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Witch of Endor

2025-11-01T03:06:26Z

47.32.9.63:

{{Short description|Biblical sorceress}}
[[File:Witch of Endor (Martynov) detail.jpg|thumb|The Witch of Endor, detail of ''The Witch of Endor summons the shade of the prophet Samuel'' (Dmitry Nikiforovich Martynov, 1857)]]

The '''Witch of Endor''' ({{langx|hbo|בַּעֲלַת־אֹוב בְּעֵין דּוֹר|''baʿălaṯ-ʾōḇ bəʿĒyn Dōr''|mistress of the ''ʾōḇ'' in [[Endor (village)|Endor]]}}), according to the [[Hebrew Bible]], was consulted by [[Saul]] to summon the spirit of the prophet [[Samuel]]. Saul wished to receive advice on defeating the [[Philistines]] in battle after prior attempts to consult God through [[Cleromancy|sacred lots]] and other means had failed. However, what was summoned (whether the actual ghost of Samuel or a spirit impersonating him) delivered a prophecy of doom against Saul and his army, who were defeated. This event occurs in [[1 Samuel 28]]:3–25 and is also mentioned in the [[Deuterocanonical books|deuterocanonical]] [[Book of Sirach]].<ref name=sirach>{{bibleverse|Sirach|46:19–20}}</ref>

==Etymology==
The Hebrew Bible calls her "a woman, possessor of an ''ʾōḇ'' at En Dor," apparently a settlement around a [[spring (hydrology)|spring]]. The word ''ov'' has been suggested by [[Harry A. Hoffner]] to refer to a ritual pit for summoning the dead from the netherworld based on parallels in other [[Near East|Near Eastern]] and [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]] cultures. The word has [[cognate]]s in other regional languages (cf. [[Sumerian language|Sumerian]] ''ab'', [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]] ''âbu'', [[Hittite language|Hittite]] ''a-a-bi'', [[Ugaritic]] ''ib'') and the medium or witch of Endor's ritual has parallels in [[Mesopotamian religion|Mesopotamian]] and [[Hittite mythology and religion|Hittite]] magical texts as well as rites to [[chthonic deities]] in the ''[[Odyssey]]''.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Hoffner |first=Harry A. |author-link=Harry A. Hoffner |year=1967 |title=Second millenium antecedents to the Hebrew 'Ôḇ |journal=[[Journal of Biblical Literature]] |volume=86 |issue=4 |pages=385–401 |publisher=[[Society of Biblical Literature]] |location=Atlanta, Georgia |jstor=3262793 |doi=10.2307/3262793}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=King |first1=Philip J. |last2=Stager |first2=Lawrence E. |year=2001 |title=Life in Biblical Israel |publisher=[[Westminster John Knox Press]] |location=Louisville, KY |isbn=9780664221485 |url=https://archive.org/details/lifeinbiblicalis0000king |url-access=registration |page=[https://archive.org/details/lifeinbiblicalis0000king/page/380 380] }}</ref>

Other suggestions for a definition of ''ov'' include a [[Familiar|familiar spirit]], a [[talisman]],<ref name="auto">{{cite book |first=Emil G. |last=Hirsh |author-link=Emil G. Hirsch |year=1911 |section=Endor, the witch of |title=[[Jewish Encyclopedia]] |section-url=http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=366&letter=E}}</ref> or a [[wineskin]], in reference to [[ventriloquism]].<ref>{{cite book |first=D.E. |last=Aune |year=1959 |chapter=Medium |editor-first=Geoffrey W. |editor-last=Bromiley |title=The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia |publisher=William B. Eerdmans |page=307 |quote=... of 'ob (RSV 'medium'). According to one view it is the same word that means a 'bottle made out of skins' ('wineskin,' Job 32:19). The term would then refer to the technique of ventriloquism or, more accurately, 'belly-talking'. |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/internationalsta0003unse/page/307/mode/2up?view=theater}}</ref>

In the [[Septuagint]], she is called the ''engastrímuthos'' ("belly-talker", an Ancient Greek term for a [[spirit medium]]<ref>{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/E.R.DoddsTheGreeksAndTheIrrational/page/n21/mode/2up |author=[[ER Dodds]] |title=The Greeks and the Irrational |at=chapter 3 |publisher=University of California Press |year=1951 }}</ref>) of Aendōr ({{langx|grc-x-koine|ἐγγαστρίμυθος ἐν Αενδωρ|engastrímythos en Aendōr}}). The Latin [[Vulgate]] has ''[[Pythia|pythonem]] in Aendor'', both terms referencing then-contemporary pagan [[oracle]]s.

The medium says that she sees "[[elohim]] arising" from the ground, using the word typically translated as "god(s)" to refer to the spirit of the dead. This is also paralleled by the use of the Akkadian cognate word ''ilu'' "god" in a similar fashion.<ref>{{cite book |last=Walton |first=John H. |date=November 2006 |title=Ancient Near Eastern Thought and the Old Testament: Introducing the conceptual world of the Hebrew Bible |publisher=[[Baker Academic]] |location=Ada, Michigan |isbn=9781585582914 |page=325 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rhb20fH7cZYC&pg=PA325 |via=Google Books}}</ref>

==Biblical narrative==
[[File:Witch of Endor by Elsheimer.jpg|thumb|''Witch of Endor'' by [[Adam Elsheimer]].]]

When the prophet Samuel dies, he is buried in [[Ramathaim-Zophim|Rama]] ([[1 Samuel 25]]:1; 28:3). Saul, [[Kingdom of Israel (united monarchy)|King of Israel]], seeks advice from God in choosing a course of action against the assembled forces of the Philistine army. He receives no answer from [[Oneiromancy|dreams]], prophets, or the [[Urim and Thummim]]. Having previously expelled all [[necromancer]]s and [[Magic (supernatural)#Magicians|magicians]] from Israel, Saul anonymously searches for a witch. He is told one is living in the village of [[Endor (village)|Endor]], so Saul disguises himself and crosses enemy lines to visit her. He asks the woman to raise Samuel, and she initially refuses citing Saul's own royal edict against sorcery, but Saul assures her that she will not be punished.

The woman then summons a spirit, and when it appears, she works out who Saul is and screams, "Why have you deceived me? You are Saul!" Saul assures her again that no harm will come to her, then asks what she sees. She says she sees "''elohim'' rising" (plural noun and verb). Then, Saul asks what "he" (singular) looks like, and she describes an old man wrapped in a robe. Saul bows down to the spirit despite being unable to see it himself.<ref>{{harvnb|Aune|1959|page=307}}</ref>

The spirit complains of being disturbed, berates Saul for disobeying God, and predicts Saul's downfall. The living Samuel had previously said Saul would have his kingship removed, but this spirit adds that Israel's army will be defeated, and Saul and his sons will be "with me" tomorrow. Saul collapses in terror; the woman comforts him and prepares him a meal of a fatted calf to restore his strength.

The following day, the Israelite army is defeated as prophesied: Saul is wounded by the Philistines and commits suicide by falling on his sword.<ref>{{bibleverse|1|Samuel|31:1–4}}</ref> Later, a young [[Amalek]]ite, hoping to impress [[David]], will falsely claim he delivered the death blow, and David will execute him.<ref>{{bibleverse|2|Samuel |1:6–10}}</ref> In [[Books of Chronicles|1 Chronicles]], it is stated Saul's death was partly punishment for seeking advice from a medium rather than from God.<ref>{{bibleverse|1|Chronicles|10:13–14}}</ref>

==Interpretations==
===Judaism===
[[File:endor.jpg|thumb|Saul consulting the Witch of Endor, the [[Book frontispiece|frontispiece]] to ''[[Saducismus Triumphatus]]'' by [[Joseph Glanvill]].]]
In the Septuagint (2nd century BC), the woman is described as a [[ventriloquist]],<ref>{{cite book |first1=Hans-Josef |last1=Klauck |author1-link=Hans-Josef Klauck |first2=Brian |last2=McNeil |title=Magic and Paganism in early Christianity: the world of the Acts of the Apostles |page=66 |year=2003 |quote=A classical example is King Saul's visit to the witch of Endor: The Septuagint says once that the seer engages in ''soothsaying'' and three times that she engages in ''ventriloquism'' (1 Sam 28:6–9).}}</ref> possibly reflecting the consistent view of the Alexandrian translators that demons do not exist.<ref>{{cite book |first=Milian Lauritz |last=Andreasen |title=Isaiah the gospel prophet: A preacher of righteousness |year=2001 |page=345 |quote=The Septuagint translates: They ''burn incense on bricks to devils which exist not''.}}</ref> On the other hand, the Hebrew [[Book of Sirach]], composed in the same period, represents it as a fact that Samuel prophesied to Saul after his death.<ref name=sirach/> [[Josephus]], writing in the 1st century AD, also appears to find the story completely credible.<ref>''[[Antiquities of the Jews]]'' 6.14.</ref> In the [[Talmud]] and the [[Midrash]], the view is expressed that Samuel could be summoned from the dead since the soul comes and goes from the body in the first twelve months after a person's death.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Orni |first=Efraim |title=Encyclopaedia Judaica |last2=Gilboa |first2=Shaked |publisher=Thomson Gale |year=2007 |isbn=0-02865930-9 |editor-last=Skolnik |editor-first=Fred |edition=2nd |volume=1 |location=Detroit |page=[https://archive.org/details/encyclopedia-judaica-volume-22/Encyclopedia%20Judaica%2C%20Volume%201/page/440/mode/2up 441] |chapter=Afterlife}}</ref>

The ''[[Yalkut Shimoni]]'' (11th century) identifies the anonymous witch as the mother of [[Abner]].<ref>Yalḳ, Sam. 140, from Pirḳe R. El.</ref> Based upon the witch's claim to have seen something, and Saul having heard a disembodied voice, the ''Yalkut'' suggests that necromancers can see the spirits of the dead but are unable to hear their speech, while the person for whom the deceased was summoned hears the voice but fails to see anything.<ref name="auto"/>

According to [[Antoine Augustin Calmet]], writing in the 18th century:<ref name=calmet>{{cite book|last1=Calmet|first1=Augustin|title=[[Traité sur les apparitions des esprits et sur les vampires ou les revenans de Hongrie, de Moravie, &c.|Treatise on the Apparitions of Spirits and on Vampires or Revenants: of Hungary, Moravia, et al. The Complete Volumes I & II.]] |year= 2016|isbn=978-1-5331-4568-0|pages=47, 237|publisher=CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform }}</ref>

{{blockquote|The Jews of our days believe that after the body of a man is interred, his spirit goes and comes, and departs from the spot where it is destined to visit his body, and to know what passes around him; that it is wandering during a whole year after the death of the body, and that it was during that year of delay that the Pythoness of Endor evoked the soul of Samuel, after which time the evocation would have had no power over his spirit.}}

===Christianity===
[[File:The Witch of Endor (William Blake) 2.jpg|thumb|[[William Blake]]'s painting of Saul, the shade of Samuel and the Witch of Endor.]]

The [[Church Fathers]] and some modern Christian writers have debated the theological issues raised by this text, which would appear at first sight to affirm that it is possible (though forbidden) for humans to summon the spirits of the dead by magic.

[[James VI and I|King James]], in his philosophical treatise ''[[Daemonologie]]'' (1597), rejected the theory that the witch was performing an act of [[ventriloquism]], but also denied that she had truly summoned the spirit of Samuel. He wrote that the Devil is permitted at times to take on the likeness of the saints, citing [[2 Corinthians 11|2 Corinthians 11]]:14, which says that "Satan can transform himself into an Angel of light".<ref name=james>{{cite book |author=King James|author-link=James VI and I |title=Annotated [[Daemonologie]]. A critical edition in modern English |year=2016 |pages=9–10 |publisher=CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform |isbn=978-1-5329-6891-4|editor=Brett R. Warren|url=}}</ref> James describes the witch of Endor as "Saul's Pythonese", likening her to the ancient Greek oracle [[Pythia]]. He asserts the reality of witchcraft, arguing that if such things were not possible, they would not be prohibited in Scripture:<ref name=james/>
{{blockquote|Certain it is, that the Law of God speaks nothing in vain, neither does it lay curses, or enjoin punishments upon shadows, condemning that to be ill, which is not in essence or being as we call it.}}

Other medieval [[glosses to the Bible]] also suggested that what the witch summoned was not the ghost of Samuel, but a demon taking his shape or an illusion crafted by the witch.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/10735a.htm |encyclopedia=Catholic Encyclopedia |title=Necromancy |access-date=5 Sep 2012}}</ref> [[Martin Luther]], who believed that the [[Christian mortalism|dead were unconscious]], read that it was "the Devil's ghost", whereas [[John Calvin]] read that "it was not the real Samuel, but a spectre."<ref>{{cite book |first=J.M. |last=Buckley |title=Faith Healing, Christian Science and Kindred Phenomena |page=221 |year=2003 |quote=The witch of Endor – The account of the "Witch of Endor" is the only instance in the Bible where a description of the processes and ... Luther held that it was "the Devil's ghost"; Calvin that "it was not the real Samuel, but a spectre".}}</ref>

[[Antoine Augustin Calmet]] briefly mentions the witch of Endor in his ''[[Traité sur les apparitions des esprits et sur les vampires ou les revenans de Hongrie, de Moravie, &c.]]'' (1759), among other scriptural proofs of "the reality of magic." He acknowledges that this interpretation is disputed and says that he will deduce nothing from the passage "except that this woman passed for a witch, [and] that Saul esteemed her such."<ref name=calmet/>

Since this passage states that the witch made a loud cry in fear when she saw Samuel's spirit, some interpreters reject the suggestion that the witch was responsible for summoning Samuel's spirit, claiming instead it was the work of God.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Beuken |first=Willem |year=1978 |title=1 Samuel 28: The prophet as 'hammer of witches' |journal=Journal for the Study of the Old Testament |volume=3 |issue=6 |pages=8–9|doi=10.1177/030908927800300602 |s2cid=170802393 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Keil |first1=Carl Friedrich |first2=Franz |last2=Delitzsch |title=Biblical Commentary on the Books of Samuel |publisher=Eerdmans |year=1956 |page=262}}</ref> [[Joyce Baldwin]] (1989) writes that: <blockquote>the incident does not tell us anything about the veracity of claims to consult the dead on the part of mediums, because the indications [of the woman’s behavior] are that this was an extraordinary event for her, and a frightening one, because she was not in control.<ref name=Baldwin-1989-1-2-Sam>{{cite book |last=Baldwin |first=Joyce |author-link=Joyce Baldwin |title=1 and 2 Samuel: An introduction and commentary |year=1989 |page=159}}</ref></blockquote>

[[Grenville Kent]] summarises the two main historical interpretations: one, that Samuel really appeared, either bodily or in resurrected form; and two, that Samuel was impersonated by a demon in order to destroy Saul. He argues that the latter view matches the text.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kent |first=Grenville |date=2014-10-01 |title="Call Up Samuel": Who Appeared to the Witch at En-Dor? (1 Sam 28:3-25) |url=https://research.avondale.edu.au/theo_papers/196 |journal=Theology Papers and Journal Articles}}</ref>

===Spiritualism===
[[File:Witch of Endor (Nikolay Ge).jpg|right|thumb|''The Witch of Endor summons the shade of Samuel'' by [[Nikolai Ge]], 1857.]]
[[Spiritualism (movement)|Spiritualists]] have taken the story as evidence of spirit [[mediumship]] in ancient times. The story has been cited in debates between Spiritualist apologists and Christian critics. "The woman of Endor was a medium, respectable, honest, law-abiding, and far more Christ-like than Christian critics of Spiritualism," asserted one Chicago Spiritualist paper in 1875.<ref>{{cite news |title=The Religion of Ghosts |newspaper=Spiritualist at Work |volume=1 |number=19 |date=24 April 1875 |location=Chicago |page=1}}</ref>

==Cultural references==
[[File:1675 Ehinger Saul spricht mit Samuels Geist anagoria.JPG|thumb|Saul speaking to Samuel's spirit at the Witch of Endor by Gabriel Ehinger, 1675, [[Städelsches Kunstinstitut]].]]
The story of Saul's consultation with the witch of Endor has frequently been set to music, with many works expanding on the character of the witch.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Leneman |first=Helen |chapter=The Medium of En-dor Heard Through the Medium of Music |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wWyxDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA149 |editor-last1=Archie C.C. Lee |editor-first1=Archie |editor-last2=Brenner-Idan |editor-first2=Athalya |title=Samuel, Kings and Chronicles |volume=1 |date=2017 |isbn=978-0-567-67115-8 |page=149|publisher=Bloomsbury Academic }}</ref> One early example is ''In guiltie night'', an [[oratorio]] written by [[Robert Ramsey (composer)|Robert Ramsey]] in the 1630s, which formed the basis of a better-known work of the same title by [[Henry Purcell]] in 1691.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Smallman |first=Basil |date=April 1965 |title=Endor Revisited: English Biblical Dialogues of the Seventeenth Century |journal=Music & Letters |volume=46 |issue=2 |pages=137–145 |doi=10.1093/ml/XLVI.2.137 |jstor=732625}}</ref>

The witch also appears in ''Mors Saulis et Jonathae'' by [[Marc-Antoine Charpentier|Charpentier]] (c. 1682), ''[[Saul (Handel)|Saul]]'' by [[George Frideric Handel]] (1738), ''Die Könige in Israel'' by [[Ferdinand Ries]] (1837), and ''[[Le Roi David]]'' by [[Arthur Honegger|Honegger]] (1921). Notable operas featuring the character include ''[[David et Jonathas]]'' by Charpentier (1688) and ''[[Saul og David]]'' by [[Carl Nielsen]] (1902). In 1965, the [[Martha Graham Dance Company]] premiered ''The Witch of Endor'', a one act ballet with music by [[William Schuman]]; this was subsequently reworked into a short piece by American composer [[Moondog]] (Louis Hardin) for his [[Moondog (1969 album)|1969 self-titled album]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Long |first1=Siobhan |last2=Sawyer |first2=John |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gZ5ZCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA270 |page=270 |title=The Bible in Music |date=2015 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-0-8108-8451-9}}</ref>

Poetic works retelling the story include [[Confessio Amantis]], the 14th Century poem by [[John Gower]] in Book 4 Sloth (line 1935);<ref>
{{Cite web
|last=Gower
|first=John
|date=1380
|access-date=27 September 2025
|title=Confessio Amantis Book 4 Sloth
|url=https://scholarworks.wmich.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?params=/context/mip_teamsvaria/article/1008/&path_info=VARIA_Gastle_Confessio_BOOKBLOCK_final.pdf
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250927210423/https://scholarworks.wmich.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?params=/context/mip_teamsvaria/article/1008/&path_info=VARIA_Gastle_Confessio_BOOKBLOCK_final.pdf
|archive-date=27 September 2025|url-status=live
|language=en-GB|location=Kalamazoo|publisher=University of Western Michigan}}</ref> "[[s:The Works of Lord Byron (ed. Coleridge, Prothero)/Poetry/Volume 3/Hebrew Melodies/Saul|Saul]]" by [[Lord Byron]], published in his 1815 collection ''[[Hebrew Melodies]]'',<ref name=Kinsley>{{Cite book |last=Kinsley |first=William |chapter=Witch of Endor |editor-last=Jeffrey |editor-first=David Lyle |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zD6xVr1CizIC&pg=PA840 |title=A Dictionary of Biblical Tradition in English Literature |date=1992 |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing |isbn=978-0-8028-3634-2 |pages=840–841}}</ref> and "In Endor" by [[Shaul Tchernichovsky]] (1893), a major work of [[modern Hebrew poetry]] which paints Saul as a sympathetic figure.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ofer |first=Rachel |date=2021 |title=A Wicked Witch or a Good Psychotherapist? The Medium of Endor in Modern Hebrew Literature |jstor=27087000 |journal=Hebrew Studies |volume=62 |pages=184–185|doi=10.1353/hbr.2021.0018 |s2cid=244914687 }}</ref> [[Rudyard Kipling]], a year after the death of his son at the [[Battle of Loos]], wrote a poem called "[[s:En-Dor|En-Dor]]", using the story to criticise contemporary mediums.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Holt |first1=Tonie |last2=Holt |first2=Valmai |title=My Boy Jack: The Search for Kipling's Only Son |date=1998 |page=234 |publisher=Leo Cooper |quote=Desperate as they were, there is no evidence that Rudyard and Carrie ever contemplated trying to reach John in this way and Rudyard's scorn for those who did was expressed in the poem En-dor, written the following year.}}</ref>

In literature another early example appears in [[Geoffrey Chaucer|Chaucer's]] [[Canterbury Tales]] as part of [[the Friar's Tale]]. This was believed to be written around 1390, and has the line "...and speke as renably and faire and wel, as to the Phitonissa dide Samuel." This uses the term now rendered as pythoness, for a female soothsayer.<ref>
{{Cite web
|last=Chaucer
|first=Geoffrey
|date=1390
|access-date=27 September 2025
|title=3.2 The Friar's Prologue and Tale
|url=https://chaucer.fas.harvard.edu/pages/friars-prologueand-tale
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250409191245/https://chaucer.fas.harvard.edu/pages/friars-prologueand-tale
|archive-date=9 April 2025|url-status=live
|language=en-GB|id=1510|location=Harvard|publisher=Harvard University|website=chaucer.fas.harvard.edu}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|date=1990|edition=15th|contribution=Endor, Witch of| volume=4|page=491|isbn=978-0-85229-511-3}}</ref>

In theatre, the witch of Endor figures in [[Laurence Housman]]'s 1944 play ''Samuel the Kingmaker'', and has a central role in [[Howard Nemerov]]'s 1961 play ''Endor''.<ref name=Kinsley/> The character has been portrayed cinematically by Israeli actor [[Dov Reiser]] in the 1976 television film ''[[The Story of David]]'', and by Belgian actress [[Lyne Renée]] in the 2016 series ''[[Of Kings and Prophets]]''.

The character of Endora, the mother of the heroine Samantha on the television show ''[[Bewitched]]'', may be named for the Witch of Endor.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://mom.com/baby-names/girl/44892/Endora|title=Endora - origin, meaning, popularity, and related names|website=mom.com}}</ref>

''The Witch of Endor'' is a name occasionally given to ships, both real and in fiction, such as in the [[Horatio Hornblower]] [[Flying Colours (novel)|novels]]<ref>{{cite web |last=Maunder |first=John W |date=March 2019 |title=hornblowers-ships-john-maunder.pdf |url=https://csforester.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/hornblowers-ships-john-maunder.pdf |access-date=December 22, 2024 |website=C. S. Forester Society}}</ref> and the Sci Fi series ''[[The Expanse (novel series)|The Expanse]]''.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Cooper|first1=James S.A. |title=Babylon's Ashes |date=2016|page=? |publisher=Orbit |quote=The Connaught was one part, as were all the ragtag ships under her command: Panshin, Solano, Witch of Endor, Serrio Mal, and a dozen more.}}</ref>

In music, the Witch of Endor is mentioned in the last verse of the song "Lover, Leaver" by [[Greta Van Fleet]].{{Citation needed|date=May 2024}}

The Witch of Endor is also a plot point in ''[[The Secrets of the Immortal Nicholas Flamel]]'' by [[Michael Scott (Irish author)|Michael Scott]].{{Citation needed|date=May 2024}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

== Further reading ==
* {{cite book | last1=Greer | first1=R.A. | last2=Mitchell | first2=M.M. | year=2007 | title=The "Belly-Myther" of Endor: Interpretations of 1 Kingdoms 28 in the Early Church | publisher=Society of Biblical Literature | series=Society of Biblical Literature writings from the Greco-Roman world | isbn=978-1-58983-120-9 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Xt5U2gwSnPQC}}
* Kent, G. J. R. (2014). ”Call Up Samuel”: Who appeared to the Witch at En-Dor? (1 Sam 28:3-25). Andrews University Seminary Studies, 52(2), 141-160. https://digitalcommons.andrews.edu/auss/ https://research.avondale.edu.au/theo_papers/196/ {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230614012952/https://research.avondale.edu.au/theo_papers/196/ |date=2023-06-14 }}

==External links==
{{Wikisource|Bible (King James)/1 Samuel#Chapter 28|1 Samuel 28}}
{{Commons category}}
* [http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=366&letter=E Medium of Endor]: From the [[Jewish Encyclopedia]]

{{witchcraft}}

[[Category:Witch of Endor| ]]
[[Category:11th-century BC women]]
[[Category:Ancient occultists]]
[[Category:People from the Kingdom of Israel (united monarchy)]]
[[Category:Necromancy]]
[[Category:Samuel]]
[[Category:Saul]]
[[Category:Spiritual mediums]]
[[Category:Unnamed people of the Bible]]
[[Category:Ventriloquists]]
[[Category:Women in the Hebrew Bible]]
[[Category:Year of birth unknown]]

Dick Taylor

2025-09-02T21:11:22Z

47.32.9.63:

{{Short description|English musician (born 1943)}}
{{Other people}}
{{BLP sources|date=February 2019}}
{{Use British English|date=July 2016}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2020}}
{{Infobox musical artist
| name = Dick Taylor
| image = Pretty Things go Saltburn 10 (9973182545).jpg
| landscape = yes
| caption = Dick Taylor on stage with the Pretty Things in 2013.
| birth_name = Richard Clifford Taylor
| alias =
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|1943|1|28|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Dartford]], Kent, England
| death_date = {{Death date and age|YYYY|MM|DD|YYYY|MM|DD}}
| instrument = Guitar, bass guitar, piano, banjo
| genre = [[Rock music|Rock]], [[rhythm and blues|R&B]]
| occupation = Musician, songwriter, record producer
| years_active = 1962–present
| label = [[St. George Records]]
| website =
}}
'''Richard Clifford Taylor''' (born 28 January 1943) is an English musician, best known as the guitarist and founder of the [[Pretty Things]]. Taylor was also a founding member of [[the Rolling Stones]],<ref name=rockhall>{{cite web | title=The Rolling Stones Biography |work=Rock and Roll Hall of Fame and Museum |publisher=The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame and Museum, Inc. |url=http://www.rockhall.com/inductees/the-rolling-stones |access-date=24 January 2010}}</ref> playing guitar and bass guitar, but left the band to resume his studies at [[Sidcup Art College]]. While there he formed the Pretty Things in September 1963, which he played with until the band's retirement in 2018. As of 2024, he plays lead guitar for the band the Hillmans.

==Career==
[[File:DickTaylorPatronaat1987.jpg|thumb|Taylor in 1987]]
Taylor was born in Livingstone Hospital, [[Dartford]], and attended [[Dartford Grammar School]].<ref name=guardian>{{cite news |author=Alan Clayson |url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/2001/jun/27/guardianobituaries2 |title=Obituary: Brian Pendleton|newspaper=[[The Guardian]] |access-date=2017-01-11}}</ref> In July 1962, while he was at [[Sidcup Art College]], [[the Rolling Stones]] was formed when Taylor, [[Mick Jagger]] and [[Keith Richards]]' three-piece group Little Boy Blue and the Blue Boys joined [[Brian Jones]] and [[Ian Stewart (musician)|Ian Stewart]]'s Rollin' Stones.<ref name=rockhall/> Initially, Taylor played lead guitar in the band, but switched to bass to accommodate Jones. That November, Taylor left to return to art college. Taylor never recorded with the Rolling Stones, whose [[Come On (Chuck Berry song)|debut single]] was issued in June 1963.

In 1963, Taylor formed the [[Pretty Things]]<ref name=rockhall/> with vocalist [[Phil May (singer)|Phil May]], and once again played his preferred guitar position. He left the Pretty Things in 1969, after the release of their concept album ''[[S.F. Sorrow]]''. The band released a few more albums without Taylor and disbanded in 1976, but regrouped with Taylor in 1979 to release ''[[Cross Talk]]''. Taylor remained with the Pretty Things until they broke up in 2018.

In addition to his work with the Pretty Things, Taylor co-produced [[Hawkwind]]'s [[Hawkwind (album)|debut album]], on which he also played [[guitar]], as well as [[Cochise (band)|Cochise]]'s [[Cochise (album)|first album]] and [[Skin Alley]]'s first album. His contribution to [[punk rock]] was a [[sound recording and reproduction|recording]] by Auntie Pus. During the second half of the 1980s, Taylor played guitar with the English [[post-punk]] band [[the Mekons]]. He recorded with [[Andre Williams (musician)|Andre Williams]] in Chicago for [[George Paulus]]' [[St. George Records]].

As of 2024, he plays lead guitar with a band called the Hillmans (the lead singer of the Hillmans is Tony Minx, and the 'Hillmans' is a reference to the [[Hillman Minx]]).

==Personal life==
Taylor married his wife Melissa in Fulham on 14 June 1969.<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Pretty Things - Bouquets from a Cloudy Sky |last= |first= |publisher= |year=2014 |isbn= |edition= |pages=48}}</ref>

As of 2017 he lived on the [[Isle of Wight]], England.<ref>{{cite web |author=Richie Unterberger |author-link=Richie Unterberger |url=http://www.richieunterberger.com/taylor.html |title=Dick Taylor Interview |website=Richieunterberger.com |access-date=2017-01-11}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*{{Discogs artist|Dick Taylor (2)}}

{{Pretty Things}}
{{The Rolling Stones}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Taylor, Dick}}
[[Category:1943 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:20th-century English musicians]]
[[Category:21st-century English musicians]]
[[Category:People educated at Dartford Grammar School]]
[[Category:English rock guitarists]]
[[Category:English record producers]]
[[Category:English male songwriters]]
[[Category:English rock musicians]]
[[Category:British rhythm and blues boom musicians]]
[[Category:English lead guitarists]]
[[Category:British slide guitarists]]
[[Category:Entertainers from Dartford]]
[[Category:Musicians from Kent]]
[[Category:The Rolling Stones members]]
[[Category:The Mekons members]]
[[Category:Pretty Things members]]

{{England-musician-stub}}
{{UK-guitarist-stub}}

Irving Wallace

2025-07-20T06:16:23Z

47.32.9.63:

{{Short description|American writer (1916–1990)}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=February 2021}}
{{Infobox writer 
| name = Irving Wallace
| image =Irving Wallace, 1972.jpg
| imagesize =
| caption =Wallace in 1972
| pseudonym =
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1916|3|19}}
| birth_place = [[Chicago]], [[Illinois]], U.S.
| death_date = {{death date and age|1990|6|29|1916|3|19|mf=y}}
| death_place = [[Los Angeles]], [[California]], U.S.
| occupation = {{flatlist|
* Writer
* journalist
* screenwriter
}}
| period = 1955–1990
| genre = Fiction, historical
| subject =
| movement =
| spouse = Sylvia Kahn (1917-2006)
| children = [[Amy Wallace]] [[David Wallechinsky]]
{{Infobox person |child=yes| | parents = Bessie Liss Alexander Wallace}}
| notableworks = ''The Fabulous Originals'' (1955) ''The Sins of Philip Fleming'' (1959)
| website =
| footnotes =
}}

'''Irving Wallace''' (March 19, 1916 – June 29, 1990) was an American best-selling author and screenwriter. He was known for his heavily researched novels, many with a sexual theme.<ref name=Another>{{cite book|last1=Korda|first1=Michael|title=Another life : a memoir of other people|date=1999|publisher=Random House|location=New York|isbn=0679456597|edition=1st|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/anotherlifememoi00kord}}</ref>

==Early life==
Wallace was born in [[Chicago, Illinois]], to Bessie Liss and Alexander Wallace (an Americanized version of the original family name of Wallechinsky). The family was Jewish<ref name="test">{{cite web|url=https://www.jweekly.com/2006/12/22/celebrities/|title=Celebrities|first=Nate|last=Bloom|date=December 22, 2006}}</ref> and originally from Russia. Wallace was named after his maternal grandfather, a bookkeeper and [[Talmud]]ic scholar of [[Narewka]], Poland. Wallace grew up at 6103 Eighteenth Avenue in [[Kenosha, Wisconsin]],<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/irvingwallacewri0000leve_f5t5|url-access=registration|page=[https://archive.org/details/irvingwallacewri0000leve_f5t5/page/31 31]|quote=6103 18th Avenue, Kenosha irving wallace.|title=Irving Wallace: A Writer's Profile|first1=John|last1=Leverence|first2=Jerome|last2=Weidman|first3=Ray Broadus|last3=Browne|date=June 13, 1974|publisher=Popular Press|isbn=9780879720636|via=Internet Archive}}</ref> where he attended Kenosha Central High School.<ref>[http://www.wla.lib.wi.us/readers/WLAC/Notable/Notable2005.htm#Irving Short biography on the WLA website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090207194754/http://www.wla.lib.wi.us/readers/WLAC/Notable/Notable2005.htm#Irving |date=February 7, 2009 }}.</ref> He was the father of [[Olympiads|Olympic]] historian [[David Wallechinsky]] and author [[Amy Wallace]].

==Career==
Wallace began selling stories to magazines when he was a teenager. In [[World War II|the Second World War]] Wallace served in the [[Frank Capra]] unit in Fort Fox along with Theodor Seuss Geisel<ref>{{cite book|last=Pease |first=Donald E.|author-link=Donald E. Pease |title=Theodor SEUSS Geisel|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GGsw3bkfhM4C&pg=PA68 |access-date=April 1, 2014|year=2010|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]], [[Google eBook]]|isbn=978-0199746002|page=68}}</ref> – better known as [[Dr. Seuss]] – and continued to write for magazines. He also served in the [[First Motion Picture Unit]] of the [[Army Air Force]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.airspacemag.com/history-of-flight/world-war-ii-the-movie-21103597/|title=World War II: The Movie|first=Mark|last=Betancourt|website=Air & Space Magazine}}</ref> Soon, however, Wallace turned to a more lucrative job as a [[Cinema of the United States|Hollywood]] screenwriter. He collaborated on such films as ''[[The West Point Story (film)|The West Point Story]]'' (1950), ''[[Split Second (1953 film)|Split Second]]'' (1953), ''Meet Me at the Fair'' (1953), and ''[[The Big Circus]]'' (1959). He also contributed three scripts<ref>{{cite web |url=http://listofepisodes.org/writer/Irving_Wallace |title=Irving Wallace |website=listofepisodes.org |access-date=6 June 2022 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20140621231045/http://listofepisodes.org/writer/Irving_Wallace |archive-date=21 June 2014 |url-status=dead}}</ref> to the western television program ''[[Have Gun – Will Travel]]''.

