores''], who will also be judges of criminal cases [''alcaldes del crimen'']; a crown attorney [''fiscal'']; a bailiff [''alguacil mayor'']; a lieutenant of the Gran Chancellor; and the other necessary ministers and officials; and which shall have for district the Province of Quito, and along the coast towards the Ciudad de los Reyes [Lima] to the Port of Paita, exclusive; and inland towards Piura, Cajamarca, Chachapoyas, Moyobamba and Motilones, exclusive, including towards the aforesaid part the towns of Jaén, Valladolid, Loja, Zamora, Cuenca, La Zarza and Guayaquil, with the rest of the towns, which are in their districts or will be founded [in them]; and towards the towns of La Canela and Quijos, it should include said towns and the rest that shall be discovered; and along the coast towards Panama, until the Port of Buenaventura, inclusive; and inland to Pasto, Popayán, Cali, Buga, Chapanchinca and Guarchicona; because the rest of the places of the Government (''Gobernación'') of Popayan are of the ''Audiencia'' of the New Kingdom of Granada, with which, and with the one of Tierrafirme [Panama], it shall share a border on the north; and with the one of Los Reyes in the south; having for its western border the South Sea [Pacific Ocean] and eastern the provinces still not yet pacified nor discovered.</blockquote>

The ''[[Audiencia Real|Audiencia]]'' was effectively autonomous because the Viceroyal government (to which the ''Audiencia'' was technically subordinate in political matters) was too far away to administer its territories effectively. Thus, power was devolved to the ''Audiencia'' by the Viceroy and the ''audiencia'' territory was directly administered by the President of the ''Audiencia'' and the political, military, and religious officials underneath him. Initially the ''Audiencia'' of Quito formed part of the [[Viceroyalty of Peru]] (1563–1717) and (1723–1739). Later the ''Audiencia'' was part of a newly created [[Viceroyalty of Nueva Granada]] (1717–1723). This Viceroyalty was temporarily suppressed by the [[King of Spain]] in 1723 and the ''Audiencia'' of Quito returned to the [[Viceroyalty of Peru]]. In 1739, the [[Viceroyalty of Nueva Granada]] was re-established and the ''Audiencia'' of Quito was returned to it until it declared itself independent from Spain. A year later the King of Spain passed the [[Real Cédula]] of 1740 where the borders of the Audiencia of Quito would be closer to 4° south of the Equator.

The Audiencia of Quito briefly became independent for 3 years after it staged the [[Quito Revolution (1809-1812)|Quito revolution in 1809]], was annexed again to the Spanish Empire in 1812. The Audiencia of Quito was liberated again in 1822 and formerly joined the territories of what is today [[Ecuador]], [[Venezuela]], [[Colombia]] and [[Panama]] to form the [[Gran Colombia|Republic of Gran Colombia]].

==Independence==
[[Image:Gran Colombia map.jpg|thumb|right|The Republic of Gran Colombia Divided into Departments—June 25, 1824]]
As part of [[Gran Colombia]], the territories of Quito were divided up into districts, departments, and provinces on 25 June 1824 by the ''[[Subdivisions of Gran Colombia]]''. The Audiencia de Quito was divided into 4 departments: [[Ecuador Department]], [[Guayaquil Department]], [[Azuay Department]], and [[Cauca Department (Gran Colombia)|Cauca Department]]. The departments of Ecuador, Guayaquil, and Azuay united to form the [[Distrito del Sur]]. On 13 May 1830 the departments of Ecuador, Guayaquil, and Azuay separated from La Gran Colombia to form a new nation called Ecuador with [[Juan José Flores]] as its first president, who tried to incorporate the Department of Cauca, but to no avail.

== Presidents of the Real Audiencia ==
* Hernando de Santillán (1563-1571)
* Lope Díez de Armendáriz (1571-1574)
* Pedro Gracía de Valverde (1574-1578)
* Diego de Narváez (1578-1581)
* Manuel Barros de San Millán (1587-1593)
* Esteban Marañón (1593-1599)
* Miguel de Ibarra (1600-1608)
* Juan Fernández de Recalde (1609-1612)
* [[Antonio de Morga]] (1615-1624 – 1627-1636)
* Alonso Pérez de Salazar (1637-1642)
* Juan de Lizaraza (1642-1645)
* Martín de Arriola (1645-1652)
* Pedro Vásquez de Velasco (1655-1661)
* Antonio Fernández de Heredia (1662-1665)
* Diego del Corro Carrascal (1670-1673)
* Lope Antonio de Munive (1678-1689)
* [[Mateo de la Mata Ponce de León]] (1691-1703)
* Francisco López Dicastillo (1703-1705)
* Juan de Sosaya (1707-1714)
* Santiago Larraín (1715-1718)
* Dionisio de Alceda (1728-1736)
* José de Araujo (1736-1745)
* Fernando Sánchez de Orellana (1745-1753)
* Juan Pío de Montúfar (1753-1761)
* José Diguja (1767-1778)
* José García de León (1778-1784)
* José de Villalengua (1784-1790)
* Juan Antonio Mon y Velarde (1790-1791)
* [[Luis Muñoz de Guzmán]] (1791-1798)
* [[Francisco Luis Héctor de Carondelet|Luis Héctor de Carondelet]] (1799-1807)
* [[Manuel Ruiz Urriés de Castilla]], conde de Ruiz de Castilla (1807-1809)
* ''[[Quito Revolution (1809–1812)|First Autonomous Junta of Quito]]'' (1809-1809), president: [[Juan Pío Montúfar]]
* [[Manuel Ruiz Urriés de Castilla]], conde de Ruiz de Castilla (1809-1811)
* ''[[Quito Revolution (1809–1812)|Second Autonomous Junta of Quito]]'' (1811-1812), president: [[José Cuero y Caicedo]]
* [[Toribio Montes]] (1812-1817)
* Juan Ramírez de Orozco (1817-1819)
* [[Melchor Aymerich]] (1819-1821)
* [[Juan de la Cruz Mourgeón]] (1821-1822)
* [[Melchor Aymerich]] (1822)

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Bibliography==
*Phelan, John Leddy. ''The Kingdom of Quito in the Seventeenth Century: Bureaucratic Politics in the Spanish Empire''. Madison, University of Wisconsin Press, 1967.

==See also==
*[[Quito School]]

{{Spanish Empire}}
{{Ecuador topics}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Royal Audiencia of Quito}}
[[Category:1563 establishments in South America]]
[[Category:1563 establishments in the Spanish Empire]]
[[Category:1563 establishments in the Viceroyalty of Peru]]
[[Category:1820s disestablishments in South America]]
[[Category:1820s disestablishments in the Spanish Empire]]
[[Category:Colonial Brazil]]
[[Category:Colonial Colombia]]
[[Category:Colonial Peru]]
[[Category:History of Ecuador]]
[[Category:Legal history of Peru]]
[[Category:Real Audiencias|Quito]]
[[Category:Viceroyalty of Peru]]

Massacre of Glencoe

2025-06-05T04:52:14Z

50.70.245.104:

{{short description|1692 killing of clan Macdonald members}}
{{Use British English|date=October 2014}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2018}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict = Massacre of Glencoe
| image = Peter Graham - After the Massacre of Glencoe - Google Art Project.jpg
| image_size = 280px
| caption = ''After the Massacre of Glencoe'', Peter Graham
| partof = [[Jacobite rising of 1689]]
| date = 13 February 1692
| place = [[Glen Coe]], [[Argyll]], [[Kingdom of Scotland|Scotland]]
| coordinates =
| map_type = Scotland
| map_relief = yes
| latitude =
| longitude =
| map_size =
| map_marksize =
| map_caption =
| map_label =
| result =
| combatant1 = {{flagicon|Kingdom of Scotland}} [[Kingdom of Scotland]]
| commander1 = {{plainlist|
* Major [[Robert Duncanson (Army officer)|Duncanson]]
* Captain [[Robert Campbell of Glenlyon|Glenlyon]]
* Colonel Hamilton
* Colonel Hill
}}
| strength1 = 920
| casualties1 = None
| combatant2 = [[Clan MacDonald of Glencoe]]
| commander2 = Alasdair MacIain
| strength2 = Unknown
| casualties2 = About 30 killed{{sfn|Campsie}}
| notes =
}}
{{Campaignbox Jacobite rising of 1689}}

The '''Massacre of Glencoe'''{{efn|{{langx|gd|Murt Ghlinne Comhann}}}} took place in [[Glen Coe]] in the [[Argyll]] region of the [[Scottish Highlands]] on 13 February 1692. An estimated 30 members and associates of Clan [[MacDonald of Glencoe]] were killed by Scottish government forces, allegedly for failing to pledge allegiance to the new monarchs, [[William II of Scotland|William II/III]] and his wife [[Mary II]].

Although the [[Jacobite rising of 1689]] had largely been suppressed by May 1690, a continuing need to police the Highlands diverted military resources from the [[Nine Years' War]] in [[Flanders]]. In late 1690, clan leaders loyal to the exiled [[House of Stuart]] agreed to swear allegiance to William and Mary, in return for a cash payment of £12,000. However, disagreements over how to divide this meant by December 1691 none of the clans had taken the oath.

In response, [[John Dalrymple, 1st Earl of Stair|Lord Stair]], Scottish [[Secretary of State (Kingdom of Scotland)|Secretary of State]], decided to show the consequences of further delay. While others, including the [[Clan MacDonald of Keppoch|Keppoch MacDonalds]], also missed the deadline, the Glencoe MacDonalds appear to have been selected due to a combination of clan politics, and a reputation for lawlessness.

While similar events were not unknown in earlier Scottish history, this was no longer the case by 1692, and the brutality of the massacre shocked contemporaries. It became a significant element in the persistence of [[Jacobitism]] in the Highlands during the first half of the 18th century, and remains a powerful symbol to this day.

== Background ==
{{Location map many|Scotland Highland
|caption = Scottish Highlands: key locations mentioned in article
|width = 250
|float = left
|relief = yes
|label1 = Fort William |lat1_deg = 56.8198|lon1_deg = -5.1052|pos1 = right
|label2 = Glencoe|lat2_deg = 56.667778|lon2_deg = -4.986667|pos2 = left
|label3 = Invergarry Castle|lat3_deg = 57.065833|lon3_deg =-4.780833|pos3 = top
|label4 = Achallader|lat4_deg=56.5599|lon4_deg=-4.7316|pos4=right}}

Some historians argue the late 17th-century [[Scottish Highlands]] were more peaceful than often suggested, the exception being [[Lochaber]], identified as a refuge for cattle raiders and thieves by government officials, other chiefs and Gaelic poets.{{sfn|MacInnes|1986|pp=174–176}} Much of this instability was blamed on the questionable legal status of lands ostensibly leased from [[Clan Mackintosh]] and occupied by [[Clan MacDonald of Keppoch]], though the later disputed this claim.{{sfn|Hopkins|1998|p=380}} Four Lochaber clans were consistently identified as prone to lawlessness, the Keppoch and [[MacDonald of Glencoe|Glencoe MacDonalds]], the [[MacGregors]], and [[Clan Cameron|Camerons]].{{sfn|MacInnes|1986|pp=174–176}}

Levies from all four served in the [[Independent Highland Companies]] used to suppress the [[Conventicle#Scotland|Conventicles]] in 1678–80. They also took part in the raid led by the [[John Murray, 1st Marquess of Atholl|Marquess of Atholl]] that followed [[Argyll's Rising]] in 1685. Primarily directed against Lowland migrants settled in [[Cowal]] and [[Kintyre]], the damage inflicted by Atholl's raid destabilised large parts of the central and southern Highlands. In September 1688, [[James VII and II]] outlawed the Keppoch MacDonalds, shortly before he was deposed by the November 1688 [[Glorious Revolution in Scotland|Glorious Revolution]].{{sfn|MacInnes|1986|pp=193–194}}

In March 1689, James landed in [[Williamite War in Ireland|Ireland]] in an attempt to regain his kingdoms, with Camerons and Keppoch MacDonalds among those who joined [[John Graham, 1st Viscount Dundee|Viscount Dundee]] for a [[Jacobite rising of 1689|supporting campaign in Scotland]]. Victory over a government army at [[Battle of Killiecrankie|Killiecrankie]] on 27 July cost the lives of Dundee and 600 Highlanders, while organised [[Jacobitism|Jacobite]] military resistance largely ended after [[Battle of Cromdale|Cromdale]] in May 1690.{{sfn|Lenman|1980|pp=37–38}} However, the ongoing need to police the Highlands used resources needed for the [[Nine Years' War]] in [[Flanders]], while close links between Western Scotland and [[Ulster]] meant unrest in one country often spilled into the other.{{sfn|Lang|1912|pp=284–286}} Since peace in the Highlands required control of Lochaber, achieving this had wider strategic importance than might appear.{{sfn|MacInnes|1986|p=195}}

==Oath of allegiance to William and Mary==
[[File:Achallader Farm Tower - geograph.org.uk - 55403.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.0|Ruins of [[Achallader Castle]], site of the Declaration of June 1691]]

After Killiecrankie, the Scottish government tried to negotiate a settlement with the Jacobite chiefs,{{efn|How far "Jacobite" implied loyalty to the [[House of Stuart]], versus a desire to increase individual clan power, remains a matter of debate}} terms varying based on events in Ireland and Scotland. In March 1690, [[Secretary of State (Kingdom of Scotland)|Secretary of State]] [[John Dalrymple, 1st Earl of Stair|Lord Stair]] offered to pay £12,000 in return for their agreement to take an [[oath of allegiance]] to William and Mary. The chiefs agreed to do so in the June 1691 Declaration of Achallader, with [[John Campbell, 1st Earl of Breadalbane and Holland|John Campbell, Earl of Breadalbane]], signing for the government. Crucially, it did not specify how the money was to be divided, and disputes over this delayed the oath. In addition, Breadalbane argued part of it was owed him as compensation for damage done to his estates by the Glencoe MacDonalds.{{sfn|Harris|2007|p=439}}

The [[Battle of Aughrim]] on 12 July ended Jacobite chances of victory in the [[Williamite War in Ireland]], and any immediate prospects of a Stuart restoration. On 26 August, the Scottish government issued a Royal Proclamation that offered a pardon to anyone taking the oath prior to 1 January 1692, with severe reprisals for those who did not. Two days later, secret articles began circulating which cancelled the Achallader agreement in the event of a Jacobite invasion. These were allegedly signed by all the attendees, including Breadalbane, who claimed they had been manufactured by the MacDonald chief [[Lord MacDonell|Glengarry]].{{sfn|Levine|1999|p=139}} Stair's letters now focused on enforcement, reflecting his belief that forged or not, none of the signatories intended to keep their word.{{sfn|Gordon|1845|pp=44–47}}

In early October, the Jacobite chiefs asked the exiled James VII for permission to take the oath unless he could mount an invasion before the deadline, a condition they knew was impossible.{{sfn|Szechi|1994|p=45}} A document granting his approval was sent from [[Château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye|Saint-Germain]] on 12 December and received by Glengarry on 23 December, who did not share it until 28th. While his reasons for the delay are unclear, one suggestion attributes it to an internal power struggle between [[Scottish Episcopal Church|Episcopalian]] MacDonalds like Glencoe, and the [[Catholic]] minority headed by Glengarry.{{sfn|Szechi|1994|p=30}}

As a result, it was not until 30 December that MacIain of Glencoe left for [[Fort William, Scotland|Fort William]] to take the oath from its commander, Lieutenant Colonel John Hill. Since he was not authorised to accept it, Hill sent MacIain to [[Inveraray]] with a letter for Sir Colin Campbell, the local magistrate. He administered the oath on 6 January, after which MacIain returned home.{{sfn|Buchan|1933|p=59}}

[[File:1stEarlOfStair.jpg|left|thumb|upright=0.8|Lord Stair, Secretary of State for Scotland]]

Glengarry himself did not take the oath until 4 February, while others did so by proxy, but only MacIain was excluded from the indemnity issued by the Scottish Privy Council.{{sfn|Levine|1999|p=140}} Stair's letter of 2 December to Breadalbane shows the decision to make him an example was taken well before the deadline for the oath, originally as a much bigger operation; '...the clan Donell must be rooted out and Lochiel. Leave the McLeans to Argyll...'{{sfn|Goring|2014|pp=94–96}}

In January, Stair wrote three letters in quick succession to [[Thomas Livingstone, 1st Viscount Teviot|Sir Thomas Livingstone]], military commander in Scotland; on the 7th, the intention was to '....destroy entirely the country of Lochaber, Locheal's lands, Kippochs, Glengarrie and Glenco...;' on the 9th, '...their chieftains all being '''papists''', it is well the vengeance falls there; for my part, I regret the MacDonalds had not divided and...'''Kippoch and Glenco are safe'''.' The last, on 11 January, states; '...my lord Argile tells me Glenco hath not taken the oaths at which I rejoice....'{{sfn|Goring|2014|pp=97–100}}

The [[Parliament of Scotland|Scottish Parliament]] passed a Decree of Forfeiture in 1690, depriving Glengarry of his lands, but he continued to hold [[Invergarry Castle]], whose garrison included the senior Jacobite officers [[Alexander Cannon (general)|Alexander Cannon]] and [[Thomas Buchan]]. This suggests the Episcopalian Glencoe MacDonalds only replaced the Catholic Glengarry as the target on 11 January; MacIain's son John MacDonald told the 1695 Commission the soldiers came to Glencoe from the north '...Glengarry's house being reduced.'{{sfn|Cobbett|1814 |p=904}}

The targeting of the Glencoe MacDonalds appears to have been driven by a variety of factors. After two years of negotiations, Stair was under pressure to ensure the deal stuck, while [[Archibald Campbell, 1st Duke of Argyll|Argyll]] was competing for political influence with his kinsman Breadalbane, who also found it expedient to concur with the plan.{{sfn|Levine|1999|p=141}} Glengarry managed to eliminate an internal rival, was pardoned and had his lands returned by the Williamite government, while enhancing his reputation with the exiled court in Saint-Germain by being the last to swear.{{sfn|MacConechy|1843|p=77}}

==The Massacre==
In late January 1692, approximately 120 men from the [[Earl of Argyll's Regiment of Foot]] arrived in Glencoe. Their commander was [[Robert Campbell of Glenlyon]], an impoverished local landowner whose niece was married to one of MacIain's sons.{{efn|John MacDonald, who along with his brother Alistair served in the Jacobite defeat at [[Battle of Cromdale|Cromdale]] in May 1690{{sfn|Prebble|1967|p=185}}}} Campbell carried orders for 'free quarter', an established alternative to paying taxes in what was a largely non-cash society.{{sfn|Kennedy|2014|p=141}} The Glencoe MacDonalds had themselves been similarly billeted on the Campbells when serving with the Highland levies used to police [[Argyll]] in 1678.{{sfn|Lenman|Mackie|1991|pp=238–239}}

[[File:Glencoe winter2.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.2|Glencoe in winter; conditions would have been similar at the time of the Massacre]]

On 12 February, Hill ordered Lieutenant Colonel James Hamilton to take 400 men and block the northern exits from Glencoe at [[Kinlochleven]]. Meanwhile, another 400 men under [[Robert Duncanson (Army officer)|Major Duncanson]] would join Glenlyon and sweep northwards up the glen, killing anyone they found, removing property and burning houses.{{sfn|Somers|1843|p=538}} Later that evening, Glenlyon received orders from Duncanson carried by Thomas Drummond, who commanded the Argylls' [[Grenadier]] company and was thus Glenlyon's superior. His presence appears to have been to ensure the orders were enforced, since witnesses later claimed he shot two people who asked Glenlyon for mercy.{{sfn|Somers|1843|p=536}}

In letters written on 30 January to Hamilton and Hill, Stair expresses concern that the MacDonalds would escape if warned, and emphasises the need for secrecy. This correlates with evidence from James Campbell, one of Glenlyon's company, stating that they had no knowledge of the plan until the morning of 13 February.{{sfn|Somers|1843|p=537}} MacIain was killed, although his two sons escaped, and the 1695 Commission was given various figures for the number of casualties. The often-quoted figure of 38 dead was provided by Hamilton's men, who were at the opposite end of the glen from where the killing took place,{{efn|As below, none of the Argyll regiment were in Scotland when the Commission heard evidence in 1695}} while the MacDonalds themselves claimed 'the number they knew to be slaine were about 25'.{{sfn|Cobbett|1814|pp=902–903}} Modern research estimates deaths resulting from the Massacre as 'around 30', while claims others died of exposure cannot be substantiated.{{sfn|Campsie}}

[[File:GlencoeOrder.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|left|Duncanson's written orders to Glenlyon{{efn|You are hereby ordered to fall upon the rebells, the McDonalds of Glenco, and put all to the sword under seventy. you are to have a speciall care that the old Fox and his sones doe upon no account escape your hands, you are to secure all the avenues that no man escape. This you are to putt in execution att fyve of the clock precisely; and by that time, or very shortly after it, I’ll strive to be att you with a stronger party: if I doe not come to you att fyve, you are not to tarry for me, but to fall on. This is by the Kings speciall command, for the good & safety of the Country, that these miscreants be cutt off root and branch. See that this be putt in execution without feud or favour, else you may expect to be dealt with as one not true to King nor Government, nor a man fitt to carry Commissione in the Kings service. Expecting you will not faill in the full-filling hereof, as you love your selfe, I subscribe these with my hand  att Balicholis  Feb: 12, 1692.}}]]