After an unsatisfying stint in Hollywood, he devoted himself full-time to writing books. He published his first non-fiction work in 1955, ''The Fabulous Originals'', and his first fiction offering, ''The Sins of Philip Fleming'', in 1959. The latter, ignored by critics, was followed by the enormously successful ''The Chapman Report''. Wallace published 33 books during his lifetime, translated into 31 languages.{{citation needed|reason=Your explanation here|date=October 2014}}

Irving Wallace was married to Sylvia (née Kahn) Wallace, a former magazine writer and editor. Her first novel, ''The Fountains'', was an American best-seller and published in twelve foreign editions. Her second novel, ''Empress'', was published in 1980. She and her two children also helped him to produce ''[[The Book of Lists#2]]'' and ''The Intimate Sex Lives of Famous People''. In her autobiography, Amy Wallace wrote that her mother's contributions were not always helpful and the atmosphere not always harmonious.<ref>''Sorcerer's Apprentice'' – Amy Wallace (Frog, 2003), p. 125</ref> Sylvia Wallace died October 20, 2006, at age 89.

Several of Wallace's books have been made into films, including ''[[The Chapman Report]]'', ''[[The Man (1972 film)|The Man]]'', ''[[The Seven Minutes (film)|The Seven Minutes]]'' and ''[[New Delhi (1987 film)|New Delhi]]''. Also among his best-known books are ''[[The Prize (novel)|The Prize]]'' (1962), ''[[The Word (novel)|The Word]]'' (1972) and ''[[The Fan Club]]'' (1974).

[[Michael Korda]] and [[Peter Schwed]] were the editors for Wallace at [[Simon & Schuster]]. In his autobiography ''Another Life'', Korda suggests that Wallace invented a style of novel that is at once a strong story and encyclopedia, with "some sex thrown in to keep the reader's pulse going."<ref name=Another />

With his son, daughter and wife he produced some notable non-fiction works, including three editions each of ''[[The People's Almanac]]'' (with son David) and ''[[The Book of Lists]]'' (with David and Amy and wife Sylvia for the second volume). Wallace used many of the odd facts he uncovered in his novels.

Wallace died of [[pancreatic cancer]] on June 29, 1990, at age 74. He was interred at [[Hillside Memorial Park Cemetery]] in [[Culver City, California]].

==Bibliography==

===Novels===
* ''The Sins of Philip Fleming: A Compelling Novel of One Man's Intimate Problem'' (1959)
* ''The Chapman Report'' (1960); made into a 1962 [[The Chapman Report|film]]
* ''[[The Prize (novel)|The Prize]]'' (1962)
* ''The Three Sirens'' (1963)
* ''[[The Man (1964 novel)|The Man]]'' (1964)
* ''The Plot (1967)''
* ''[[The Seven Minutes]]'' (1969)
* ''[[The Word (novel)|The Word]]'' (1972)
* ''[[The Fan Club]]'' (1974)
* ''[[The R Document]]'' (1976)
* ''The Pigeon Project'' (1979)
* ''[[The Second Lady]]'' (1980)
* ''The Almighty'' (1982)
* ''The Miracle'' (1984/2005)
* ''[[The Seventh Secret]]'' (1986) (with an additional chapter by Tom Posch in the Dutch translation of 1989)
* ''[[The Celestial Bed]]'' (1987)
* ''The Golden Room'' (1988)
* ''The Guest of Honor'' (1989)

===Non-fiction===
* ''The Fabulous Originals: Lives of Extraordinary People Who Inspired Memorable Characters in Fiction'' (1955)
* ''The Square Pegs: Some Americans Who Dared to Be Different'' (1958)
* ''The Fabulous Showman: The Life and Times of P.T. Barnum'' (1959)
* ''The Twenty-Seventh Wife'' (1961)
* ''The Sunday Gentleman'' (1966)
* ''The Writing of One Novel'' (1968)
* ''The Nympho and Other Maniacs: The Lives, the Loves and the Sexual Adventures of Some Scandalous and Liberated Ladies'' (1971)
* ''[[The People's Almanac]]'' (1975)
* ''[[The Book of Lists]]'' (1977) (with David Wallechinsky and Amy Wallace)
* ''[[Chang and Eng Bunker|The Two: The Biography of The Original Siamese Twins]]'' (1978) (with Amy Wallace)
* ''The People's Almanac #2'' (1978) (with David Wallechinsky)
* ''[[The Book of Lists|The Book of Lists#2]]'' (1980) (with David Wallechinsky, Amy Wallace and Sylvia Wallace)
* ''[[The Book of Predictions]]'' (1981) (with David Wallechinsky and Amy Wallace)
* ''The People's Almanac #3'' (1981) (with David Wallechinsky)
* ''The Intimate Sex Lives of Famous People'' (1981) (with David Wallechinsky, Amy Wallace and Sylvia Wallace)
* ''[[The Book of Lists|The Book of Lists#3]]'' (1983) (with Amy Wallace and David Wallechinsky)
* ''Significa'' (1983) (with Amy Wallace and David Wallechinsky)

In 1974, John Leverance, of the Department of Popular Culture at Bowling Green State University (Ohio), published "Irving Wallace: A Writer's Profile", an analysis and appreciation of Wallace's work.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{LCAuth|n79032279|Irving Wallace|44|}}
* {{IMDb name|id=0908683|name=Irving Wallace}}
* {{Books and Writers |id=iwallace |name=Irving Wallace}}
* [https://books.google.com/books?id=4b0Q7nyDFP8C&q=Irving+Wallace ''Irving Wallace: A Writer's Profile'' by John Leverence and Sam L. Grogg] (Popular Press, 1974)
* [https://books.google.com/books?id=q22_N-iHLcsC&q=Irving+Wallace ''The Miracle'' by Irving Wallace] (Google Books preview)
*[https://claremont.as.atlas-sys.com/repositories/3/resources/1020 Irving Wallace Papers], Special Collections, The Claremont Colleges Library, Claremont, California.
*[http://findingaids.brandeis.edu/repositories/2/resources/119 Irving Wallace Collection] held by [https://www.brandeis.edu/library/archives/index.html Robert D. Farber University Archives and Special Collections Department], [[Brandeis University]]

{{Irving Wallace}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Wallace, Irving}}
[[Category:1916 births]]
[[Category:1990 deaths]]
[[Category:20th-century American novelists]]
[[Category:Almanac compilers]]
[[Category:American book editors]]
[[Category:American information and reference writers]]
[[Category:American male novelists]]
[[Category:American male screenwriters]]
[[Category:Burials at Hillside Memorial Park Cemetery]]
[[Category:Deaths from pancreatic cancer in California]]
[[Category:First Motion Picture Unit personnel]]
[[Category:Jewish American non-fiction writers]]
[[Category:Jewish American novelists]]
[[Category:Jewish American screenwriters]]
[[Category:People from Kenosha, Wisconsin]]
[[Category:Writers from Chicago]]
[[Category:American people of Russian-Jewish descent]]
[[Category:20th-century American male writers]]
[[Category:Novelists from Illinois]]
[[Category:20th-century American non-fiction writers]]
[[Category:American male non-fiction writers]]
[[Category:Screenwriters from Illinois]]
[[Category:Screenwriters from Wisconsin]]
[[Category:20th-century American screenwriters]]
[[Category:20th-century American Jews]]

Climate of Scotland

2025-06-27T03:44:45Z

47.32.9.63:

{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2020}}
{{Short description|none}}
[[File:Scotland Köppen.png|200px|thumb|right|[[Köppen climate classification|Köppen climate types]] in Scotland]]

Weather and climate in the country of [[Scotland]] is mostly [[temperate]] and [[Oceanic climate|oceanic]] ([[Köppen climate classification]] ''Cfb''), and tends to be very changeable, but rarely extreme. The country is warmed by the [[Gulf Stream]] from the [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]], and given its northerly latitude it is much warmer than areas on similar latitudes, for example [[Kamchatka]] in [[Russia]] or [[Labrador]] in [[Canada]] (where the sea freezes over in winter), or [[Fort McMurray]], Canada (where {{convert|-35|°C}} is not uncommon during winter). Scots sometimes describe weather which is grey and gloomy using the [[Scots language]] word ''dreich''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.scotsman.com/heritage/people-places/dreich-tops-poll-of-favourite-scots-words-1-2754328|title='Dreich' tops poll of favourite Scots words|work=[[The Scotsman]]|date=23 January 2013|access-date=10 July 2017}}</ref>

Across the country, June, July and August are commonly the warmest months, with an average temperature of 17°C (63°F) common, whilst in contrast, December, January and February are often the coldest with average temperatures averaging 6°C (43°F).<ref name="Weather">{{cite web |title=Weather in Scotland |url=https://www.visitscotland.com/travel-planning/weather |website=VisitScotland |access-date=20 December 2024 |language=en-gb}}</ref> Given the latitude of Scotland, the north of the country generally receives more daylight in midsummer than the south of the [[British Isles]], and in the far north of the country during summer, there is often no complete darkness.<ref name="Weather"/> Weather conditions across the country can vary drastically, even within a short distance. In spring, Scotland's temperatures can average between 12°C (54°F) and 4°C (40°F), with an average rainfall of 48mm or 1.89". In Winter, temperatures commonly range between 7°C (45°F) and 2°C (36°F) with an average rainfall of 57mm or 2.44".<ref name="Weather in Scotland">{{cite web |title=Weather in Scotland {{!}} Scotland.org |url=https://www.scotland.org/about-scotland/weather |website=Scotland |access-date=20 December 2024 |language=en}}</ref>

The [[Scottish Government]] and the [[Met Office]] are the primary bodies responsible for weather management and warnings in the country, with Safer Scotland serving as the executive agency of the Scottish Government responsible for preparation for extreme weather, whilst the [[Scottish Environment Protection Agency]] (SEPA) is responsible for the flood mitigation, protection and warnings.<ref>{{cite web |title=Devolved administrations |url=https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/services/government/devolved-administrations |website=Met Office |access-date=20 December 2024 |language=en}}</ref> The [[Scottish Government Resilience Room]] may be activated during periods of intense weather in the country, such as prolonged rainfall or wind storms.<ref>{{cite web |title=Severe weather expected across Scotland |url=https://www.gov.scot/news/severe-weather-expected-across-scotland/ |website=www.gov.scot |access-date=23 January 2025 |language=en}}</ref>

==Seasons==
[[File:A small loch in the saddle between Beinn an Dothaidh and Beinn Dorain, Scotland 01.jpg|thumb|right|[[Winter]] sunrise in Scotland (January 2019)]]
[[File:Quiraing, Isle of Skye, Scotland - Diliff.jpg|thumb|right|[[Summer]] weather in Scotland (June 2014)]]

During [[Spring (season)|spring]], the country experiences a milder climate with average daily temperatures ranging between 12°C (54°F) and 4°C (40°F) with an average 13 hours of daylight. Rainfall averages 48mm across the country, however, due to the milder climate, flowers such as the [[cherry blossom]] begin to bloom along with the re-emergance of various animals who have hibernated over the [[winter]] period.<ref name="Weather in Scotland">{{cite web |title=Weather in Scotland {{!}} Scotland.org |url=https://www.scotland.org/about-scotland/weather |website=Scotland |access-date=20 December 2024 |language=en}}</ref>

[[Summer]] in Scotland typically ranges between June and August annually. During the summer period, temperatures typically average 18°C (64°F) during the daytime and 11°C (52°F) in the evenings, with an average 17 hours worth of daylight. During this period, the country can commonly average a rainfall of 72mm, or 2.8", making Summer commonly the wettest season in Scotland. Despite being the wettest season in the country, it also serves as the warmest of the four seasons in Scotland, and the northerly latitude of the country means that parts of Scotland benefit from longer daylight periods as well as an extended twilight.<ref name="Weather in Scotland"/>

Between September and November, Scotland enters [[Autumn]] and temperatures begin to decline from their Summer highs, with average temperatures of 13°C (55°F) in the daytime and 7°C (45°F) in the evenings common. The amount of rainfall the country receives also falls to 52mm on average. During the early transition from Summer into Autumn, the climate across the country is often mild before becoming cooler particularly into October.<ref name="Weather in Scotland"/> During Autumn, [[clocks]] change from [[British Summer Time]] to [[Daylight saving time]] which reduces daylight hours to an average of 11 hours of daylight.<ref name="Weather in Scotland"/>

[[Winter]] in Scotland ranges between December and February and is the coldest season experienced across the country. With an average of 8 hours of daylight, temperatures fall drastically during Winter, with daily averages of 7°C (45°F) during the daytime and 2°C (36°F) in the evenings common, with an average rainfall of 57mm.<ref name="Weather in Scotland"/>

== Temperature ==
Scotland occupies the cooler northern section of Great Britain, so temperatures are generally lower than in the rest of the British Isles, with the coldest ever UK temperature of {{convert|-27.2|°C|°F|1}} recorded at [[Braemar]] in the [[Grampian Mountains (Scotland)|Grampian Mountains]], on 10 January 1982 and also at [[Altnaharra]], [[Highland (council area)|Highland]], on 30 December 1995.<ref name="climate extremes">{{cite web |url=http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/public/weather/climate-extremes/#?tab=climateExtremes | title=Weather extremes | publisher=[[Met Office]] | access-date=1 July 2023}}</ref>

Winters in Scotland have an average low of around {{convert|0|°C|°F}},<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.currentresults.com/Weather/United-Kingdom/Scotland/temperature-rainfall-average-january.php | title = Scottish winter temperature|publisher=Current Results|access-date=16 January 2015 }}</ref> with summer maximum temperatures averaging {{convert|15|-|17|°C|°F}}.<ref name="scotlandaverages">{{cite web | year = 2001 | url = http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/climate/uk/averages/19712000/areal/scotland.html | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20040430030137/http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/climate/uk/averages/19712000/areal/scotland.html | archive-date = 30 April 2004 | title = Scotland 1971–2000 averages | publisher = Met Office | access-date = 20 August 2007}}</ref> In general, the western coastal areas of [[Scotland]] are warmer than the east and inland areas, due to the influence of the Atlantic currents, and the colder surface temperatures of the [[North Sea]].<ref name="meantemperatures">{{cite web|year=2001 |url=http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/climate/uk/averages/19712000/tmean/17.gif |title=Mean Temperatures Annual Average |publisher=Met Office |access-date=20 August 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130801122236/http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/climate/uk/averages/19712000/tmean/17.gif |archive-date=1 August 2013}}</ref> The highest official temperature recorded was {{convert|34.8|°C}} in [[Charterhall]], [[Scottish Borders]] on 19 July 2022.<ref name="climate extremes"/>

For the last 100 years, the coldest winter was in 1963 (average temperature {{convert|0.19|°C|disp=or}}) and the mildest was in 1989 (average {{convert|5.15|°C|disp=or}}). The warmest summer was in 2003 (average {{convert|14.07|°C|disp=or}}) and the coolest was in 1922 (average {{convert|10.64|°C|disp=or}}).<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/climate/uk/summaries/2003/summer/regional-values|title = Regional values}}</ref>

{{Weather box
| width = auto
| unit precipitation days = 1 mm
| Jan precipitation days = 18.48
| Feb precipitation days = 16.10
| Mar precipitation days = 15.92
| Apr precipitation days = 13.70
| May precipitation days = 13.38
| Jun precipitation days = 13.75
| Jul precipitation days = 14.93
| Aug precipitation days = 15.51
| Sep precipitation days = 14.85
| Oct precipitation days = 17.96
| Nov precipitation days = 18.48
| Dec precipitation days = 18.24
| year precipitation days = 191.30
| Jan precipitation mm = 178.02
| Feb precipitation mm = 140.74
| Mar precipitation mm = 124.59
| Apr precipitation mm = 93.08
| May precipitation mm = 89.23
| Jun precipitation mm = 92.95
| Jul precipitation mm = 103.73
| Aug precipitation mm = 119.98
| Sep precipitation mm = 123.34
| Oct precipitation mm = 168.33
| Nov precipitation mm = 165.37
| Dec precipitation mm = 174.30
| year precipitation mm = 1573.64
| source 1 = The [[Met Office]]: averages, sunshine, precipitation;<ref name="Inverness">{{Cite web|title=Inverness (Highland) UK climate averages|url=https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/research/climate/maps-and-data/uk-climate-averages/gfhyzzs9j|access-date=2022-01-15|website=Met Office|language=en|archive-date=2 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220102085217/https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/research/climate/maps-and-data/uk-climate-averages/gfhyzzs9j|url-status=live}}</ref> extremes<ref>{{cite web |title=UK climate extremes |url=https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/research/climate/maps-and-data/uk-climate-extremes |website=Met Office |access-date=20 December 2024 |language=en}}</ref>
| year sun = 1200.05
| Dec sun = 29.74
| Nov sun = 47.58
| Oct sun = 74.72
| Sep sun = 106.56
| Aug sun = 134.54
| Jul sun = 140.50
| Jun sun = 146.25
| May sun = 182.22
| Apr sun = 141.73
| Mar sun = 97.46
| Feb sun = 63.49
| Jan sun = 35.26
| precipitation colour = green
| location = Scotland (1991–2020 normals, extremes 1865-present)
| year high C = 11.07
| Dec high C = 5.82
| Nov high C = 7.97
| Oct high C = 11.27
| Sep high C = 14.78
| Aug high C = 16.96
| Jul high C = 17.29
| Jun high C = 15.59
| May high C = 13.37
| Apr high C = 10.32
| Mar high C = 7.63
| Feb high C = 5.95
| Jan high C = 5.55
| metric first = Y
| single line = Y
| Jan low C = 0.34
| Feb low C = 0.26
| Mar low C = 1.19
| Apr low C = 2.78
| May low C = 4.98
| Jun low C = 7.86
| Jul low C = 9.70
| Aug low C = 9.61
| Sep low C = 7.88
| Oct low C = 5.14
| Nov low C = 2.48
| Dec low C = 0.37
| year low C = 4.40
| Jan record high C = 19.9
| Feb record high C = 18.3
| Mar record high C = 23.6
| Apr record high C = 27.2
| May record high C = 30.9
| Jun record high C = 32.2
| Jul record high C = 34.8
| Aug record high C = 32.9
| Sep record high C = 32.2
| Oct record high C = 27.4
| Nov record high C = 20.6
| Dec record high C = 18.7
| year record high C = 35.1
| Jan record low C = -27.2
| Feb record low C = -27.2
| Mar record low C = -22.8
| Apr record low C = -15.4
| May record low C = -8.8
| Jun record low C = -5.6
| Jul record low C = -2.5
| Aug record low C = -4.5
| Sep record low C = -6.7
| Oct record low C = -11.7
| Nov record low C = -23.3
| Dec record low C = -27.2
| year record low C = -27.2
| source =
}}

==Frequent weather==
=== Rainfall ===
[[File:Rain, rain go away... - geograph.org.uk - 2568977.jpg|thumb|left|Rainfall in [[Edinburgh]]]]

Rainfall totals vary widely across Scotland— the western highlands of Scotland is one of the wettest places in Europe with annual rainfall up to {{convert|4577|mm|in|1|abbr=on}}.<ref name="rainfall">{{cite web|year=2001 |url=http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/climate/uk/averages/19712000/rr/17.gif |title=Rainfall Amount Annual Average |publisher=Met Office |access-date=20 August 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130719222449/http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/climate/uk/averages/19712000/rr/17.gif |archive-date=19 July 2013}}</ref> Due to the mountainous topography of the western Highlands, this type of precipitation is [[orographic]] in nature, with the warm, wet air forced to rise on contact with the mountainous coast, where it consequently cools and [[Condensation|condenses]], forming clouds. In comparison, much of eastern Scotland receives less than {{convert|870|mm|in|1|abbr=on}} annually; lying in the [[rain shadow]] of the western uplands.<ref name="rainfall" /> This effect is most pronounced along the coasts of [[Lothian]], [[Fife]], [[Angus, Scotland|Angus]] and eastern [[Aberdeenshire]], as well as around the city of [[Inverness]]. [[Inchkeith]] in the [[Firth of Forth]] receives only {{convert|550|mm|in|1|abbr=on}} of precipitation each year, which is similar to [[Rabat]] in Morocco, and less than Barcelona receives per year. Also, as a result of this the north-western coast has about 265 days with rain a year and this falls to the south east to a minimum of about 170 days along the coast to the east of high ground.
Snowfall is less common in the lowlands, but becomes more common with altitude. Parts of the Highlands have an average of 36 to 105 snow days per year,<ref name="snow">{{cite web|year=2001 |url=http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/climate/uk/averages/19712000/dl/17.gif |title=Days of Snow Lying Annual Average |publisher=Met Office |access-date=20 August 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070809125155/http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/climate/uk/averages/19712000/dl/17.gif |archive-date=9 August 2007}}</ref> while some western coastal areas have between 12 and 17 days with snow a year.<ref name="snow" />

=== Sunshine ===
[[File:Traigh Bail, Tiree - geograph.org.uk - 7983.jpg|thumb|right|[[Tiree]] is often regarded as the sunniest location in Scotland.]]
[[File:Cloudy sunset over Highland, Scotland (20389982614).jpg|thumb|right|Cloudy sunset in [[Highland (council area)|Highland]]]]

The maximum amount of sunshine in a calendar month was 329 hours in [[Tiree]] in May 1946 and again in May 1975 while the minimum, a mere 36 minutes, was recorded at [[Cape Wrath]] in the Highlands in January 1983.<ref name="sunshinefacts">{{cite web | year = 2008 | url = http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/climate/uk/location/scotland/#sunshine | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20081011182729/http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/climate/uk/location/scotland/ | url-status = dead | archive-date = 11 October 2008 | title = Scotland Sunshine Statistics | publisher = Met Office | access-date = 7 July 2008}}</ref>

[[Dundee]] and [[Aberdeen]] are the sunniest cities in Scotland.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.scotsman.com/news/weather/11-scotlands-most-extreme-places-1476239|title=11 of Scotland's most extreme places|date= 19 May 2016|website=scotsman.com}}</ref> On the [[Solstice|longest day of the year]] there is no complete darkness over the northern isles of Scotland. [[Lerwick]], [[Shetland Islands|Shetland]], has about four hours more daylight at midsummer than [[London]], although this is reversed in midwinter.

Annual average sunshine totals vary from as little as 711–1140 hours in the highlands and the north-west,<ref name="sunshinemap">{{cite web|year=2001 |url=http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/climate/uk/averages/19712000/ss/17.gif |title=Sunshine Duration Annual Average |publisher=Met Office |access-date=20 August 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140728193119/http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/climate/uk/averages/19712000/ss/17.gif |archive-date=28 July 2014}}</ref> up to 1471–1540 hours on the extreme eastern and south-western coasts.<ref name="sunshinemap" /> Average annual sunshine hours over the whole territory are 1160 (taking 1971 to 2000 as standard) meaning that the sun shines just over 25% of the time.

During a prolonged period of sunshine towards the end of March–mid April 2025, a number of [[wildfires]] broke out across Scotland, mostly notably in the [[Isle of Arran]], [[Cumbernauld]], [[Edinburgh]] and at the [[Galloway Forest Park]] in [[Dumfries and Galloway]].<ref name="Wildfire battles continue with 'extreme' warning in place">{{cite web |title=Wildfire battles continue with 'extreme' warning in place |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/articles/cjdxzz442m9o |website=BBC News |access-date=11 April 2025 |date=11 April 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Scotland experiencing hottest day of the year so far as wildfires continue |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/articles/cx2wwwl73reo |website=BBC News |access-date=11 April 2025 |date=10 April 2025}}</ref> The [[Scottish Fire and Rescue Service]] urged the public to "act responsibly" as the threat of wildfires across Scotland continued.<ref name="Wildfire battles continue with 'extreme' warning in place"/>

=== Winds ===
Scotland is the windiest country in Europe due to eastward moving Atlantic depressions that bring strong winds and clouds continuously throughout the year.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.scotsman.com/news/niall-stuart-europe-s-windiest-country-is-blessed-with-limitless-energy-potential-1-2337919 | title = Niall Stuart: Europe's windiest country is blessed with limitless energy potential | work= The Scotsman|date=5 June 2012|access-date=16 January 2015 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-scotland-15283013 | title = The windiest place in Europe | publisher = BBC|date=12 October 2011|access-date=16 January 2015 }}</ref> In common with the rest of the [[United Kingdom]], wind prevails from the south-west.<ref name="scotlandclimate">{{cite web | year = 2001 | url = http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/climate/uk/location/scotland/index.html | title = Met Office: Scottish climate | publisher = [[Met Office]] | access-date = 20 August 2007 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070527202029/http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/climate/uk/location/scotland/index.html  |archive-date = 27 May 2007}}</ref>

The windiest areas of Scotland are in the north and west; parts of the [[Western Isles]], [[Orkney]] and [[Shetland]] have over 30 days with [[gale]] force winds per year.<ref name="scotlandclimate" /> Vigorous [[Atlantic]] depressions, also known as [[European windstorm]]s, are a common feature in the autumn and winter in Scotland. The strongest wind gust recorded in Scotland was officially {{convert|278|km/h|abbr=on}} on 20 March 1986 in the [[Cairngorms]], but an unofficial wind speed of {{convert|312|km/h|abbr=on}} was recorded in the same location on 19 December 2008.<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/earth/4141762/Highlands-mountain-claims-strongest-UK-wind.html | title = Highlands mountain claims strongest UK wind|work=The Daily Telegraph|date=6 January 2009|first=Nick|last=Britten|access-date=16 January 2015}}</ref>

===Storms===
[[File:Cyclone Friedhelm, Inverclyde 1.jpeg|thumb|left|''[[Hurricane Bawbag]]'' makes landfall at [[Inverclyde]].]]

The [[1968 Scotland storm]] is described as "Central Scotland's worst natural disaster" since records began and the worst gale in the United Kingdom.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Glasgow 'Hurricane'|url=http://www.weatheronline.co.uk/cgi-app/reports?ARCHIV=0&LANG=en&MENU=Extra&JJ=2008&MM=01&TT=21&FILE=extra_ne.tit|work=Weatheronline|access-date=20 March 2012}}</ref><ref name="the age">{{cite news|title=20 dead: Scots start mop-up|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=9XwQAAAAIBAJ&pg=5233,2231819&dq=glasgow+storm&hl=en|access-date=20 March 2012|newspaper=The Age|date=17 January 1968}}</ref> 20 people died from the storm, with 9 dead in [[Glasgow]].<ref name="met office">{{cite web|title=Great Glasgow Storm – Monday 15 January 1968 |url=http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/media/pdf/o/5/Great_Glasgow_Storm_-_15_January_1968.pdf |publisher=Met Office |access-date=20 March 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140227072049/http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/media/pdf/o/5/Great_Glasgow_Storm_-_15_January_1968.pdf |archive-date=27 February 2014 }}</ref> 700 people were left homeless.<ref name="New York Times">{{cite news|title=Winds Batter Scotland; Toll Is 20 – Glasgow Hard Hit – Snow Falls in Mideast Storms Lash Europe, Mideast; Scotland Hard Hit|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1968/01/16/archives/winds-batter-scotland-toll-is-20-glasgow-hard-hit-snow-falls-in.html|access-date=20 March 2012|newspaper=The New York Times|date=16 January 1968}}</ref> The 1968 cost £30 million in damage at 1968 currency estimates.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Great Storm of 1968 |url=http://www.sunnygovan.com/PLACES/Gal5/GreatStormOf1968.html |work=SunnyGovan |access-date=20 March 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090415234556/http://www.sunnygovan.com/PLACES/Gal5/GreatStormOf1968.html |archive-date=15 April 2009 }}</ref> Cyclone Friedhelm, commonly referred to as [[Hurricane Bawbag]] in Scotland, occurred in December 2011. The storm was the worst to affect Scotland in 10 years,<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-16100074|title=Scotland battered by worst storm for 10 years|first=James|last=Cook|date=8 December 2011|access-date=8 December 2011|work=BBC News}}</ref> though a [[Cyclone Andrea|stronger storm]] occurred less than a month afterwards, on 3 January 2012,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/climate/uk/interesting/2012_janwind|title=A major winter storm brought very strong winds across much of the UK on 3 January 2012|publisher=Met Office|access-date=13 January 2013}}</ref> when a stronger storm, [[Cyclone Andrea]], hit Scotland. The worst affected area was Southern Scotland where several weather stations reported their highest gust on record. More than 100,000 Scottish homes and businesses were left without electricity. Gusts of {{convert|102|mph|km/h|abbr=on}} were recorded in Edinburgh.<ref>{{cite web|title=Winter storms, early January 2012|url=http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/climate/uk/interesting/2012_janwind/|publisher=UK Met Office|access-date=29 October 2012}}</ref>

In Scotland, wind storms can typically begin as early as September and last until as late as August,<ref>{{cite web |title=UK storm season 2023/24 |url=https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/weather/warnings-and-advice/uk-storm-centre/uk-storm-season-2023-24 |website=Met Office |access-date=29 September 2024 |language=en}}</ref> but can sometimes be as late as November and end earlier such as in February, as was the case during the 2021–2022 storm season.<ref name="auto">{{cite web |title=UK storm season 2021/22 |url=https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/weather/warnings-and-advice/uk-storm-centre/uk-storm-season-2021-22 |website=Met Office |access-date=29 September 2024 |language=en}}</ref> A rare red warning for wind affecting coastal areas Scotland's eastern coast was issued and impacted between 26 and 27 November 2021.<ref name="auto"/>

In January 2025, [[Storm Éowyn]] was anticipated to be the "most destructive" [[wind storm]] to impact Scotland in thirteen years. The [[Met Office]] issued a rare Red alert for high winds across Scotland, notably in areas such as [[East Ayrshire]], [[North Ayrshire]], [[South Ayrshire]], [[Dumfries and Galloway]], the [[Scottish Borders]] and [[Renfrewshire]]. On the evening of 23 January 2025, both the UK Government and [[Scottish Government]] issued an emergency alert to the public in preparation for the forthcoming storm. Storm Éowyn made landfall across Scotland in the morning of 24 January 2025, with many public services, such as schools, closed as a result.<ref>{{cite web |title=Emergency alert sent ahead of red weather warning for Storm Éowyn |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/articles/cg5yvj74dyzo |website=BBC News |access-date=23 January 2025 |date=23 January 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Storm Éowyn to be 'most destructive' in Scotland for 13 years |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/articles/cm23l8x85ndo |website=BBC News |access-date=23 January 2025 |date=23 January 2025}}</ref>

===Floods===
[[File:Dundee-flood.jpg|thumb|right|Flooding in [[Dundee]], 2004]]

[[Flooding]] is a regular occurrence across Scotland, and flooding can typically happen at any period during the year.<ref>{{cite web |title=Preparing for rain and flood disruption |url=https://ready.scot/respond/severe-weather/rain-and-flooding |website=ready.scot |access-date=29 September 2024}}</ref> With increased levels of rainfall in Scotland,<ref>{{cite web |title=Exploring Climate Change Impacts |url=https://education.gov.scot/media/4h1lukdt/exploring-climate-change-impact.pdf |website=Education Scotland |access-date=29 September 2024}}</ref> the country has seen a surge in the number of flooding incidents with 3,139 reported incidents during 2023–2023, a sharp increase from 1,617 in the previous year.<ref>{{cite web |title=Stormy waters: Flooding events are on the rise in Scotland |url=https://www.holyrood.com/inside-politics/view,stormy-waters-flooding-events-are-on-the-rise-in-scotland |website=Holyrood Website |access-date=29 September 2024 |language=en |date=13 November 2023}}</ref> The [[Scottish Environment Protection Agency]] (SEPA) is the [[executive non-departmental public body]] of the [[Scottish Government]] with responsibility for national flood forecasting, flood warning and strategic [[flood risk management]] authority.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gov.scot/Publications/2010/01/14151207/7 |title=Scotland's Higher Activity Radioactive Waste Policy: Consultation 2010, Part 7 |publisher=Scottish Government |date=January 2010 |access-date=21 May 2017 |archive-date=18 November 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151118042640/http://www.gov.scot/Publications/2010/01/14151207/7 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

In 1953, the [[North Sea flood of 1953|flooding of the North Sea]] caused damage estimated at £50 million at 1953 prices, approximately £1.2 billion at 2013 prices.<ref>{{cite web |title=Weather and climate news |url=https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/about-us/news-and-media/media-centre/weather-and-climate-news |website=Met Office |access-date=29 September 2024 |language=en}}</ref> Considered the most devastating storm to hit Scotland in 500 years, the surge crossed between [[Orkney]] and [[Shetland]]. The storm generated coastal and inland hazards, including flooding, erosion, destruction of coastal defences, and widespread wind damage. Damage occurred throughout the country, with 19 fatalities reported.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1080/00369220118737129 | volume=117 | issue=4 | title=The storm of 31 January to 1 February 1953 and its impact on Scotland | year=2001 | journal=Scottish Geographical Journal | pages=283–295 | last1 = Hickey | first1 = Kieran R.| bibcode=2001ScGJ..117..283H | s2cid=129865692 }}</ref> The fishing village of [[Crovie]], [[Banffshire]], built on a narrow strip of land along the [[Moray Firth]], was abandoned by many, as large structures were swept into the sea.

In 2002, [[Glasgow]] was [[2002 Glasgow floods|hit by a series of flash floods]] that occurred after [[thunderstorm]]s in the [[Scottish Lowlands]] in the end of July and beginning of August 2002. The heaviest rainfall fell on the night of Tuesday, 30 July 2002.<ref>{{cite news|title=Floods cost into 'millions'|date=2 August 2002|publisher=BBC News Online|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/scotland/2166701.stm|access-date=18 November 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Remembering Glasgow’s floods of 2002|date=11 January 2016|website=scotsman.com|url=https://www.scotsman.com/news-2-15012/remembering-glasgow-s-floods-of-2002-1-3997763|access-date=11 January 2016}}</ref> The East End of the city was worst affected, and two hundred people were evacuated from their homes in [[Greenfield, Glasgow|Greenfield]] and [[Shettleston]] on the Tuesday night.<ref>{{cite news|title=Homes evacuated after flooding|date=1 August 2002|publisher=BBC News Online|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/scotland/2161637.stm|access-date=18 November 2007}}</ref> The antiquated 19th century [[storm drain]] and sewer system in that area, having received minimal investment from [[Scottish Water]], was blamed due to its inability to deal with the high capacity of [[surface runoff]]. Many of the homes affected were in working class areas, and as a result, did not have [[contents insurance]].

== Climate change ==
{{Excerpt|Climate change in Scotland}}

Scotland's [[greenhouse gas emissions]] only accounted for 10% of the UK's emissions<ref>http://www.scotland.gov.uk/Resource/Doc/283799/0086005.pdf GHG Emissions by sector</ref> in 2003, when figures were published. 37% of Scottish emissions are in energy supply and 17% in transport. Between 1990 and 2007, Scottish net emissions have reduced by 18.7%.<ref>http://www.scotland.gov.uk/Topics/Environment/climatechange/what-is/research-science Scottish Government- Climate Change</ref> The industrial processes sector had the largest decrease, of 72% with a reduction of 48% in the public sector trailing closely behind.