Since he arrived two hours late at 7:00 am, Duncanson joined Glenlyon only after most of the killings had been carried out, then advanced up the glen burning houses and removing livestock. Hamilton was not in position at Kinlochleven until 11:00; his detachment included two lieutenants, Francis Farquhar and Gilbert Kennedy, who often appear in anecdotes claiming they 'broke their swords rather than carry out their orders.' This differs from their testimony to the Commission and is unlikely since they arrived hours after the killings, which were carried out at the opposite end of the glen.{{sfn|Howell|2017|p=903}}

In May, fears of a French invasion meant the Argylls were posted to [[Brentford]] in England, then [[Flanders]], where they served until the end of the [[Nine Years' War]] in 1697 when the regiment was disbanded. No action was taken against those involved; Glenlyon died in Bruges in August 1696, Duncanson was killed in Spain in May 1705, while Drummond survived to take part in another famous Scottish disaster, the [[Darien scheme]].{{sfn|Prebble|1968|p=103}}

==Investigation==
On 12 April 1692, the ''Paris Gazette'' published a copy of Glenlyon's orders, allegedly found in an [[Edinburgh]] tavern and taken to France.{{sfn|Levine|1999|p=143}} Despite criticism of the government, there was little sympathy for the MacDonalds, Livingstone writing ''it's not that anyone thinks the thieving tribe did not deserve to be destroyed, but that it should have been done by those quartered amongst them makes a great noise.''{{sfn|Prebble|1973|p=198}} The motivation for investigating the affair was largely political; having served in the old and new regimes, Stair was unpopular with supporters of both.{{sfn|Levine|1999|p=141}}

[[File:Moord op de gebroeders De Witt, door Pieter Frits (1627-1708).jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.0|The killing of the De Witt brothers, 1672; the Massacre was first mentioned in a broadsheet accusing William of their murder]]

In the debate that followed, Colonel Hill claimed most Highlanders were peaceful, and even in Lochaber, {{lang|sco|a single person may travell safley where he will witout harme.}} He argued lawlessness was deliberately encouraged by leaders like Glengarry, while ''the midle sort of Gentrey and Commons....never got anything but hurt from it.'' The 1693 Highland Judicial Commission encouraged using the law to resolve issues like cattle theft, but the clan chiefs opposed it as reducing control over their tenants.{{sfn|Kennedy|2017|pp=32–60}}

The issue appeared settled until the English [[Licensing of the Press Act 1662]] expired in May 1695. The result was a huge increase in the number of political pamphlets published in London, among them ''Gallienus Redivivus, or Murther will out, &c. Being a true Account of the De Witting of Glencoe, Gaffney''. Written by Jacobite activist [[Charles Leslie (nonjuror)|Charles Leslie]], it focused on William's alleged complicity in the 1672 death of [[Johan de Witt]], with Glencoe and other crimes as secondary charges.{{sfn|Frank|1983|pp=103–115}}

A Commission was set up to determine whether there was a case to answer under 'Slaughter under trust', a Scottish act introduced in 1587 to reduce endemic feuding. The law applied to murder committed in "cold-blood", when articles of surrender had been agreed, or hospitality accepted.{{sfn|Harris|2015|pp=53–54}} It was first used in 1588 against [[Lachlan Mor Maclean]], whose objections to his mother's second marriage led him to murder his new stepfather, John MacDonald, and 18 members of the wedding party. Interpretation varied, such as in the cases of James MacDonald, who locked his parents in their house before setting it on fire in 1597, and the killing of prisoners after the 1647 [[Battle of Dunaverty]]. Both were deemed to have been committed in "hot blood", and thus excluded.{{sfn|Levine|1999|p=129}}

As a capital offence and treason, it was an awkward weapon with which to attack Stair, since William himself signed the orders, and the intent was widely known in government circles. The Commission instead considered whether participants had exceeded orders, not their legality, and concluded Stair and Hamilton had a case to answer, but left the decision to William.{{sfn|Somers|1843|p=545}} While Stair was dismissed as Secretary of State, he returned to government in 1700 and was made an earl by the last Stuart monarch, [[Anne, Queen of Great Britain|Queen Anne]].{{sfn|Hopkins|1998 |p=395}} An application by the survivors for compensation was ignored; they rebuilt their houses, and participated in the 1715 and 1745 Jacobite risings.{{sfn|Prebble|1973|p=214}} An [[Survey (archaeology)|archaeological survey]] in 2019 showed Glencoe was occupied until the [[Highland Clearances]] of the mid-18th century.{{sfn|MacDonald}}

== Aftermath and legacy ==
[[File:McCulloch, Glencoe, Argyllshire.jpg|left|thumb|upright=1.2|Glencoe, by Horatio McCulloch, 1864; depopulated in the 18th century by the [[Highland Clearances]], McCulloch shows it as the remote and empty landscape it remains today.]]

The brutality of the Massacre shocked Scottish society and became a [[Jacobitism|Jacobite]] symbol of post-1688 oppression. In [[Jacobite rising of 1745|1745]], [[Charles Edward Stuart|Prince Charles]] ordered Leslie's pamphlet and the 1695 Parliamentary minutes reprinted in the Edinburgh ''Caledonian Mercury''.{{sfn|Hopkins|1998 |p=1}} Glencoe then largely disappeared from public knowledge until it was referenced by historian [[Thomas Babington Macaulay|Thomas Macaulay]] in his 1850 ''[[The History of England from the Accession of James the Second|History of England]]''.{{sfn|Macaulay|1859|p=277}} He sought to exonerate William from every one of Leslie's charges, and is the origin of the claim that the Massacre was simply part of an ongoing feud between the MacDonalds and [[Clan Campbell]].{{sfn|Firth|1918|p=287}}

[[Victorian era]] Scotland developed values that were both [[Unionism in the United Kingdom|Unionist]] and [[British Empire|Imperialist]], while also being uniquely Scottish.{{sfn|Morris|1992|pp=37–39}} Historical divisions meant this was largely expressed through a shared cultural identity, while the teaching of Scottish, rather than British history, virtually disappeared from universities.{{sfn|Kidd|1997|p=100}} One modern historian suggests this meant that instead of being analysed as an historical event, Glencoe was incorporated into 'the emotional trappings of the Scottish past...bonnie Scotland of the bens, [[glen]]s and misty [[shieling]], the Jacobites, [[Mary, Queen of Scots]], tartan mania and the raising of historical statuary.'{{sfn |Ash|1980|p=10}}

Even when the study of Scottish history re-emerged in the 1950s, Leslie's writings continued to shape views of William's reign as disastrous for Scotland. The Massacre became one of several incidents used to illustrate this perspective, others including the Darien scheme, the [[Seven ill years|famine of the late 1690s]], and the [[Acts of Union 1707|1707 Union]].{{sfn|Kennedy|2017|pp=32–33}}

The Massacre is still commemorated in an annual ceremony by the Clan Donald Society. Initiated in 1930, this is held at the Upper Carnoch memorial, a tapering Celtic cross installed in 1883 at the eastern end of Glencoe village.<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://canmore.rcahms.gov.uk/en/site/71831/ |title=Site Record for Glencoe, Massacre Of Glencoe Memorial; Macdonald's Monument; Glencoe Massacre |publisher=Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Scotland |access-date=4 November 2013}}. Memorial is at {{gbmapping|NN1050958793}}.</ref> Another memorial includes the [[Henderson Stone]], a granite boulder south of Carnach, originally known as the 'Soldier's Stone'.{{sfn|Dorson|1971|p=156}} In the late 19th century, it was renamed ''Clach Eanruig'', or 'Henry's Stone', after the man reputed to be [[Bagpipes|Piper]] to MacIain.{{sfn|Donaldson|1876|pp=298, 301}}

== In popular culture ==
[[File:Glencoe Massacre Memorial.JPG|right|thumb|upright=1.0|Glencoe Massacre Memorial]]

Glencoe was a popular topic with 19th-century poets, notably Sir [[Walter Scott]]'s "Massacre of Glencoe".{{sfn|Scott}} It was used as a subject by [[Thomas Campbell (poet)|Thomas Campbell]] and [[George Gilfillan]], as well as by [[Letitia Elizabeth Landon]] in her 1823 work "Glencoe", [[T. S. Eliot]]'s "Rannoch, by Glencoe" and "Two Poems from Glencoe" by [[Douglas Stewart (poet)|Douglas Stewart]].<ref>Stewart Douglas. [http://www.poetrylibrary.edu.au/poets/stewart-douglas/two-poems-from-glencoe-0614003 Two Poems from Glencoe] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150715225925/http://www.poetrylibrary.edu.au/poets/stewart-douglas/two-poems-from-glencoe-0614003 |date=15 July 2015 }}, at Australian Poetry Library. Accessed 5 October 2015</ref>

The massacre is alluded in Beethoven's [[25 Irish Songs, WoO 152 (Beethoven)|25 Irish songs, WoO 152]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.beethoven.de/en/work/view/6178302293180416/?fromArchive=6502094441807872 |access-date=26 December 2024 |title=63 Irish Songs, part 1 (Nos. 1-29) for one or two voices, violin, violoncello and piano WoO 152 }}</ref>

Examples in literature include "The Masks of Purpose" by [[Eric Linklater]], and the novels ''[[Fire Bringer]]'' by [[David Clement-Davies]], ''Corrag'' (known as ''Witch Light'' in paperback) by [[Susan Fletcher (British author)|Susan Fletcher]] and ''[[Lady of the Glen]]'' by [[Jennifer Roberson]]. [[William Croft Dickinson]] references Glencoe in his 1963 short story "The Return of the Native". ''[[A Song of Ice and Fire]]'' author, [[George R. R. Martin]], cites the Glencoe Massacre as one of two historical influences on the infamous "Red Wedding" in his 2000 book ''[[A Storm of Swords]]''.<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Hibberd |first=James |date=2 June 2013 |title='Game of Thrones' author George R.R. Martin: Why he wrote The Red Wedding |url=https://ew.com/article/2013/06/02/game-of-thrones-author-george-r-r-martin-why-he-wrote-the-red-wedding/2/ |magazine=Entertainment Weekly |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150202173529/ew.com/article/2013/06/02/game-of-thrones-author-george-r-r-martin-why-he-wrote-the-red-wedding/2 |archive-date=2 February 2015 |access-date=4 June 2025}}</ref>

In 1962, Jim McLean wrote the song "The Massacre Of Glencoe", which was published under Duart Music.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.songfacts.com/facts/john-mcdermott/massacre-of-glencoe |website=Song Facts |access-date=27 June 2024}}</ref> The song was later adapted and performed by The Corries,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.discogs.com/release/7378298-The-Corr%C3%ADes-Scotland-Will-Flourish-And-The-Massacre-Of-Glencoe |website=Discogs |access-date=27 June 2024 |title=The Corríes - Scotland Will Flourish and the Massacre of Glencoe |date=1978 }}</ref> as well as adapted for the Highland Bagpipes by various artists. In 1972 the Scottish band [[Nazareth (band)|Nazareth]] released the song "1692 (Glencoe Massacre)" on their album, ''[[Exercises (album)|Exercises]]''.