The [[Climate Change (Scotland) Act 2009]] is an Act passed by the Scottish Parliament.<ref name="CCS Act 2009">[http://www.opsi.gov.uk/legislation/scotland/acts2009/pdf/asp_20090012_en.pdf Climate Change (Scotland) Act 2009], London, HMSO. [Accessed 1 May 2010]</ref> The Act includes an [[emissions target]], set for the year 2050, for a reduction of at least 80% from the baseline year, 1990.<ref name="CCS Act 2009" /> The Climate Change (Scotland) Act 2009 was amended by the Climate Change (Emissions Reduction Targets) (Scotland) Act 2019,<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.gov.scot/policies/climate-change/ | title=Climate change }}</ref> increasing the ambition of Scotland's emissions reduction targets to net zero by 2045 and revising interim and annual emissions reduction targets. Annual targets for greenhouse gas emissions must also be set, after consultation the relevant advisory bodies.

In 2020, Scotland had 12 [[gigawatt]]s (GW) of renewable electricity capacity, which produced about a quarter of total [[United Kingdom|UK]] renewable generation.<ref name="BEIS Energy Trends – Renewables">{{Cite web |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/energy-trends-section-6-renewables |title=BEIS Energy Trends – Renewables |publisher=UK Government |date=26 March 2020 |access-date=15 April 2020}}</ref> In decreasing order of capacity, Scotland's renewable generation comes from onshore wind, [[hydropower]], [[Offshore wind power|offshore wind]], [[Photovoltaic system|solar PV]] and [[biomass]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Renewable Energy Facts & Statistics {{!}} Scottish Renewables |url=https://www.scottishrenewables.com/our-industry/statistics |website=www.scottishrenewables.com |access-date=29 September 2024 |language=en}}</ref> Scotland exports much of this electricity.<ref name="Proportion of electricity generation by fuel">{{cite web |title=Proportion of electricity generation by fuel |url=https://scotland.shinyapps.io/Energy/?Section=RenLowCarbon&Subsection=RenElec&Chart=ElecGen |access-date=15 April 2020 |work=Scottish Government: Scottish Energy Statistics Hub}}</ref><ref name="RenLowCarbon">{{Cite web |title=Share of renewable electricity in gross final consumption |url=https://scotland.shinyapps.io/Energy/?Section=RenLowCarbon&Subsection=RenElec&Chart=RenElecTarget |access-date=15 April 2020 |work=Scottish Government: Scottish Energy Statistics Hub}}</ref> On 26 January 2024, the Scottish Government confirmed that Scotland generated the equivalent of 113% of Scotland's electricity consumption from renewable energy sources, making it the highest percentage figure ever recorded for renewable energy production in Scotland. It was hailed as "a significant milestone in Scotland's journey to net zero" by the [[Cabinet Secretary for Wellbeing Economy, Fair Work and Energy]], [[Neil Gray]]. It became the first time that Scotland produced more renewable energy than it actually consumed, demonstrating the "enormous potential of Scotland's green economy" as claimed by Gray.<ref>{{cite web |title=Record renewable energy output |url=https://www.gov.scot/news/record-renewable-energy-output/ |website=www.gov.scot |publisher=Scottish Government |access-date=26 January 2024}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}{{Geography of Scotland}}{{Scotland topics}}
{{Europe topic|Climate of}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Climate Of Scotland}}
[[Category:Climate of Scotland| ]]
[[Category:Climate of Europe by country]]
[[Category:Climate by country]]

Reappropriation

2025-06-19T21:40:48Z

47.32.9.63:

{{Short description|Valuing a formerly pejorative term in esteem}}
{{distinguish|Cultural appropriation}}
{{Redirect|Reclaiming|the neopagan organization of this name|Reclaiming (neopaganism)|other uses|Reclaim (disambiguation){{!}}Reclaim}}
[[File:Monet - Impression, Sunrise.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Claude Monet]]'s ''[[Impression, soleil levant]]'' was ridiculed as "Impression-ist" in 1872, but the term then became the name of the art movement, "[[impressionism]]", and painters began to self-identify as "impressionist".]]
{{Discrimination sidebar}}

In [[linguistics]], '''reappropriation''', '''reclamation''', or '''resignification'''<ref name=":02">{{Cite journal |last=Brontsema |first=Robin |date=2004-06-01 |title=A Queer Revolution: Reconceptualizing the Debate Over Linguistic Reclamation |url=https://journals.colorado.edu/index.php/cril/article/download/255/235/ |journal=Colorado Research in Linguistics |volume=17 |issue=1 |doi=10.25810/dky3-zq57 |issn=1937-7029 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210718185817/https://journals.colorado.edu/index.php/cril/article/download/255/235/ |archive-date=2021-07-18 |quote=Linguistic reclamation, also known as linguistic resignification or reappropriation, refers to the appropriation of a pejorative epithet by its target(s).}}</ref> is the [[cultural]] process by which a group reclaims words or artifacts that were previously used in a way disparaging of that group. It is a specific form of a [[semantic change]] (i.e., change in a word's meaning). Linguistic reclamation can have wider implications in the fields of [[discourse]] and has been described in terms of personal or sociopolitical [[empowerment]].

== Characteristics ==
{{Anchor|Linguistic reappropriation or reclaimation}} 

A ''reclaimed'' or ''reappropriated'' word is a word that was at one time [[pejorative]] but has been brought back into acceptable usage, usually starting within its original target, i.e. the communities that were pejoratively described by that word, and later spreading to the general populace as well.<ref name=":02" /><ref name="Slurs2">{{cite journal|last1=Croom|first1=A.M.|year=2011|title=Slurs|journal=Language Sciences|volume=33|issue=3|pages=343–358|doi=10.1016/j.langsci.2010.11.005|quote=...that slurs are in certain cases felicitously used to mean something non-derogatory (e.g. in an appropriative manner) is now a well documented linguistic phenomenon.. For instance Russell Simmons, founder of Def Jam Records, reports from the perspective of hip-hop culture that "When we say ‘nigger’ now, it’s very positive. Now all white kids who buy into hip-hop culture call each other ‘nigger’ because they have no history with the word other than something positive..."}}</ref><ref name=":1" /> Some of the terms being reclaimed have originated as non-pejorative terms that over time became pejorative. Reclaiming them can be seen as restoring their original intent. This, however, does not apply to all such words as some were used in a derogatory fashion from the very beginning.<ref name=":02" />

In terms of [[Theoretical linguistics|linguistic theory]], reappropriation can be seen as a specific case of a type of a [[semantic change]], namely, of ''amelioration'' – a process through which a word's meaning becomes more positive over time.<ref name="Curzan2014">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YKlkAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA146|title=Fixing English: Prescriptivism and Language History|first=Anne|last=Curzan|date=8 May 2014|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-02075-7|pages=146–148}}</ref>

Robin Brontsema suggested that there are at least three mutually exclusive goals of reclamation:<ref name=":02" />

# Value reversal
# Neutralization
# Stigma exploitation

Value reversal refers to changing the meaning from pejorative to positive, while neutralization refers to changing the meaning from pejorative to neutral. Stigma exploitation, finally, refers to retaining the derogatory nature of such terms as a reminder that a given group has been subject to unfair treatment.

Reclamation can be seen as both a psychological, individual process and as a sociological, society-wide process.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Godrej|first=Farah|date=2011|title=Spaces for Counter-Narratives: The Phenomenology of Reclamation|journal=Frontiers: A Journal of Women Studies|volume=32|issue=3|pages=111–133|doi=10.5250/fronjwomestud.32.3.0111|issn=0160-9009|jstor=10.5250/fronjwomestud.32.3.0111|pmid=22299194|s2cid=28011738}}</ref><ref name="Godrej2">{{cite web|url=http://mpsa.indiana.edu/conf2003papers/1032831537.pdf|title=Spaces for Counter-Narratives: The Phenomenology of Reclamation|last=Godrej|first=Farah|date=April 3, 2003|work=Paper prepared for the Midwest Political Science Association Meeting|publisher=University of Indiana|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051025220344/http://mpsa.indiana.edu/conf2003papers/1032831537.pdf|archive-date=2005-10-25|access-date=July 25, 2011}} Citing Patricia Hill Collins, ''Black Feminist Thought: Knowledge, Consciousness and the Politics of Empowerment'' (New York: Routledge, 1991)</ref> In terms of a personal process, it has been discussed in the context of empowerment that comes from "disarming the power of a dominant group to control one's own and others' views of oneself", and gaining control over the way one is described, and hence, one's [[self-image]], [[self-control]] and [[self-understanding]].<ref name="Godrej2" /><ref name=":1" /> Brontsema wrote that "At the heart of linguistic reclamation is the right of [[self-definition]], of forging and naming one's own existence."<ref name=":02" /> Other scholars have connected this concept to that of [[self-labelling]].<ref name=":1" /> The empowerment process, and the denial of language as a tool of oppression as abuse of power, has also been stressed by scholars such as [[Judith Butler]] and [[Michel Foucault]], the latter who also referred to it as a "[[reverse discourse]]".<ref name="CG" />

In terms of the wider sociopolitical empowerment process, reclamation process has also been credited with promoting [[social justice]],<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Herbert|first=Cassie|date=2015-11-01|title=Precarious projects: the performative structure of reclamation|journal=Language Sciences|series=Slurs|volume=52|pages=131–138|doi=10.1016/j.langsci.2015.05.002|issn=0388-0001}}</ref> and building [[group solidarity]];<ref name="CG" /> activist groups that engage in this process have been argued to be more likely to be seen as representative of their groups and see those groups as raising in power and status in their society.<ref name=":1" /> Scholars have argued that those who use such terms to describe themselves in the act of reappropriation "will feel powerful and therefore see his or her group label as less stigmatizing. Observers will infer that the group has power and will therefore see the label as less saturated in negativity".<ref name=":1" />

Although those terms are most often used in the context of language, this concept has also been used in relation to other cultural concepts, for example in the discussion of reappropriation of [[stereotype]]s,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Reyes|first=Angela Rosario|date=2003-01-01|title="The other Asian": Linguistic, ethnic and cultural stereotypes at an after -school Asian American teen videomaking project|url=https://repository.upenn.edu/dissertations/AAI3087455|journal=Dissertations Available from ProQuest|pages=1–347}}</ref> reappropriation of popular culture (e.g., the reappropriation of [[science fiction literature]] into elite, [[High culture|high literature]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Tamás|first=Bényei|date=2001|title=Leakings: Reappropriating Science Fiction—The Case of Kurt Vonnegut|journal=Journal of the Fantastic in the Arts|volume=11|issue=4 (44)|pages=432–453|issn=0897-0521|jstor=43308479}}</ref>), or reappropriation of traditions.<ref name="Meilicke2005">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mPEZjhVYCCsC&pg=PA23|title=Jerome Rothenberg's Experimental Poetry and Jewish Tradition|first=Christine A.|last=Meilicke|publisher=Lehigh University Press|year=2005|isbn=978-0-934223-76-8|pages=23–}}</ref>

== Controversy and objections ==
Reclaimed words often remain controversial for a time, due to their original pejorative nature. For some terms, even "reclaimed" usage by members of the community concerned is a subject of controversy.<ref name=":02" /> Often, not all members of a given community support the idea that a particular slur should be reclaimed at all.<ref name=":02" /> In other cases, a word can be seen as acceptable when used by the members of the community that has reclaimed it (in-group usage), but its use by outside parties (out-group usage) can still be seen as derogatory and thus controversial.<ref name="CG" /> For example, Brontsema noted in 2003 in his discussion of the reclaimed terms that while "[the term [[nigger]]] may be acceptable for [[African Americans]] to use it freely, it is off-limits to whites, whose usage of nigger cannot be the same, given its history and the general history of racial oppression and racial relations in the United States."<ref name=":02" /> A similar argument has been made in 2009 for words associated with the [[LGBT social movements|LGBT movement]] like [[queer]] or [[dyke (slang)|dyke]].<ref name="Mallon2009">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EdWNAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA388|title=Social Work Practice with Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender People|first=Gerald P.|last=Mallon|date=2 June 2009|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-135-26686-8|page=388}}</ref> A related discourse occurred with regards to the [[Washington Redskins name controversy]], with the [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] community divided on whether the term has been reclaimed or not.<ref name="CG" />

Those opposed to the reclamation of terms have argued that such terms are irredeemable and are forever connected to their derogatory meaning, and their usage will continue to hurt those who remember its original intent<ref name=":02" /> and even reinforce the existing stigma.<ref name=":1" /> The supporters of reclamation argue, in turn, that many such words had non-derogatory meanings that are simply being restored and that in either case, reclaiming such a word denies it to those who would want to use it to oppress others and represents a form of moral victory for the group that reclaimed it.<ref name=":02" />

In 2017, the [[US Supreme Court]] heard arguments for ''[[Matal v. Tam]]''. In that case, the [[US Patent and Trademark Office]] refused a trademark registration for an [[Asian American]] band, [[The Slants]], because it deemed the term disparaging. However, the court ruled unanimously in the band's favor. [[Washington University in St. Louis]] conducted an extensive study on reappropriation based on the band name and found that reclaimed words could be an effective tool for neutralizing disparaging words: "Reappropriation does seem to work in the sense of defusing insults, rendering them less disparaging and harmful."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://source.wustl.edu/2019/11/toward-a-more-civil-discourse/|title=Toward a more civil discourse {{!}} The Source {{!}} Washington University in St. Louis|date=2019-11-14|website=The Source|language=en-US|access-date=2019-12-06}}</ref>

==Examples==
{{Anchor|Words that could be considered reclaimed}} 

===Sex and sexuality===
There are many recent examples of linguistic reappropriation in the areas of [[human sexuality]], [[gender role]]s, [[sexual orientation]], etc. Among these are:

* [[Dyke (slang)|dyke]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nclrights.org/site/PageServer?pagename=press_pr_dykesonbikes_071405|title=Trademark Office says no to Dykes on Bikes|publisher=National Center for Lesbian Rights|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718090612/http://www.nclrights.org/site/PageServer?pagename=press_pr_dykesonbikes_071405|archive-date=2011-07-18}}</ref><ref name=":02" /><ref name="CG" />
* [[Faggot (slang)|faggot]]<ref>{{cite web |last1=Cheves |first1=Alexander |title=21 Words the Queer Community Has Reclaimed (and Some We Haven't) |url=https://www.advocate.com/arts-entertainment/2017/8/02/21-words-queer-community-has-reclaimed-and-some-we-havent |website=The Advocate |access-date=22 June 2021 |language=en |date=2017-08-02}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Ellis |first1=Philip |title=Reclaiming the word 'faggot' is a tricky business |url=https://www.gq-magazine.co.uk/lifestyle/article/faggot-meaning |website=GQ |date=6 July 2019 |publisher=Condé Nast |access-date=22 June 2021 |archive-date=16 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221016102718/https://www.gq-magazine.co.uk/lifestyle/article/faggot-meaning |url-status=dead }}</ref>
* [[hermaphrodite]]<ref name="TransStudies">{{cite book |author1 = Abbie E. Goldberg |author2 = Genny Beemyn |year= 2021 |title = The SAGE Encyclopedia of Trans Studies |publisher = SAGE Publications |page = 953 |isbn = 978-1-5443-9384-1 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Fb4IEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT953}}</ref>
* [[queer]]<ref name=":02" /><ref name="CG" />

===Politics===
In England, [[Cavalier]] was a derogatory nickname reappropriated as self-identification,<ref>{{cite EB1911|short=1 |author=Anonymous |wstitle=Cavalier |volume=5}}</ref> in contrast to the term [[Roundhead]] which, despite being used by the Royalists for the supporters of the Parliamentary cause, remained a derisory word up to the point of it being a punishable offense if used to refer to a soldier of the [[New Model Army]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Worden |first=Blair |year=2009 |title=The English Civil Wars 1640–1660|location=London |publisher=Penguin Books |page=2 |isbn=978-0-14-100694-9}}</ref> ''[[Tory]]'' (originally from the [[Middle Irish]] word for 'pursuer' {{lang|mga|[[tóraidhe]]}}), ''[[Whig (British political party)|Whig]]'' (from ''whiggamore''; see the [[Whiggamore Raid]]) and ''[[Suffragette]]'' are other British examples.

In the American colonies, British officers used [[Yankee]], a term originated in reference to Dutch settlers, as a derogatory term against the colonists. British officers created the early versions of the song "[[Yankee Doodle]]", as a criticism of the uncultured colonists, but during the Revolution, as the colonists began to reappropriate the label ''yankee'' as a point of pride, they likewise reappropriated the song, altering verses, and turning it into a patriotic anthem.<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://www.slate.com/blogs/lexicon_valley/2013/11/05/dude_etymology_of_the_word_is_traced_to_doodle_as_in_yankee_doodle_dandy.html|title = Mystery Solved: The Etymology of Dude|date = 5 Nov 2013|access-date = 10 Aug 2015|website = Slate|publisher = The Slate Group|last = Okrent|first = Arika}}</ref>

In the 1850s in the United States, a secretive political party was derisively dubbed the [[Know Nothing]] party, based on their penchant for saying "I know nothing" when asked for details by outsiders; this became the common name for the party. It eventually became a popular name, sufficiently so that consumer products like tea, candy, and even a freighter were branded with the name.<ref>William E. Gienapp. "Salmon P. Chase, Nativism, and the Formation of the Republican Party in Ohio", pp. 22, 24. ''Ohio History'', p. 93.</ref>

[[Anarchism]] was mostly a derogatory term used by opponents of collectivist forms of socialism, until it was adopted by the anarchist movement in the late 1800s.<ref>Baker, Zoe (2023). "Means And Ends: The Revolutionary Practice of Anarchism In Europe And The United States". AK Press. p. 30</ref>

During the [[2016 United States presidential election]], [[Hillary Clinton]] referred to some Trump supporters as a "[[Basket of deplorables]]". Many Trump supporters endorsed the phrase.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/politics/onpolitics/2016/09/12/deplorable-and-proud-some-trump-supporters-embrace-label/90290760/|title = 'Deplorable' and proud: Some Trump supporters embrace the label| website=[[USA Today]] }}</ref> Donald Trump also played the song "[[Do You Hear the People Sing?]]" from the musical ''[[Les Misérables (musical)|Les Misérables]]'' as an introduction to one of his rallies, using a graphic captioned "Les Deplorables".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.businessinsider.com/trump-les-miserables-deplorables-miami-2016-9|title = Trump walks onstage to theme of 'Les Miserables,' greets 'deplorables' at his Miami rally| website=[[Business Insider]] }}</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://ew.com/article/2016/09/16/donald-trump-les-mis-deplorables/|title = Donald Trump Enters Stage to 'Les Mis' Theme, Welcomes 'Deplorables'| magazine=[[Entertainment Weekly]] }}</ref> Subsequently, Trump called Clinton a "[[nasty woman]]" during the final presidential debate, resulting in that expression being described as a "rallying cry" for women.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Women Reclaim 'Nasty Woman' as Their Own Rallying Cry |url=https://www.globalcitizen.org/en/content/aghast-at-trump-women-reclaim-nasty-women-as-their/ |access-date=2020-12-15 |website=Global Citizen |date=21 October 2016 |language=en }}</ref> It was soon featured on merchandise and used by Clinton's campaign surrogates.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Hatch|first=Jenavieve|date=2016-10-20|title=18 Perfect Pieces Of Merch For The Nasty Woman In All Of Us|url=https://www.huffpost.com/entry/18-perfect-pieces-of-merch-for-the-nasty-woman-in-all-of-us_n_5807c5c4e4b0b994d4c3705c|access-date=2020-12-15|website=HuffPost|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Clinton seizes upon 'nasty woman' as Trump takes verbal self-destruction to new heights |url=https://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2016/oct/26/hillary-clinton-seizes-upon-nasty-woman-as-trump-t/ |access-date=2020-12-15 |website=The Washington Times| language=en-US}}</ref>

===Religion===
One of the older examples of successful reclaiming is the term ''[[Jesuit]]'' to refer to members of the [[Society of Jesus]]. This was originally a derogatory term referring to people who too readily invoked the name of [[Jesus]] in their politics, but that members of the Society adopted over time for themselves, so that the word came to refer exclusively to them, and generally in a positive or neutral sense,<ref>{{CathEncy|wstitle= Society of Jesus |volume= 14 |last= Pollen |first= John Hungerford |author-link= John Hungerford Pollen (Jesuit) |short=1 }}</ref> even though the term "Jesuitical" is derived from the Society of Jesus and is used to mean things like: manipulative, conspiring, treacherous, capable of intellectually justifying anything by convoluted reasoning.<ref name="Peschier2005">{{cite book|last=Peschier|first=D.|title=Nineteenth-Century Anti-Catholic Discourses: The Case of Charlotte Brontë|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iV2CDAAAQBAJ&q=Jesuitical&pg=PA49|date=21 June 2005|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|location=New York, NY|isbn=978-0-230-50502-5|page=49}}</ref><ref name="Stevenson2010">{{cite book|last=Stevenson|first=Angus|title=Oxford Dictionary of English|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=anecAQAAQBAJ&q=Jesuitical&pg=PA940|date=19 August 2010|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford, UK|isbn=978-0-19-957112-3|page=940}}</ref><ref name="Aikio">{{cite book|last1=Aikio|first1=Annukka|last2=Vornanen|first2=Rauni|title=Uusi sivistyssanakirja|date=1982|publisher=Otava|ref=Aikio|language=fi}}</ref><ref name="March1906">{{cite book|last=March|first=Francis Andrew|title=A Thesaurus Dictionary of the English Language Designed to Suggest Immediately Any Desired Word Needed to Express Exactly a Given Idea|url=https://archive.org/details/thesaurusdiction00marcrich|quote=Jesuitical.|year=1906|publisher=Historical Publishing Company|location=Philadelphia, PA|page=[https://archive.org/details/thesaurusdiction00marcrich/page/1089 1089]}}</ref>

Other examples can be found in the origins of [[Methodism]]; early members were originally mocked for their "methodical" and rule-driven religious devotion, founder [[John Wesley]] embraced the term for his movement.<ref name="Atkins-2010">{{cite book |last=Atkins |first=Martyn |url=http://www.methodist.org.uk/static/deepeningdiscipleship/discipleshipandmethodistsmatkins.pdf |title=Discipleship... and the people called Methodists |publisher=The Methodist Church in Britain |date=2010 |page=9 |asin=B006OA0XRU |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150315234625/http://methodist.org.uk/static/deepeningdiscipleship/discipleshipandmethodistsmatkins.pdf |archive-date=2015-03-15 |quote=...to be a ‘Methodist’ was originally a term of ridicule because of the zeal and rigour with which they pursued a life of holiness and sought to be the best disciples of Christ they could.}}</ref> Members of the [[Religious Society of Friends]] were termed ''Quakers'' as an epithet, but took up the term themselves. Similarly, the term [[Protestant]] was originally a derogatory term, and more recently the term [[pagan]] has been subject to a similar change in meaning.<ref name=CG>{{Cite journal|last=Coles|first=Gregory|date=2016|title=EMERGING VOICES: The exorcism of language: Reclaimed derogatory terms and their limits|journal=College English|volume=78|issue=5|pages=424–446|doi=10.58680/co201628524 |id={{ProQuest|1787109531}}}}</ref>

===Race, ethnicity, and nationality===
To a lesser extent, and more controversially among the groups referred to, many racial, ethnic, and class terms have been reappropriated:

*[[Baster]], the name is derived from bastaard, the Dutch word for "bastard". They are a Southern African ethnic group descended from White European men and Black African women. The Basters reappropriated it as a "proud name", claiming their ancestry and history.<ref name="lang">{{cite journal|title=The Population Development of the Rehoboth Basters |first=Hartmut|last=Lang|journal=Anthropos|volume= 93 |issue= 4./6 |date=1998 |pages=381–391|jstor=40464838}}</ref>
*[[Black people|Black]], ''[[negro]]'', ''[[nigga]]'', or ''[[nigger]]'' by [[African Americans]]<ref name="Slurs2"/><ref name="Kennedy-2008">{{cite book |last=Kennedy |first=Randall |title=Nigger: The Strange Career of a Troublesome Word |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VgVzXgUxFB4C&pg=PR17 |access-date=16 January 2018 |date=18 December 2008 |publisher=Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group |isbn=978-0-307-53891-8 |page=xvii |oclc=838223786}}</ref>
*Curry, used a derogatory term for [[South Asian ethnic groups|South Asians]] (often in conjunction with [[List of ethnic slurs|muncher]] or slurper), reappropriated by some members of the South Asian expatriate or [[American-Born Confused Desi]] community.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/12/11/world/australia/subtle-asian-traits-facebook-group.html|title=How 'Subtle Asian Traits' Became a Global Hit|last=Kwai|first=Isabella|date=2018-12-11|work=The New York Times|access-date=2019-10-23|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331}}</ref>
*[[Jew (word)|Jew]] by the [[Jewish people]] (the word used to be seen as pejorative in English).<ref name="MillerMorris2010">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=elfiE2XUUXgC&pg=PA153|title=Radical Poetics and Secular Jewish Culture|author1=Stephen Paul Miller|first2=Daniel|last2=Morris|publisher=University of Alabama Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0-8173-5563-0|page=153}}</ref><ref name="Weiss1998">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kRO6VMDXQloC&pg=PA66|title=Gertrude Stein and Richard Wright: The Poetics and Politics of Modernism|author=M. Lynn Weiss|publisher=Univ. Press of Mississippi|year=1998|isbn=978-1-60473-188-0|page=66}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=akwmAQAAIAAJ|title=Jewish Language Review|publisher=Association for the Study of Jewish Languages|year=1988|page=416}}</ref> That process is still not complete in some Slavic languages, where the word [[Zhyd]] can still be seen as pejorative.<ref name="timesofisrael">Winer, Stuart. 19 December 2012. "[http://www.timesofisrael.com/ukraine-okays-slur-zhyd-for-jews/ Ukraine okays 'zhyd' slur for Jews]." ''The Times of Israel''.</ref>
* ''[[Kugel (slang)|Kugel]]'', playful [[South African English]] slang for a materialistic young woman, originally was a derogatory term used by the elder generation of [[South African Jews]] for a young Jewish woman who forsook traditional Jewish dress values for those of the ostentatiously wealthy and became overly materialistic and overgroomed. The term was then reclaimed by those women.<ref>{{cite book |author=Sarah Britten |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sZTLigR2t5UC&pg=PT132 |title=The Art of the South African Insult |year=2006 |publisher=30 degrees South Publishers |pages=198–199 |isbn=978-1920143053 |access-date=July 2, 2013}}</ref>
* ''[[Peckerwood]]'', originally black slang in the Southern United States for poor whites, reclaimed by white prison gangs<ref name="Allen-1983">{{cite book |last=Allen |first=Irving L. |title=The Language of Ethnic Conflict: Social Organization and Lexical Culture |url=https://archive.org/details/languageofethnic0000alle |url-access=registration |access-date=16 January 2018 |year=1983 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-05557-4 |page=[https://archive.org/details/languageofethnic0000alle/page/127 127] |oclc=469875261}}</ref><ref name="Carceral-2006">{{cite book |last1=Carceral |first1=K.C. |last2=Bernard |first2=Thomas J |title=Prison, Inc: A Convict Exposes Life Inside a Private Prison |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UbcglPvW_5oC&pg=PA118 |access-date=16 January 2018 |series=Alternative criminology series |year=2006 |publisher=NYU Press |location=New York |isbn=978-0-8147-9954-3 |page=118 |oclc=748855316}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Peckerwood {{!}} Hate Symbols Database {{!}} ADL |author= |url=https://www.adl.org/education/references/hate-symbols/peckerwood |website=ADL |publisher=Anti-Defamation League |access-date=16 January 2018 }}</ref>
*''[[Smoggie]]'', originally a derogatory term for people from the [[North East England]] town of [[Middlesbrough]], in reference to the town's notorious [[industrial pollution]], now commonly used in self-identification.<ref name="Sarah McKeown">{{cite web|url=http://www.macmillandictionaryblog.com/smoggy|title=Ich bin ein Smoggy: reclaiming regional pride|last=McKeown|first=Sarah|date=22 June 2009|publisher=Macmillan Dictionary Blog|access-date=30 September 2013}}</ref>
* ''[[White trash]]'', a classist slur referring to [[poor white]] people, reappropriated by some in the [[Southern United States|Southern states]] of the United States of America as a cultural symbol and badge of pride<ref name="Griffin-2012">{{cite book |last1=Griffin |first1=Larry J. |last2=Hargis |first2=Peggy G. |last3=Wilson |first3=Charles Reagan |title=The New Encyclopedia of Southern Culture |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GKNULfdTxXkC&pg=PA370 |access-date=16 January 2018 |volume=20: Social Class |date=1 July 2012 |publisher=Univ of North Carolina Press |isbn=978-0-8078-8254-2 |page=370 |oclc=852835385}}</ref><ref name="Galinsky-2015">{{cite book |last1=Galinsky |first1=Adam |last2=Schweitzer |first2=Maurice |title=Friend & Foe: When to Cooperate, When to Compete, and How to Succeed at Both |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gd4MBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA129 |access-date=16 January 2018 |date=29 September 2015 |publisher=Crown Publishing Group |location=New York |isbn=978-0-307-72025-2 |page=129 |oclc=919338995 |quote=In a movie (''8 Mile''), Eminem declares, 'I'm a piece of white trash; I say it proudly.'}}</ref> - however this reappropriation has not been as evident in mainstream [[British English]] syntax where it is used in a more condescending or [[Sarcasm|sarcastic]] manner.
* ''[[Wog]]'' by Australians of [[Greek Australians|Greek]], [[Italian Australians|Italian]], [[Arab Australians|Arab]] or [[Turkish Australians|Turkish]] descent.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2005/oct/13/australia.andrewclark|title=A bad word made good|first=Andrew|last=Clark|date=12 October 2005|website=The Guardian}}</ref>
* ''Ukrop,'' originally an ethnic slur for [[Ukrainians]]. Literally "[[dill]]", a pun: Ukrainian = ukrop.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sukhov |first=Oleg |date=2014-12-18 |title=Putin unapologetic, uncompromising on war against Ukraine - Dec. 18, 2014 |url=https://archive.kyivpost.com/article/content/war-against-ukraine/putin-unapologetic-uncompromising-on-war-against-ukraine-375567.html |access-date=2024-02-10 |website=Kyiv Post}}</ref> The slur was reappropriated by Ukrainians during the [[War in Donbas (2014–2022)|war in Donbas]]<ref>{{Cite news |last=Стельмах |first=Ірина |date=2014-08-07 |title=Як українці стають «Укропами» |url=https://www.radiosvoboda.org/a/26519406.html |access-date=2024-02-10 |work=Радіо Свобода |language=uk}}</ref> and later adopted by the [[UKROP]] party.

===Disability===

* ''Cripple'', ''crip'', ''gimp'' by people with disabilities.<ref name="Baglieri-2012">{{cite book |last1=Baglieri |first1=Susan |last2=Shapiro |first2=Arthur |title=Disability Studies and the Inclusive Classroom: Critical Practices for Creating Least Restrictive Attitudes |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tkaC2eYg-eUC&pg=PA49 |access-date=16 January 2018 |volume=New York |year=2012 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-0-415-99372-2 |page=49 |oclc=768335668}}</ref>
*''[[Mad Pride|Mad]]'' by people with mental disorders.
*''[[Overweight|Fat]]'' by people who are overweight or obese, particularly by the [[body positivity]] and [[fat acceptance movement]]s

===Art movements===
* ''[[Impressionists]]'' In 1874 during their first independent art show, critic [[Louis Leroy]] penned a hostile review of the show in ''[[Le Charivari]]'' newspaper under the title "The Exhibition of the Impression-ists". In particular he used the painting ''[[Impression, Sunrise|Impression, soleil levant]]'' by [[Claude Monet]] to ridicule the painters for their lack of seriousness preferring to paint "fleeting impressions of the moment" rather than allegorical or ultra-realist themes.<ref name="Ciganiero-2014">{{cite web |last=Cigainero |first=Jake |date=October 29, 2014 |title=Dating a Seminal Painting Paris Exhibition Traces Origins of Monet's 'Impression, Sunrise' |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/10/23/arts/international/paris-exhibition-traces-origins-of-monets-impression-sunrise.html |work=The New York Times |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141115085344/http://www.nytimes.com/2014/10/23/arts/international/paris-exhibition-traces-origins-of-monets-impression-sunrise.html |archive-date=2014-11-15 |access-date=2015-12-28}}</ref><ref name="AsselinLamoureux2008">{{cite book|first1=Olivier|last1=Asselin|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hXw1kI1yt7wC&pg=PA356|title=Precarious Visualities: New Perspectives on Identification in Contemporary Art and Visual Culture|first2=Johanne|last2=Lamoureux|first3=Christine|last3=Ross|date=21 July 2008|publisher=McGill-Queen's Press – MQUP|isbn=978-0-7735-7439-7|pages=356–}}</ref>
* ''[[Stuckism]]'' is an international [[art movement]] founded in 1999; its members produce [[figurative art]]. [[Tracey Emin]], one of the [[Young British Artists]] known for their [[conceptual art]], accused her then-boyfriend of lack of imagination or reach, of being "stuck". He took on the term.<ref name="milner7">[[Charles Thomson (artist)|Thomson, Charles]] (August 2004), "A Stuckist on Stuckism: Stella Vine", from: Ed. Frank Milner (2004), ''The Stuckists Punk Victorian'', pp. 7–9, [[National Museums Liverpool]], {{ISBN|1-902700-27-9}}. Available online at [http://www.stuckism.com/Walker/AStuckistOnStuckism.html#TwoStarts "The Two Starts of Stuckism"] and [http://www.stuckism.com/Walker/AStuckistOnStuckism.html#Virtual "The Virtual Stuckists"] on stuckism.com.</ref>
* ''[[Shoegaze]]'' is a genre of music characterized by traits such as heavily distorted guitars. The term "shoegaze" was initially a pejorative label, criticizing performers for tending to stand still and closely watch their [[effects pedal]]s during concerts; however, critics and artists later began to embrace the name.<ref>The evolution of the term shoegaze and its connotations has been discussed by [[Slowdive]]'s [[Simon Scott (drummer)|Simon Scott]]. {{cite web |first=Dom |last=Gourlay |url=http://drownedinsound.com/in_depth/4136609-shoegaze-week--dis-talks-to-simon-scott-about-his-time-in-slowdive |title=Shoegaze Week: DIS Talks To Simon Scott About His Time In Slowdive |publisher=DrownedInSound |date=23 April 2009 |access-date=10 September 2015 |archive-date=6 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150906045449/http://drownedinsound.com/in_depth/4136609-shoegaze-week--dis-talks-to-simon-scott-about-his-time-in-slowdive |url-status=dead }}</ref>

=== Feminism ===
Words some feminist activists have argued should be reclaimed include:

*[[Bitch (slang)|bitch]]<ref name=":1">{{Citation|last1=Groom|first1=Carla|chapter=The reappropriation of stigmatizing labels: implications for social identity|date=2003-01-01|volume=5|pages=221–256|series=Research on Managing Groups and Teams|publisher=Emerald Group Publishing Limited|doi=10.1016/s1534-0856(02)05009-0|quote=reappropriation, the process of taking possession of a slur previously used exclusively by dominant groups to reinforce a stigmatized group’s lesser status|last2=Bodenhausen|first2=Galen V|last3=Galinsky|first3=Adam D|last4=Hugenberg|first4=Kurt|title=Identity Issues in Groups|isbn=0-7623-0951-2}}</ref>
*[[cunt]]<ref name=":02" />
*[[slut]]<ref>[[Brooke Candy|Candy, Brooke]] (2013). "[[Das Me]]". "You say that I'm a slut, It ain't your business who I'm fucking with, A dude could fuck 3 bitches and they'd say that he's the man, But I get it in with twins, she's a whore, That's what they saying, It's time to take the word back 'Slut' is now a compliment, A sexy-ass female who running shit and confident, Lady who on top of it, a female with a sex drive."</ref>
*[[lady]]<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Reid Boyd|first1=Elizabeth|title=Lady: A Feminist Four Letter Word? |journal=Women and Language|date=2012|volume=35|issue=2|pages=35–52|url=https://www.academia.edu/9400071}}</ref>

=== Others ===
*[[Nerd]] and [[geek]] by those with technical or obscure interests
*[[Military brat|Brat]] by the children of military members
*[[Etymology of ham radio|Ham Radio]] by [[Amateur radio]] operators
*[[Zef]] by [[Die Antwoord]] and [[Jack Parow]]
*[[Bastard (word)|Bastard]] by people who are adopted, orphaned, or are uncertain about who their biological parents are
*[[Pervert]] and ''freak'' by people with [[sexual fetish]]es or a proclivity for [[BDSM]]

==See also==
* [[Détournement]], a similar strategy used for images
* [[Dysphemism|Dysphemism treadmill]], the process by which offensive terms can become acceptable without deliberate intervention
* [[Gaysper]], reappropriated LGBT symbol
* [[Geographical renaming]], which can include reclaiming an earlier pre-colonial name

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

{{Discrimination}}
[[Category:Sociolinguistics]]
[[Category:Historical linguistics]]
[[Category:Stereotypes]]
[[Category:Semantics]]
[[Category:Political terminology]]
[[Category:Linguistic controversies]]

Neverland

2025-06-18T04:24:21Z

47.32.9.63:

{{short description|Fictional island in Peter Pan and other works of J. M. Barrie}}
{{Other uses}}
{{Infobox fictional location
| name = Neverland
| image = Peter pan 1911 pipes.jpg
| image_size = 200px
| alt =
| caption = Peter Pan playing the [[Pan flute|pipes]], with Neverland in the background (illustration by [[Francis Donkin Bedford|F. D. Bedford]], ''[[Peter and Wendy]]''), 1911
| image2 =
| image2_size =
| alt2 =
| caption2 =
| source = [[Peter and Wendy]]
| alt_name = Never Never Land
| creator = [[J. M. Barrie]]
| ruler =
| genre = [[Children's fantasy]]
| type = [[Fictional island]]
| ethnic_group =
| races =
| locations = Neverwood, Mermaids' Lagoon, Marooners' Rock
| people = [[Peter Pan]], [[Captain Hook]], [[Tinker Bell]], [[Tiger Lily (Peter Pan)|Tiger Lily]]
| population = [[Lost Boys (Peter Pan)|Lost Boys]], Pirates, Fairies, Native Americans, Mermaids
| first = [[Peter and Wendy|''Peter Pan or the Boy Who Would Not Grow Up'']] (1904)
| last =
| blank_label =
| blank_data =
| blank_label1 =
| blank_data1 =
| blank_label2 =
| blank_data2 =
| blank_label3 =
| blank_data3 =
}}

'''Neverland''' is a fictional island featured in the works of [[J. M. Barrie]] and those based on them. It is an imaginary faraway place where [[Peter Pan]], [[Tinker Bell]], [[Captain Hook]], the [[Lost Boys (Peter Pan)|Lost Boys]], and some other imaginary beings and creatures live.