In the eleventh episode of [[Mad Men]]'s seventh season, [[Pete Campbell]]'s daughter is refused admission into [[Greenwich Country Day School]] directly by the headmaster, a MacDonald, over Clan Campbell's role in the massacre.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://subslikescript.com/series/Mad_Men-804503/season-7/episode-11-Time__Life | title=Mad Men: Season 7, Episode 11 script | Subs like Script }}</ref>

The event is the name sake to the traditional [[Piobaireachd]] "Massacre of Glencoe". The original author is unknown, however numerous settings exist, the most common source being Donald MacDonald's.<ref>https://www.pipesdrums.com/core/docengines/064AF52DA174434CA3EAC2DB0B8BDAC2.pdf {{Bare URL PDF|date=May 2025}}</ref>

==Recent archaeological work==
[[File:Glencoe Visitor Centre - geograph.org.uk - 4669281.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.3|Glencoe Visitor Centre]]

After the Massacre, the Glencoe MacDonalds rebuilt their homes; a military survey undertaken between 1747 and 1755 shows seven separate settlements along the glen, each containing between six and eleven buildings.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Alexander |first1=Derek |title='A roof o'er their heads': exploring the archaeology of Achtriachtan township in Glencoe |url=https://the-past.com/feature/a-roof-oer-their-heads-exploring-the-archaeology-of-achtriachtan-township-in-glencoe/ |website=The Past |date=11 August 2021 |access-date=27 April 2022}}</ref> In 2018, a team of [[archaeologist]]s organised by the [[National Trust for Scotland]] began [[Survey (archaeology)|surveying]] several areas related to the massacre, with plans to produce detailed studies of their findings.{{sfn|Treviño}}

Work in the summer of 2019 focused on the settlement of Achadh Triachatain, or Achtriachtan, at the extreme end of the glen; home to an estimated 50 people, excavations show it was rebuilt after 1692 and still occupied in the mid-18th century.{{sfn|MacDonald}} A hoard of coins was found in a house linked to MacIain in August 2023, which archaeologists believe may have been hidden there by a victim of the Massacre.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland-highlands-islands-67031984 | title=Coin hoard could be linked to 1692's Glencoe Massacre | work=BBC News | date=8 October 2023 }}</ref>

In 2021, a full-size reconstruction of one of the buildings excavated at Achtriachtan was created using traditional techniques and materials at the [[National Trust for Scotland]] Visitor Centre.<ref>{{cite web |title=Turf and Creel House |url=https://www.nts.org.uk/visit/places/glencoe/highlights/turf-and-creel-house |website=National Trust for Scotland |access-date=12 April 2024}}</ref>

== Explanatory notes ==
{{Notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist|15em}}

==Sources==
* {{Cite journal |last1=Argyll Transcripts |first1=ICA |title=An Account of the depredations committed on the Clan Campbell and their followers during the years 1685 and 1686 |url=https://digital.nls.uk/histories-of-scottish-families/archive/94919570#?c=0&m=0&s=0&cv=5&xywh=0%2C-151%2C5049%2C3743 |journal=Historical Manuscripts Commission |date=1891}}
* {{Cite journal |last1=Ash |first1=Marinell |title=The Strange Death of Scottish History |journal=The Scottish Historical Review |volume=76 |issue=201 |date=1980 |jstor=25530740}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Buchan |first1=John |title=Massacre of Glencoe |date=1933 |publisher=Lang Syne Publishers Ltd |isbn=1-85217-164-2 |edition=1990}}
* {{Cite news |last1=Campsie |first1=Alison |title=The Scotsman |url=https://www.scotsman.com/lifestyle/archaeologists-trace-lost-settlements-of-glencoe-destroyed-after-1692-massacre-1-4687371 |access-date=3 July 2018}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Cobbett |first1=William |title=Cobbett's Complete Collection Of State Trials And Proceedings For High Treason And Other Crimes And Misdemeanors |date=1814 |publisher=Nabu Press |isbn=1-175-88244-5}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Donaldson |first1=M. |url=https://archive.org/details/wanderingsinwestdona/page/300?q=%22Clach+Eanruig%22 |title=Wanderings in the Western Highlands and Islands : Recounting Highland & Clan History, Traditions, Ecclesiology, Archaeology, Romance, Literature, Humour, Folk-Lore, Etc |date=1876 |publisher=Paisley |edition=1923}}
* {{Cite journal |last1=Dorson |first1=Richard |title=Sources for the Traditional History of the Scottish Highlands and Western Islands |journal=Journal of the Folklore Institute |date=1971 |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=147–184 |doi=10.2307/3814103 |jstor=3814103}}
* {{Cite journal |last1=Firth |first1=Charles Harding |title=Macaulay's Treatment of Scottish History |journal=The Scottish Historical Review |date=1918 |volume=15 |issue=60 |pages=273–291 |jstor=25519104}}
* {{Cite thesis |last1=Frank |first1=William |title=Charles Leslie and Theological Politics in Post-Revolutionary England |date=1983 |publisher=University of McMaster |type=PHD }}
* {{Cite book |last1=Gordon |first1=John |title=Papers Illustrative of the Political Condition of the Highlands of Scotland, 1689–1706 |date=1845 |publisher=Sagwan Press |isbn=978-1-340-25271-7 |edition=2015}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Goring |first1=Rosemary |title=Scotland: The Autobiography: 2,000 Years of Scottish History by Those Who Saw it Happen |date=2014 |publisher=Penguin |isbn=978-0-241-96916-8}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Harris |first1=Tim |title=Rebellion: Britain's First Stuart Kings, 1567–1642 |date=2015 |publisher=OUP Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-874311-8}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Harris |first1=Tim |title=Revolution: The Great Crisis of the British Monarchy 1685-1720 |date=2007 |publisher=Penguin |isbn=978-0-14-101652-8}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Hopkins |first1=Paul |title=Glencoe and the end of the Highland Wars |date=1998 |publisher=John Donald Publishers Ltd |isbn=0-85976-490-7}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Howell |first1=Thomas Bayly |title=A Complete Collection of State Trials and Proceedings for High Treason |date=2017 |publisher=Forgotten Books |isbn=978-1-333-01932-7}}
* {{Cite journal |last1=Kennedy |first1=Allan |title=Managing the Early Modern Periphery: Highland Policy and the Highland Judicial Commission, c. 1692–c. 1705 |journal=The Scottish Historical Review |volume=96 |date=2017 |pages=32–60 |doi=10.3366/shr.2017.0313 |s2cid=262645526 |url=https://discovery.dundee.ac.uk/en/publications/6dff3a3d-db77-4f86-b807-d5b157708068 }}
* {{Cite book |last1=Kennedy |first1=Allan |title=Governing Gaeldom: The Scottish Highlands and the Restoration State 1660–1688 |date=2014 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-24837-3 }}
* {{Cite journal |last1=Kidd |first1=Colin |title=The Strange Death of Scottish History Revisited; Constructions of the Past in Scotland c1790-1914 |journal=Scottish Historical Review |date=1997 |volume=lxxvi |issue=100 |pages=86–102 |doi=10.3366/shr.1997.76.1.86 |jstor=25530740}};
* {{Cite book |last1=Lang |first1=Andrew |title=The History Of Scotland: Volume 3: From the early 17th century to the death of Dundee |date=1912 |publisher=Jazzybee Verlag |isbn=978-3-8496-8564-5 |edition=2016}}
* {{Cite book |last=Lenman |first=Bruce |title=The Jacobite Risings in Britain 1689–1746 |publisher=Methuen Publishing Ltd |year=1980 |isbn=978-0-413-39650-1}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Lenman |first1=Bruce |last2=Mackie |first2=JL |title=A History of Scotland |date=1991 |publisher=Penguin |isbn=0-14-013649-5}}
* Leslie, Charles; ''Gallienus Redivivus, or Murther will out, &c. Being a true Account of the De Witting of Glencoe,'' (Gaffney, 1695);
* {{Cite book |last1=Levine |first1=Mark |title=The Massacre in History (War and Genocide) |date=1999 |publisher=Bergahn Books |isbn=1-57181-935-5 }}
* {{Cite book |last1=Macaulay |first1=Thomas Babington |title=The History of England from the Accession of James II, Volume IV |year=1859}}
* {{Cite book |last1=MacConechy |first1=James |title=Papers Illustrative of the Political Condition of the Highlands of Scotland |date=1843 |publisher=Nabu Press |isbn=1-145-17438-8 |edition=2012}};
* {{Cite news |last1=MacDonald |first1=Kenneth |title=The dig uncovering Glencoe's dark secrets |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland-highlands-islands-48230218 |access-date=13 October 2019}}
* {{Cite journal |last1=MacInnes |first1=Allan |title=Repression and Conciliation: The Highland Dimension 1660–1688 |journal=The Scottish Historical Review |volume=65 |issue=180 |date=1986 |pages=167–195 |jstor=25530202}}
* {{Cite book |last=Morris |first=R. J. |author-link=Robert Morris (historian) |editor-last= Smout |editor-first=T. C. |editor-link=Christopher Smout | title=Victorian Values |chapter=Victorian Values in Scotland & England |date=1992 |series=Proceedings of the British Academy |volume=78 |isbn=978-0-19-726119-4 }}
* {{Cite news |last1=Pagan |first1=Sue |title=Henderson Stone dedicated at Glencoe |url=https://yenm.home.xs4all.nl/Bigfoot/dedication.htm |access-date=3 July 2018 |archive-date=9 November 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191109045844/https://yenm.home.xs4all.nl/Bigfoot/dedication.htm |url-status=dead }}
* {{Cite book |last1=Prebble |first1=John |title=Glencoe: The Story of the Massacre |date=1973 |publisher=Penguin |isbn=0-14-002897-8}}
* {{Cite book |last=Prebble |first=John | author-link = John Prebble |title=Darien: the Scottish Dream of Empire |year=1968 |publisher=Pimlico |edition=2002 |isbn=978-0-7126-6853-8}}
* {{Cite journal|last1=Prebble|first1=John|title=Religion and the Massacre of Glencoe|journal=Scottish Historical Review|date=1967 |volume=46|issue=142|pages=185–188|jstor=25528722}}
* {{Cite web |last1=Scott |first1=Sir Walter |title=On the Massacre of Glencoe |url=http://www.bartleby.com/270/3/175.html |website=Bartleby.com |access-date=28 January 2018}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Somers |first1=John |title=A Collection Of Scarce And Valuable Tracts, On The Most Interesting And Entertaining Subjects: Reign Of King James II. Reign Of King William III |date=1843 |edition=2014 |publisher=Nabu Press |isbn=978-1-293-84222-5}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Szechi |first1=Daniel |title=The Jacobites: Britain and Europe, 1688–1788 |date=1994 |publisher=Manchester University Press |isbn=0-7190-3774-3 }}
* {{Cite web |last1=Treviño |first1=Julissa |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/archaeologists-trace-remains-of-lost-settlements-of-1692-Glencoe-massacre-180968570/ |title=Archaeologists Trace 'Lost Settlements' of 1692 Glencoe Massacre |accessdate=26 March 2018}}

== External links ==
* {{In Our Time|Glencoe Massacre|b00pxrr7|Glencoe_Massacre}}
* [https://books.google.com/books?id=HFZTAAAAcAAJ&pg=RA1-PA895 Report of the Commission given by his majesty, for inquiring into the slaughter of the men of Glenco subscribed at Halyrud-house the 20th day of June, 1693];
* [http://h2g2.com/approved_entry/A44266 History – Massacre of Glencoe 1692] – [[BBC]]: brief account of the massacre
* [http://www.gutenberg.org/files/2613/2613-h/2613-h.htm#link2HCH0002 Macaulay's History of England, chapter XVIII] Includes a well-written and moderately detailed account of the massacre in its political context, with footnotes to original source documents. However, it should be read with caution as Macaulay had a very specific perspective.
* [http://www.rampantscotland.com/features/glencoe.htm Glen Coe Massacre] Detailed account of the events leading up to the massacre and the massacre itself.
* [http://www.electricscotland.com/books/paterson/glencoe.htm Glencoe] Very detailed and balanced account of the plot and massacre.
* [https://archive.org/download/Quiet_Please/Quiet_Please_490424_097_The_Vail_of_Glen_Cove.mp3 The Vale of Glencoe] Radio episode from the series [[Quiet, Please]]. Poor sound quality, but the radio script may be found below.
* [http://www.otrplotspot.com/quietPlease.html#glencoe The Vale of Glencoe Radio Script] OTR Plot Spot—plot summaries, scripts and reviews of Old Time Radio shows, including "The Vale of Glencoe", above.

{{Scottish clans}}
{{Early Modern Scotland}}
{{Jacobitism}}
{{Scottish clan battles|state=collapsed}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Glencoe, Massacre Of}}
[[Category:1692 in Scotland]]
[[Category:Glen Coe]]
[[Category:History of the Scottish Highlands]]
[[Category:Jacobite rising of 1689]]
[[Category:1692 murders]]
[[Category:Massacres in the 1690s]]
[[Category:Massacres in Scotland]]
[[Category:Political scandals in Scotland]]
[[Category:William III of England]]
[[Category:Mary II]]

Cloud cuckoo land

2025-05-30T11:32:09Z

50.70.245.104:

{{Short description|Term for an unrealistically idealistic state of mind}}
{{For-multi|the novel by Anthony Doerr|Cloud Cuckoo Land (novel)|the album by the Lightning Seeds|Cloudcuckooland (album)}}
{{more citations needed|date=July 2007}}
{{Utopia}}
'''Cloud cuckoo land''' is a state of absurdity, [[Optimism|over-optimistic]] [[fantasy]] or an unrealistically [[Ideal (ethics)|idealistic]] state of mind where everything appears to be perfect. Someone who is said to "'''live in cloud cuckoo land'''" is a person who thinks that completely impossible things might happen, rather than understanding how things really are.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/british/cloud-cuckoo-land|title=Cloud Cuckoo land|publisher=Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary |date= |accessdate=2015-07-23}}</ref> It also hints that the person referred to is [[Naivety|naive]], unaware of realities or deranged in holding such an optimistic belief.

In the modern world, a "cloud cuckoo lander" is defined as someone who is seen as "crazy" or "strange" by most average people. Cloud cuckoo landers often do or say things that seemingly only make sense to themselves; they also display cleverness at times in ways no one else would think of.{{Citation needed|date=September 2024}}

[[Cockaigne]], the land of plenty in medieval myth, can be considered the predecessor to the modern-day cloud cuckoo land, which is depicted as a realm that could be seen as an escape from the complexities of real life. It was an imaginary place of extreme luxury and ease where physical comforts and pleasures were always immediately at hand and where the harshness of medieval peasant life did not exist.

==Literary sources==
[[Aristophanes]], a Greek playwright, wrote and directed a comedy, ''[[The Birds (play)|The Birds]]'', first performed in 414 BC, in which Pisthetaerus, a middle-aged Athenian, persuades the world's birds to create a new city in the sky to be named {{lang|grc|Νεφελοκοκκυγία}} ({{Transliteration|grc|Nephelokokkygia}}) or Cloud Cuckoo Land<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.dictionary.com/browse/cloud-cuckoo-land |title=listing of Cloud Cuckoo Land |publisher=Dictionary.com |date= |accessdate=2025-02-23}}</ref> ({{langx|la|Nubicuculia}}), thereby gaining control over all communications between men and gods.

The German philosopher [[Arthur Schopenhauer]] used the word (German {{lang|de|Wolkenkuckucksheim}}) in his publication ''[[On the Fourfold Root of the Principle of Sufficient Reason]]'' in 1813,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Schopenhauer |first=Arthur |url=http://archive.org/details/onthefourfoldroo00schouoft |title=On the fourfold root of the principle of sufficient reason, and On the will in nature; two essays. Translated by Mme. Karl Hillebrand |date=1903 |publisher=London, G. Bell |others=Scarborough - University of Toronto |pages=§ 34, p. 133}}</ref> as well as later in his main work ''[[The World as Will and Representation]]''<ref>{{Cite book |last=Schopenhauer |first=Arthur |url=http://archive.org/details/theworldaswillan01schouoft |title=The world as will and idea |publisher=London Paul, Trench, Trübner |others=Emmanuel - University of Toronto |pages=352 |chapter=Vol. I, Part 4, § 53|date=191 }}</ref> and in other places. Here, he gave it its figurative sense by reproaching other philosophers for only talking about Cloud-cuckoo-land. The German philosopher [[Friedrich Nietzsche]] refers to the term in his essay "On Truth and Lying in a Nonmoral Sense".

In 1923 the Viennese satirist and critic [[Karl Kraus (writer)|Karl Kraus]] published {{lang|de|Wolkenkuckucksheim}} (Cloudcuckooland), an adaptation of ''The Birds'' by Aristophanes.

==Uses in politics==
Author [[Edward Crankshaw]] used the term when discussing the [[Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867|Deák-Andrássy Plan of 1867]] in his 1963 book ''The Fall of the [[House of Habsburg]]'' (Chapter 13, "The Iron Ring of Fate").

The phrase has been used by British and American politicians as well as writers. [[Margaret Thatcher]] used this phrase in the 1980s: "The [[African National Congress|ANC]] is a typical terrorist organisation... Anyone who thinks it is going to run the [[Government of South Africa|government in South Africa]] is living in cloud-cuckoo land."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/from-terrorist-to-tea-with-the-queen-1327902.html|title=Nelson Mandela: From 'terrorist' to tea with the Queen |work=The Independent |date= 8 July 1996|accessdate=2015-07-23}}</ref> [[Bernard Ingham]], Thatcher's spokesman, who, when asked if the ANC might overthrow the government of South Africa by force, replied: "It is cloud-cuckoo land for anyone to believe that could be done".<ref>{{cite web |last=Temko |first=Ned |date=27 August 2006 |title=Cameron: we got it wrong on apartheid |url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2006/aug/27/uk.conservatives1 |accessdate=2015-07-23 |work=The Guardian}}</ref> [[Member of parliament|MP]] [[Ann Widdecombe]] used the phrase in a debate on [[drug prohibition]] with a representative of [[Transform Drug Policy Foundation]]: "it is cloud cuckoo land to suggest that [people who don't currently use heroin would not start using it if it became legal]".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lDjBHKZoQYM |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211221/lDjBHKZoQYM |archive-date=2021-12-21 |url-status=live|title=Frost over the world - Drugs debate - 27 Mar 09 - Part 4 |publisher=You Tube |date= 28 March 2009|accessdate=2012-03-15}}{{cbignore}}</ref>

[[Newt Gingrich]] referred to [[Barack Obama]]'s claim that [[algae]] could be [[algae fuel|used as a fuel source]] as cloud cuckoo land.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.latimes.com/nation/la-xpm-2012-mar-05-la-pn-gingrich-obama-algae-20120305-story.html|title=Gingrich mocks Obama's algae energy comments as 'Cloud Cuckoo Land' |work=Los Angeles Times |date= 5 March 2012|access-date=2015-07-23}}</ref> [[Henry A. Wallace]], U.S. Secretary of Agriculture (later [[U.S. Vice President]] in [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]]'s third term) used the term to describe the unrealistically inflated value of [[stock]]s on the [[New York Stock Exchange]] just before the [[crash of 1929]] that signaled the onset of the [[Great Depression]]. In his 1936 book, ''Whose Constitution? An Inquiry into the General Welfare'', Wallace describes a cartoon in a popular weekly magazine which "pictured an airplane in an endurance flight refueling in mid-air, and made fun of the old fashioned economist down below who was saying it couldn't be done. The economic aeroplane was to keep on gaining elevation indefinitely, with the millennium just around a cloud" (p. 75). Wallace wrote that Wall Street's practice of lending money to Europe after World War I "to pay interest on the [war reparations] debts she owed us and to buy the products we wanted to sell her ... was the international refueling device that for 12 years kept our economic aeroplane above the towering peaks of our credit structure and the massive wall of our tariff, in Cloud-Cuckoo Land."<ref>{{cite book |last=Wallace |first=Henry A. |author-link=Henry A. Wallace |date= |title=Whose Constitution?: An Inquiry into the General Welfare |url=https://archive.org/details/whoseconstitutio0000wall/page/76/mode/2up?q=cuckoo |location=Westport, Connecticut |publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group|Greenwood Press]] |year=1971 |orig-year=First published 1936 by [[Reynal & Hitchcock]], New York |page=77 |access-date=May 30, 2025}}</ref>