Although not all people who come to Neverland cease to age, its best-known resident, Peter Pan, famously refused to grow up. Thus, the term is often used as a metaphor for [[Peter Pan syndrome|eternal childhood]] (and childishness), as well as [[immortality]] and [[escapism]].

The concept was first introduced as "the '''Never Never Land'''" in Barrie's [[West End theatre|West End]] [[theatre play]] ''[[Peter Pan, or The Boy Who Wouldn't Grow Up]]'', first staged in 1904. In the earliest drafts of the play, the island was called "'''Peter's Never Never Never Land'''", a name possibly influenced by the '[[Never Never (Australian outback)|Never Never]]', a contemporary term for [[outback]] Australia. In the 1928 published version of the play's script, the name was shortened to "the Never Land". Although the caption to one of [[Francis Donkin Bedford|F. D. Bedford]]'s illustrations also calls it "The Never Never Land", Barrie's 1911 novelisation ''[[Peter and Wendy]]'' simply refers to it as "the Neverland," and its many variations "the Neverlands."<ref name="PeterAndWendy">{{cite book | last = Barrie | first = James Matthew | author-link = J. M. Barrie | title = Peter and Wendy | publisher = Hodder & Stoughton | year = 1911 }}</ref>

Neverland has been featured prominently in subsequent works that either adapted Barrie's works or expanded upon them. These Neverlands sometimes vary in nature from the original.

==Description==

=== Location ===
The novel says that the Neverlands are compact enough that adventures are never far between, and that a map of a child's mind would resemble a map of Neverland, with no boundaries at all.<ref name="PeterAndWendy" /> Accordingly, Barrie explains that the Neverlands are found in the minds of children; although each is "always more or less an island" as well as having a family resemblance, they are not the same from one child to the next. For example, [[John Darling (Peter Pan)|John Darling]]'s Neverland had "a lagoon with flamingos flying over it," while his little brother [[Michael Darling (Peter Pan)|Michael]]'s had "a flamingo with lagoons flying over it."

The exact situation of Neverland is ambiguous and vague. In Barrie's original tale, the name for the real world is the Mainland, which suggests Neverland is a small island, reached by flight. Peter—who is described as saying "anything that came into his head"—tells Wendy the way to Neverland is "second to the right, and straight on till morning." In the novel, the children are said to have found the island only because it was "out looking for them." Barrie additionally writes that Neverland is near the "stars of the milky way" and it is reached "always at the time of sunrise."

In Barrie's ''[[Peter Pan in Kensington Gardens]]'' (1906), a proto-version of Neverland, located in the [[The Serpentine|Serpentine]] in [[Kensington Gardens]], is called the '''Birds' Island''', where baby Peter reaches by flight, or by sailing in a paper boat or [[Thrush (bird)|thrush]]'s nest.

[[Walt Disney]]'s 1953 ''[[Peter Pan (1953 film)|Peter Pan]]'' adds a "star" to Peter's directions: "second star to the right, and straight on till morning." From afar, these stars depict Neverland in the distance. The [[Peter Pan (2003 film)|2003 live-action film]] (produced by [[Universal Pictures]], [[Columbia Pictures]], [[Revolution Studios]], [[Red Wagon Entertainment]] and [[Allied Stars Ltd]]) repeats this representation, as the Darling children are flown through the [[Solar System]] to reach Neverland. In the 1991 film ''[[Hook (film)|Hook]]'' (produced by [[TriStar Pictures]] and [[Amblin Entertainment]]), Neverland is shown to be located in the same way as the 1953 Disney film. While flying is the only way to reach it, the film does not show exactly how Captain Hook manages to get from Neverland to London in order to kidnap Peter's children, Jack and Maggie. In ''[[Peter Pan in Scarlet]]'' (2006), by [[Geraldine McCaughrean]], Neverland is located in waters known as the 'Sea of One Thousand Islands'. The children get to the island by flying on a road called the High Way.

In [[Peter David]]'s 2009 novel ''Tigerheart'', Neverland is renamed the '''Anyplace''' and is described as being both a physical place and a dream land where human adults and children go when they dream. Additionally, there is a location called the '''Noplace''' which is cold and devoid of colour where people in a coma and those who are "lost" live. In the 2011 miniseries ''[[Neverland (miniseries)|Neverland]]'', inspired by Barrie's works, the titular place is said to be another planet existing at the centre of the universe. It is accessible only via a magic portal generated by a strange sphere.

In the 2015 American film ''[[Pan (2015 film)|Pan]]'', Neverland is a floating island in a sky-like dimension.

=== Time ===
The passage of time in Neverland is similarly ambiguous. The novel ''[[Peter and Wendy]]'' mentions that in Neverland there are many more suns and moons than on the Mainland, making time difficult to track.<ref>Barrie, J.M. (1911) ''Peter & Wendy'', Chapter 7</ref> One way to tell the time is to find the crocodile, and wait until the clock inside it strikes the hour.<ref>Barrie, J.M. (1911) ''Peter & Wendy'', Chapter 10</ref> Although Neverland is widely thought of as a place where children don't grow up, it is made clear in ''Peter and Wendy'' that [[Lost Boys (Peter Pan)|Lost Boys]] can grow up and are vaguely thinned out as punishment for doing so.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Barrie |first=James |title=Peter and Wendy |date=September 18, 2008 |publisher=Project Gutenberg |year= |pages=76-77}}</ref> Peter also explains to Wendy that fairies have short lifespans, another temporal confusion. <ref>{{Cite book |last=Barrie |first=James |title=Peter and Wendy |date=September 18, 2008 |publisher=Project Gutenberg |pages=256}}</ref>

In ''[[Peter Pan in Scarlet]]'' (2006), by [[Geraldine McCaughrean]], time freezes as soon as the children arrive in Neverland. In the 2011 miniseries ''[[Neverland (miniseries)|Neverland]]'', in which Neverland is said to be another planet entirely, time has frozen due to external cosmic forces converging on the planet, preventing anyone living there from ageing.

==Locations within Neverland==
===Canon===
In J. M. Barrie's play and novel, most of the adventures in the stories take place in the '''Neverwood''', where the [[Lost Boys (Peter Pan)|Lost Boys]] hunt and fight the pirates and Native Americans.

Peter and the Lost Boys live in the '''Home Under The Ground''', which also contains Tinker Bell's "private apartment." The Home is accessed by sliding down hollowed tree trunks, one for each boy. <blockquote>It consisted of one large room, ... with a floor in which you could dig if you wanted to go fishing, and in this floor grew stout mushrooms of a charming colour, which were used as stools. A Never tree tried hard to grow in the centre of the room, but every morning they sawed the trunk through, level with the floor."<ref>Barrie, J.M. (1911) ''Peter & Wendy'', Chapter 7 {{Page needed|date=January 2019}}</ref> </blockquote>The '''Little House''' is built from branches by the Lost Boys for Wendy after she is hit by [[Tootles]]' arrow. At the end of the play, one year after the main events in the story, the house appears in different spots every night, but always on some tree-tops. The Little House is the original "[[Wendy house]]," now the name of a children's playhouse.

The '''Jolly Roger''' is the pirates' [[brig]], described by Barrie as "a rakish-looking craft foul to the hull."<ref>Barrie, J.M. (1911) ''Peter & Wendy'', Chapter 14 {{Page needed|date=January 2019}}</ref>

The mermaids live in the '''Mermaids' Lagoon''', which is also the location of '''Marooners' Rock''', the most dangerous place in Neverland. Trapped on Marooners' Rock in the lagoon just offshore, Peter faced impending death by drowning, as he could not swim or fly from it to safety. The mermaids made no attempt to rescue him, but he was saved by the Never bird.

===Non-canon===
In the many film, television, and video game adaptations of ''Peter Pan'', adventures that originally take place in either the Mermaids' Lagoon, the Neverwood forest, or on the pirates' ship are played out in a greater number of more elaborate locations.

==== Disney ====
[[File:Neverland map.jpg|thumb|350px|right|Map of Neverland created by [[Walt Disney Productions]] as a promotion for its 1953 film ''[[Peter Pan (1953 film)|Peter Pan]]''. Users of [[Colgate-Palmolive]]'s "Peter Pan Beauty Bar with Chlorophyll" could obtain the map by mailing in three soap wrappers and fifteen cents.<ref>{{cite book |title=Language of the Land: The Library of Congress Book of Literary Maps |last1=Hopkins |first1=Martha |last2= Buscher |first2=Michael |year=1999 |publisher=[[Library of Congress]] |location=Washington, DC |isbn=0-8444-0963-4 |page=187 }}</ref>]]

In the [[Peter Pan (franchise)|Disney-franchise version]] of Neverland, many non-canon locales are added which appear variously throughout different instalments, as well as adding or giving names to implied locations within Barrie's original Neverland. These locales include:

* '''Cannibal Cove/Tiki Forest''' – A jungle environment, original to the Disney franchise, filled with [[monkey]]s, [[parrot]]s, [[Wild boar|boars]], [[cobra]]s, bees and a "host of evil traps." It is occupied by a tribe reminiscent of both African and indigenous Pacific-Islander cultures. This location appears regularly in [[Disney Channel]]'s animated series ''[[Jake and the Neverland Pirates]]''
* The '''Neverseas''' are the seas around Neverland in Disney's [[Tinker Bell (film series)|''Tinker Bell'' films]]. Some small islands can be found in it, and it seems that it can communicate with the real seas, as a normal ship comes across the path of a young James Hook in ''[[The Pirate Fairy]]''
* '''Pixie Hollow''' is where Tinker Bell and her tiny fairy friends live and dwell in Disney's [[Disney Fairies|''Tinker Bell'' franchise]]. (See [[Pixie Hollow]])
* '''Never Land Plains''' – A location where the Indians reside
* '''Skull Rock''' – A location where the "pirates are said to hide their booty."
* '''Crocodile Creek''' – A swamp environment where the Crocodile lives

==== ''Hook'' (1991) ====
In [[Steven Spielberg]]'s 1991 film ''[[Hook (film)|Hook]]'', the pirates occupy a small port town peppered with merchant shopfronts, warehouses, hotels, pubs, and an improvised baseball field, and many ships and boats of varying sizes and kinds fill the harbour. The Home Underground has also been replaced by an intricate tree house structure, which is home to a larger number of Lost Boys. In certain areas, the territory surrounding the tree house has its own unique weather (i.e; spring, summer, autumn, winter).

The Mermaids' Lagoon is directly connected to the Lost Boys' tree house structure by a giant clam-shell pulley system. The Home Underground is discovered buried and forgotten by an adult Peter in the film, underneath the new home of the Lost Boys. Neither the Indians nor their territory appear in the film, though they are mentioned by Hook during a conversation with Smee.

==== Other ====
The '''Black Castle''', which is referred to in [[Peter Pan (2003 film)|the 2003 film]], is an old ruined and abandoned castle, decorated with stone [[dragon]]s and [[gargoyle]]s. It is one of the places where [[Tiger Lily (Peter Pan)|Tiger Lily]] is taken by Captain James Hook. This sequence is based on the Marooner's Rock sequence in the original play and book: like Disney's non-canon 'Skull Rock', Black Castle replaces Marooners's Rock in this film.

'''Neverpeak Mountain''' is the huge mountain that is right in the middle of Neverland. According to ''[[Peter Pan in Scarlet]]'', when a child is on top of Neverpeak Mountain, he or she can see over anyone and anything and can see beyond belief.

'''The Maze of Regrets''' is a maze in ''Peter Pan in Scarlet'' where all the mothers of the Lost Boys go to find their boys.

==Inhabitants==

===Fairies===
{{See also|Tinker Bell|Disney Fairies}}
[[Fairy|Fairies]] are arguably the most important magical inhabitants of the Neverland, and its primary [[magic (paranormal)|magic]] users. A property of their nature is the production and possession of fairy dust, the magic material which enables flying for all characters except Peter, who was taught to fly by the birds, and later by the fairies in Kensington Gardens. The only-named fairy is [[Tinker Bell]], [[Peter Pan]]'s companion, whose name alludes to her profession as a '[[tinker]]', or fixer of pots and pans. Tinker Bell is essentially a household fairy, but far from benign. Her exotic, fiery nature, and capacity for evil and mischief, due to fairies being too small to feel more than one type of emotion at any one time, is reminiscent of the more hostile fairies encountered by Peter in Kensington Gardens.

In Barrie's play and novel, the roles of fairies are brief: they are allies to the [[Lost Boys (Peter Pan)|Lost Boys]] against the pirates, the source of fairy dust and where they act as "guides" for parties travelling to and from Neverland. They are also responsible for the collection of abandoned or lost babies from the Mainland to the Neverland. The roles and activities of the fairies are more elaborate in ''[[Peter Pan in Kensington Gardens]]'' (1906): they occupy kingdoms in the Gardens and at night "mischief children who are locked in after dark" to their deaths or entertain them before they return to their parents the following day;{{Clarify|reason=Would like clarity on what it means by "'mischief children who are locked in after dark' to their deaths or entertain them before they return to their parents the following day"|date=August 2020}} and they guard the paths to a "Proto-Neverland" called the birds' island. These fairies are more regal and engage in a variety of human activities in a magical fashion. They have courts; can grant wishes to children; and have a practical relationship with the birds, which is however "strained by differences." They are portrayed as dangerous, whimsical and extremely clever, but quite [[Hedonism|hedonistic]]. After forgetting how to fly, unable to be taught by the birds, Peter is given the power to fly again by the fairies.

Barrie writes that "when the first baby laughed for the first time, its laugh broke into a thousand pieces, ... and that was the beginning of fairies."<ref>J. M. Barrie. [[Peter Pan (play)|''Peter Pan'' play and novel]],</ref> Neverland's fairies can be killed whenever someone says they don't believe in fairies, suggesting that the race of fairies is finite and exhaustible. When dying from Hook's poison, Tinker Bell is saved when Peter and other children and adults across the Neverlands and Mainland call out "I do believe in fairies, I do, I do," so their deaths are not necessarily permanent. At the end of Barrie's novel Wendy asks Peter about Tinker Bell, whom he has forgotten and he answers, "I expect she is no more."

The ''[[Disney Fairies]]''–[[Peter Pan (franchise)|''Peter Pan'']] franchise has elaborated on aspects of Barrie's fairy mythology. The '''Never Fairies''' (and associated sparrow men) live in [[Pixie Hollow]], located in the heart of Neverland.<ref>Monique Peterson, ''In the Realm of the Never Fairies: The Secret World of Pixie Hollow'', Disney Press, 2006</ref> As stated in the [[Tinker Bell (film)|''Tinker Bell'' film]], after the baby's first laugh enters a flower, it breaks the flower into numerous pieces (the seeds), any piece that can blow with the wind and survive the trip to Pixie Hollow becomes a fairy, who then learns their specific talent.

===Birds===
In the novel and the play, between the flight from the Mainland (reality) and the Neverland, they are relatively simple animals which provide entertainment, instruction and some limited guidance to flyers. These birds are described as unable to sight its shores, "even, carrying maps and consulting them at windy corners."

The '''Never Bird''' saves Peter from drowning when he is stranded on Marooners' Rock, by giving him her nest which he uses as a sailing vessel.

In Barrie's ''[[Peter Pan in Kensington Gardens]]'', birds have a far more prominent role on a proto-Neverland called the Birds' Island. On the island, the various birds speak bird-language, described as being related to fairy language which can be understood by young humans, who used to be birds. The birds are responsible for bringing human babies into the Mainland, whose human parents send folded paper boats along the serpentine "with 'boy' or 'girl' and 'thin' or 'fat' (and so on) written", indicating to the official birds which species to send back to transform into human children, who are described as having an "itch on their backs where their wings used to be" and that their warbles are fairy/bird talk.

===Lost Boys===
{{Main|Lost Boys (Peter Pan)}}
The '''Lost Boys''' are a tribe of "children who fall out of their prams when the nurse is not looking;"<ref name="PeterAndWendy" />{{rp|{{Page needed|date=January 2019}}}} having not been claimed by humans in seven days, they were collected by the fairies and flown to the Neverland. There are no 'lost girls' because, as Peter explains, girls are much too clever to fall out of their prams and be lost in this manner.

There are six Lost Boys: Tootles, Nibs, Slightly, Curly and the Twins. They are not permitted to fly by Peter, as it is a sign of his authority and uniqueness. They live in [[tree house]]s and [[cave]]s, wear animal skins, have spears and bows and arrows, and live for adventure. They are a formidable fighting force despite their youth and they make war with the pirates, although they seem to enjoy a harmonious existence with the other inhabitants of Neverland.

===Pirates===
The crew of the [[Pirate ship]] ''Jolly Roger'' have taken up residence off-shore, and are widely feared throughout Neverland. How they came to be in Neverland is unclear. Their captain is the ruthless [[Captain Hook|James Hook]], named after the hook in place of his right hand.

==="Redskins"===
There is a tribe of [[wigwam]]-dwelling [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]]s who live on the island, referred to by Barrie as "[[Redskin]]s" or as the [[Pickaninny|Piccaninny]] tribe. Their [[Tribal chief|chief]] is Great Big Little Panther, whose daughter [[Tiger Lily (Peter Pan)|Tiger Lily]] has a crush on Peter Pan. The Piccaninny tribe are known to make ferocious and deadly war against Captain Hook and his pirates, but their connection with the Lost Boys is more lighthearted. For "many moons", the two groups have captured each other, only to promptly release the captives, as though it were a game.

===Mermaids===
[[Mermaid]]s live in the [[lagoon]]. They enjoy the company of [[Peter Pan]] but keep their distance from everyone else on the island, including the fairies. They are not sociable creatures and do not speak nor interact with outsiders. They are malevolent, hedonistic and frivolous; yet they sing and play "mermaid games" in which they "rise to the surface in extraordinary numbers to play with their bubbles," "made in [[rainbow]] water." They also "love to bask out on Marooners' Rock, combing their hair in a lazy way."

At first glance, Wendy is enchanted by their beauty, but finds them vain and irritating, as they would "splash her with their tails, not accidentally, but intentionally" when she attempted to steal a closer look. Their homes are "coral caves underneath the waves" to which they retire at sunset and rising tide, as well as in anticipation of storms. When one mermaid tries to pull Wendy into the water and drown her, Peter intervenes and hisses{{spaced ndash}}rather than crows{{spaced ndash}}at them and they quickly dive into the water and disappear. Barrie describes the mermaids' "haunting" transformation at the "turn of the moon" while "uttering strange wailing cries" at night as the lagoon becomes a very "dangerous place for mortals". The Mermaids' Lagoon is a favourite "adventure" for the children, and where they take their "midday meal". Peter gives Wendy one of the mermaids' combs as a gift.

The [[Peter Pan (2003 film)|2003 ''Peter Pan'' film]] briefly describes mermaids as different from those in traditional story books, but as "dark creatures in touch with all things mysterious," and who will drown humans who get too close, but do not harm Peter who seems to be the only one who can speak the mermaids' language. They always seem to know Hook's whereabouts on the island at any given time and tell Peter.

===Animals===
Animals (referred to as '''beasts''') live throughout Neverland, such as [[bear]]s, [[tiger]]s, [[lion]]s, [[Gray wolf|wolves]], [[flamingo]]es and [[crocodile]]s. In Barrie's original novel, these "beasts" hunt the Piccaninny tribe, who hunt the Pirates, who are themselves hunting the Lost Boys, who in turn hunt the beasts, creating a chain of prey and murder in the Neverland that only ends when one party stops or slows down, or when Peter redirects the Lost Boys to other tasks and activities. Like all the agencies of the Neverland, the animals do not need to eat, nor are they eaten when killed, nor do they reproduce (as they enjoy the same immortality as all other inhabitants), so their presence is a paradox. There are also a variety of birds, whose societies are present in the proto-Neverland described in Barrie's ''[[Peter Pan in Kensington Gardens]]''.

===Other residents===
Other inhabitants of Neverland are suggested by Barrie in his original novel, such as a "small old lady with a hooked nose", "[[gnome]]s who are mostly tailors", and [[prince]]s "with six elder brothers"{{spaced ndash}}reminiscent of European [[fairy tale]]s. Some locations are briefly described without inhabitants, but the narrator hints at their former presence, such as a "hut fast going to decay".{{fact|date=July 2024}}

In a Japanese anime series, ''[[Peter Pan: The Animated Series|The Adventures of Peter Pan]]'' (1989), the individual characters of the pirates, "redskins", and mermaids are expanded, and new characters such as the [[Schizophrenia|schizophrenic]] spellcaster princess Luna and the [[Witchcraft|witch]] Sinistra are added.{{fact|date=July 2024}}

==See also==
* [[Wonderland (fictional country)]]
* [[Looking-glass world]]
* [[Land of Oz]]
* [[Middle-earth]]
* [[Narnia (world)|Narnia]]
{{Portal |Children's literature}}

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

{{Peter Pan}}

[[Category:Peter Pan]]
[[Category:Fantasy worlds]]
[[Category:Fictional countries]]
[[Category:Fictional elements introduced in 1904]]
[[Category:Fictional islands]]
[[Category:Utopian fiction]]
[[Category:Fictional Disney locations]]

[[de:Peter Pan#Neverland]]

Murder in Mesopotamia

2025-05-25T08:00:12Z

47.32.9.63:

{{short description|1936 Poirot novel by Agatha Christie}}
{{EngvarB|date=November 2013}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2024}}
{{Infobox book
| name = Murder in Mesopotamia
| image = Murder in Mesopotamia First Edition Cover 1936.jpg
| caption = Dust-jacket illustration of the first UK edition
| author = [[Agatha Christie]]
| cover_artist = [[Robin Halliday Macartney|Robin Macartney]]
| country = United Kingdom
| series = [[Hercule Poirot]]
| language = English
| genre = [[Crime novel]]
| publisher = [[Collins Crime Club]]
| release_date = 6 July 1936
| media_type = Print (hardback & paperback)
| pages = 288
| preceded_by = [[The A.B.C. Murders]]
| followed_by = [[Cards on the Table]]}}

'''''Murder in Mesopotamia''''' is a work of [[detective fiction]] by British writer [[Agatha Christie]], first published in the UK by the [[Collins Crime Club]] on 6 July 1936<ref>{{cite news |title=Review of Murder in Mesopotamia |newspaper=[[The Observer]] |date=5 July 1936 |page=6}}</ref> and in the US by [[Dodd, Mead and Company]] later in the same year.<ref>{{cite book |first1=John |last1=Cooper |author-link=John Cooper (author) |first2=B A |last2=Pyke |title=Detective Fiction – the collector's guide |edition=2nd |pages=82, 86 |publisher=Scholar Press |year=1994 |isbn=0-85967-991-8}}</ref><ref name="US">{{cite web |url=http://home.insightbb.com/~jsmarcum/agatha35.htm |title=American Tribute to Agatha Christie |work=First edition covers |publisher=Home.insightbb.com |access-date=18 November 2013}}</ref> The UK edition retailed at seven [[shillings]] and [[British sixpence coin|sixpence]] (7/6)<ref>{{cite book |first1=Chris |last1=Peers |author-link=Chris Peers |first2=Ralph |last2=Spurrier |first3=Jamie |last3=Sturgeon |editor-first1=Peter |editor-last1=Foord |editor-first2=Richard |editor-last2=Williams |title=Collins Crime Club – A checklist of First Editions |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UtomAQAAIAAJ |publisher=Dragonby Press |edition=2nd |year=1987 |page=15|isbn=9781871122015 }}</ref> and the US edition at $2.00.<ref name="US"/> The cover was designed by Robin McCartney.{{sfn|Curran|2011|loc="El caso de los anónimos: Agatha Christie en la mesa de trabajo"}}

The book features Belgian detective [[Hercule Poirot]]. The novel is set at an archaeological excavation in [[Iraq]], and descriptive details derive from the author's visit to the Royal Cemetery at [[Ur]] where she met her husband, Sir [[Max Mallowan]], and other British archaeologists. It was [[List of Agatha Christie's Poirot episodes#Series 8 (2001–02)|adapted for television]] in 2002.

==Plot summary==
Nurse Amy Leatheran arrives at an archaeological dig near Hassanieh, [[Kingdom of Iraq|Iraq]], to assist the [[Swedish Americans|Swedish-American]] archaeologist, Dr Eric Leidner, in caring for his seemingly-[[neurosis|neurotic]] wife, Louise. During her initial days, Amy learns that Louise was married before to a German named Frederick Bosner. Fifteen years ago, during the [[World War I|Great War]], Bosner was arrested for being a spy within the [[US State Department]], and sentenced to death; he escaped custody, but died later in a train crash. Louise reveals that she received death threats claiming to be from Frederick whenever she was attracted to another man. When, three years ago, she married Leidner, they stopped until recently. A week later, after receiving another threatening letter, Louise is found dead in her bedroom in the archaeologists' [[compound (enclosure)|compound]] near the dig site. Dr Giles Reilly determines she was struck by a very heavy, blunt object.

An initial investigation, led by Captain Maitland, cannot find the murder weapon, but confirms someone on the dig must have committed the murder. Reilly learns that his friend Hercule Poirot is travelling in Iraq, and so contacts him for help. When Poirot arrives, he notes that the bedroom has only one point of entry, that the only window in the room was shut and barred, and that a rug near a washstand has blood on it. Anne Johnson, a colleague of Leidner, claims she heard a cry, yet is unsure about it. Reilly's daughter Sheila remarks that the victim had the attention of every man, especially one of Leidner's old friends Richard Carey. Poirot takes an interest in the story Louise told Nurse Leatheran about her first husband; he wonders if Bosner, or possibly his much-younger brother William (presumably still living but whereabouts unknown) is somehow among the team. Two men – [[epigraphist]] Father Lavigny and drug-addicted historian Joseph Mercado – are the right age to be Frederick. Furthermore, three younger men – dig assistants Bill Coleman and David Emmott, and photographer Carl Reiter – are the right age to be William. Reiter in particular is of German-American ancestry, and was tormented by Louise for his shyness and clumsiness. However, he seems to have an alibi. Poirot is also intrigued to find that the letters Louise received were apparently in her own handwriting.

Following Louise's funeral, Nurse Leatheran meets with Miss Johnson on the compound's roof. Johnson claims she knows how someone could have entered unseen, but does not elaborate further. That night, Miss Johnson unwittingly drinks a glass of [[hydrochloric acid]] which had been substituted for her usual glass of water on her nightstand. Amy attends to Miss Johnson, and hears her mention "the window" before she dies. The nurse does not believe Miss Johnson has committed suicide, and wonders if she hinted at how the acid was switched for the water. After spending a day sending telegrams, Poirot brings everyone together and reveals that both women were murdered by Dr Eric Leidner, who is, in reality, Frederick Bosner. The real Leidner died in the train crash 15 years ago – when Bosner came across his body and found his face disfigured, he switched their identities to escape the authorities.

Bosner was deeply possessive of Louise. To discourage her from forming relationships with other men, he sent her letters, which he carefully wrote out in her handwriting so the police would disbelieve her. The letters stopped after he married her twelve years later, when she no longer recognised him. When Louise became attracted to Richard Carey, Bosner decided to murder her to ensure no one else could have her. On the day of the murder, Bosner, on the rooftop, lured her to the window with a mask he had used to scare her on previous nights. Once she stuck her head out to investigate, he dropped a [[Quern-stone|quern]] on her, which he then pulled back to the roof via a rope he had tied to it. On the pretense of checking on her, he shut the bedroom window while moving the body and the rug beneath it to where they were later found. He then used Amy as part of his alibi to divert suspicion from himself. Miss Johnson was murdered because she had begun to realise how Louise was killed.

In the aftermath of Poirot's investigations, it is revealed that Father Lavigny is actually Raoul Menier, a dealer in stolen artifacts. As Lavigny was known to Leidner only by reputation, Menier was able to impersonate him while stealing artifacts found at the dig and replacing them with excellent copies. Thanks to warnings sent out by Poirot, Menier and his associate Ali Yusuf are arrested in [[Beiruit]]. Sheila marries David Emmott, and Nurse Leatheran returns home to England.

==Characters==
* [[Hercule Poirot]] – Renowned Belgian detective. Involved in the case, while on a trip to the Middle East.
* Amy Leatheran – A professional nurse, attending the dig of Eric Leidner to care for his wife Louise. She is the narrator of the story.
* Captain Maitland – British policeman in charge of the murder investigation.
* Louise Leidner – First victim of the case. A beautiful, intelligent American woman, and wife of Dr Eric Leidner for two years. Widowed from a brief marriage in the Great War, 15 years earlier.
* Anne Johnson – A longtime colleague of Dr Leidner from Yorkshire. Second victim of the case.
* Dr Eric Leidner – Louise's husband, and an archaeologist of some repute. Head of the dig at Tell Yarimjah near Hassanieh for five years, sponsored by the University of Pittstown (a fictional university in the United States).
* Richard Carey – A handsome man, and longtime colleague of Dr Leidner. Alleged to be having an affair with Louise.
* Dr Giles Reilly – Civil doctor in Hassanieh, and a longtime friend of Poirot. Responsible for Amy's position at the dig and Poirot's involvement in investigating Louise's murder.
* Sheila Reilly – Outspoken daughter of Dr Reilly.
* Joseph Mercado – Archaeological colleague of Leidner, having assisted on his dig for the past two years. Noted for being often fatigued and subject to violent shaking of the hands.
* Marie Mercado – Young devoted wife of Joseph. Noted for being at times strangely hostile to Mrs Leidner, Nurse Leatheran and Hercule Poirot.
* David Emmott – Quiet young American man, and worker on the dig. He is currently on his second year with the dig team, and is calm and self-possessed.
* Bill Coleman – Young man working on the dig. Despite this being his first dig, has no particular interest in archaeology and a self-professed skill for forgery.
* Carl Reiter – A young American from Chicago. Spending his first year on the dig as a photographer, and noted for being frequently subjected to ridicule by Mrs Leidner.
* Father Lavigny (Raoul Menier) – French cleric, new to the team. A specialist in epigraphy, old languages.
*Abdullah – A servant that seems to be gossiping out at the courtyard during the time of the murder.