[[Paul Krugman]] used the phrase referring to inadequate German economic politics toward failing members of the European Union: "Basically, it seems that even as the euro approaches a critical juncture, senior German officials are living in Wolkenkuckucksheim—cloud-cuckoo land." (June 9, 2012).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://krugman.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/06/09/wolkenkuckucksheim|title= Wolkenkuckucksheim |work=The New York Times |date= 9 June 2012|accessdate=2012-07-09}}</ref> Yuri N. Maltsev, an Austrian economist and economic historian,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2014-06-20 |title=Yuri N. Maltsev |url=https://mises.org/profile/yuri-n-maltsev |access-date=2023-12-08 |website=Mises Institute |language=en}}</ref> uses the term to describe the lack of promised results in the communist states in his foreword to a 1920 essay by [[Ludwig von Mises]]: "Today, the disastrous consequences of enforcing the utopia on the unfortunate populations of the communist states are clear even to their leaders. As Mises predicted, despite the cloud-cuckoo lands of their fancy, roasted pigeons failed to fly into the mouths of the comrades."<ref>{{cite book | url=https://mises.org/system/tdf/Economic%20Calculation%20in%20the%20Socialist%20Commonwealth_Vol_2_3.pdf?file=1&type=document | title=Economic Calculation in the Socialist Commonwealth | publisher=Ludwig von Mises Institute | year=2012 | orig-year=1990 | author=Ludwig von Mises | translator=S. Adler | isbn=978-1-61016-550-1}}</ref>

==Other uses==
The phrase has been used in poetry, music, film, and by writers. ''Cloudcuckooland'', a poetry collection by [[Simon Armitage]]. [[Cloudcuckooland (album)|''Cloudcuckooland'']], the first album by [[the Lightning Seeds]], released in 1990. In 2002, electronic music producer [[Sasha (DJ)|Sasha]] released a track called "Cloud Cuckoo" on his album [[Airdrawndagger]]. [[Radiohead]] uses the term in the lyrics of their song "[[Amnesiac (album)|Like Spinning Plates]]". Publisher and editor [[Gary Groth]] uses the term in the title of his review<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tcj.com/the-comics-journal-no-232-april-2001/ |title=McCloud Cukoo-Land |publisher=The Comics Journal |date= |accessdate=2017-08-04}}</ref> of [[Scott McCloud]]'s book [[Reinventing Comics]].

Cloud Cuckoo Land has been used as a stand-in for [[Cinema of the United States|Hollywood]] as in [[Stella Gibbons]]'s ''[[Cold Comfort Farm]]''. Dorothy Sayers, in the Author’s Note to her novel ''Gaudy'' ''Night'' (1936), explains that the story, while set in Oxford, is entirely fictitious, concluding that “...the novelist’s only native country is Cloud-Cuckooland, where they do but jest, poison in jest: no offense in the world.” (The final words are a reference to ''Hamlet'', Act 3, Scene 2.)

Cloud Cuckooland is the name of the eighth world found in the video game ''[[Banjo-Tooie]]''.

Cloud Cuckoo Land is the name of a realm hidden inside a cloud featured in ''[[The Lego Movie]]''. An iconoclastic, mixed-genre world where there are no rules or unhappy things, and serves as a hidden base for the rebel protagonists and the councils of the Master Builder. It is destroyed by Lord Business's army and falls into pieces before drowning in a giant Lego ocean.

''Cloud Cuckoo Land'' is the title of a 1925 novel by Scottish novelist and poet [[Naomi Mitchison]].

''Cloud Cuckoo Land'' is the title of a 2002 novel by American novelist Lisa Borders.

''[[Cloud Cuckoo Land (novel)|Cloud Cuckoo Land]]'' is the name of a September 2021 novel by [[Pulitzer Prize for Fiction]] winning author [[Anthony Doerr]].

==See also==
{{Portal|Philosophy}}
{{columns-list|colwidth=30em|
* [[Escapism]]
* [[Imagination]]
* [[Instinct]]
* [[Just-world fallacy]]
* [[Mental image]]
* [[Outline of thought]]
* [[Philosophy of mind]]
* [[Self-deception]]
* [[Stupor]]
* [[Unconscious mind]]
* [[Utopia]]
* [[Virtual reality]]
}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{Wiktionary-inline|cloud-cuckoo-land}}

[[Category:Ancient Greece]]
[[Category:Phrases]]
[[Category:Mythical utopias]]
[[Category:Aristophanes]]
[[Category:Magic realism]]
[[Category:Optimism]]

Zaleucus

2025-05-16T15:36:06Z

50.70.245.104:

{{Short description|7th-century BC Greek lawgiver}}
[[File:Zaleucus.jpg|thumb|250px|Zaleucus from "[[Promptuarii Iconum Insigniorum]] "]]

'''Zaleucus''' ({{langx|grc|Ζάλευκος}}; fl. 7th century BC) was the [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] lawgiver of [[Epizephyrian Locris]],<ref name="Suda">[https://www.cs.uky.edu/~raphael/sol/sol-entries/zeta/12 Suda Encyclopedia, § zeta.12]</ref> in [[Magna Graecia]]. According to the [[Suda]], he was previously a slave and a [[shepherd]], and after having been educated he gave laws to his fellow-citizens.<ref name="Suda"/> Some sources make him a [[Pythagoreanism|Pythagorean philosopher]], although older ones put him as older than Pythagoras or even deny his existence altogether. They also attribute divine origin to his laws.<ref name="Bentley 1836 376–380">{{cite book|last=Bentley|first=Richard|title=The works of Richard Bentley, collected and ed. by A. Dyce|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fSwCAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA376|year=1836|pages=376–380|id=fSwCAAAAQAAJ}}</ref>

Most probably, he devised the first written European law code, the Locrian code, in the 7th century BC. The code, however, is lost except for some later mentions and imitations which seem clearly anachronistic.<ref name="Bentley 1836 376–380"/> These, which among other things mention that:
{{quote|A free-born woman may not be accompanied by more than one female slave, unless she is drunk; she may not leave the city during the night, unless she is an adulteress; she may not wear gold jewelry or a garment with a purple border, unless she is a courtesan; and a husband may not wear a gold-studded ring or a cloak of Milesian fashion unless he is bent upon prostitution or adultery.<ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0084%3Abook%3D12%3Achapter%3D21%3Asection%3D1 "Diodorus Siculus, Library 12.21"].</ref>}} It also banned the drinking of undiluted [[wine]] except for medical purposes.<ref name=EB1911>{{Cite EB1911 |wstitle=Zaleucus |volume=28 |page=951}}</ref>

Although the Locrian code distinctly favored the aristocracy, Zaleucus was famous for his conciliation of societal factions. No other facts of his life at all are certain. According to legends, he punished [[adultery]] with the forfeiture of sight. When his own son was condemned of this, he refused to exonerate him, instead submitting to the loss of one of his own eyes instead of exacting the full penalty of the culprit.<ref>This incident is recounted in Book 6, Chapter 5 of ''Memorable Deeds and Sayings'' by [[Valerius Maximus]], and is presented in a slightly altered form in [[:s:Gesta Romanorum Vol. I (1871)/Of Praise due to a Just Judge|Tale 50]] of [[Gesta Romanorum]].</ref> Another law that he established forbade anyone from entering the Senate House armed. Faced with an emergency, he did so anyway, but when he was reminded of the law, he immediately fell upon his [[sword]] as a sacrifice to the sovereignty of the claims of social order. A similar story is told of [[Charondas]].

Anyone who proposed a new law, or the alteration of one already existing, had to appear before the Citizen's Council with a rope round his neck.<ref name=EB1911/> If the Council voted against the proposal the proposer was immediately strangled.<ref name=EB1911/><ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0074%3Aspeech%3D24%3Asection%3D139 Demosthenes Against Timocrates 139]–[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0074%3Aspeech%3D24%3Asection%3D43 43].</ref><ref>This anecdote is cited by Edward Gibbon in his discussion of the origin of Roman jurisprudence and of the [[Twelve Tables]] in particular in Chapter XLIV of [[The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire]].</ref>
<blockquote>[[Demosthenes]] (in "[[Against Timocrates]]"), who to persuade the Athenians not to change any law upon small and frivolous pretences, gives the example of these Locrians, ''with whom'', says he, ''it's a law, that a man who shall propose to make any new law shall do it with a rope about his neck, which he shall be strangled in, if he do not carry his point: which has been such a guard and defence to the laws, that there has been but one new one made in'' MORE THAN TWO HUNDRED YEARS.<ref>[[Diodorus]], who attributes the same clause to Charondas, speaks of three [https://books.google.com/books?id=hnzjDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA106 in his works].</ref> (Demost. in Timocr. p. 469.) Now. that Demosthenes here speaks of Zaleucus's laws is plain enough from his naming the Locrians; but it appears further from the law itself. For [[Hierocles (Stoic)|Hierocles]] and [[Polybius|Polybius's]] author say expressly, ''that this law about the rope was'' Zaleucus's; ([[Stobaeus|Hieroc. apud Stobaeum, Serm. 37]]. Polyb. xii, p. 661.)<ref>{{cite book|last=Bentley|first=Richard|title=The works of Richard Bentley, collected and ed. by A. Dyce|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fSwCAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA381|year=1836|pages=381–|id=fSwCAAAAQAAJ}} Image of p.381 at [https://books.google.com/books?id=fSwCAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA381&img=1&zoom=3&hl=en&sig=ACfU3U3RdPAAR0f2mbO32thD3-afsuvj6Q&ci=83%2C745%2C743%2C590&edge=0 Google Books]</ref></blockquote>

== References ==
=== Bibliography ===
* [[Aristotle]], ''Politics''
* [[Diodorus Siculus]]
* [[Charondas]]
* {{cite book|last=Simcox|first=Edith Jemima|title=Primitive Civilizations: Or, Outlines of the History of Ownership in Archaic Communities|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.80082|year=1894|publisher=S. Sonnenschein & Company|pages=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.80082/page/n459 449]–|id=ST8KAQAAMAAJ|quote=p.449: All that is known from classical sources about the laws of Zaleucus and Charondas will be found towards the end of Bentley's Dissertation upon Phalaris. ('Works', i. 376-417.) }}
=== Citations ===
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
*{{cite web | last = Sheridan | first = Paul | title = A New Zaleucus to Rebuke us in the Online Age | publisher = Anecdotes from Antiquity | date = 2015-07-12 | url = http://www.anecdotesfromantiquity.net/a-new-zaleucus-to-rebuke-us-in-the-online-age/ | access-date = 2015-08-27 }}

{{Greek lawgivers|state=expanded}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Ancient Greek law]]
[[Category:7th-century BC Greek people]]
[[Category:Epizephyrian Locrians]]
[[Category:Pythagoreans of Magna Graecia]]
[[Category:Ancient legislators]]
[[Category:Ancient Greek slaves and freedmen]]
[[Category:Shepherds]]
[[Category:Legendary Greek people]]

Mice Galaxies

2025-03-24T12:28:14Z

50.70.245.104: Corrected link to Hubblesite.org citation

{{Short description|Two spiral galaxies in the constellation Coma Berenices}}{{More citations needed|date=June 2024}}{{Infobox galaxy
| name = [[New General Catalogue|NGC]] 4676A / 4676B
| image = Merging galaxies NGC 4676 (captured by the Hubble Space Telescope).jpg
| image_size = 300px
| caption = The Mice Galaxies, NGC 4676A (right) / NGC 4676B (left)
| epoch = [[J2000]]
| type = Irr / SB(s)0/a pec<ref name="ned">{{cite web
| title=NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database
| work=Results for NGC 4676A / 4676B
| url=http://nedwww.ipac.caltech.edu/
| access-date=2006-11-21 }}</ref>
| ra = {{RA|12|46|10.1}} / {{RA|12|46|11.2}}<ref name="ned"/>
| dec = {{DEC|+30|43|55}} / {{DEC|+30|43|22}}<ref name="ned"/>
| dist_ly = {{cvt|290|Mly|Mpc|lk=on}}<ref name="chien"/>
| z = 6613 ± 8 / 6607 ± 7 km/[[second|s]]<ref name="ned"/>
| appmag_v = 14.7 / 14.4<ref name="ned"/>
| size_v = 2′.3 × 0′.7 / 2′.2 × 0′.8<ref name="ned"/>
| size = {{cvt|233|kpc|ly|lk=on|order=flip}} (estimated){{efn|name=size|The size of NGC 4676 A is 194,000 ly, while that of NGC 4676 B is 186,000 ly. This would give 380,000 ly by combining their sizes although the tail is about two times larger, giving 760,000 ly.}}
| constellation name = [[Coma Berenices]]
| notes = Interacting galaxies
| names = Mice Galaxies,<ref name="ned"/> [[Index Catalogue|IC]] 819 / 820,<ref name="ned"/> [[Uppsala General Catalogue|UGC]] 7938 / 7939,<ref name="ned"/>
 [[Principal Galaxies Catalogue|PGC]] 43062 / 43065,<ref name="ned"/> [[Atlas of Peculiar Galaxies|Arp]] 242<ref name="ned"/>
}}
'''NGC 4676''', or the '''Mice Galaxies''', are two [[Spiral galaxy|spiral galaxies]] in the [[constellation]] [[Coma Berenices]]. About 290 million [[light-year]]s distant,<ref name="chien">{{cite journal
| first = Li-Hsin | last = Chien
| last2 = Barnes | first2 = Joshua E.
| last3 = Kewley | first3 = Lisa J.
| last4 = Chambers | first4 = Kenneth, C.
| title = Multiobject Spectroscopy of Young Star Clusters in NGC 4676
| date = May 2007
| journal = The Astrophysical Journal
| volume = 660
| issue = 2
| pages = L105–L108
| bibcode = 2007ApJ...660L.105C
| doi = 10.1086/518215|arxiv = astro-ph/0703510 | s2cid = 119417388
}}</ref> they have begun the process of colliding and merging. Their "mice" name refers to the long tails produced by [[tidal force|tidal action]]—the relative difference between gravitational pulls on the near and far parts of each galaxy—known here as a [[galactic tide]]. It is a possibility that both galaxies, which are members of the [[Coma Cluster]],<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Burbidge|first1=E. M.|last2=Burbidge|first2=G. R.|date=March 1961|title=NGC 4676, a Peculiar System in the Coma Cluster of Galaxies.|bibcode=1961ApJ...133..726B|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|language=en|volume=133|pages=726|doi=10.1086/147076|issn=0004-637X}}</ref> have experienced collision, and will continue colliding until they coalesce.

The colors of the galaxies are peculiar. In NGC 4676A a core with some dark markings is surrounded by a bluish white remnant of spiral arms. The tail is unusual, starting out blue and terminating in a more yellowish color, despite the fact that the beginning of each arm in virtually every spiral galaxy starts yellow and terminates in a bluish color.{{citation-needed|date=October 2023}}{{clarify|date=May 2018|reason=Which side is the "beginning" and which side is the "end"?}} NGC 4676B has a yellowish core and two arcs; arm remnants underneath are bluish as well.

The galaxies were photographed in 2002 by the [[Hubble Space Telescope]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Hubble's New Camera Delivers Breathtaking Views of the Universe|work=HubbleSite|date=2002-04-30|url=https://hubblesite.org/contents/news-releases/2002/news-2002-11|access-date=2009-05-07}}</ref> In the background of the Mice Galaxies, there are over 3000 galaxies, at distances up to 13 billion light-years.

==See also==
*[[Antennae Galaxies]]
*[[Interacting galaxy]]
*[[NGC 7318]]
*[[List of galaxies]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==External links==
{{commons category|NGC 4676}}
*{{APOD |date=12 June 2004 |title=When Mice Collide}}
*[http://www.ifa.hawaii.edu/~barnes/talks/ifaopen00/mice.html The Mice Galaxies]

{{Sky|12|46|10.1|+|30|43|55|290000000}}
{{Ngc50}}
{{List of Seyfert galaxies}}
{{Coma Berenices}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Mice Galaxies}}
[[Category:Lenticular galaxies]]
[[Category:Peculiar galaxies]]
[[Category:Interacting galaxies]]
[[Category:Irregular galaxies]]
[[Category:Barred lenticular galaxies]]
[[Category:Coma Cluster]]
[[Category:Coma Berenices]]
[[Category:NGC objects]]
[[Category:IC objects]]
[[Category:UGC objects|07938]]
[[Category:Principal Galaxies Catalogue objects|43062]]
[[Category:Arp objects|242]]
[[Category:Galaxy mergers]]

{{spiral-galaxy-stub}}

Al-Mustadi

2025-02-13T10:55:43Z

50.70.245.104: /* Biography */

{{Short description|Abbasid Caliph in Baghdad (r. 1170–1180)}}
{{Infobox royalty
| name = al-Hassan al-Mustadi الحسن المستضيء بأمر الله
| image = Turquoise glass stamp of calif Mustadi 1170 1180.jpg
| alt =
| caption = Turquoise glass stamp of al-Mustadi
| title = [[List of Caliphs|Khalīfah]] [[Amir al-Mu'minin]]
| succession = 33rd [[Caliph]] of the [[Abbasid Caliphate]] [[Abbasid Caliph]] in [[Baghdad]]
| reign = 18 December 1170 – 27 March 1180
| predecessor = [[al-Mustanjid]]
| successor = [[al-Nasir]]
| birth_date = 1142
| birth_place = Baghdad, Abbasid Caliphate
| death_date = 27 March 1180 (aged 38)
| death_place = Baghdad, Abbasid Caliphate
| burial_place =
| house = [[Abbasid dynasty|Abbasid]]
| house-type = Dynasty
| father = [[al-Mustanjid]]
| mother = Ghaddha
| spouse = [[Sayyida Zumurrud Khatun|Zumurrud Khatun]] [[Banafsha bint Abdullah al-Rumiyyah|Sayyida Banafsha]] Sharaf Khatun Khtalj Khatun al-Abbasah
| spouse-type = Consort
| issue = [[Al-Nasir]] Abu Mansur Hashim
| full name = Abu Muhammad al-Hasan ibn Yusuf al-Mustanjid al-Mustadi
| religion = [[Sunni Islam]]
}}
'''Abu Muhammad Hasan ibn Yusuf al-Mustanjid''' ({{langx|ar|أبو محمد حسن بن يوسف المستنجد}}; 1142 – 27 March 1180) usually known by his [[Laqab|regnal title]] '''al-Mustadi''' ({{langx|ar|المستضيء بأمر الله}}) was the [[Abbasid dynasty|Abbasid]] [[caliph]] in [[Baghdad]] from 1170 to 1180. He succeeded his father [[al-Mustanjid]].

== Biography ==
Al-Mustadi was the son of caliph [[al-Mustanjid]] and his mother was Ghaddha, an Armenian concubine.<ref name="Rudainy Saud 2015 b187">{{cite web | last=Rudainy | first=Al | last2=Saud | first2=Reem | title=The Role of Women in the Būyid and Saljūq Periods of the Abbasid Caliphate (339-447/9501055&447-547/1055-1152): The Case of Iraq | publisher=University of Exeter | date=June 12, 2015 | url=https://ore.exeter.ac.uk/repository/handle/10871/17529 | access-date=April 14, 2024 | pp = 119, 158}}</ref> He was born in 1142. His full name was Hasan ibn Yusuf al-Mustanjid and his [[Kunya (Arabic)|Kunya]] was Abu Muhammad. He was named after 5th caliph [[Hasan ibn Ali|al-Hasan]]. When his father al-Mustanjid died on 18 December 1170, he succeeded him.

Al-Mustadi's reign is noted in general for its extensive building activities. He is said to have rebuilt al-Taj palace in Baghdad which was first constructed by 10th-century Abbasid caliph al-Muktafī (r. 902–908) and there was a great construction project of mosques, schools, religious endowments in his reign. His two spouses Sayyida Banafsha and Zumurrud Khatun, where especially prolific in these efforts. Banafsha was the follower of [[Hanbali|Hanbali school of thought]], ordered the construction of a bridge in Baghdad in 570 [[Islamic calendar|AH]]/1174 CE, that was named after her.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=The Revival of the Abbasids|encyclopedia=The Abbasid Caliphate: A History p. 231|date= 2021|publisher=Tayeb El-Hibri|isbn=9781107183247 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FTMiEAAAQBAJ&dq=Seljuki+Khatun+and+al+nasir&pg=PA231}}</ref>

Like his predecessor, he continued to occupy a more or less independent position, with a vizier and courtly surroundings, and supported by only a small force sufficient for an occasional local campaign. During his reign, [[Saladin]] ended the [[Fatimid Caliphate|Shia Fatimid Caliphate]], became the Sultan of [[Egypt]] and declared his allegiance to the Abbasids.