==Literary significance and reception==
''[[The Times Literary Supplement]]'' of 18 July 1936, summarised in its review by Harry Pirie-Gordon the setup of the plot and concluded, "The plot is ingenious and the first murder very cleverly contrived but some will doubt whether Mrs Leidner, as described, could have been so forgetful and unobservant as to render the principal preliminary conditions of the story possible."<ref>{{cite news |title=Review of Murder in Mesopotamia |newspaper=The Times Literary Supplement |first=Harry |last=Pirie-Gordon |date=18 July 1936 |page=599}}</ref>

In ''[[The New York Times Book Review]]'' (20 September 1936), Kay Irvin wrote: "Agatha Christie is a past master, as every one knows, in presenting us with a full assortment of clues which we cannot read. And there are mysteries within mysteries among this quiet yet oddly troubled group of scientific workers, one of whom must have been the murderer; it is part of the author's skill to make us feel that every human character is a little mysterious, and that when crimes are committed among a group of apparently well-bred and cultivated people every one of them may be suspect. Agatha Christie's expertness in building up her detective stories, as such, to astonishing (though sometimes very far-fetched) conclusions has more or less over-shadowed her amazing versatility, not only in background and incident, but in character-drawing and actual style. The story here is told by a trained nurse – as has been done by other eminent mystery novelists. Nurse Leatheran holds her own with them all. This latest Christie opus is a smooth, highly original and completely absorbing tale".<ref>{{cite news |title=Review of Murder in Mesopotamia |newspaper=The New York Times Book Review |last=Irvin |first=Kay |date=20 September 1936 |page=24}}</ref>

In ''[[The Observer]]'' 12 July 1936 issue, "Torquemada" ([[Edward Powys Mathers]]) wrote that "Agatha Christie tells a humorous, well-observed story amongst the ruins of Tell Yarimjah, and her latest method of murder, which got me guessing and guessing fruitlessly, has, as usual, more the simplicity of a miracle than the complication of a conjuring trick. Poirot as a man is quite as delightful as ever, and Poirot as a detective not only perplexes the pleasant and not too intelligent hospital nurse, whose duty it is to tell the story, but, again as usual, the intelligent reader as well. The trouble is that he also perplexes the unprejudiced in a way most unusual to him: I for one cannot understand why he has allowed Agatha Christie to make him party to a crime whose integrity stands or falls by a central situation which, though most ingenious, is next door to impossible. The point at issue, which it would be grossly unfair to specify, between Mrs Christie and the reader is one which would provide a really interesting [[silly season]] correspondence." He concluded that "usually Poirot is to be toasted in anything handy, and no heel-taps; this time I drink to him a rather sorrowful glass of Lachryma Christie."<ref>{{cite news |title=Review of Murder in Mesopotamia |newspaper=[[The Observer]] |author=Torquemada |author-link=Edward Powys Mathers |date=12 July 1936 |page=7}}</ref>

The ''[[Daily Mirror]]'' (9 July 1936) wrote: "Don't start reading this if you've got something to do or want a book just for a quarter of an hour or so. Because you simply won't put it down til you've reached the last sentence." The review finished by saying, "Agatha Christie's grand. In this tale of peculiarly placed murder she's given us another rattling good tale."<ref>{{cite news |title=Review of Murder in Mesopotamia |newspaper=[[Daily Mirror]] |date=9 July 1936 |page=21}}</ref>

[[Robert Barnard]] remarked that an "Archaeological dig provides unusual setting, expertly and entertainingly presented. Wife-victim surely based on Katherine Woolley, and very well done. Narrated by nurse, a temporary Hastings-substitute—soon she found she could do without such a figure altogether." Barnard was pleased with the main character and that Christie did not use Hastings in the novel, but in summary felt that the novel was "Marred by an ending which goes beyond the improbable to the inconceivable."<ref>{{cite book |last=Barnard |first=Robert |author-link=Robert Barnard |title=A talent to deceive: an appreciation of Agatha Christie |page=198 |publisher=[[Dodd, Mead]] |year=1980 |isbn=0-00-637474-3}}</ref>

==References or Allusions==
Christie reportedly based the character of Louise Leidner on [[Katharine Woolley]], the wife of archaeologist Sir [[Leonard Woolley]]. Christie's husband [[Max Mallowan]] had worked on Woolley's excavation at [[Ur]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ur-online.org/personorg/13/|title=Katharine Elizabeth (Menke) (Keeling) Woolley|website=UrOnline|publisher=The [[British Museum]] and [[Penn Museum]]|access-date=26 August 2016}}</ref>

===References to other works===
*Although this novel was published in 1936, the events described are stated to have taken place three years earlier. It is when he returns from Mesopotamia that Poirot travels on the Orient Express and solves the [[Murder on the Orient Express|murder that takes place aboard it]].
*In Chapter XII, Dr Leidner recalls hearing a "Mr Van Aldin" speak highly of Poirot. Rufus Van Aldin was a prominent character in Christie's earlier work ''[[The Mystery of the Blue Train]]''.
*In one chapter Nurse Leatheran is said to have spent the afternoon reading the detective novel ''[[The Nursing Home Murder]]'', which is the name of a well-known novel by [[Ngaio Marsh]], but the ending of Nurse Leatheran's book differs from the ending of Marsh's.
*In Chapter 6 and 9, similarities are drawn between Louise Leidner and [[La Belle Dame sans Merci]], a [[femme fatale]] figure from an 1819 ballad by [[John Keats]].<ref name="christie_1936_mesopotamia">{{cite book | title = Murder in Mesopotamia | last = Christie | first = Agatha | date = 1936 | chapter = Chapter 19. A New Suspicion | location = London | publisher = Published for the Crime club by Collins | oclc = 938286864 | author-link = Agatha Christie | quote = But Mrs Leidner was something out of the ordinary in that line. She'd got just that sort of calamitous magic that plays the deuce with things – a kind of Belle Dame sans Merci.}}</ref>

===References in other works===
*In ''[[Death on the Nile]]'', Poirot credits his experience on the expedition with developing his methods in detection. He muses: "Once I went professionally to an archaeological expedition—and I learnt something there. In the course of an excavation, when something comes up out of the ground, everything is cleared away very carefully all around it. You take away the loose earth, and you scrape here and there with a knife until finally your object is there, all alone, ready to be drawn and photographed with no extraneous matter confusing it. This is what I have been seeking to do—clear away the extraneous matter so that we can see the truth..."

==Adaptations==

===Television===
''Murder in Mesopotamia'' was adapted as an episode for the series ''[[Agatha Christie's Poirot]]'' on 2 June 2002. It starred [[David Suchet]] as Hercule Poirot,<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.elmundo.es/television/programacion-tv/peliculas/14915545_agatha-christie-poirot-asesinato-en-mesopotamia.html |title=Agatha Christie: Poirot. Asesinato en Mesopotamia |newspaper=[[El Mundo (Spain)|El Mundo]] |language=es |date=1 December 2017 |access-date=4 December 2017 |agency=[[Paramount Channel]]}}</ref> and was filmed on location at the Hotel Casino in [[Hammam Lif]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://looklex.com/tunisia/hammam_lif.htm|title=Tunisians all through the night |work=LookLex |access-date=15 June 2020}}</ref> and on the [[Uthina]] Archaeological site, both in [[Tunisia]]. While it remained faithful to the main plot elements of the novel, including the murder, the motive, and the denouement, the adaptation made a number of changes:

* The characters of Dr Giles Reilly, Mr Reiter and David Emmott, are omitted.
* Sheila Reilly becomes Captain Maitland's daughter – her surname is changed as a result, while her character is more pleasant.
* The character of [[Captain Hastings]] is added – apart from being Poirot's assistant in the case, relegating Amy Leatheran to being another suspect in the case, he is also the uncle of William Coleman, whom he is visiting.
* Poirot is in Iraq mainly to meet with Countess Vera Rossakoff, after receiving a telegram from her asking for his help; she has already left by the time he arrives, and he is only made aware of this via a telephone message he receives when the case is solved.
* Poirot visits the archaeological dig when he arrives, and so meets with Louise when she is alive – as a result, he learns about her first marriage and the letters she received from her directly, and not through Amy.
* Joseph Mercado's drug addiction is much stronger in tone – he murders his supplier before Poirot arrives to see the dig site, and later commits suicide out of guilt.
* Raoul Menier and Ali Yusuf are not identified when the theft of artefacts is exposed. Both men are also not arrested; Poirot mainly informs Captain Maitland to have the border posts keep a look out for them.

===Radio===
[[Michael Bakewell]] [[Hercule Poirot (radio series)|adapted]] ''Murder in Mesopotamia'' for [[BBC Radio 4]], featuring [[John Moffatt (actor)|John Moffatt]] as Poirot.<ref name="bbcr4_20091024_radio">{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b00dhtsl |title=Murder in Mesopotamia |publisher=[[BBC Radio 4]] |date=24 October 2009 |access-date=1 December 2018}}</ref><ref name="christie_2003_mesopotamia-cd">{{cite AV media| people = Christie, Agatha (author); Bakewell, Michael| date = 2003| title = Murder in Mesopotamia : A BBC Radio 4 full-cast dramatisation| medium = audio compact disc| language = en| location = Bath| publisher = BBC Audiobooks| isbn = 9780563494232| oclc = 938615128}}</ref>

===Graphic novel===
''Murder in Mesopotamia'' was released by [[HarperCollins]] as a [[graphic novel]] adaptation on 1 July 2008, adapted by François Rivière and illustrated by "Chandre" ({{ISBN|0-00-727530-7}}). This was translated from the edition first published in France by [[:fr:Emmanuel Proust éditions|Emmanuel Proust éditions]] in 2005 under the title of ''Meurtre en Mésopotamie''.

==Publication history==
* 1936, Collins Crime Club (London), 6 July 1936, Hardcover, 288 pp
* 1936, Dodd Mead and Company (New York), Hardcover, 298 pp
* 1944, [[Dell Books]] (New York), Paperback, (Dell number 145 [[Mapback|[mapback]]]), 223 pp
* 1952, [[Pan Books]], Paperback, (Pan number 200)
* 1955, [[Penguin Books]], Paperback, (Penguin number 1099), 219 pp
* 1962, Fontana Books (Imprint of [[HarperCollins]]), Paperback, 190 pp
* 1969, Ulverscroft [[Large-print]] Edition, Hardcover, 367 pp; {{ISBN|0-85456-667-8}}
* 2007, Poirot Facsimile Edition (Facsimile of 1936 UK First Edition), HarperCollins, 5 February 2007, Hardcover; {{ISBN|0-00-723444-9}}

The book was first serialised in the US in ''[[The Saturday Evening Post]]'' in six instalments from 9 November (Volume 208, Number 19) to 14 December 1935 (Volume 208, Number 24) with illustrations by F. R. Gruger.

In the UK, the novel was serialised as an abridged version in the weekly ''Women's Pictorial'' magazine in eight instalments from 8 February (Volume 31, Number 787) to 28 March 1936 (Volume 31, Number 794) under the title ''No Other Love''. There were no chapter divisions and all of the instalments carried illustrations by [[Clive Uptton]]. Several character names were different from the eventual published novel: Amy Leatheran became Amy Seymour while Mr and Mrs Leidner were surnamed Trevor.<ref>Holdings at the [[British Library]] (Newspapers – Colindale). Shelfmark: NPL LON TB12.</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Bibliography==
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book |last=Curran |first=John |title=Agatha Christie. Los cuadernos secretos |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GeMIxzbEaWQC |publisher=[[Penguin Random House]] Grupo Editorial España |language=es |year=2011 |pages=568 |isbn=9788483652633}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20090208234824/http://agathachristie.com/story-explorer/stories/murder-in-mesopotamia-1/ ''Murder in Mesopotamia''] at the official Agatha Christie website
* [http://www.agathachristie.com/stories/murder-in-mesopotamia ''Murder in Mesopotamia''] at The Home of Agatha Christie website
*{{IMDb title|qid=Q3307591|title=Murder in Mesopotamia (2001)}}
*[https://archive.today/20130414235457/http://www.gwthomas.org/murderinmeso.htm ''G W Thomas''] Autobiographical aspects of ''Murder in Mesopotamia'' retrieved 21 April 2012

{{Hercule Poirot}}
{{Agatha Christie}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Murder in Mesopotamia}}
[[Category:1936 British novels]]
[[Category:Hercule Poirot novels]]
[[Category:Works originally published in The Saturday Evening Post]]
[[Category:Novels first published in serial form]]
[[Category:Novels set in Iraq]]
[[Category:Collins Crime Club books]]
[[Category:Fiction about uxoricide]]
[[Category:British novels adapted into television shows]]

Shelley Winters

2025-05-24T02:07:42Z

47.32.9.63:

{{Short description|American actress (1920–2006)}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=July 2024}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Shelley Winters
| image = Studio publicity Shelley Winters.jpg
| caption = Winters in 1951
| birth_name = Shirley Schrift
| birth_date = {{birth date|1920|8|18}}
| birth_place = [[St. Louis|St. Louis, Missouri]], U.S.
| death_date = {{death date and age|2006|1|14|1920|8|18}}
| death_place = [[Beverly Hills, California]], U.S.
| resting_place = [[Hillside Memorial Park Cemetery]]
| alma_mater = [[The New School]]
| occupation = Actress
| years_active = 1936–1999
| spouse = {{plainlist|
* {{marriage|Mack Paul Mayer|1943|1948|reason=divorce}}
* {{marriage|[[Vittorio Gassman]]|1952|1954|reason=divorce}}
* {{marriage|[[Anthony Franciosa]]|1957|1960|reason=divorce}}
* {{marriage|Gerry DeFord|2006}}
}}
| children = 1
}}
'''Shelley Winters''' (born '''Shirley Schrift'''; August 18, 1920 – January 14, 2006) was an American film actress whose career spanned seven decades. She won [[Academy Awards]] for ''[[The Diary of Anne Frank (1959 film)|The Diary of Anne Frank]]'' (1959) and ''[[A Patch of Blue]]'' (1965), and received nominations for ''[[A Place in the Sun (1951 film)|A Place in the Sun]]'' (1951) and ''[[The Poseidon Adventure (1972 film)|The Poseidon Adventure]]'' (1972), the latter of which also earned her a [[Golden Globe Award]] for [[Golden Globe Award|Best Actress in a Supporting Role - Motion Picture]]. She also appeared in ''[[A Double Life (1947 film)|A Double Life]]'' (1947), ''[[The Night of the Hunter (film)|The Night of the Hunter]]'' (1955), ''[[Lolita (1962 film)|Lolita]]'' (1962), ''[[Alfie (1966 film)|Alfie]]'' (1966), ''[[Next Stop, Greenwich Village]]'' (1976), and ''[[Pete's Dragon (1977 film)|Pete's Dragon]]'' (1977). She also acted on television, including a tenure on the sitcom ''[[Roseanne]]'', and wrote three autobiographies.

Winters was a member of the executive committee of the Writers and Artists for Peace in the Middle East, a pro-Israel group.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Gop Platform Committee Urged to Give Support to Israel |url=https://www.jta.org/archive/gop-platform-committee-urged-to-give-support-to-israel |access-date=2025-05-23 |website=Jewish Telegraphic Agency |language=en-US}}</ref>

==Early life==
Shelley Winters was born Shirley Schrift in [[St. Louis]], Missouri, the daughter of Rose (née Winter), a singer with St. Louis Municipal Opera Theatre ("[[The Muny]]"), and Jonas Schrift, a designer of men's clothing.<ref name="obit">{{cite news| url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/01/15/nyregion/15winters.html|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|title=Shelley Winters, Tough-Talking Oscar Winner in 'Anne Frank' and 'Patch of Blue', Dies|author=Harmetz, Aljean|author-link=Aljean Harmetz| date=January 15, 2006|access-date=May 23, 2010}}</ref> Her parents were [[Jewish]];<ref name="bdp" /><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.jweekly.com/2006/02/10/celebrity-jews-90/|title=Celebrity Jews|work= The Jewish News of Northern California|author= Nate Bloom|date=February 10, 2006}}</ref> her father migrated from [[Hrymailiv|Grzymałów]], [[Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria|Galicia]], [[Austria-Hungary]], in what is now Ukraine, and her mother was born in St. Louis to Austrian immigrants who were also from Grzymałów.<ref name="bdp">{{cite web|url=http://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/winters-shelley |work=Jewish Women's Archive|title=Shelley Winters|access-date=May 9, 2017}}</ref> Her parents were third cousins. Her Jewish education included attendance at the Jamaica Jewish Center and learning [[Jewish music|Hebrew songs]] at her public school.<ref name="bdp" /> Her family moved to [[Brooklyn]], New York, when she was nine years old,<ref name="lowe">{{cite interview|interviewer=Skip E. Lowe| first=Shelley|last=Winters|year=1988|work=Skip E. Lowe Looks at Hollywood|title=Shelley Winters}}</ref> and she grew up partly in [[Queens]], New York, as well.<ref>1930 United States Federal Census.</ref> As a young woman, she worked as a model.<ref>1940 United States Federal Census.</ref> Her sister Blanche Schrift later married George Boroff, who ran the Circle Theatre (now named [[El Centro Theatre]]) in [[Los Angeles]], California. At age 16, Winters relocated to Los Angeles,<ref name="lowe" /> and later returned to New York to study acting at [[The New School]].<ref>{{cite web|url= https://www.nytimes.com/1994/04/07/theater/actors-studio-to-teach-program-at-new-school.html|author=Collins, Glenn|date= April 7, 1994|access-date=May 9, 2017|title=Actors Studio to Teach Program at New School|work=The New York Times}}</ref>

==Career==
===1940–1946: Broadway debut and early films ===
[[File:SHelleywinters.jpg|thumb|left|Studio publicity portrait of Winters circa 1940s]]
Winters made her Broadway debut in ''The Night Before Christmas'' (1941) which had a short run. She had a small part in ''Rosalinda'', an adaptation of ''[[Die Fledermaus]]'' (1942–44) which ran for 611 performances. Winters first received acclaim when she joined the cast of ''[[Oklahoma!]]'' as [[Ado Annie]].<ref name="tele">{{cite news|title=Obituary of Shelley Winters Versatile actress whose career spanned half a century and took her from good-time girls to Jewish mothers|work=The Daily Telegraph|date=January 16, 2006|page=021}}</ref>

She received a long-term contract at Columbia and moved to Los Angeles. Winters' first film appearance was an uncredited bit in ''[[There's Something About a Soldier (1943 film)|There's Something About a Soldier]]'' (1943) at Columbia. She had another small bit in ''[[What a Woman!]]'' (1943) but a bigger part in a [[B movie]], ''Sailor's Holiday'' (1944).<ref name="bob">{{cite news|title=Two-time Oscar winner first won fame as sexpot|edition=Third|author=Thomas, Bob|agency=ASSOCIATED PRESS|date=January 15, 2006|page=A.2}}</ref> Winters was borrowed by the [[Producers Releasing Corporation]] for ''[[Knickerbocker Holiday (film)|Knickerbocker Holiday]]'' (1944). Columbia put her in small bits in ''[[She's a Soldier Too]]'' (1944), ''[[Dancing in Manhattan]]'' (1944), ''[[Together Again (film)|Together Again]]'' (1944), ''[[Tonight and Every Night]]'' (1945), ''[[Escape in the Fog]]'' (1945), ''[[A Thousand and One Nights (1945 film)|A Thousand and One Nights]]'' (1945), and ''[[The Fighting Guardsman]]'' (1946).<ref name="bob"/> Winters had bit parts in MGM's ''[[Two Smart People]]'' (1946), and a series of films for United Artists: ''[[Susie Steps Out]]'' (1946), ''[[Abie's Irish Rose (1946 film)|Abie's Irish Rose]]'' (1946) and ''[[New Orleans (1947 film)|New Orleans]]'' (1947). She had bit parts in ''[[Living in a Big Way]]'' (1947) and ''[[Killer McCoy]]'' (1947) at MGM, ''[[The Gangster (1947 film)|The Gangster]]'' (1947) for [[King Brothers Productions]] and ''[[Red River (1948 film)|Red River]]'' (1948).<ref name="tele"/> She played Brenda Martingale in Siodmak's ''[[Cry of the City]]'' (1948).

===1947–1954: Breakthrough and acclaim ===
[[File:Winchester73 trailer Stewart Winters.png|thumb|Winters with [[James Stewart]] in ''[[Winchester 73]]'' (1950)]]
Winters first achieved stardom with her breakout performance as the victim of insane actor [[Ronald Colman]] in [[George Cukor]]'s ''[[A Double Life (1947 film)|A Double Life]]'' (1947). It was distributed by Universal, which signed Winters to a long-term contract. She had a supporting role in ''[[Larceny (1948 film)|Larceny]]'' (1948) then 20th Century Fox borrowed her for ''[[Cry of the City]]'' (1948). Winters was second-billed in ''[[Johnny Stool Pigeon]]'' (1949) with [[Howard Duff]], and ''[[Take One False Step]]'' (1949) with [[William Powell]]. Paramount borrowed her to play Myrtle in ''[[The Great Gatsby (1949 film)|The Great Gatsby]]'' (1949) with [[Alan Ladd]]. Back at Universal she was in ''[[Winchester 73]]'' (1950), opposite [[James Stewart]], a huge hit. Universal gave Winters top billing in ''[[South Sea Sinner]]'' (1950). She co-starred with [[Joel McCrea]] in ''[[Frenchie (film)|Frenchie]]'' (1950).<ref>{{cite news |last=Hopper |first=Hedda |date=July 26, 1949 |title=Walker Will Costar with Singer Grayson|work=Los Angeles Times|id={{ProQuest|165977394}}}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|author=Scheuer, P. K.|title=SHELLEY WINTERS MAY DO JEAN HARLOW'S LIFE|date=November 13, 1949|work=Los Angeles Times|id={{ProQuest|166060791}}}}</ref>
[[File:Behave Yourself! Title card (1951, Film).jpg|thumb|Title card of the movie ''[[Behave Yourself!]]'' (1951), featuring Winters]]
Winters originally broke into Hollywood films as a [[Blonde bombshell (stereotype)|blonde bombshell]] type, but quickly tired of the role's limitations. She claims to have washed off her make-up to audition for the role of Alice Tripp, the factory girl, in ''[[A Place in the Sun (1951 film)|A Place in the Sun]]'', directed by [[George Stevens]], now a landmark American film. As the Associated Press reported, the general public was unaware of how serious a craftswoman Winters was. "Although she was in demand as a character actress, Winters continued to study her craft. She attended [[Charles Laughton]]'s [[Shakespeare]] classes and worked at the [[Actors Studio]], both as student and teacher."<ref>Thomas, Bob, [[Associated Press]] (January 15, 2006). [https://www.newspapers.com/image/?clipping_id=97161174 "Shelley Winters, two-time Oscar winner, dies at 85"]. ''Elmira Star-Gazette''. p. 4. Retrieved March 7, 2022.</ref> She studied in the [[Hollywood Studio Club]], and in the late 1940s, she shared an apartment with [[Marilyn Monroe]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1995-04-09-ca-52861-story.html|title=Movies: OFF-CENTERPIECE: Dishing the Dirt With Shelley: At 72, Shelley Winters shows no sign of slowing down—but she'll stop long enough to talk about Marilyn, Monty, and the men in her life.|last=Grant|first=James|date=April 9, 1995|newspaper=Los Angeles Times|language=en-US|issn=0458-3035|access-date=November 12, 2016}}</ref> Her performance in ''[[A Place in the Sun (1951 film)|A Place in the Sun]]'' (1951), a departure from the sexpot image that her studio, [[Universal Pictures]], was grooming her for at the time, brought Winters her first acclaim, earning her a nomination for the [[Academy Award for Best Actress]]. Winters went to United Artists for ''[[He Ran All the Way]]'' (1951) with John Garfield and RKO for ''[[Behave Yourself!]]'' (1951) with [[Farley Granger]]. Winters was top-billed in ''[[The Raging Tide]]'' (1951) at Universal. She was loaned to 20th Century Fox for ''[[Phone Call from a Stranger]]'' (1952), with [[Bette Davis]].

At Universal she did ''[[Meet Danny Wilson (film)|Meet Danny Wilson]]'' (1952) with [[Frank Sinatra]] and ''[[Untamed Frontier]]'' (1952) with [[Joseph Cotten]]. She went to MGM for ''[[My Man and I]]'' (1952) with [[Ricardo Montalbán]]. She performed in ''[[A Streetcar Named Desire]]'' on stage in Los Angeles.<ref>{{cite news|title=SHELLEY WINTERS' ROLE CREATES STIR|author=Schallert, Edwin|work=Los Angeles Times|date=August 11, 1952|page=B6}}</ref> Winters took some time off for the birth of her first child in 1953. She made her TV debut in "Mantrap" for ''[[The Ford Television Theatre]]'' in 1954. At MGM, she did ''[[Executive Suite]]'' (1954) and ''[[Tennessee Champ]]'' (1954), top-billed in the latter. Winters returned to Universal to appear in ''[[Saskatchewan (film)|Saskatchewan]]'' (1954), shot on location in Canada with [[Alan Ladd]] and ''[[Playgirl (film)|Playgirl]]'' (1954) with [[Barry Sullivan (American actor)|Barry Sullivan]]. She appeared in a TV version of ''[[Sorry, Wrong Number]]''.<ref>{{cite news|title=FILMING SPEEDED AT MAJOR STUDIOS: 44 Features Will Se Made in Hollywood This Month, a Big Rise Over Spring|author=THOMAS M. PRYOR|date=August 8, 1953|page=14}}</ref>

Winters traveled to Europe to make ''[[Mambo (film)|Mambo]]'' (1954) with [[Vittorio Gassman]] who became her husband. She then shot ''[[To Dorothy a Son|Cash on Delivery]]'' (1954) in England.<ref>{{cite news|title=SHELLEY: THE NOT-SO-DUMB BLONDE|author=Richards, Dick|work=Answers|location=London|volume=126|issue=3256|date=September 25, 1954|page=2}}</ref> Winters performed in a version of ''[[The Women (play)|The Women]]'' for ''[[Producers' Showcase]]'' then had a key role in ''[[I Am a Camera (film)|I Am a Camera]]'' (1955) starring opposite [[Julie Harris (American actress)|Julie Harris]] and [[Laurence Harvey]]. Even more highly acclaimed was [[Charles Laughton]]'s 1955 ''[[The Night of the Hunter (film)|Night of the Hunter]]'' with [[Robert Mitchum]] and [[Lillian Gish]]. At Warner Bros, Winters was [[Jack Palance]]'s leading lady in ''[[I Died a Thousand Times]]'' (1955), then for RKO she co starred with [[Rory Calhoun]] in ''[[The Treasure of Pancho Villa]]'' (1955). She was in ''[[The Big Knife]]'' (1955) for [[Robert Aldrich]].<ref>{{cite news|title=SHELLEY WINTERS ; Blonde sexpot who won two Oscars|edition=First|author=Vosburgh, Dick|work=The Independent|date=January 16, 2006|page=37}}</ref>

=== 1955–1969: Establishment ===
[[File:Julie Bavasso Shelly Winters Jason Robards 1956 Obie Awards.jpg|thumb|left|Winters with [[Julie Bovasso]] and [[Jason Robards]], as the presenter of the first [[Obie Award]]s ceremony in 1956]]
Winters returned to Broadway in ''[[A Hatful of Rain]]'', in 1955–1956, opposite [[Ben Gazzara]] and future husband [[Anthony Franciosa]]. It ran for 398 performances.<ref name="pos"/><ref>{{cite news|title=Shelley Winters?|author=MAURICE ZOLOTOW|work=The Washington Post and Times-Herald|date=February 12, 1956|page=AW6}}</ref> ''Girls of Summer'' (1956–57) was directed by [[Jack Garfein]] and co-starred [[George Peppard]] but only ran for 56 performances. On TV she reprised her ''Double Life'' performance in ''[[The Alcoa Hour]]'' in 1957. She appeared in episodes of ''[[The United States Steel Hour]]'', ''Climax!'', ''[[Wagon Train]]'', ''[[Schlitz Playhouse]]'', ''[[The DuPont Show of the Month]]'', and ''[[Kraft Theatre]]''.

In 1960, she won a [[Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress|Best Supporting Actress]] Oscar for her role as Mrs. Van Daan in George Stevens' film adaptation of ''[[The Diary of Anne Frank (1959 film)|The Diary of Anne Frank]]'' (1959). She donated her award statuette to the [[Anne Frank House]] in Amsterdam.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.annefrank.org/en/anne-frank/|title=Anne Frank|date=September 28, 2018|website=Anne Frank Website}}</ref> Winters was in much demand as a character actor now, getting good roles in ''[[Odds Against Tomorrow]]'' (1959), ''[[Let No Man Write My Epitaph]]'' (1960) and ''[[The Young Savages]]'' (1961). She received excellent reviews for her performance as the man-hungry Charlotte Haze in [[Stanley Kubrick]]'s ''[[Lolita (1962 film)|Lolita]]'' (1962).

Winters returned to Broadway on ''[[The Night of the Iguana]]'' (1962), playing [[Bette Davis]]' role. She performed Off Broadway in ''Cages'' by [[Lewis John Carlino]] in 1963. Many of her roles now had a sexual component: in ''[[The Chapman Report]]'' (1962) she played an unfaithful housewife and she played madams in ''[[The Balcony (film)|The Balcony]]'' (1963) and ''[[A House Is Not a Home (film)|A House Is Not a Home]]'' (1964). She appeared in ''[[Wives and Lovers (film)|Wives and Lovers]]'' (1963) and episodes of shows such as ''[[Alcoa Theatre]]'', ''[[Ben Casey]]'', and ''[[Thirty-Minute Theatre]]''. Winters was featured in the Italian film ''[[Time of Indifference]]'' (1964) with [[Rod Steiger]] and [[Claudia Cardinale]], and had one of the many cameos in the religious epic ''[[The Greatest Story Ever Told]]'' (1965), again for George Stevens.
[[File:Gina-Lollobrigida-and-Shelley-Winters-on-set-in-Rome-142440975321.jpg|thumb|Winters with [[Gina Lollobrigida]] at the set of ''[[Buona Sera, Mrs. Campbell]]'' (1968) in Rome]]
Winters won her second Best Supporting Actress Oscar in ''[[A Patch of Blue]]'' (1965) for her performance as Rose-Ann D'Arcey, the cruel and vulgar mother of an illiterate, blind girl. She had supporting roles opposite [[Michael Caine]] in ''[[Alfie (1966 film)|Alfie]]'' (1966) and as the fading, alcoholic former starlet Fay Estabrook in ''[[Harper (film)|Harper]]'' (1966). She returned to Broadway in ''Under the Weather'' (1966) by [[Saul Bellow]] which ran for 12 performances. Winters played "Ma Parker" the villain in ''[[Batman (TV series)|Batman]]''. She was in a TV version of ''[[The Three Sisters (1966 film)|The Three Sisters]]'' (1966) and had roles in ''[[Enter Laughing (film)|Enter Laughing]]'' (1967) for [[Carl Reiner]], ''[[Armchair Theatre]]'', ''[[Bob Hope Presents the Chrysler Theatre]]'' (several episodes), ''[[The Scalphunters]]'' (1968) for [[Sydney Pollack]], ''[[Wild in the Streets]]'' (1968), ''[[Buona Sera, Mrs. Campbell]]'' (1968), ''[[Arthur? Arthur!]]'' (1969), and ''[[The Mad Room]]'' (1969).

=== 1970–1999: Later roles ===
[[File:Whoever Slew Auntie Roo Shelley Winters 1971 No 2.jpg|thumb|left|Winters as the title character in ''[[Whoever Slew Auntie Roo?]]'' (1971)]]
Winters played [[Ma Barker]] in ''[[Bloody Mama]]'' (1970) a big hit for [[Roger Corman]]. She had roles in ''[[How Do I Love Thee?]]'' (1970) and ''[[Flap (film)|Flap]]'' (1970) for [[Carol Reed]]. She returned to the stage to play Minnie Marx, mother of the [[Marx Brothers]] in the Broadway musical ''[[Minnie's Boys]]'' (1970), which ran for 80 performances. Winters wrote an evening of three one-act plays titled ''One Night Stands of a Noisy Passenger'' (1970–1971), which ran for seven performances; the cast included [[Robert De Niro]] and [[Diane Ladd]].<ref>{{cite news|title=News of the Rialto: Shelley Winters, Author Shelley Winters, Author Shelley Winters, Playwright|author=LEWIS FUNKE|work=[[The New York Times]]|date=October 11, 1970|page=107}}</ref> Winters had the lead in two horror films, ''[[Whoever Slew Auntie Roo?]]'' (1971), and ''[[What's the Matter with Helen?]]'' (1971), and two TV movies, ''[[Revenge!]]'' (1971), and ''[[A Death of Innocence]]'' (1971). She had supporting roles in ''Adventures of Nick Carter'' (1972) and had a co-starring role in ''[[Something to Hide (film)|Something to Hide]]'' (1972) with [[Peter Finch]]. She starred in ''The Vamp'' for ''[[ITV Sunday Night Theatre]]''. In ''[[The Poseidon Adventure (1972 film)|The Poseidon Adventure]]'' (1972), she was the ill-fated Belle Rosen (for which she received her final Oscar nomination). She put on weight for the role and never got rid of it.<ref name="pos">{{cite news|title=Shelley Winters: Still running her own three-ring circus Tempo Shelley Winters runs own three-ring circus|author=Clifford, Terry|work=Chicago Tribune|date=April 2, 1985|page=d1}}</ref>

Winters was top-billed in ''[[The Devil's Daughter (1973 film)|The Devil's Daughter]]'' (1973) for TV. She had a supporting role in ''[[Blume in Love]]'' (1973) for [[Paul Mazursky]] and ''[[Cleopatra Jones]]'' (1973) and leading parts in ''Big Rose: Double Trouble'' (1974) and ''The Sex Symbol'' (1974).<ref>{{cite news|title=Shelley Winters Guest on Chico|work=Los Angeles Times|date=December 6, 1974|page=h32}}</ref> Winters guest-starred on ''[[McCloud (TV series)|McCloud]]'' and ''[[Chico and the Man]]'' and was seen in ''[[Poor Pretty Eddie]]'' (1975), ''[[That Lucky Touch]]'' (1975), ''[[Journey into Fear (1975 film)|Journey Into Fear]]'' (1975), ''[[Diamonds (1975 film)|Diamonds]]'' (1975), ''[[Next Stop, Greenwich Village]]'' (1976) for [[Paul Mazursky]], ''[[The Tenant]]'' (1976) for [[Roman Polanski]], ''[[Mimì Bluette... fiore del mio giardino]]'' (1977) with [[Monica Vitti]], ''[[Tentacles (film)|Tentacles]]'' (1977), ''[[An Average Little Man]]'' (1977) with [[Alberto Sordi]], ''[[Pete's Dragon (1977 film)|Pete's Dragon]]'' (1977), ''[[The Initiation of Sarah]]'' (1978), and ''[[King of the Gypsies (film)|King of the Gypsies]]'' (1978).<ref>{{cite news|title=Busy Summer for Shelley Winters|work=Los Angeles Times|date=August 28, 1979|page=f6}}</ref> She starred in a 1978 Broadway production of [[Paul Zindel]]'s ''[[The Effect of Gamma Rays on Man-in-the-Moon Marigolds]]'', which only had a short run. Winters starred in the Italian horror film ''[[Gran bollito]]'' (1977) and played [[Gladys Presley]] in ''[[Elvis (1979 film)|Elvis]]'' (1979) for TV. She was in ''[[The Visitor (1979 film)|The Visitor]]'' (1979), ''[[City on Fire (1979 film)|City on Fire]]'' (1979), ''[[The Magician of Lublin (film)|The Magician of Lublin]]'' (1979) for [[Menahem Golan]], ''[[The French Atlantic Affair]]'' (1979) and an episode of the ABC series ''[[Vega$]]'', with Vega$ star [[Robert Urich]] . In 1980, Winters published the best-selling autobiography ''Shelley: Also Known As Shirley'' <ref>{{cite news|title=STYLE MARIAN CHRISTY; ; THIS WINTERS IS A STORMY ONE; PUSHING 60, SHELLEY IS ASCINTILLATING MATRON WHOSE ADRENALIN IS FANTASY|edition=FIRST|author=Christy, Marian|work=[[The Boston Globe]]|date=June 29, 1980|page=1}}</ref> She followed it up in 1989 with a second memoir, ''Shelley II: The Middle of My Century''.