[[File:Turquoise_glass_stamp_of_calif_Mustadi_1170_1180.jpg|thumb|right|150px|[[Turquoise]] glass stamp of caliph al-Mustadi, 1170–1180. [[British Museum]].]]

Towards the end of 1169, Saladin, with reinforcements from [[Nur al-Din Zengi|Nur ad-Din]], [[Crusader invasions of Egypt#Siege of Damietta|defeated]] a massive Crusader-[[Byzantine Empire under the Komnenos dynasty|Byzantine]] force near [[Damietta]]. Afterward, in the spring of 1170, Nur ad-Din sent Saladin's father to Egypt in compliance with Saladin's request, as well as encouragement from the Baghdad-based Abbasid caliph, [[al-Mustanjid]], who aimed to pressure Saladin in deposing his rival caliph, al-Adid.{{sfn|Lyons|Jackson|1982|p=38}} Saladin himself had been strengthening his [[Saladin in Egypt|hold on Egypt]] and widening his support base there. He began granting his family members high-ranking positions in the region; he ordered the construction of a college for the [[Maliki]] branch of Sunni Islam in the city, as well as one for the [[Shafi'i]] denomination to which he belonged in [[al-Fustat]].{{sfn|Lyons|Jackson|1982|p=41}}

After establishing himself in Egypt, Saladin launched a campaign against the Crusaders, besieging [[Deir al-Balah|Darum]] in 1170.{{sfn|Lyons|Jackson|1982|p=43}} [[Amalric of Jerusalem|Amalric]] withdrew his [[Knights Templars|Templar]] garrison from [[Gaza City|Gaza]] to assist him in defending Darum, but Saladin evaded their force and captured Gaza in 1187. In 1191 Saladin destroyed the fortifications in Gaza build by King Baldwin III for the Knights Templar.{{sfn|Pringle|1993|p=208}} It is unclear exactly when, but during that same year, he attacked and captured the Crusader castle of [[Eilat]], built on an island off the head of the [[Gulf of Aqaba]]. It did not pose a threat to the passage of the Muslim navy but could harass smaller parties of Muslim ships and Saladin decided to clear it from his path.{{sfn|Lyons|Jackson|1982|p=43}}

According to Imad ad-Din, Nur ad-Din wrote to Saladin in June 1171, telling him to reestablish the Abbasid caliphate in Egypt, which Saladin coordinated two months later after additional encouragement by Najm ad-Din al-Khabushani, the Shafi'i ''[[faqih]]'', who vehemently opposed Shia rule in the country. Several Egyptian emirs were thus killed, but al-Adid was told that they were killed for rebelling against him. He then fell ill or was poisoned according to one account. While ill, he asked Saladin to pay him a visit to request that he take care of his young children, but Saladin refused, fearing treachery against the [[Abbasid dynasty|Abbasids]], and is said to have regretted his action after realizing what al-Adid had wanted.{{sfn|Lyons|Jackson|1982|p=45}} He died on 13 September, and five days later, the Abbasid ''[[khutba]]'' was pronounced in Cairo and al-Fustat, proclaiming al-Mustadi as caliph.{{sfn|Lyons|Jackson|1982|pp=46–47}}

During<ref name="ReferenceC">Laoust, H., "Ibn al-D̲j̲awzī", in: ''Encyclopaedia of Islam'', Second Edition, ed. P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W.P. Heinrichs.</ref> the reign of the caliph, al-Mustadi, Ibn al-Jawzi began to be recognized "as one of the most influential persons in Baghdad."<ref name="ReferenceC"/> As this particular ruler was especially partial to Hanbalism,<ref name="ReferenceC"/> Ibn al-Jawzi was given free rein to promote Hanbalism by way of his preaching throughout Baghdad.<ref name="ReferenceC"/> The numerous sermons Ibn al-Jawzi delivered from 1172 to 1173 cemented his reputation as the premier scholar in Baghdad at the time; indeed, the scholar soon began to be so appreciated for his gifts as an orator that al-Mustadi even went so far as to have a special [[dais]] (Arabic ''dikka'') constructed specially for Ibn al-Jawzi in the Palace mosque.<ref name="ReferenceC"/> Ibn al-Jawzi's stature as a scholar only continued to grow in the following years.<ref name="ReferenceC"/>

By 1179, Ibn al-Jawzi had written over one hundred and fifty works and was directing five colleges in Baghdad simultaneously. It was at this time that he told al-Mustadi to engrave an inscription onto the widely venerated tomb of [[Ibn Hanbal]] (d. 855) – the revered founder of the Hanbali rite – which referred to the famed jurist as "''Imām''."<ref>Ibn Kat̲h̲īr, ''Bidāya'', Cairo 1351-8/1932-9, xii, 28–30</ref>

[[Benjamin of Tudela]], who traveled to this area between 1160 and 1173, noted: "Two days from [[Akbara]] stands [[Baghdad]]. The large metropolis of Calif Emir-al-Mumenin al Abassi [[Amir al-Mu'minin]], of the family of their prophet, who is chief of the Mahometan religion. All Mahometan kings acknowledge him, and he holds the same dignity over them which the Pope enjoys over the Christians. The palace of the Caliph at Baghdad is three miles in extent. It contains a large park filled with all sorts of trees, both useful and ornamental, and all kinds of beasts, as well as a pond of water carried thither from the river [[Tigris]]; and whenever the Caliph desires to enjoy himself and to sport and carouse, birds, beasts and fishes are prepared for him and for his courtiers, whom he invites to his palace. This great Abassid is extremely friendly towards the Jews, many of his officers being of that nation; he understands all languages, is well versed in [[Mosaic law]], and reads and writes the [[Hebrew]] tongue. He enjoys nothing but what he earns by the labor of his own hands, and therefore manufactures coverlets, which he stamps with his seal, and which his officers sell in the public market..."<ref>Excerpted from: Komroff, Manuel, Giovanni, Willem van Ruysbroeck, Odorico, and Benjamin. 1928. Contemporaries of Marco Polo, consisting of the travel records to the eastern parts of the world of William of Rubruck (1253–1255); the journey of John of Pian de Carpini (1245–1247); the journal of Friar Odoric (1318–1330) & the oriental travels of Rabbi Benjamin of Tudela (1160–1173). New York: Boni & Liveright.</ref>

In 1180, Caliph Al-Mustadi died and was succeeded by his son [[Al-Nasir]].

==Family==
One of Al-Mustadi's concubines was Zumurrud Khatun. She was a Turkish, and was the mother of the future Caliph [[Al-Nasir]].<ref>{{cite book | last=Singer | first=A. | title=Constructing Ottoman Beneficence: An Imperial Soup Kitchen in Jerusalem | publisher=State University of New York Press | series=SUNY series in Near Eastern Studies | year=2002 | isbn=978-0-7914-5351-3 | page=146}}</ref> She died in December 1202 – January 1203,<ref>{{cite book | last1=al-Athīr | first1=ʻIzz al-Dīn | last2=Richards | first2=Donald Sydney | title=Years 589-629/1193-1231 | publisher=Ashgate | series=Crusade texts in translation | year=2006 | isbn=978-0-7546-4079-0 | page=71}}</ref> or January–February 1203,<ref>{{cite book | last=Ohlander | first=Erik | title=Sufism in an Age of Transition: ʿUmar al-Suhrawardī and the Rise of the Islamic Mystical Brotherhoods | publisher=Brill | series=Islamic History and Civilization | year=2008 | isbn=978-90-474-3214-2 | page=92}}</ref> and was buried in her own mausoleum in Sheikh Maarouf Cemetery.<ref>{{cite book | last1=Hann | first1=G. | last2=Dabrowska | first2=K. | last3=Townsend-Greaves | first3=T. | title=Iraq: The ancient sites and Iraqi Kurdistan | publisher=Bradt Travel Guides | series=Bradt Travel Guides | year=2015 | isbn=978-1-84162-488-4 | page=146}}</ref> Another of his concubines was Al-Sayyida Banafsha.<ref>{{cite book | last=El-Hibri | first=T. | title=The Abbasid Caliphate: A History | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=2021 | isbn=978-1-107-18324-7 | page=231}}</ref> She was the daughter of Abdullah, a Greek, and was Al-Mustadi's favourite concubine.<ref name="alsai">{{cite book | last1=al-Sāʿī | first1=Ibn | last2=Toorawa | first2=Shawkat M. | last3=Bray | first3=Julia | title=كتاب جهات الأئمة الخلفاء من الحرائر والإماء المسمى نساء الخلفاء: Women and the Court of Baghdad | publisher=NYU Press | series=Library of Arabic Literature | year=2017 | pages=66–68 | isbn=978-1-4798-6679-3 }}</ref> She died on 27 December 1201, and was buried in the mausoleum of Zumurrud Khatun in Sheikh Maarouf Cemetery.<ref name="alsai"/> Another concubine was Sharaf Khatun. She was a Turkish, and was the mother of Prince Abu Mansur Hashim. She died on 27 December 1211, and was buried in the Rusafah Cemetery.<ref name="alsai"/> Some other concubines were Khtalj Khatun and al-Abbasah. Both of them were Turkish.<ref name="Rudainy Saud 2015 b187"/>

== See also ==
* [[Ibn al-Jawzi]] was an Arab Muslim jurisconsult, preacher, orator, heresiographer, traditionist, historian, judge, hagiographer, and philologist.

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

==Bibliography==
* {{The Abbasid Caliphate: A History}}
* {{cite book | last1 = Lyons | first1 = Malcolm Cameron | last2 = Jackson | first2 = D. E. P. | year = 1982 | title = Saladin: The Politics of the Holy War | publisher = Cambridge University Press | location = Cambridge | url = {{Gbooks|hGR5M0druJIC|plainurl=yes}} | isbn = 0-521-31739-8}}
* {{cite book|last=Pringle|first=Denys |title=The Churches of the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem: Volume 3, The City of Jerusalem: A Corpus|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X0jH6VPi4-gC&pg=PA3|year=1993|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-39038-5}}
* ''This text is adapted from [[William Muir]]'s [[public domain]], The Caliphate: Its Rise, Decline, and Fall.''

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{{s-hou|[[Abbasid dynasty]]||1142||30 March 1180}}
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{{s-bef|before=[[Al-Mustanjid]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[List of caliphs|Caliph of Islam]] [[Abbasid Caliph]]|years=20 December 1170 – 30 March 1180}}
{{s-aft|after=[[An-Nasir]]}}
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{{Abbasids}}

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[[Category:1142 births]]
[[Category:1180 deaths]]
[[Category:12th-century Abbasid caliphs]]
[[Category:People of the Nizari–Seljuk wars]]
[[Category:Sons of Abbasid caliphs]]