Winters' 1980s performances included ''[[Looping (film)|Looping]]'' (1981), ''[[S.O.B. (film)|S.O.B.]]'', episodes of ''[[The Love Boat]]'', ''[[Fanny Hill (1983 film)|Sex, Lies and Renaissance]]'' (1983), ''[[Over the Brooklyn Bridge]]'' (1984), ''[[Ellie (film)|Ellie]]'' (1984), ''[[Déjà Vu (1985 film)|Déjà Vu]]'' (1985), ''[[Alice in Wonderland (1985 film)|Alice in Wonderland]]'' (1985), and ''[[The Delta Force (film)|The Delta Force]]'' (1986). She did ''[[The Gingerbread Lady]]'' on stage.<ref>{{cite news|title=THEATER: Shelley: Also known as the durable star|author=Kart, Larry|work=Chicago Tribune|date=July 19, 1981|page=c5}}</ref> She had a starring role in ''Witchfire'' (1986) and was credited as executive producer.<ref>{{cite news|title=SHELLEY WINTERS BATTLES HER EMOTIONS|edition=THIRD|author=Christy, Marian|work=[[The Boston Globe]]|date=September 3, 1989|page=91}}</ref> She was in ''Very Close Quarters'' (1986), ''[[Purple People Eater (film)|Purple People Eater]]'' (1988), and ''[[An Unremarkable Life]]'' (1989).<ref>{{cite news|title=Shelley Winters speaks and speaks|author=Boulware, Hugh|work=Chicago Tribune|date=October 30, 1989|page=C1}}</ref>

Her final performances included ''[[Touch of a Stranger]]'' (1990), ''[[Stepping Out (1991 film)|Stepping Out]]'' (1991) with [[Liza Minnelli]], ''[[Weep No More, My Lady]]'' (1992), ''[[The Pickle]]'' (1993) for Mazursky, and ''[[The Silence of the Hams]]'' (1994). Later audiences knew her primarily for her autobiographies and for her television work, in which she usually played a humorous parody of her public persona. In a recurring role in the 1990s, Winters played the title character's grandmother on the sitcom ''[[Roseanne]]''. Her final film roles were supporting ones: She played a restaurant owner and mother of an overweight cook in ''[[Heavy (film)|Heavy]]'' (1995) with [[Liv Tyler]] and [[Debbie Harry]] for [[James Mangold]]; an aristocrat in ''[[The Portrait of a Lady (film)|The Portrait of a Lady]]'' (1996), starring [[Nicole Kidman]] and [[John Malkovich]]; and an embittered nursing home administrator in 1999's ''[[Gideon (film)|Gideon]]''.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/person/208074%7C139852/Shelley-Winters/|work=Turner Classic Movies|title=Overview for Shelley Winters|access-date=May 9, 2017}}</ref> She was in comedies such as ''Backfire!'' (1995), ''[[Jury Duty (film)|Jury Duty]]'' (1995), and ''[[Mrs. Munck]]'' (1995) as well as ''Raging Angels'' (1995). Winters made an appearance at the 1998 Academy Awards telecast, which featured a tribute to Oscar winners past and present.

The Associated Press reported: "During her 50 years as a widely known personality, Winters was rarely out of the news. Her stormy marriages, her romances with famous stars, her forays into politics and feminist causes kept her name before the public. She delighted in giving provocative interviews and seemed to have an opinion on everything."{{citation needed|date=July 2024}} That led to a second career as a writer. Though not a conventional beauty, she claimed that her acting, wit, and [[chutzpah]] gave her a sex life to rival Monroe's. Her claimed partners included [[William Holden]], [[Sean Connery]], [[Burt Lancaster]], [[Errol Flynn]], and [[Marlon Brando]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Shelley: Also known as Shirley|author=Winters, Shelley|publisher=Morrow|year=1980|isbn=978-0-688-03638-6|url=https://archive.org/details/shelleyalsoknown00wint}}</ref>

==Personal life==
[[File:Shelley Winters by John Engstead.png|thumb|Winters in publicity photo, circa 1950]]

Winters was married four times. Her husbands were:
*Captain Mack Paul Mayer, whom she married on December 29, 1943, in Brooklyn.<ref>{{cite news|title=New York City, Marriage Indexes, 1907–1995}}</ref> Winters and Mayer were divorced in October 1948.<ref name="TodayShowBio">{{cite news |title=Shelley Winters dies at 85 |url=https://www.today.com/popculture/shelley-winters-dies-85-wbna10851769 |access-date=June 16, 2022 |work=TODAY.com |language=en}}</ref> Mayer was unable to deal with Shelley's "Hollywood lifestyle" and wanted a "traditional homemaker" for a wife. Mayer wore his wedding ring up until her death and kept their relationship very private.{{Citation needed|date=June 2022}}
*[[Vittorio Gassman]], whom she married on April 28, 1952, in Juárez, Mexico;<ref>{{cite news|title=''Washington Post'' Marriages, 1952}}</ref> they divorced on June 2, 1954. They had one child: Vittoria, born February 14, 1953, a physician who practices internal medicine at [[Norwalk Hospital]] in [[Norwalk, Connecticut]]. She is Winters' only child.{{Citation needed |date=November 2023}}
*[[Anthony Franciosa]], whom she married on May 4, 1957; they were divorced on November 18, 1960.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Van Matre |first1=Lynn |title=SHELLEY'S TELL-ALL ROLLS ON IN VOL. II |url=https://www.chicagotribune.com/news/ct-xpm-1989-08-21-8901060587-story.html |access-date=June 22, 2020 |work=Chicago Tribune}}</ref>
*Gerry DeFord, whom she married on January 13, 2006.<ref>{{cite web |title=Exclusive: Inside the Life, Career, and Loves of the Legendary — and 'Feisty as Hell' — Actress Shelley Winters |url=https://www.closerweekly.com/posts/shelley-winters-the-life-career-and-loves-of-the-legendary-actress/ |website=Closer Weekly |access-date=June 22, 2020 |date=July 7, 2019}}</ref>

Hours before her death, Winters married long-time companion Gerry DeFord, with whom she had lived for 19 years. Though Winters' daughter objected to the marriage, actress [[Sally Kirkland]] performed the wedding ceremony while Winters was on her deathbed. Kirkland, a minister of the [[Movement of Spiritual Inner Awareness]], also performed Winters's non-denominational last rites.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2006-jan-15-me-winters15-story.html|title=Shelley Winters, 85; Oscar Winner Went From Bombshell to Respected Actress|work=Los Angeles Times|first=Claudia|last=Luther|date=January 15, 2006|access-date=May 1, 2025}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.foxnews.com/story/shelley-winters-married-on-deathbed|title=Shelley Winters Married on Deathbed|work=Fox News|first=Roger|last=Friedman|date=January 23, 2006|access-date=May 1, 2025}}</ref>

Winters had a much-publicized romance with [[Farley Granger]] that became a long-term friendship (according to their respective autobiographies).<ref>Winters, Shelley (1980). ''Shelley, Also Known as Shirley''. New York: William Morrow and Company. p. 273. "Farley Granger and I became inseparable friends, sometimes lovers, certainly as close as brother and sister, and always there when we needed each other. We now live in the same building in New York, two floors apart. He prefers the theater now, and he does movies and TV only when he has to. He is just as handsome as he was then, except that his beautiful black, curly hair is now pepper and salt and he is more disciplined about food and exercise than I am. It's strange how our friendship has lasted through husbands and wives and fiancés and lovers and children growing up and long and short separations. Once we were talking about something, then for some reason didn't see each other for about five years, and the next time we met we just continued the same conversation. There is almost nothing I can't tell him, and I think he feels the same way about me." {{ISBN|0-688-03638-4}}.</ref><ref>Granger, Farley; Calhoun, Robert (2007). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=d_gN5dPlbRMC&dq=%22i+can%27t+even+remember%22+intitle:include+intitle:me+intitle:out&pg=PA77 Include Me Out: My Life, From Goldwyn to Broadway]''. New York. St. Martin's Griffin. p. 77. {{ISBN|978-0-312-35774-0}}.</ref> She starred with him in the 1951 film ''[[Behave Yourself!]]'' as well as in a 1957 television production of [[A. J. Cronin]]'s novel ''[[Beyond This Place (novel)|Beyond This Place]]''.

Winters was a [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrat]] and attended the 1960 Democratic National Convention.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://digital.archives.alabama.gov/cdm/ref/collection/photo/id/7891|title=Actress Shelley Winters at the Democratic National Convention of 1960. :: Alabama Photographs and Pictures Collection|website=digital.archives.alabama.gov}}</ref><ref>{{cite AV media|work=[[YouTube]]|title=1960 Democratic Convention Los Angeles Committee for the Arts|date=1960|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7opAIZ9dv3E| archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211107/7opAIZ9dv3E| archive-date=November 7, 2021 | url-status=live}}{{cbignore}}</ref> In 1965, she addressed the [[Selma March]]ers briefly outside Montgomery, Alabama on the night before they marched into the state capitol.<ref>{{cite magazine|url=http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/1965/04/10/letter-from-selma|magazine=The New Yorker|title=Letter from Selma|author=Adler, Renata|date=April 10, 1965|access-date=May 9, 2017}}</ref> Winters endorsed [[Robert F. Kennedy]]'s [[Robert F. Kennedy 1968 presidential campaign|presidential campaign]] in 1968 and [[Michael Dukakis]]'s [[Michael Dukakis 1988 presidential campaign|presidential campaign]] in 1988.<ref>{{cite web|title=Here's What RFK Did in California in 1968|date=January 10, 2008 |url=https://www.huffpost.com/entry/heres-what-rfk-did-in-cal_b_80931}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1988-06-07-ca-3918-story.html | title=Campaign '88 Gets the Star Treatment | website=[[Los Angeles Times]] | date=June 7, 1988 }}</ref>

Winters became friendly with rock singer [[Janis Joplin]] shortly before Joplin died in 1970. She invited Joplin to sit in on a class session at the Actors' Studio at its Los Angeles location. Joplin never did.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Pearl: The Obsessions and Passions of Janis Joplin: A Biography|author=Amburn, Ellis|publisher=[[Time Warner]]|date=October 1992|isbn=978-0-446-51640-2|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780446395069}}</ref>

==Death==
Winters died at the age of 85 on January 14, 2006, of [[heart failure]] at the Rehabilitation Center of Beverly Hills; she had suffered a heart attack on October 14, 2005.<ref name="obit" /> She is interred at [[Hillside Memorial Park Cemetery]] in [[Culver City, California]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7-DgDAAAQBAJ&q=Shelley+Winters+burial+site+scott+wilson&pg=PA820|title=Resting Places: The Burial Sites of More Than 14,000 Famous Persons, 3d ed.|first=Scott|last=Wilson|date=August 17, 2016|publisher=McFarland|via=Google Books|isbn=9780786479924}}</ref>

==Filmography==
[[File:Tonight-and-Every-Night-LIFE-3.jpg|thumb|Uncredited in ''[[Tonight and Every Night]]'' (1945), Winters is behind [[Rita Hayworth]].]]

===Film===
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="font-size: 100%;"
|-
! Year || Film || Role || Notes
|-Young and Innocent ( 1937)

| rowspan="2" |1943
| ''[[There's Something About a Soldier (1943 film)|There's Something About a Soldier]]''
| Norma
| rowspan="2" | uncredited
|-
| ''[[What a Woman!]]''
| Secretary
|-
| rowspan="6" |1944
| ''[[Sailor's Holiday (1944 film)|Sailor's Holiday]]''
| Gloria Flynn
| rowspan="2" | credited as Shelley Winter
|-
| ''[[Knickerbocker Holiday (film)|Knickerbocker Holiday]]''
| Ulda Tienhoven
|-
| ''[[Cover Girl (film)|Cover Girl]]''
| Chorus Girl
| rowspan="9" | uncredited
|-
| ''[[She's a Soldier Too]]''
| 'Silver' Rankin
|-
| ''[[Dancing in Manhattan]]''
| Margie
|-
| ''[[Together Again (film)|Together Again]]''
| Young Woman Fleeing Nightclub Raid
|-
| rowspan="3" |1945
| ''[[Tonight and Every Night]]''
| Bubbles
|-
| ''[[Escape in the Fog]]''
| Taxi Driver
|-
| ''[[A Thousand and One Nights (1945 film)|A Thousand and One Nights]]''
| Handmaiden
|-
| rowspan="4" |1946
| ''[[The Fighting Guardsman]]''
| Nanette
|-
| ''[[Two Smart People]]''
| Princess
|-
| ''[[Susie Steps Out]]''
| Female Singer
|
|-
| ''[[Abie's Irish Rose (1946 film)|Abie's Irish Rose]]''
| Bridesmaid
| rowspan="5" | uncredited
|-
| rowspan="5" |1947
| ''[[New Orleans (1947 film)|New Orleans]]''
| Ms. Holmbright
|-
| ''[[Living in a Big Way]]''
| Junior League Girl
|-
| ''[[The Gangster (1947 film)|The Gangster]]''
| Hazel – Cashier
|-
| ''[[Killer McCoy]]''
| Waitress / Autograph Hound
|-
| ''[[A Double Life (1947 film)|A Double Life]]''
| Pat Kroll
|
|-
| rowspan="3" |1948
| ''[[Red River (1948 film)|Red River]]''
| Dance Hall Girl in Wagon Train
| uncredited
|-
| ''[[Larceny (1948 film)|Larceny]]''
| Tory
|
|-
| ''[[Cry of the City]]''
| Brenda Martingale
|
|-
| rowspan="3" | 1949
| ''[[Take One False Step]]''
| Catherine Sykes
|
|-
| ''[[The Great Gatsby (1949 film)|The Great Gatsby]]''
| Myrtle Wilson
|
|-
| ''[[Johnny Stool Pigeon]]''
| Terry Stewart
|
|-
| rowspan="3" | 1950
| ''[[Winchester '73]]''
| Lola Manners
|
|-
| ''[[South Sea Sinner]]''
| Coral
|
|-
| ''[[Frenchie (film)|Frenchie]]''
| Frenchie Fontaine
|
|-
| rowspan="4" | 1951
| ''[[A Place in the Sun (1951 film)|A Place in the Sun]]''
| Alice Tripp
| Nominated for the [[Academy Award for Best Actress]]
|-
| ''[[He Ran All the Way]]''
| Peggy Dobbs
|
|-
| ''[[Behave Yourself!]]''
| Kate Denny
|
|-
| ''[[The Raging Tide]]''
| Connie Thatcher
|
|-
| rowspan="4" | 1952
| ''[[Phone Call from a Stranger]]''
| Binky Gay
|
|-
| ''[[Meet Danny Wilson (film)|Meet Danny Wilson]]''
| Joy Carroll
|
|-
| ''[[Untamed Frontier]]''
| Jane Stevens
|
|-
| ''[[My Man and I]]''
| Nancy
|
|-
| rowspan="6" | 1954
| ''[[Tennessee Champ]]''
| Sarah Wurble
|
|-
| ''[[Saskatchewan (film)|Saskatchewan]]''
| Grace Markey
|
|-
| ''[[Executive Suite]]''
| Eva Bardeman
|
|-
| ''[[Playgirl (film)|Playgirl]]''
| Fran Davis
|
|-
| ''[[Mambo (film)|Mambo]]''
| Toni Salermo
|
|-
| ''[[To Dorothy a Son]]''
| Myrtle La Mar
|
|-
| rowspan="5" |1955
| ''[[I Am a Camera (film)|I Am a Camera]]''
| Natalia Landauer
|
|-
| ''[[The Night of the Hunter (film)|The Night of the Hunter]]''
| Willa Harper
|
|-
| ''[[The Big Knife]]''
| Dixie Evans
| credited as Miss Shelley Winters
|-
| ''[[The Treasure of Pancho Villa]]''
| Ruth Harris
|
|-
| ''[[I Died a Thousand Times]]''
| Marie Garson
|
|-
| rowspan="2" | 1959
| ''[[The Diary of Anne Frank (1959 film)|The Diary of Anne Frank]]''
| Mrs. Petronella Van Daan
| Won the [[Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress]]
|-
| ''[[Odds Against Tomorrow]]''
| Lorry
|
|-
|1960
| ''[[Let No Man Write My Epitaph]]''
| Nellie Romano
|
|-
|1961
| ''[[The Young Savages]]''
| Mary diPace
|
|-
| rowspan="2" |1962
| ''[[Lolita (1962 film)|Lolita]]''
| Charlotte Haze
|
|-
| ''[[The Chapman Report]]''
| Sarah Garnell
|
|-
| rowspan="2" | 1963
| ''[[The Balcony (film)|The Balcony]]''
| Madame Irma
|
|-
| ''[[Wives and Lovers (film)|Wives and Lovers]]''
| Fran Cabrell
|
|-
| rowspan="2" | 1964
| ''[[A House Is Not a Home (film)|A House Is Not a Home]]''
| Polly Adler
|
|-
| ''[[Time of Indifference]]''
| Lisa
|
|-
| rowspan="2" |1965
| ''[[The Greatest Story Ever Told]]''
| Healed Woman
|
|-
| ''[[A Patch of Blue]]''
| Rose-Ann D'Arcey
| Won the [[Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress]]
|-
| rowspan="3" |1966
| ''[[Harper (film)|Harper]]''
| Fay Estabrook
|
|-
| ''[[Alfie (1966 film)|Alfie]]''
| Ruby
|
|-
| ''[[The Three Sisters (1966 film)|The Three Sisters]]''
| Natalya
|
|-
|1967
| ''[[Enter Laughing (film)|Enter Laughing]]''
| Mrs. Emma Kolowitz
|
|-
| rowspan="3" | 1968
| ''[[The Scalphunters]]''
| Kate
|
|-
| ''[[Wild in the Streets]]''
| Mrs. Daphne Flatow
|
|-
| ''[[Buona Sera, Mrs. Campbell]]''
| Shirley Newman
|
|-
| rowspan="2" |1969
| ''[[The Mad Room]]''
| Mrs. Armstrong
|
|-
| ''[[Arthur? Arthur!]]''
| Hester Green
|
|-
| rowspan="3" | 1970
| ''[[Bloody Mama]]''
| "Ma" Kate Barker
|
|-
| ''[[How Do I Love Thee?]]''
| Lena Marvin
|
|-
| ''[[Flap (film)|Flap]]''
| Dorothy Bluebell
|
|-
|| 1971
| ''[[What's the Matter with Helen?]]''
| Helen
|
|-
| rowspan="3" | 1972
| ''[[Something to Hide (film)|Something to Hide]]''
| Gabriella
|
|-
|''[[Whoever Slew Auntie Roo?]]''
| Mrs. Forrest
|
|-
|''[[The Poseidon Adventure (1972 film)|The Poseidon Adventure]]''
| Belle Rosen
| Nominated for the [[Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress]]
|-
| rowspan="3" |1973
| ''[[Blume in Love]]''
| Mrs. Cramer
|
|-
|''[[Cleopatra Jones]]''
| Mommy
|
|-
|''[[The Stone Killer]]''
| Drunk Woman in Police Station
| uncredited
|-
| rowspan="4" | 1975
| ''[[Poor Pretty Eddie]]''
| Bertha
|
|-
|''[[That Lucky Touch]]''
| Diana Steedeman
|
|-
|''[[Journey into Fear (1975 film)|Journey Into Fear]]''
| Mrs. Mathews
|
|-
|''[[Diamonds (1975 film)|Diamonds]]''
| Zelda Shapiro
|
|-
| rowspan="4" |1976
| ''La dahlia scarlatta''
|Catrina
|
|-
|''[[The Tenant]]''
| The Concierge
|
|-
|''[[Next Stop, Greenwich Village]]''
| Faye Lapinsky
|
|-
|''[[Mimì Bluette... fiore del mio giardino]]''
| Caterina
|
|-
| rowspan="4" | 1977
| ''[[Tentacles (film)|Tentacles]]''
| Tillie Turner
|
|-
|''[[An Average Little Man]]''
| Amalia Vivaldi
|
|-
|''[[Pete's Dragon (1977 film)|Pete's Dragon]]''
| Lena Gogan
|
|-
|''[[Black Journal]]''
| Lea
|
|-
|1978
| ''[[King of the Gypsies (film)|King of the Gypsies]]''
| Queen Rachel
|
|-
| rowspan="4" | 1979
|''[[The French Atlantic Affair]]''
|Helen Wabash
|
|-
|''[[The Visitor (1979 film)|The Visitor]]''
| Jane Phillips
|
|-
|''[[City on Fire (1979 film)|City on Fire]]''
| Nurse Andrea Harper
|
|-
|''[[The Magician of Lublin (film)|The Magician of Lublin]]''
| Elzbieta
|
|-
| rowspan="2" |1981
| ''[[S.O.B. (film)|S.O.B.]]''
| Eva Brown
|
|-
|''Looping''
| Carmen
|
|-
|1983
| ''[[Fanny Hill (1983 film)|Fanny Hill]]''
| Mrs. Cole
|
|-
| rowspan="2" |1984
| ''[[Over the Brooklyn Bridge]]''
| Becky
|
|-
|''[[Ellie (film)|Ellie]]''
| Cora Jackson
|
|-
| 1985
| ''[[Déjà Vu (1985 film)|Déjà Vu]]''
| Olga Nabokova
|
|-
| rowspan="3" | 1986
| ''[[The Delta Force]]''
| Edie Kaplan
|
|-
|''Witchfire''
| Lydia
|
|-
|''Very Close Quarters''
| Galina
|
|-
|1988
| ''[[Purple People Eater (film)|Purple People Eater]]''
| Rita
|
|-
|1989
| ''[[An Unremarkable Life]]''
| Evelyn McEllany
|
|-
|1990
| ''Touch of a Stranger''
|Ida
|
|-
|1991
| ''[[Stepping Out (1991 film)|Stepping Out]]''
| Mrs. Fraser
|
|-
|1992
|''Weep No More, My Lady''
|Vivian Morgan
|
|-
|1993
| ''[[The Pickle]]''
| Yetta
|
|-
|1994
| ''[[The Silence of the Hams]]''
| Mrs. Motel
|
|-
| rowspan="5" |1995
| ''[[Heavy (film)|Heavy]]''
| Dolly Modino
|
|-
| ''Backfire!''
| The Good Lieutenant
|
|-
| ''[[Jury Duty (film)|Jury Duty]]''
| Mom
|
|-
| ''[[Mrs. Munck]]''
| Aunt Monica
|
|-
| ''Raging Angels''
| Grandma Ruth
|
|-
|1996
| ''[[The Portrait of a Lady (film)|The Portrait of a Lady]]''
| Mrs. Touchett
|
|-
|1998
| ''[[Gideon (film)|Gideon]]''
| Mrs. Willows
|
|-
|1999
| ''La bomba''
| Prof. Summers
|
|-
|2006
| ''A-List''
| Herself
|
|}

===Television===
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="font-size: 100%;"
|-
! Year || Title || Role || Notes
|-
| 1954
|''[[Ford Theatre|The Ford Television Theatre]]''
|Sally Marland
| Episode: "Mantrap"
|-
|1955
|''[[Producers' Showcase]]''
|Crystal Allen
| Episode: "[[The Women (1955 TV play)|The Woman]]"
|-
| rowspan="5" | 1957
|''[[The Alcoa Hour]]''
|Pat Kroll
| Episode: "A Double Life"
|-
|''[[The United States Steel Hour]]''
|Evvie
| Episode: "Inspired Alibi"
|-
|''[[Wagon Train]]''
|Ruth Owens
| Episode: "The Ruth Owens Story"
|-
|''[[Schlitz Playhouse of Stars]]''
|Mildred Corrigan
| Episode: "Smarty"
|-
|''[[DuPont Show of the Month]]''
|Louisa Burt
| Episode: "Beyond This Place"
|-
| rowspan="2"|1960
|''[[What's My Line]]''
|Celebrity guest
|March 27, 1960, episode <ref name="WhatsMyLine">{{cite news |title=Appearance on What's My Line, March 27, 1960 |url=https://www.youtube.com/kHnXx75AVL4?t=1193 |access-date=January 15, 2023 |work=YouTube |language=en}}</ref>
|-
|''[[The Play of the Week|Play of the Week]]''
|Rose
|Episode: "A Piece of Blue Sky"
|-
| 1962
|''[[Alcoa Premiere]]''
|Meg Fletcher Millie Norman
| Episode: "The Way From Darkness" Episode: "The Cake Baker"
|-
| 1964
|''[[Bob Hope Presents the Chrysler Theatre]]''
|Jenny Dworak
| Episode: "Two is the Number" 
|-
| rowspan="2" |1965
|''[[Thirty-Minute Theatre]]''
|Mrs. Bixby
| Episode: "Mrs. Bixby and the Colonel's Coat"
|-
|''[[Bob Hope Presents the Chrysler Theatre]]''
|Edith
| Episode: "Back to Back"
|-
|1966
| ''[[Batman (TV series)|Batman]]''
| Ma Parker
| Episode: "The Greatest Mother of Them All" Episode: "Ma Parker"
|-
|1967
|''[[Bob Hope Presents the Chrysler Theatre]]''
|Clarry Golden
| Episode: "Wipeout"
|-
| 1968
|''[[Here's Lucy]]''
|Shelley Summers
| Episode: "Lucy and Miss Shelley Winters"
|-
| rowspan="2"| 1971
|''[[Revenge!]]''
|Amanda Hilton
| rowspan="6" |Television film
|-
|''[[A Death of Innocence]]''
|Elizabeth Cameron
|-
|1972
|''Adventures of Nick Carter''
|Bess Tucker
|-
|1973
|''[[The Devil's Daughter (1973 film)|The Devil's Daughter]]''
|Lilith Malone
|-
| rowspan="3" |1974
|''Big Rose: Double Trouble''
|Rose Winters
|-
|''The Sex Symbol''
|Agathy Murphy
|-
|''[[McCloud (TV series)|McCloud]]''
|Thelma
| Episode: "The Barefoot Girls of Bleecker Street"
|-
| 1975
|''[[Chico and the Man]]''
|Shirley Schrift
| Episode: "Ed Steps Out"
|-
|1976
|''[[Frosty's Winter Wonderland]]''
|Crystal (voice)
|Television film
|-
| rowspan="2" |1978
|''[[Kojak]]''
|Evelyn McNeil
| Episode: "The Captain's Brother's Wife"
|-
|''[[The Initiation of Sarah]]''
|Mrs. Erica Hunter
| rowspan="3" |Television film
|-
| rowspan="3" |1979
|''[[Rudolph and Frosty's Christmas in July]]''
|Crystal (voice)
|-
|''[[Elvis (1979 film)|Elvis]]''
|Gladys Presley
|-
|''[[Vegas (1978 TV series)|Vega$]]''
|J.D. Fenton
| Episode: "Macho Murders"
|-
|1982
|''[[The Love Boat]]''
|Teresa Rosselli
| Season 6, episode 1
|-
|1983
|''Parade of Stars''
|Sophie Tucker
|Television film
|-
| rowspan="2" |1984
|''[[Hotel (American TV series)|Hotel]]''
|Adele Ellsworth
| Episode: "Trials"
|-
|''[[Hawaiian Heat]]''
|Florence Senkowski
| Episode: "Andy's Mom"
|-
|1985
|''[[Alice in Wonderland (1985 film)|Alice in Wonderland]]''
|The Dodo Bird
| rowspan="2" |Television film
|-
|1987
|''The Sleeping Beauty''
|Fairy
|-
|1991–1996
|''[[Roseanne]]''
|Nana Mary
| 10 episodes
|-
|}

===Theater===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Year !! Title !! Role !! Venue !! Ref.
|-
|1941 || ''The Night Before Christmas'' || Flora || [[Morosco Theatre]], Broadway || rowspan=10|<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ibdb.com/broadway-cast-staff/shelley-winters-65387|title= Shelley Winters| website= Internet Broadway Database|access-date= April 1, 2020}}</ref>
|-
|1942 || ''Rosalinda'' || Fifi || [[46th Street Theatre]], Broadway
|-
|1943 || ''[[Oklahoma! (musical)|Oklahoma!]]'' || Ado Annie || [[St. James Theatre]], Broadway
|-
|1955 || ''[[A Hatful of Rain]]'' || Celia Pope || [[Gerald Schoenfeld Theatre|Plymouth Theatre]], Broadway
|-
|1956 || ''Girls of Summer'' || Hilda Brookman || [[Longacre Theatre]], Broadway
|-
|1961 || ''[[The Night of the Iguana]]'' || Maxine Faulk || [[Royale Theatre]], Broadway
|-
|1966 || ''Under the Weather'' || Marcella Hilda Flora || [[James Earl Jones Theatre|Cort Theatre]], Broadway
|-
|1970 || ''[[Minnie's Boys]]'' || Minnie Marx || [[Imperial Theatre]], Broadway
|-
|1978 || ''[[The Effect of Gamma Rays on Man-in-the-Moon Marigolds|The Effect of Gamma Rays on Man-in-the-Moon Marigolds]]'' || Beatrice || [[Samuel J. Friedman Theatre|Biltmore Theatre]], Broadway
|-
|}

'''Summer Stock plays'''
{{columns-list|colwidth=30em|
*''The Taming of the Shrew'' (1947)
*''Born Yesterday'' (1950)
*''Wedding Breakfast'' (1955)
*''A Piece of Blue Sky'' (1959)
*''Two for the Seasaw'' (1960)
*''The Country Girl'' (1961)
*''A View from the Bridge'' (1961)
*''Days of the Dancing'' (1964)
*''Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf?'' (1965)
*''84 Charing Cross Road'' (1983)
}}

===Radio===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Year !! Program !! Episode/source
|-
| 1953|| ''[[Lux Radio Theatre]]'' || ''[[Phone Call from a Stranger]]''<ref>{{cite news|last1=Kirby|first1=Walter|title=Better Radio Programs for the Week|newspaper=The Decatur Daily Review |url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/2648002/the_decatur_daily_review/|agency=The Decatur Daily Review|date=January 4, 1953|page=38|via = [[Newspapers.com]]|access-date = June 19, 2015}} {{Open access}}</ref>
|}

== Awards and nominations ==
'''[[Academy Awards]]'''
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Year
! Category
! Title
! Result
! {{Abbr|Ref(s)|Reference(s)}}
|-
| 1951 || [[Academy Award for Best Actress|Best Actress]] || ''[[A Place in the Sun (1951 film)|A Place in the Sun]]'' || {{nom}} ||align=center rowspan=4| <ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.seattletimes.com/nation-world/shelley-winters-two-time-oscar-winner-dies-at-85/|title=Shelley Winters, two-time Oscar winner, dies at 85|work=[[The Seattle Times]]|date=January 15, 2006|access-date=July 10, 2022}}</ref>
|-
| 1959 || rowspan=3|[[Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress|Best Supporting Actress]] || ''[[The Diary of Anne Frank (1959 film)|The Diary of Anne Frank]]'' || {{won}}
|-
| 1965 || ''[[A Patch of Blue]]'' || {{won}}
|-
| 1972 || ''[[The Poseidon Adventure (1972 film)|The Poseidon Adventure]]'' || {{nom}}
|-
|}

'''[[British Academy Film Awards]]'''
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Year
! Category
! Title
! Result
! {{Abbr|Ref(s)|Reference(s)}}
|-
|[[24th British Academy Film Awards|1972]] || rowspan=2|[[BAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Supporting Role|Best Supporting Actress]] || ''[[The Poseidon Adventure (1972 film)|The Poseidon Adventure]]'' || {{nom}} ||align=center rowspan=2| <ref>{{cite web|url=https://awards.bafta.org/keyword-search?keywords=Shelley+Winters|title=Shelley Winters – BAFTA Awards|publisher=[[British Academy of Film and Television Arts]]|access-date=July 10, 2022}}</ref>
|-
|[[31st British Academy Film Awards|1977]] || ''[[Next Stop, Greenwich Village]]'' || {{nom}}
|-
|}

'''[[Golden Globe Awards]]'''
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Year
! Category
! Title
! Result
! {{Abbr|Ref(s)|Reference(s)}}
|-
|[[9th Golden Globe Awards|1951]] || [[Golden Globe Award for Best Actress in a Motion Picture – Drama|Best Actress – Drama Film]] || ''[[A Place in the Sun (1951 film)|A Place in the Sun]]'' || {{nom}} ||align=center rowspan=6| <ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.goldenglobes.com/person/shelley-winters|title=Shelley Winters – Golden Globes|publisher=[[Hollywood Foreign Press Association]]|access-date=July 10, 2022}}</ref>
|-
|[[17th Golden Globe Awards|1959]] || [[Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actress – Motion Picture|Best Supporting Actress]] || ''[[The Diary of Anne Frank (1959 film)|The Diary of Anne Frank]]'' || {{nom}}
|-
|[[20th Golden Globe Awards|1962]] || [[Golden Globe Award for Best Actress in a Motion Picture – Drama|Best Actress – Drama Film]] || ''[[Lolita (1962 film)|Lolita]]'' || {{nom}}
|-
|[[24th Golden Globe Awards|1966]] || rowspan=3|[[Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actress – Motion Picture|Best Supporting Actress]] || ''[[Alfie (1966 film)|Alfie]]'' || {{nom}}
|-
|[[30th Golden Globe Awards|1972]] || ''[[The Poseidon Adventure (1972 film)|The Poseidon Adventure]]'' || {{won}}
|-
|[[34th Golden Globe Awards|1976]] || ''[[Next Stop, Greenwich Village]]'' || {{nom}}
|}

'''[[Primetime Emmy Awards]]'''
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Year
! Category
! Title
! Result
! {{Abbr|Ref(s)|Reference(s)}}
|-
|[[16th Primetime Emmy Awards|1964]] || rowspan=2|[[Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Limited Series or Movie|Outstanding Lead Actress]] || rowspan=2|''[[Bob Hope Presents the Chrysler Theatre]]'' || {{won}} ||align=center rowspan=3| <ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.emmys.com/bios/shelley-winters|title=Shelley Winters – Emmy Awards|publisher=[[Academy of Television Arts & Sciences]]|access-date=July 10, 2022}}</ref>
|-
|[[18th Primetime Emmy Awards|1966]] || {{nom}}
|-
|1974 || Supporting Actress – Comedy/Drama Series || ''McCloud NBC Sunday Mystery Movie'' || {{nom}}
|-
|}

== Bibliography ==
* {{cite book | author=Winters, Shelley | title=Shelley: Also known as Shirley | publisher=Morrow | year=1980 | isbn=978-0-688-03638-6 | url=https://archive.org/details/shelleyalsoknown00wint }}
* {{cite book | author=Winters, Shelley | title=Shelley II: The Middle of My Century | url=https://archive.org/details/shelleyiimiddleo00wint | url-access=registration | publisher=Simon & Schuster | year=1989 | isbn=978-0-671-44210-1}}
* ''Shelley: The Middle of My Century'' (audiobook; audio cassette)

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Further reading==
* [http://www.tvguide.com/celebrities/shelley-winters/174518 Shelley Winters] at TVGuide.com
* Parkin, Molly (November 17, 1996). "She Ain't Heavy, She's... the woman who bedded Brando, shared a flat with Monroe, and upstaged Gielgud. She is Shelley Winters, Molly Parkin's new soul sister". ''The Sunday Telegraph Magazine''. pp. [https://www.newspapers.com/image/752095257/?clipping_id=114442229 25], [https://www.newspapers.com/image/752095260/?clipping_id=114442242 26]
* {{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/01/14/AR2006011400648.html|title=Actress Shelley Winters Dies|date=January 14, 2006| newspaper = [[The Washington Post]] | first=Adam | last=Bernstein | access-date=May 23, 2010}}
* {{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/01/15/movies/15winters.html|title=Shelley Winters, Winner of Two Oscars, Dies|date=January 15, 2006| work = [[The New York Times]] | first=Aljean | last=Harmetz | access-date=May 23, 2010}}
* {{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/01/14/AR2006011401166.html|title=Actress Shelley Winters, 85; Blond Bombshell to Oscar Winner|date=January 15, 2006| newspaper = [[The Washington Post]] | first=Adam | last=Bernstein | access-date=May 23, 2010}}
* {{cite news|url=http://www.boston.com/ae/movies/articles/2006/01/15/oscar_winner_shelley_winters_dies_at_85/|title=Oscar winner Shelley Winters dies at 85|date=January 15, 2006|work=[[The Boston Globe]]}}{{Dead link|date=July 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
* [http://www.stlouiswalkoffame.org/inductees/shelley-winters.html Winters' Entry] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101128203915/http://stlouiswalkoffame.org/inductees/shelley-winters.html |date=November 28, 2010 }} on the St. Louis Walk of Fame
* [http://www.theatrgroup.com/Shelley/ Shelley Winters] in an exclusive interview about acting

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
{{Commons}}
* [http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi/f/findaid/findaid-idx?c=wiarchives;cc=wiarchives;type=simple;rgn=Entire%20Finding%20Aid;q1=Shelley%20Winters;view=reslist;subview=detail;sort=freq;didno=uw-whs-tape00339a Shelley Winters] at the [[University of Wisconsin]]'s [https://web.archive.org/web/20131004223020/http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi/f/findaid/findaid-idx?c=wiarchives;view=reslist;subview=standard;didno=uw-whs-tape00339a;focusrgn=summaryinfo;cc=wiarchives;byte=50771135 Actors Studio audio collection]
* {{IBDB name}}
* {{iobdb name|24805}}
* {{IMDb name|1859}}
* {{TCMDb name}}

{{Navboxes
|title = Awards for Shelley Winters
|list =
{{Academy Award Best Supporting Actress}}
{{EmmyAward MiniseriesLeadActress}}
{{Golden Globe Award Best Supporting Actress Motion Picture}}
}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Winters, Shelley}}
[[Category:1920 births]]
[[Category:2006 deaths]]
[[Category:20th-century American Jews]]
[[Category:20th-century American actresses]]
[[Category:20th-century American non-fiction writers]]
[[Category:20th-century American women writers]]
[[Category:21st-century American Jews]]
[[Category:Activists for African-American civil rights]]
[[Category:Activists from California]]
[[Category:Actors Studio alumni]]
[[Category:Actresses from Beverly Hills, California]]
[[Category:Actresses from Brooklyn]]
[[Category:Actresses from Queens, New York]]
[[Category:Actresses from St. Louis]]
[[Category:American autobiographers]]
[[Category:American civil rights activists]]
[[Category:American film actresses]]
[[Category:American people of Austrian-Jewish descent]]
[[Category:American people of Ukrainian-Jewish descent]]
[[Category:American stage actresses]]
[[Category:American television actresses]]
[[Category:American women autobiographers]]
[[Category:Best Supporting Actress Academy Award winners]]
[[Category:Best Supporting Actress Golden Globe (film) winners]]
[[Category:Burials at Hillside Memorial Park Cemetery]]
[[Category:California Democrats]]
[[Category:David di Donatello winners]]
[[Category:Jewish American activists]]
[[Category:Jewish American actresses]]
[[Category:Jewish American memoirists]]
[[Category:Method actors]]
[[Category:Missouri Democrats]]
[[Category:New York (state) Democrats]]
[[Category:Outstanding Performance by a Lead Actress in a Miniseries or Movie Primetime Emmy Award winners]]
[[Category:People of Galician-Jewish descent]]
[[Category:Writers from Brooklyn]]
[[Category:Writers from Los Angeles County, California]]
[[Category:Writers from Missouri]]
[[Category:Jewish American film people]]
[[Category:Writers and Artists for Peace in the Middle East members]]

Sister Carrie

2025-05-23T04:16:15Z

47.32.9.63:

{{Short description|1900 novel by Theodore Dreiser}}
{{about|the novel|the opera based on the novel|Sister Carrie (opera)}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=July 2011}}
{{infobox book | 
| name = Sister Carrie
| title_orig =
| translator =
| image = Sister.carrie.cover.jpg
| caption = ''Sister Carrie'' first edition 1900. The publishers kept the cover intentionally bland in order not to promote what was expected to be a controversial work.<ref>*Theodore Dreiser. ''Sister Carrie: Unexpurgated Edition''. New York Public Library Collector's Edition. 1997 Doubleday. {{ISBN|978-0-385-48724-5}} – see "Introduction"</ref>
| author = [[Theodore Dreiser]]
| illustrator =
| cover_artist =
|set_in=[[Chicago]], [[New York City]] and [[Montreal]], 1889–93
| country = United States
| language = English
| series =
| genre = [[Literary realism]]
| publisher = [[Doubleday (publisher)|Doubleday, Page]]
| release_date = 1900
| media_type = Print (hardback)
| pages = 557
| oclc = 11010924
|congress=PS3507 .R55
|dewey= 813.52
| preceded_by =
| followed_by = [[Jennie Gerhardt]]
|wikisource=Sister Carrie
}}
[[File:Chicago - State St at Madison Ave, 1897.ogv|thumb|upright=1.1|A [[kinetoscope]] film of turn-of-the-century Chicago, the initial setting of ''Sister Carrie'']]

'''''Sister Carrie''''' is a 1900 novel by [[Theodore Dreiser]] (1871–1945) about a young woman who moves to the big city where she starts realizing her own [[American Dream]]. She first becomes a [[Mistress (lover)|mistress]] to men that she perceives as superior, but later becomes a famous actress. It has been called the "greatest of all American urban novels".<ref>Donald L. Miller, ''City of the Century,'' (Simon & Schuster, New York, 1996) p. 263.</ref>

==Plot==
In late 1889, dissatisfied with life in [[Columbia County, Wisconsin]], 18-year-old Caroline Meeber, "Sister Carrie" to her family, takes the train to Chicago to live with her older sister Minnie Hanson and her husband. On the train, Carrie meets Charles Drouet, a traveling salesman who is attracted to her because of her simple beauty and unspoiled manner. They exchange contact information, but upon discovering the "steady round of toil" and somber atmosphere at her sister's flat, she writes to Drouet and discourages him from calling on her there.

Carrie soon finds a job running a machine in a shoe factory and gives most of her meager salary to the Hansons for room and board. One day, after an illness costs her job, she encounters Drouet. He persuades her to leave this dull, constricted life and move in with him. To press his case, he slips Carrie two $10 bills, opening a vista of material possibilities to her. The next day, he rebuffs her feeble attempt to return the money and retain her virtue, taking her shopping at a Chicago department store and buying her a jacket, shoes and other clothes. That night, she moves in with him.

Drouet installs her in a much nicer apartment. She gradually sheds her provincial mannerisms. By the time he introduces her to George Hurstwood, the manager of Fitzgerald and Moy's – a respectable bar that Drouet describes as a "way-up, swell place" – her appearance and manner has improved considerably. Hurstwood, a married man with a social-climbing wife, a 20-year-old son, and a 17-year-old daughter, becomes infatuated with Carrie, and they start an affair, meeting secretly while Drouet is on business trips.

One night, Drouet casually agrees to find an actress to play Laura in an amateur theatrical presentation of [[Augustin Daly]]'s melodrama ''[[Under the Gaslight]]'' for his local chapter of the [[Benevolent and Protective Order of Elks|Elks]]. He encourages a hesitant Carrie to take the part. Carrie turns out to have acting talent, and her ambition is born. Initially, she falls victim to [[stage fright]], but Drouet's encouragement between acts enables her to give a fine performance that rivets the audience's attention and inflames Hurstwood's passion. He then decides to take Carrie away from Drouet.

The next day, Drouet finds out about the affair, and Hurstwood's wife Julia learns that Hurstwood has been seen with another woman. Hurstwood has been making advances, and when Carrie asks if he will marry her, he says yes. Later, Drouet confronts Carrie and informs her that Hurstwood is married, then walks out on her. After a night of drinking, and despairing at his now-emboldened wife's demands and Carrie's rejection letter, Hurstwood finds that the safe in Fitzgerald and Moy's offices has accidentally been left unlocked. When he inadvertently locks the safe after taking the money out, he drunkenly panics and steals the day's proceeds — more than $10,000. Under the false pretext of Drouet's sudden illness, he lures Carrie onto a train and takes her to Canada. In Montreal, Hurstwood is found by a private investigator; he returns most of the stolen funds to avoid prosecution. Hurstwood mollifies Carrie by arranging a marriage ceremony while still is married to Julia, and the couple move to New York City.

They rent a flat, where they live as George and Carrie Wheeler. Hurstwood buys a minority interest in a saloon, and initially he can provide Carrie with an adequate, if not lavish, lifestyle. The couple grow distant, however, as their finances do not improve. Carrie's dissatisfaction only increases when she makes friends with Mrs. Vance, a neighbor whose husband is prosperous. Through Mrs. Vance, Carrie meets Robert Ames, a young scholar from [[Indiana]], her neighbor's cousin, who introduces her to the idea that great art, rather than showy materialism, is worthy of admiration.

After only a few years, the saloon's landlord sells the property, and Hurstwood's business partner decides to terminate the partnership. Too proud to accept any of the limited job opportunities available to him, Hurstwood watches his savings dwindle. He urges Carrie to economize, which she finds humiliating and distasteful. As Hurstwood sinks into apathy, Carrie becomes a [[Chorus line|chorus girl]] through her good looks. While he deteriorates, she rises from the chorus line to small roles. Her performance as a minor, non-speaking character, a frowning [[Quakers|Quakeress]], greatly amuses the audience and makes the play a hit. She is befriended by Lola Osborne, another chorus girl, who urges Carrie to become her roommate. In a final attempt to earn money, Hurstwood becomes a [[Strikebreaker|scab]], driving a Brooklyn [[tram|streetcar]] during a streetcar operator's strike. His ill-fated venture lasts only two days, ending after a couple of violent encounters with the strikers. Carrie, unaware of Hurstwood's reason for quitting, leaves him.

Hurstwood ultimately becomes one of the homeless of New York, taking odd jobs, falling ill with [[pneumonia]], and finally becoming a beggar. He ultimately commits suicide in a [[flophouse]]. Carrie achieves stardom, but finds that, even with fame and fortune, she is lonely and unhappy.

==Characters==
* '''Caroline "Carrie" Meeber''', a.k.a. Carrie Wheeler and Carrie Madenda, the latter her stage name
* '''Minnie Hanson''', Carrie's elder sister
* '''Sven Hanson''', Minnie's husband
* '''Charles H. Drouet''', a buoyant traveling salesman
* '''George W. Hurstwood''', a.k.a. George Wheeler
* '''Julia Hurstwood''', George's strong-willed, social-climbing wife
* '''Jessica Hurstwood''', George's daughter
* '''George Hurstwood, Jr''', George's son
* '''Mr. and Mrs. Vance''', a wealthy merchant and his vivacious young wife, who live in the same building as Hurstwood and Carrie in New York City. Mrs. Vance and Carrie become friends.
* '''Robert Ames''', Mrs. Vance's cousin from Indiana, a handsome young scholar whom Carrie regards as a male ideal
* '''Lola Osborne''', a friendly chorus girl Carrie meets during a theatre production. She provides helpful advice, then seeing that Carrie shows much promise, becomes her "satellite".

==Publication history and response==
[[File:House of the Four Pillars from the northeast.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.15|House of Four Pillars, Dreiser's home in Maumee, where the book was written<ref>{{Cite web |title=Marker #2-48 House of Four Pillars |url=http://www.remarkableohio.org/HistoricalMarker.aspx?historicalMarkerId=54 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203014337/http://www.remarkableohio.org/HistoricalMarker.aspx?historicalMarkerId=54 |archive-date=2013-12-03 |website=Remarkable Ohio}}</ref>]]

At the urging of his journalist friend Arthur Henry, Dreiser began writing his manuscript in 1899. He frequently gave up on it but Henry urged him to continue. From the outset, his title was ''Sister Carrie'', but he changed it to ''The Flesh and the Spirit'' while writing it; he restored the original name once complete.<ref>Madison, Charles A. ''Irving to Irving: Author-Publisher Relations 1800–1974''. New York: R. R. Bowker Company, 1974: 95. {{ISBN|978-0-8352-0772-0}}.</ref>

Dreiser had difficulty finding a publisher for ''Sister Carrie''. [[Doubleday (publisher)|Doubleday & McClure Company]] accepted the manuscript, but the wife of one of the publishers declared it to be too sordid.<ref>''Books of the Century'', Random House, 1998 New York Times Co., p. 6 {{ISBN|978-0-8129-2965-2}}</ref> Dreiser insisted on publication, and Doubleday & McClure were legally bound to honor their contract; 1,008 copies were printed on November 8, 1900, but the publisher made no effort to advertise the book and only 456 copies were sold.<ref>Madison, Charles A. ''Irving to Irving: Author-Publisher Relations 1800–1974''. New York: R. R. Bowker Company, 1974: 97. {{ISBN|978-0-8352-0772-0}}.</ref> However, [[Frank Norris]], who was working as a reader at Doubleday, sent a few copies to literary reviewers.<ref>Theodore Dreiser in [https://books.google.com/books?id=3wiH7tmabm0C&q=%22elmer+adler%22&pg=PA69 ''Breaking Into Print''], ed. Elmer Adler, 2007, pp. 69–71</ref>

From 1900 to 1980, all editions of the novel were of a second altered version. Dreiser's unaltered version was not published until 1981, when the [[University of Pennsylvania Press]] issued a scholarly edition based upon the original manuscript held by the [[New York Public Library]]. It is a reconstruction by a team of leading scholars to represent the novel before it was edited by people other than Dreiser.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sister Carrie (Pennsylvania Edition) |url=http://textsvr.library.upenn.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?sid=141ec7b284f10db37cc911db0394fb9f&page=pagespec&pagename=abouttse.tpl&cc=carrie_penn&c=carrie_penn |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720100434/http://textsvr.library.upenn.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?sid=141ec7b284f10db37cc911db0394fb9f&page=pagespec&pagename=abouttse.tpl&cc=carrie_penn&c=carrie_penn |archive-date=2011-07-20 |website=Schoenberg Database of Manuscripts}}</ref>

In his [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] Lecture of 1930, [[Sinclair Lewis]] said that "Dreiser's great first novel, ''Sister Carrie'', which he dared to publish thirty long years ago and which I read twenty-five years ago, came to housebound and airless America like a great free Western wind, and to our stuffy domesticity gave us the first fresh air since [[Mark Twain]] and [[Walt Whitman|Whitman]]."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/literature/1930/lewis/lecture/|title=The Nobel Prize in Literature 1930|website=NobelPrize.org}}</ref>

In 1998, the [[Modern Library]] ranked ''Sister Carrie'' 33rd on its list of the [[Modern Library 100 Best Novels|100 best English-language novels of the 20th century]].

==Style and genre==
Theodore Dreiser is considered one of America's great [[Naturalism (literature)|naturalists]], significant because he wrote at the early stages of the naturalist movement. ''Sister Carrie'' was a movement away from the emphasis on [[Victorian morality|morals of the Victorian era]] and focused more on [[Literary realism|realism]] and the base instincts of humans.<ref name="bookmarks">"Theodore Dreiser." Bookmarks Jan. – Feb. 2011: 13+. Literature Resources from Gale. Web. April 12, 2011.{{Full citation needed|date=December 2018|reason=It says Web. Where is the URL?}}</ref>

''Sister Carrie'' went against social and moral norms of the time as Dreiser presented his characters without judging them. Dreiser fought against censorship of ''Sister Carrie'', brought about because Carrie engaged in affairs and other "illicit sexual relationships" without suffering any consequences. This flouted prevailing norms, that a character who practiced such sinful behavior must be punished in the course of the plot in order to be taught a lesson.<ref name="bookmarks"/>

Dreiser sometimes has been criticized for his writing style. In 1930, [[Arnold Bennett]] stated "Dreiser simply does not know how to write, never did know, never wanted to know." Other critics called his style "vulgar", "uneven", "clumsy", "awkward", and "careless". His plots were decried as unimaginative, with critics citing his lack of education and claiming that he lacked intellectualism.<ref name="lydon">Lydon, Michael. "Justice to Theodore Dreiser: on the greatness of a writer whom critics have long treated with either scorn or condescension." The Atlantic, August 1993: 98+. Literature Resources from Gale. Web. April 12, 2011.</ref>

However, [[Alfred Kazin]]—while criticizing Dreiser's style—pointed out that Dreiser's novels had survived and remained influential works. Michael Lydon, in defense of Dreiser, claims that his patience and powers of observation created accurate depictions of the urban world and the desires and ambitions of the people of the time. Lydon stated that Dreiser's intent was to focus on the message of ''Sister Carrie'', not on its writing style.<ref name="lydon"/>

==General reception==
Theodore Dreiser's ''Sister Carrie'' was not widely accepted after it was published, but it was not completely withdrawn by its publishers as some sources say it was. Neither was it received with the harshness that Dreiser reported. For example, the ''[[The Blade (Toledo, Ohio)|Toledo Blade]]'' reported that the book "is a faithful portraiture of the conditions it represents, showing how the tangle of human life is knotted thread by thread" but that it was "too realistic, too somber to be altogether pleasing".<ref name="salzman2">Salzman, Jack. "The Critical Recognition of Sister Carrie 1900–1907." ''[[Journal of American Studies]]''. Vol. 3, No. 1 (1969). 123–133. Web.</ref> There is also the receipt of sale which Doubleday sent to Dreiser showing that ''Sister Carrie'' was not withdrawn from the shelves, reporting that 456 copies of the 1,008 copies printed were sold.<ref name="salzman2"/>

''Sister Carrie'' evoked different responses from the critics, and although the book did not sell well among the general public, it often received positive reviews.<ref name="west">West, James L. W. III, John C. Berkey, and Alice M. Winters. Historical Commentary. Sister Carrie: Manuscript to Print. By Theodore Dreiser. 1981. The Pennsylvania edition. PA: The University of Pennsylvania P, 1981. 503–541. Print.</ref> Some of the reason for lack of sales came from a conflict between Dreiser and his publishers, who did little to promote the book.<ref name="west"/> However, critics did praise the book, and a large number seemed most affected by the character of Hurstwood, such as the critic writing for the ''[[New Haven Journal-Courier|New Haven Journal Courier]]'', who wrote "One of the most affecting passages is where Hurstwood falls, ruined, disgraced."<ref name="salzman">Salzman, Jack. ''Theodore Dreiser: The Critical Reception''. New York: Davis Lewis, Inc. 1972. Print.</ref> [[Edna Kenton]] in the ''[[Chicago Daily News]]'' wrote in 1900 that ''Sister Carrie'' is "well worth reading simply for this account of Hurstwood".<ref name="salzman" />

Reviews mentioned the novel's realistic depiction of the human condition. A 1901 review in ''[[The Academy (periodical)|The Academy]]'' wrote that ''Sister Carrie'' was "absolutely free from the slightest trace of sentimentality or pettiness, and dominated everywhere by a serious and strenuous desire for truth."<ref name="salzman"/> ''The London Express'' claimed that realism made the book appealing: "It is a cruel, merciless story, intensely clever in its realism, and one that will remain impressed in the memory of the reader for many a long day."<ref name="salzman"/> The novel has been praised for its accurate depiction of the protests in New York and the city life in Chicago.<ref name="salzman"/>

Negative response to the novel came largely from the book's sexual content, which made ''Sister Carrie'', in the words of the ''[[Omaha Daily Bee]]'' in 1900, "not a book to be put into the hands of every reader indiscriminately."<ref name="salzman"/> Another review in ''Life'' criticized Carrie's success and warned "Such girls, however, as imagine that they can follow in her footsteps will probably end their days on the Island or in the gutter."<ref name="salzman" /> The book also was criticized for never mentioning the name of God.<ref name="salzman" />

Several critics complained the title made the book sound as if the main character is a nun.<ref name="salzman" /> The title of the book was considered by ''The Newark Sunday News'' to be the "weakest thing about the book" because it "does not bear the faintest relation to the story."<ref name="salzman"/> Similarly, [[Frederic Taber Cooper]] in ''[[The Bookman (New York City)|The Bookman]]'' declared it to be a "colourless and misleading title". Other common complaints were about the length of the book and that it is so depressing that it is unpleasant to read.<ref name="salzman"/>

While some viewed his work as grammatically and syntactically inaccurate, others found his detailed storytelling intriguing.<ref name="rovit">Rovit, Earl. "Theodore Dreiser: Overview." Reference Guide to American Literature. Ed. Jim Kamp. 3rd ed. Detroit: St. James Press, 1994. Literature Resources from Gale. Web. April 13, 2011.</ref> [[H. L. Mencken]], an avid supporter and friend, referred to Dreiser as "a man of large originality, of profound feeling, and of unshakable courage".<ref name="bookmarks"/> Mencken believed that Dreiser's raw, honest portrayal of Carrie's life should be seen as a courageous attempt to give the reader a realistic view of the life of women in the 19th century.<ref name="henningfeld">Henningfeld, Diane Andrews. "Overview of 'Sister Carrie'." Novels for Students. Ed. Marie Rose Napierkowski and Deborah A. Stanley. Vol. 8. Detroit: Gale, 2000. Literature Resources from Gale. Web. April 12, 2011.</ref>

In opposition, one critic, Karl F. Zender, argued that Dreiser's stress on circumstance over character was "adequate neither to the artistic power nor to the culture implications of Sister Carrie".<ref name="henningfeld"/> Many found Dreiser's work attractive due to his lenient "moralistic judgments" and the "spacious compassion" in which he viewed his characters' actions.<ref name="rovit"/> This tolerance of immorality was an entirely new idea for the readers of Dreiser's era. In fact, the novel and its modern ideas of morality helped to produce a movement in which the literary generation of its time was found "detaching itself from its predecessor".<ref>Sherman, Stuart P. "The Barbaric Naturalism of Theodore Dreiser." On Contemporary Literature. Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1917. 85–101. Rpt. in Twentieth-Century Literary Criticism. Detroit: Gale. Literature Resources from Gale. Web. April 12, 2011.</ref> There remained some who disapproved of Dreiser's immoral, atypical story. David E.E. Sloan argued that Dreiser's novel undermined the general opinion that hard work and virtue bring success in life.<ref>Rozga, Margaret. "Sisters in a Quest—Sister Carrie and A Thousand Acres: The Search for Identity in Gendered Territory." Midwestern Miscellany 22 (1994): 18–29. Rpt. in ''Contemporary Literary Criticism''. Ed. Jeffrey W. Hunter. Vol. 144. Detroit: Gale Group, 2001. Literature Resources from Gale. Web. April 13, 2011.</ref>

Although Dreiser has been criticized for his writing style and lack of formal education, ''Sister Carrie'' remains an influential example of naturalism and realism. While it initially did not sell well (fewer than 500 copies) and encountered censorship, it now is considered one of the great American [[Urban fiction|urban novels]], which explores the gritty details of human nature and the effect of [[Industrialisation|industrialization]] on the American people.<ref name="bookmarks"/>

== On screen and stage ==
[[File:Sister Carrie by Raimonds Pauls 1979 LP.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|''Sister Carrie'' by [[Raimonds Pauls]]; 1979 LP]]
[[Laurence Olivier]] and [[Jennifer Jones]] starred in the 1952 film adaptation ''[[Carrie (1952 film)|Carrie]]''.

The musical ''Sister Carrie'' ({{lang|ru|Māsa Kerija}}) by [[Raimonds Pauls]] (music) and {{ill|Jānis Peters|lv}} (lyrics) premiered at the Riga State Operetta Theatre in 1978, with [[Mirdza Zīvere]] as Carrie.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Māsa Kerija / Сестра Керри (1979, Raimonds Pauls) - Мир мюзиклов |url=http://musicalworld.ws/other/kerri.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160912094244/http://musicalworld.ws/other/kerri.html |archive-date=2016-09-12 |website=Musical World |language=ru}}</ref>

The [[Florentine Opera]] Company in Milwaukee, Wisconsin produced the world premiere of [[Robert Aldridge (composer)|Robert Aldridge]] and [[Herschel Garfein]]'s operatic adaptation of the book in October 2016.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Noth |first=Dominique Paul |title=Classical: Florentine's 'Sister Carrie' Is a Triumph |url=https://urbanmilwaukee.com/2016/10/10/classical-florentines-sister-carrie-is-a-triumph/ |access-date=2023-04-10 |website=Urban Milwaukee |language=en}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Bibliography==
'''Sources'''
*Theodore Dreiser, Neda Westlake (ed.). ''Sister Carrie''. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1981. A reconstruction by leading scholars to represent the novel before it was edited by hands other than Dreiser's. Including annotations and scholarly apparatus. Also available online, see External links below.
*Theodore Dreiser. ''Sister Carrie: Unexpurgated Edition''. New York Public Library Collector's Edition. 1997 Doubleday. {{ISBN|978-0-385-48724-5}} – text based on the 1981 University of Pennsylvania Press edition.
*Theodore Dreiser, Donald Pizer (ed.). ''Sister Carrie''. Norton Critical Edition, 1970. Authoritative edition of the censored version plus a lot of source and critical material.
'''Criticism'''
*Miriam Gogol, ed. ''Theodore Dreiser: Beyond Naturalism''. New York University Press, 1995. The first major collection of scholarly articles on Dreiser to appear since 1971.
*[[Donald Pizer]], ed. ''New Essays on Sister Carrie''. Cambridge University Press, 1991. A recent collection of articles about ''Sister Carrie''.
*James West. ''A Sister Carrie Portfolio''. University Press of Virginia, 1985. A companion volume to the 1981 Pennsylvania edition. A pictorial history of ''Sister Carrie'' from 1900 to 1981.

==External links==
* {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20121011211221/http://www.dreisersociety.org/ The International Theodore Dreiser Society]}}
{{wikisource|Sister Carrie|''Sister Carrie''}}
'''Sources'''
* {{StandardEbooks|Standard Ebooks URL=https://standardebooks.org/ebooks/theodore-dreiser/sister-carrie}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070821214307/http://textsvr.library.upenn.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=carrie_penn;cc=carrie_penn;page=pagespec;pagename=home.tpl ''Sister Carrie''], restored text, 1981 Pennsylvania Edition. A reconstruction by leading scholars to represent the novel before it was edited by hands other than Dreiser's. Online edition, for print edition see "Sources" in "Bibliography" above.
* {{Gutenberg|no=5267|name=Sister Carrie}} Plain text.
* [https://archive.org/search.php?query=title%3Acarrie%20creator%3ADreiser%20-contributor%3Agutenberg%20AND%20mediatype%3Atexts ''Sister Carrie''], available at Internet Archive. Scanned illustrated original edition books.
* [http://sistercarrie.wikispaces.com ''Sister Carrie'']. An interactive wikisite mapping the geography of the novel.
* {{librivox book | title=Sister Carrie | author=Theodore DREISER}}

'''Commentary'''
*[http://www.library.upenn.edu/collections/rbm/dreiser/sc.html Sister Carrie] from the Dreiser Web Source. Commentary from the authors of the University of Pennsylvania edition (see Bibliography sources above).
*Shawcross, Nancy M. [http://www.library.upenn.edu/collections/rbm/dreiser/exhibit/ "Sister Carrie: 'A Strangely Strong Novel in a Queer Milieu"]. A virtual exhibition.
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20071030191452/http://www.salon.com/feature/1997/10/cov_13keillor.html "Why did they ever ban a book this bad?"] by [[Garrison Keillor]], ''[[Salon Magazine]]'', October 13, 1997.

{{Dreiser}}
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:1900 American novels]]
[[Category:American novels adapted into films]]
[[Category:Doubleday, Page & Company books]]
[[Category:Novels by Theodore Dreiser]]
[[Category:Novels set in Chicago]]
[[Category:Novels set in New York City]]
[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]
[[Category:American novels adapted into operas]]
[[Category:Fiction set in 1889]]
[[Category:Fiction set in 1890]]
[[Category:Fiction set in 1891]]
[[Category:Fiction set in 1892]]
[[Category:Fiction set in 1893]]
[[Category:Theatre-fiction]]

Audley End House

2025-05-19T22:51:59Z

47.32.9.63:

{{short description|Country house and former royal residence}}
{{redirect|Audley End}}
{{Use British English|date=February 2023}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2023}}
{{Infobox historic site
| name = Audley End House
| native_name =
| native_language =
| image = 20200802 Audley End House-40.jpg
| caption = Audley End House in 2020
| type = [[Prodigy house]]
| locmapin = Essex
| coordinates = {{Coord|52|01|15|N|00|13|14|E|region:GB|display=inline,title|format=dms}}
| gbgridref = TL524381
| location = [[Saffron Walden]]
| area = [[Essex]]
| built = 17th century
| architect =
| architecture = [[Jacobean architecture|Jacobean]]
| governing_body =
| owner = [[English Heritage]]
| designation1 = Grade I
| designation1_offname = Audley End House
| designation1_date = 1 November 1972
| designation1_number = {{Listed building England|1196114}}
| designation2 = National Register of Historic Parks and Gardens
| designation2_offname = Audley End
| designation2_date = 1 July 1987
| designation2_number = {{Listed building England|1000312}}
| designation3 =
| designation3_offname =
| designation3_date =
| designation3_number =
| designation4 =
| designation4_offname =
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}}

'''Audley End House''' is a largely early 17th-century [[English country house|country house]] outside [[Saffron Walden]], Essex, England. It is a [[prodigy house]], known as one of the finest [[Jacobean architecture|Jacobean]] houses in England.

Audley End is now one-third of its original size, but is still large, with much to enjoy in its architectural features and varied collections. The house shares some similarities with [[Hatfield House]], except that it is stone-clad as opposed to brick.<ref name=":1">Hadfield, J. (1970). ''The Shell Guide to England''. London: Michael Joseph.</ref> It is currently in the stewardship of [[English Heritage]] but long remained the family seat of the [[Baron Braybrooke|Barons Braybrooke]], heirs to the estate of whom retain a portion of the contents of the house, the estate, and the right to repurchase as an [[Hereditament|incorporeal hereditament]].<ref name="EngHerHist" /> [[Audley End railway station]] is named after the house.

==History==
Audley End was the site of [[Walden Abbey]], a [[Benedictine]] monastery that was [[Dissolution of the Monasteries|dissolved]] and granted to the [[Lord Chancellor]] Sir [[Thomas Audley, 1st Baron Audley of Walden|Thomas Audley]] in 1538 by [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]]. The abbey was converted to a domestic house for him with the conversion of the church, which had three floors inserted into the nave, the rest of the church itself being demolished. In addition a great hall was constructed on the site of the abbott's lodging, the same position occupied by the later Jacobean great hall.<ref>{{cite book |title=Audley End |date=1997 |publisher=English Heritage |isbn=1-85074-821-7 |page=28 |edition=2005}}</ref>

The house was a key stop during [[Elizabeth I]]'s [[Royal entry|Summer Progress]] of 1578. The progress was to be, like her progresses to Cambridge and Oxford in 1564 and 1566, filled with scholarship, learned debates, and theatrical diversions. Writers and scholars from nearby [[Cambridge University]] used the occasion to write papers and speeches. One of these was [[Gabriel Harvey]] who by 1578 had been appointed professor of [[rhetoric]] at Cambridge. For the Audley End presentations, Harvey had prepared a series of lectures to be delivered to prominent members of the court in attendance with the Queen. Among them was the [[Edward de Vere, 17th Earl of Oxford]].{{cn|date=May 2024}}

===Jacobean Audley===
The house was demolished by [[Thomas Howard, 1st Earl of Suffolk]] (Lord Howard de Walden<ref name=":1" /> and [[Lord Treasurer]]), and a much grander mansion was built, primarily for entertaining [[James I of England|James I]]. He visited the newly built house in January and July 1614. The layout reflects the processional route of the king and queen, each having their own suite of rooms.<ref>Emily Cole, 'King and Queen in the State Apartment', Monique Chatenet & Krista De Jonge, ''Le Prince, la Princesse et leurs logis'' (Picard, 2014), p. 80.</ref>

It is reputed that Thomas Howard told King James he had spent some £200,000 creating this grand house,<ref>Manolo Guerci, ''London's Golden Mile: The Great Houses of the Strand, 1550–1650'' (Yale, 2021), p. 207.</ref> and it may be that the king had unwittingly contributed. In 1619, Suffolk and his wife [[Catherine Howard, Countess of Suffolk]] were found guilty of embezzlement and sent to the [[Tower of London]] but a huge fine secured their release. Suffolk died in disgrace at Audley End in 1626.<ref>P. J. Drury, 'No Other Palace in the Kingdom Will Compare with It: The Evolution of Audley End, 1605–1745', ''Architectural History'', 23 (1980), p. 3.</ref> The design of the house was attributed in later sources to the [[Henry Howard, 1st Earl of Northampton|Earl of Northampton]] and a master mason Bernard Janssen. The surveyor [[John Thorpe]] drew a plan. The Suffolks commissioned tapestries of Hannibal and Scipio from Francis Spiering of Delft, probably for Audley.<ref>P. J. Drury, 'No Other Palace in the Kingdom Will Compare with It: The Evolution of Audley End, 1605–1745', ''Architectural History'', 23 (1980), pp. 3, 18.</ref>

[[James Howard, 3rd Earl of Suffolk]] inherited a debt of £132,000 from his father and he married to reduce the debt. [[Susanna Howard]] was devout and they lived here during the 1640s.<ref>{{Cite ODNB |last=Allen |first=Elizabeth |url=http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/10.1093/ref:odnb/9780198614128.001.0001/odnb-9780198614128-e-66710 |title=Howard [née Rich], Susanna, countess of Suffolk (1627–1649), exemplar of godly life |date=2004-09-23 |volume=1 |language=en |doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/66710|isbn=978-0-19-861412-8 }}</ref>

===Charles II===
Noted English naval office bureaucrat and diarist [[Samuel Pepys]] visited Audley End and described it his diary entry for 8 October 1667.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.pepysdiary.com/diary/1667/10/08/|title=Tuesday 8 October 1667|date=8 October 2010 |access-date=8 October 2020|archive-date=16 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201016083332/https://www.pepysdiary.com/diary/1667/10/08/|url-status=live}}</ref> At this time, the house was on the scale of a great royal palace, and became one when [[Charles II of England|Charles II]] bought it in 1668 for £50,000 for use as a home when attending the races at [[Newmarket, Suffolk|Newmarket]].<ref>P. J. Drury, 'No Other Palace in the Kingdom Will Compare with It: The Evolution of Audley End, 1605–1745', ''Architectural History'', 23 (1980), p. 4.</ref>
It was returned to the Suffolks in 1701.<ref name="EngHerHist">{{Cite web | title = History of Audley End House and Gardens | work = English Heritage | access-date = 28 March 2023 | url = https://www.english-heritage.org.uk/visit/places/audley-end-house-and-gardens/history-and-stories/history/ | archive-date = 11 August 2022 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220811221053/https://www.english-heritage.org.uk/visit/places/audley-end-house-and-gardens/history-and-stories/history | url-status = live }}</ref>

Around 1708, [[Sir John Vanbrugh]] was commissioned to work on the site,<ref>P. J. Drury, 'No Other Palace in the Kingdom Will Compare with It: The Evolution of Audley End, 1605–1745', ''Architectural History'', 23 (1980), p. 27.</ref> and parts of the house were gradually demolished until it was reduced to its current size.<ref name=":1" /> The main structure has remained little altered since the main front court was demolished in 1708 and the east wing came down in 1753.

[[File:AudleyEndHallJosephNash.jpg|thumb|left|255px|The Great Hall]]
Sir [[John Griffin, 4th Baron Howard de Walden|John Griffin]], fourth [[Baron Howard de Walden]] and first [[Baron Braybrooke]], introduced sweeping changes before he died in 1797. In 1762, he commissioned [[Capability Brown]] to landscape the parkland, and [[Robert Adam]] to design new reception rooms on the house's ground floor in the neoclassical style of the 18th century with a formal grandeur.

[[Richard Griffin, 3rd Baron Braybrooke]], who inherited the house and title in 1825, installed most of the house's huge picture collection, filled the rooms with furnishings, and reinstated something of the original Jacobean feel to the state rooms.

===Second World War===
Audley End was offered to the government during the [[Dunkirk evacuation]] but the offer was declined due to its lack of facilities.{{sfn|Valentine|2004|pp=55–56}} It was requisitioned in March 1941{{sfn|Valentine|2004|pp=55–56}} and used as a camp by a small number of units before being turned over to the [[Special Operations Executive]]. The SOE used the house as a general holding camp{{sfn|Valentine|2004|p=66}} before using it for its Polish branch. Designated [[List of SOE establishments|Special Training School 43 (STS 43)]], it was a base for the [[Cichociemni]]. A war memorial to the 108 Poles who died in the service stands in the main drive; the Polish SOE War Memorial, unveiled on 20 June 1983, was Grade II listed in 2018.<ref name=hg>{{NHLE |num= 1451516|desc= Polish SOE War Memorial|access-date= 23 December 2018}}</ref>

===English Heritage===
After the war, the ninth [[Baron Braybrooke|Lord Braybrooke]] resumed possession. In 1948 the house was sold to the [[Ministry of Works (United Kingdom)|Ministry of Works]], the predecessor of [[English Heritage]].

In 2014, an [[English Heritage]] report identified that there is a high risk of flooding at Audley End. It detailed an "extensive threat to the estate affecting a wide zone alongside the River Cam", affecting access, masonry and land surface.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2014-01-24 |title=Flooding and the English Heritage Inland Estate {{!}} Historic England |url=https://historicengland.org.uk/research/results/reports/51-2013 |access-date=2023-12-01 |website=historicengland.org.uk |language=en}}</ref>

==Gardens and grounds==
The [[Capability Brown]] parkland includes many of the neo-classical monuments, although some are not in the care of English Heritage. The grounds are divided by the [[River Granta]], which is crossed by several ornate bridges one of which features on the back cover of the BBC Gardeners' World Through the Years book,<ref name=":0" /> and a main road which follows the route of a [[Roman road]]. The Temple of Concord, by [[John Deval]], was added as a romantic folly in 1790.<ref>Dictionary of British Sculptors 1660–1851 by Rupert Gunnisp.129</ref>

With help from an 1877 garden plan and William Cresswell's journal from 1874,<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=BBC Gardeners' World Through the years|last=Search|first=Gay|publisher=Carlton Books Limited|year=2003|isbn=1-84442-416-2|location=London}}</ref> the walled [[kitchen garden]] was restored by [[Garden Organic]] in 1999 from an overgrown, semi-derelict state. Completed in 2000, it was opened by [[Charles, Prince of Wales|Prince Charles]] and features in a book presented to him on his [[Wedding of Prince Charles and Camilla Parker Bowles|wedding]] to [[Camilla, Duchess of Cornwall|Camilla Parker Bowles]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.gardenadvice.co.uk/howto/organic/gardenf/index.html|title=Featured organic vegetable garden|website=www.gardenadvice.co.uk|access-date=20 November 2018|archive-date=21 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181121022222/https://www.gardenadvice.co.uk/howto/organic/gardenf/index.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/coventry_warwickshire/4427639.stm|title=Garden book present for Charles|date=9 April 2005|access-date=20 November 2018|language=en-GB|archive-date=21 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181121022847/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/coventry_warwickshire/4427639.stm|url-status=live}}</ref> It now looks as it would have done in late Victorian times; full of vegetables, fruits, herbs and flowers which have been supplied to the [[Dorchester Hotel]].<ref name=":0" /> It now boasts 120 apple, 60 pear and 40 tomato varieties.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/cbbc/attractions/bp-audley-end|title=Blue Peter – Audley End House and Gardens|language=en|access-date=12 September 2018|archive-date=22 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181222002847/https://www.bbc.co.uk/cbbc/attractions/bp-audley-end|url-status=live}}</ref>
<gallery mode="packed" heights="187px">
File:Audeley-end palace in Essex, as it was in it's splendor.jpg|18th-century print of "Audeley-end Palace" ... "as it was in {{sic|i|t's splendor"|reason="its" with the ownership apostrophe was standard English usage at the time}}
File:Audley End Morris edited.jpg|Audley End in 1880
File:Audley End House Back.jpg|The garden front
File:Audley End over River Cam - panoramio.jpg| view from River Cam
File:Audley End House - aerial image A (13922330685).jpg|Aerial view from the front
File:Audley End House & Gardens - aerial image B (13951755643).jpg|Aerial rear

</gallery>

==Paintings==
The house contains a number of paintings, many still the property of the family of the Barons Braybrooke.<ref>[https://www.english-heritage.org.uk/visit/places/audley-end-house-and-gardens/history-and-stories/collection/ "Collection Highlights"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200720190704/https://www.english-heritage.org.uk/visit/places/audley-end-house-and-gardens/history-and-stories/collection/ |date=20 July 2020 }}, English Heritage.</ref>

==Media appearances==
The house and grounds have been used in popular television and radio shows, including ''[[Flog It!]]'', ''[[Antiques Roadshow]]'' and ''[[Gardeners' Question Time]]''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b01pkmpm|title=BBC One – Flog It!, Series 11, Duxford|website=BBC|language=en-GB|access-date=20 November 2018|archive-date=21 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181121022344/https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b01pkmpm|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b07v614t|title=BBC One – Antiques Roadshow, Series 39, Audley End 1|website=BBC|language=en-GB|access-date=20 November 2018|archive-date=21 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181121022247/https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b07v614t|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b08k4zw9|title=BBC Radio 4 - Gardeners' Question Time, Audley End|website=BBC|language=en-GB|access-date=20 November 2018|archive-date=21 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181121022538/https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b08k4zw9|url-status=live}}</ref>

The exteriors and gardens were also used for the 1964 feature film ''[[Woman of Straw]]'' starring [[Gina Lollobrigida]], [[Sean Connery]] and [[Ralph Richardson]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Woman of Straw|url=http://www.reelstreets.com/films/woman-of-straw|website=Reelstreets.com|access-date=21 February 2021|archive-date=3 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220103020148/https://www.reelstreets.com/films/woman-of-straw/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Woman of Straw (1964)|url=https://www.tcm.com/video/241155/woman-of-straw-1964-i-want-a-pretty-nurse|website=[[Turner Classic Movies]]|access-date=23 February 2021|quote=''Wealthy grouch Charles Richmond (Ralph Richardson), slick nephew Anthony (Sean Connery) and their attitudes are introduced in the opening sequence from director [[Basil Dearden]]'s Woman Of Straw, 1964, from the [[Catherine Arley]] novel, shooting at Audley End House, Saffron Walden, Essex, UK.''|archive-date=23 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201123194419/https://www.tcm.com/video/241155/woman-of-straw-1964-i-want-a-pretty-nurse|url-status=live}}</ref>

During 2017, scenes were filmed at Audley End for ''[[Trust (U.S. TV series)|Trust]]'' produced by [[Danny Boyle]] and based on the life of [[John Paul Getty III]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/mediacentre/mediapacks/trust|title=BBC – Trust – Media Centre|website=www.bbc.co.uk|language=en-GB|access-date=12 September 2018|archive-date=13 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181213131921/https://www.bbc.co.uk/mediacentre/mediapacks/trust|url-status=live}}</ref> On 7 September 2018, scenes were shot for ''[[The Crown (TV series)|The Crown]]''.<ref>{{Cite news|title=TVs Crown at Audley End|date=12 September 2018|work=Walden Local}}</ref> Previously, interior shots of the Library and Great Hall had been used to portray rooms in [[Balmoral Castle]], [[Windsor Castle]] and [[Eton College]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.hellomagazine.com/travel/2017101743265/the-crown-day-filming-location-audley-end/|title=The Crown: We spent the day at filming location Audley End House|last=Shahid|first=S|date=17 October 2017|work=Hello Magazine|access-date=20 November 2017|archive-date=30 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171030051644/http://www1.hellomagazine.com/travel/2017101743265/the-crown-day-filming-location-audley-end/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://blog.english-heritage.org.uk/historys-role-in-bringing-the-modern-monarchy-to-life/|title=The Crown: History's Role in Bringing the Modern Monarcy to Life|last=Robinson|first=Anne|date=1 December 2017|website=English Heritage|access-date=20 November 2017|archive-date=10 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171210173406/http://blog.english-heritage.org.uk/historys-role-in-bringing-the-modern-monarchy-to-life/|url-status=live}}</ref>

Audley End appears in ''The Victorian Way'', a series of videos on English Heritage's [[YouTube]] channel. The videos, shot at Audley End, feature the character of Mrs Crocombe (based on [[Avis Crocombe]], head cook at the house during the 1880s) demonstrating [[Victorian cuisine]] and other aspects of household management in an English country house in the late 19th century.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=Audley+End+House+and+Gardens&sp=EiG4AQHCARtDaElKeVI4SnBTQ0kyRWNSSFVNWmlGdUIwTXc%253D |title=Search: Audley End House and Gardens |website=[[YouTube]] |access-date=7 May 2019 |archive-date=15 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415020500/https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=Audley+End+House+and+Gardens&sp=EiG4AQHCARtDaElKeVI4SnBTQ0kyRWNSSFVNWmlGdUIwTXc%3D |url-status=live }}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Audley End Railway]], miniature railway in the grounds
* [[Audley End railway station]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book|author=Anon|publisher=the Public Catalogue Foundation|title=Oil paintings in public ownership in Essex|date=2006|location=London|isbn=1-904931-14-6}}
* {{cite book|last=Roger |first=Turner|author-link=Roger Turner (garden designer)|title=Capability Brown and the Eighteenth-century English Landscape|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PGqRQAAACAAJ|edition=2nd|year=1999|publisher=Phillimore|location=Chichester|isbn=978-1-86077-114-9|pages=92–93}}
* {{cite book |title=Station 43 Audley End House and SOE's Polish Section |last=Valentine |first=Ian |year=2004 |publisher=Sutton Publishing Ltd |isbn=0-7509-3708-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?isbn=0750937084}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Audley End House}}
* [http://www.english-heritage.org.uk/visit/places/audley-end-house-and-gardens/ Audley End Information at English Heritage]
* [http://www.friendsofaudleyend.org/ Friends of Audley End] Volunteer group supporting the house
* [https://artsandculture.google.com/exhibit/ugISPk0IMbvNJw 'Four centuries of change in a historic country house'] on Google Arts & Culture

[[Category:Howard family (English aristocracy)|+]]
[[Category:Country houses in Essex]]
[[Category:English Heritage sites in Essex]]
[[Category:Gardens by Capability Brown]]
[[Category:Gardens in Essex]]
[[Category:Grade I listed buildings in Essex]]
[[Category:Grade I listed houses]]
[[Category:Grade I listed museum buildings]]
[[Category:Grade I listed parks and gardens in Essex]]
[[Category:Historic house museums in Essex]]
[[Category:Jacobean architecture in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Royal residences in England]]
[[Category:Training establishments of the Special Operations Executive]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Uttlesford]]

Cary Grant

2025-05-17T07:10:53Z

47.32.9.63:

{{Short description|English and American actor (1904–1986)}}
{{Redirect|Archibald Leach}}
{{for|the voice coach and TV presenter|Carrie Grant}}
{{pp-pc|small=yes}}
{{good article}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=April 2024}}
{{Use American English|date=May 2021}}
{{Infobox person
| image = Grant, Cary (Suspicion) 01 Crisco edit.jpg
| caption = Grant in a publicity still for ''[[Suspicion (1941 film)|Suspicion]]'' (1941)
| alt =
| birth_name = Archibald Alec Leach
| birth_date = {{birth date|1904|1|18}}
| birth_place = [[Horfield]], Bristol, England
| death_date = {{death date and age|1986|11|29|1904|1|18}}
| death_place = [[Davenport, Iowa]], US
| citizenship = {{hlist|United Kingdom|United States (from 1942)}}
| occupation = Actor
| works = [[List of Cary Grant performances|List of performances]]
| spouse = {{ubl|{{marriage|[[Virginia Cherrill]]|1934|1935|reason=div}}|{{marriage|[[Barbara Hutton]]|1942|1945|reason=div}}|{{marriage|[[Betsy Drake]]|1949|1962|reason=div}}|{{marriage|[[Dyan Cannon]]|1965|1968|reason=div}}|{{marriage|Barbara Harris|1981}}}}
| children = [[Jennifer Grant]]
| years_active = 1922–1986
| awards = {{ubl|[[Academy Honorary Award]] (1970)|[[Kennedy Center Honors]] (1981)}}
}}
'''Cary Grant''' (born '''Archibald Alec Leach''';{{efn|name=MiddleName|His middle name was recorded as "Alec" on birth records, although he used "Alexander" on his naturalization application form in 1942.{{sfn|Eliot|2004|p=390}}<ref name=BirthRecordList /><ref name=McCarthy />}} January 18, 1904{{snd}}November 29, 1986) was an English and American actor. Known for his blended British and American accent, debonair demeanor, lighthearted approach to acting, and sense of comic timing, he was one of [[Classical Hollywood cinema|classic Hollywood]]'s definitive [[leading man|leading men]]. He was nominated twice for the [[Academy Award for Best Actor|Academy Award]], received an [[Academy Honorary Award]] in [[42nd Academy Awards|1970]], and received the [[Kennedy Center Honor]] in 1981.<ref>{{cite web|url= https://faroutmagazine.co.uk/cary-grant-the-life-of-hollywoods-definitive-leading-man/|title= Cary Grant: The life of Hollywood's definitive leading man|website= FarOut|date= November 29, 2020|accessdate= May 27, 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url= https://www.kennedy-center.org/artists/g/go-gz/cary-grant/|title= Cary Grant – Kennedy Center Honors|website= [[Kennedy Center Honors]]|accessdate= May 26, 2023}}</ref> He was named [[AFI's 100 Years...100 Stars#List of 50 greatest screen legends: Top 25 Male and Top 25 Female stars|the second greatest male star]] of the [[Golden Age of Hollywood]] by the [[American Film Institute]] in 1999.<ref>{{cite web|url= https://www.afi.com/afis-100-years-100-stars/|title= AFI's 100 YEARS...100 STARS: The 50 Greatest American Screen Legends|website= [[American Film Institute]]|accessdate= May 27, 2023}}</ref>

Grant was born into an impoverished family in [[Bristol]], where he had an unhappy childhood marked by the absence of his mother and his father's alcoholism. He became attracted to theatre at a young age when he visited the [[Bristol Hippodrome]].{{sfnm|1a1=McCann|1y=1997|1p=35|2a1=Nelson|2y=2002|2p=10}} At 16, he went as a stage performer with the Pender Troupe for a tour of the US. After a series of successful performances in New York City, he decided to stay there.{{sfn|McCann|1997|pp=44–46}} He established a name for himself in [[vaudeville]] in the 1920s and toured the United States before moving to Hollywood in the early 1930s.

Grant initially appeared in crime films and dramas, such as ''[[Blonde Venus]]'' (1932) and ''[[She Done Him Wrong]]'' (1933), but later gained renown for his performances in romantic [[screwball comedy|screwball]] comedies such as ''[[The Awful Truth]]'' (1937), ''[[Bringing Up Baby]]'' (1938), ''[[His Girl Friday]]'' (1940), and ''[[The Philadelphia Story (film)|The Philadelphia Story]]'' (1940). These pictures are frequently cited among the greatest comedy films of all time.<ref name="ATCF">
Sources:
* {{cite web |url = https://www.bfi.org.uk/lists/10-great-screwball-comedies |title = 10 great screwball comedy films |publisher = [[British Film Institute]] |date = September 13, 2015 |access-date = June 15, 2016 |first = Samuel |last = Wigley |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160615003943/http://www.bfi.org.uk/news-opinion/news-bfi/lists/10-great-screwball-comedies |archive-date = June 15, 2016|url-status = live |ref=none}}
* {{cite web |url = https://www.bfi.org.uk/lists/cary-grant-10-essential-films |title = Cary Grant: 10 essential films |publisher = British Film Institute |date = January 13, 2016 |access-date = June 15, 2016 |first = Samuel |last = Wigley |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160615005635/http://www.bfi.org.uk/news-opinion/news-bfi/lists/10-best-cary-grant-films |archive-date = June 15, 2016 |url-status=live|ref=none}}
* {{cite web |url = http://www.afi.com/10top10/category.aspx?cat=2 |title = AFI's 10 Top 10 – Romantic Comedies |publisher = [[American Film Institute]] |access-date = June 15, 2016 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160615004316/http://www.afi.com/10top10/category.aspx?cat=2 |archive-date = June 15, 2016 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite web |url = http://www.ifc.com/2012/07/the-10-essential-cary-grant-comedies |title = The 10 Essential Cary Grant Comedies – 1 |publisher = [[IFC (U.S. TV network)|IFC]] |date = July 5, 2012 |access-date = June 15, 2016 |first = Andy |last = Hunsaker |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160615004829/http://www.ifc.com/2012/07/the-10-essential-cary-grant-comedies |archive-date = June 15, 2016 |url-status = live|ref=none}}
* {{cite web |url = http://www.ifc.com/fix/2012/06/the-10-essential-cary-grant-comedies/2 |title = The 10 Essential Cary Grant Comedies – 2 |publisher = IFC |date = July 5, 2012 |access-date = June 15, 2016 |first = Andy |last = Hunsaker |archive-url = https://www.webcitation.org/6iGuAw6fM?url=http://www.ifc.com/2012/07/the-10-essential-cary-grant-comedies/2 |archive-date = June 15, 2016 |url-status=live|ref=none}}</ref> Other well-known films in which he starred in this period were the adventure ''[[Gunga Din (film)|Gunga Din]]'' (1939), the [[dark comedy]] ''[[Arsenic and Old Lace (film)|Arsenic and Old Lace]]'' (1944), and the dramas ''[[Only Angels Have Wings]]'' (1939), ''[[Penny Serenade]]'' (1941), and ''[[None but the Lonely Heart (film)|None but the Lonely Heart]]'' (1944), the latter two for which he was nominated for the [[Academy Award for Best Actor]].

During the 1940s and 1950s, Grant had a close working relationship with director [[Alfred Hitchcock]], who cast him in four films: ''[[Suspicion (1941 film)|Suspicion]]'' (1941), ''[[Notorious (1946 film)|Notorious]]'' (1946), ''[[To Catch a Thief]]'' (1955), and ''[[North by Northwest]]'' (1959). For the suspense-dramas ''Suspicion'' and ''Notorious'', Grant took on darker, morally ambiguous characters, both challenging Grant's screen persona and his acting abilities. Toward the end of his career he starred in the romantic films ''[[Indiscreet (1958 film)|Indiscreet]]'' (1958), ''[[Operation Petticoat]]'' (1959), ''[[That Touch of Mink]]'' (1962), and ''[[Charade (1963 film)|Charade]]'' (1963). He is remembered by critics for his unusually broad appeal as a handsome, suave actor who did not take himself too seriously, and in comedies was able to toy with his dignity without sacrificing it entirely.

Grant was married five times, three of them elopements with actresses [[Virginia Cherrill]] (1934–1935), [[Betsy Drake]] (1949–1962), and [[Dyan Cannon]] (1965–1968). He had daughter [[Jennifer Grant]] with Cannon. He retired from film acting in 1966 and pursued numerous business interests, representing cosmetics firm [[Fabergé (cosmetics)|Fabergé]] and sitting on the board of [[Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer]]. He died of a stroke in 1986 at the age of 82.

== Early life and education ==
Grant was born Archibald Alec Leach on January 18, 1904, at 15 Hughenden Road in [[Horfield]], a suburb of [[Bristol]].{{sfnm|1a1=McCann|1y=1997|1p=13|2a1=Eliot|2y=2004|2p=390}}<ref name=BirthRecordList>{{cite web |url = https://www.freebmd.org.uk/cgi/information.pl?cite=AjvF9Kgq%2Fb8ObFmduVgRiw&scan=1 |title = Index entry – Birth record list |access-date = March 17, 2017 |work = FreeBMD |publisher = ONS }}</ref> He was the second child of Elias James Leach and Elsie Maria Leach (née Kingdon).{{sfn|Wansell|2011|p=13}} His father worked as a tailor's presser at a clothes factory, while his mother worked as a seamstress.{{sfn|Eliot|2004|p=24}} His older brother John William Elias Leach died of [[tuberculous meningitis]] two days before his first birthday.{{sfn|Eliot|2004|p=25}} {{anchor|Jewish}}Grant may have considered himself partly [[English Jews|Jewish]].{{efn|Among the reasons that he gave for believing so was that he was circumcised, and [[circumcision]] was and still is rare in Britain outside the Jewish community.{{sfn|McCann|1997|pp=14–15}} In 1948, he donated a large sum of money to help the newly established State of Israel, declaring that it was "in the name of his dead Jewish mother".{{sfn|Morecambe|Sterling|2004|p=114}} He also speculated that his appearance, with brown curly hair, could be due to his father's partly Jewish descent. There is no genealogical or substantial evidence about possible Jewish ancestry, however.{{sfn|McCann|1997|p=16}} He turned down the leading role in ''[[Gentleman's Agreement]]'' in the 1940s, playing a non-Jewish character who pretends to be Jewish, because he believed that he could not effectively play the part. He donated considerable sums to Jewish causes over his lifetime. In 1939, he gave Jewish actor [[Sam Jaffe]] $25,000.{{sfnm|1a1=Higham|1a2=Moseley|1y=1990|1p=3|2a1=McCann|2y=1997|2pp=14–15}}}} He had an unhappy upbringing; his father was an alcoholic{{sfn|Klein|2009|p=32}} and his mother had clinical depression.{{sfn|Weiten|1996|p=291}}

{{quote box
| width = 30em
| bgcolor = #c6dbf7
| align = right
| quote = He had such a traumatic childhood, it was horrible. I work with a lot of kids on the street and I've heard a lot of stories about what happens when a family breaks down — but his was just horrendous.
| source = —Grant's wife Dyan Cannon on his childhood<ref name="SMH">{{cite news |url = https://www.smh.com.au/entertainment/books/cary-grants-lsd-gateway-to-god-20111018-1lye1.html |title = Cary Grant's LSD 'gateway to God' |work = [[The Sydney Morning Herald]] |date = 18 October 2011 |access-date = 14 October 2015 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160303044031/http://www.smh.com.au/entertainment/books/cary-grants-lsd-gateway-to-god-20111018-1lye1.html |archive-date = March 3, 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref>
}}

Grant's mother taught him song and dance when he was four, and she was keen on his having piano lessons.{{sfn|Wansell|2011|p=14}} She occasionally took him to the cinema, where he enjoyed the performances of [[Charlie Chaplin]], [[Chester Conklin]], [[Fatty Arbuckle]], [[Ford Sterling]], [[Mack Swain]], and [[Broncho Billy Anderson]].{{sfn|McCann|1997|p=20}} He moved a short distance to 50 Berkeley Road at about age 4,<ref name=bp-20241122/> and was sent to [[Bishop Road Primary School]] when he was {{frac|4|1|2}}.{{sfn|Wansell|1983|p=32}} He lived at six addresses in Bristol, but said his time at Berkeley Road were his childhood "happiest days".<ref name=guardian-20241122>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2024/nov/22/cary-grants-humble-bristol-roots-honoured-with-blue-plaque |title=Cary Grant's humble Bristol roots honoured with blue plaque |last=Morris |first=Steven |newspaper=The Guardian |date=22 November 2024 |access-date=1 December 2024}}</ref>

Grant's biographer [[Graham McCann]] claimed that his mother "did not know how to give affection and did not know how to receive it either".{{sfn|McCann|1997|p=27}} Biographer Geoffrey Wansell notes that his mother blamed herself bitterly for the death of Grant's brother John, and never recovered from it.{{efn|Wansell states that John was a "sickly child" who frequently came down with a fever. He had developed gangrene on his arms after a door was slammed on his thumbnail while his mother was holding him. She stayed up night after night nursing him, but the doctor insisted that she get some rest—and he died the night that she stopped watching over him.{{sfn|Wansell|2011|p=13}}}} Grant acknowledged that his negative experiences with his mother affected his relationships with women later in life.{{sfn|Morecambe|Sterling|2001|p=63}} She frowned on alcohol and tobacco,{{sfn|Wansell|2011|p=13}} and would reduce pocket money for minor mishaps.{{sfn|McCann|1997|p=19}} Grant attributed her behavior to overprotectiveness, fearing that she would lose him as she did John.{{sfn|Wansell|2011|p=14}}

When Grant was nine, his father placed his mother in [[Glenside, Bristol|Glenside Hospital]], a mental institution, and told him she had gone away on a "long holiday",{{sfn|Vermilye|1973|p=13}} later declaring that she had died.{{sfn|Klein|2009|p=32}} Grant grew up resenting his mother, particularly after being told she left the family. After she was institutionalised, Grant and his father moved into Grant's grandmother's home in Bristol.{{sfnm|1a1=Royce|1a2=Donaldson|1y=1989|1p=298|2a1=Nelson|2y=2002|2p=36}} When Grant was ten, his father remarried and started a new family.<ref name="SMH" /> Grant did not learn that his mother was still alive until he was 31,{{sfn|Connolly|2014|p=209}} his father confessing to the lie shortly before his own death.<ref name="SMH" /> Grant made arrangements for his mother to leave the institution in June 1935, shortly after he learned of her whereabouts.<ref>{{cite web |title = How a surprise visit to the museum led to new discoveries |date = February 7, 2015 |url = http://www.glensidemuseum.org.uk/surprise-visit-museum-led-new-discoveries/ |publisher = Glenside Museum |access-date = December 23, 2015 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160303044704/http://www.glensidemuseum.org.uk/surprise-visit-museum-led-new-discoveries/ |archive-date = March 3, 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> He visited her regularly,<ref name=bp-20241122/> including after filming ''Gunga Din'' in October 1938.{{sfn|Wansell|2011|p=94}}

Grant enjoyed the theater, particularly [[pantomimes]] at Christmas, which he attended with his father.{{sfn|McCann|1997|p=19}} He befriended a troupe of acrobatic dancers known as The Penders or the Bob Pender Stage Troupe.{{sfn|Rood|1994|p=140}} He subsequently trained as a stilt walker and began touring with them.{{sfnm|1a1=Rood|1y=1994|1p=140|2a1=Miniter|2y=2013|2p=194}} [[Jesse Lasky]] was a Broadway producer at the time and saw Grant performing at the [[Berlin Wintergarten theatre|Wintergarten theater]] in Berlin around 1914.{{sfnm|1a1=Fryer|1y=2005|1p=164|2a1=Louvish|2y=2007|2p=40|3a1=Miniter|3y=2013|3p=194}}

[[File:Fairfield School, Montpelier, Bristol. - geograph.org.uk - 198016.jpg|thumb|right|[[Fairfield Grammar School]], which Grant attended between 1915 and 1918]]
In 1915, Grant won a scholarship to attend [[Fairfield Grammar School]] in Bristol, although his father could barely afford to pay for the uniform.{{sfn|McCann|1997|p=29}} He was quite capable in most academic subjects,{{efn|Wansell notes that Grant hated mathematics and Latin and was more interested in geography, because he "wanted to travel".{{sfn|Wansell|2011|p=16}}}} but he excelled at sports, particularly [[fives]], and his good looks and acrobatic talents made him a popular figure.{{sfn|McCann|1997|p=33}}<ref>{{cite journal |url = https://archive.org/stream/modernscreen56unse#page/n849/mode/2up |title = The Life Story of Cary Grant |author = Ramsey, Walter |journal = Modern Screen |publisher = Dell Publications |date = October 1933 |page = 30 |access-date = June 17, 2016 }}</ref> He developed a reputation for mischief, and frequently refused to do his homework.{{sfn|McCann|1997|p=30}} A former classmate referred to him as a "scruffy little boy", while an old teacher remembered "the naughty little boy who was always making a noise in the back row and would never do his homework".{{sfn|McCann|1997|p=33}}

He spent his evenings working backstage in Bristol theatres, and at the age of 13, was responsible for the lighting for magician [[David Devant]] at the Bristol Empire in 1917.{{sfn|Morecambe|Sterling|2001|p=21}} He began hanging around backstage at the theatre at every opportunity,{{sfn|Wansell|2011|p=16}} and volunteered for work in the summer as a messenger boy and guide at the military docks in [[Southampton]], to escape the unhappiness of his home life.{{sfn|McCann|1997|p=34}} The time spent at Southampton strengthened his desire to travel; he was eager to leave Bristol and tried to sign on as a ship's cabin boy, but he was too young.{{sfn|McCann|1997|pp=30–31}}

On March 13, 1918, the 14-year-old{{sfn|McCann|1997|p=37}} Grant was expelled from Fairfield.{{sfn|Fells|2015|p=105}} Several explanations were given, including being discovered in the girls' lavatory{{sfn|Schickel|2009|p=29}} and assisting two other classmates with theft in the nearby town of [[Almondsbury]].{{sfn|McCann|1997|pp=37–38}} Wansell claims that Grant had set out intentionally to get himself expelled from school to pursue a career in entertainment with the troupe,{{sfn|Wansell|2011|p=17}} and he did rejoin Pender's troupe three days after being expelled. His father had a better-paying job in Southampton, and Grant's expulsion brought local authorities to Pender's door with questions about why he was living in Bristol and not with his father in Southampton. His father then co-signed a three-year contract between Grant and Pender that stipulated Grant's weekly salary, along with room and board, dancing lessons, and other training for his profession until age 18. There was also a provision in the contract for salary raises based on job performance.{{sfnm|1a1=McCann|1y=1997|1p=34|2a1=Nelson|2y=2002|2p=42|3a1=Eliot|3y=2004|3p=34}}

== Vaudeville and performing career ==

[[File:Hippodrome interior.jpg|thumb|The [[New York Hippodrome]] where Grant performed]]

The Pender Troupe began touring the country, and Grant's performing pantomime developed his physical skills, broadening the range of his acting.{{sfn|Wansell|2011|p=17}} The troupe traveled on the {{RMS|Olympic}} to conduct a tour of the United States on July 21, 1920, when he was 16, arriving a week later.{{sfn|McCann|1997|pp=44–46}} Biographer [[Richard Schickel]] writes that [[Douglas Fairbanks]] and [[Mary Pickford]] were aboard the same ship, returning from their honeymoon; Grant played shuffleboard with Fairbanks, who became an important role model for him.{{sfn|Schickel|1998|p=20}} After arriving in New York, the group performed at the [[New York Hippodrome]], the largest theater in the world at the time with a capacity of 5,697. They performed there for nine months, putting on 12 shows a week, and they had a successful production of ''[[Good Times (musical)|Good Times]]''.{{sfnm|1a1=McCann|1y=1997|1pp=44–46|2a1=Wansell|2y=2011|2p=17}}

{{quote box
| width = 30em
| bgcolor = #c6dbf7
| align = left
| quote = Doing stand-up comedy is extremely difficult. Your timing has to change from show to show and from town to town. You're always adjusting to the size of the audience and the size of the theatre.
| source = —Grant on stand-up comedy.{{sfn|McCann|1997|p=53}}
}}

Grant became a part of the [[vaudeville]] circuit and began touring, performing in places such as [[St. Louis, Missouri]], [[Cleveland]], and [[Milwaukee]],{{sfn|Wansell|2011|p=18}} and he decided to stay in the US with several of the other members when the rest of the troupe returned to Britain.{{sfn|Roberts|2014|p=100}} He became fond of the [[Marx Brothers]] during this period, and [[Zeppo Marx]] was an early role model for him.{{sfn|McCann|1997|p=49}} In July 1922, he performed in a group called the "Knockabout Comedians" at the [[Palace Theatre (New York City)|Palace Theater]] on Broadway.{{sfn|Wansell|2011|p=18}} He formed another group that summer called "The Walking Stanleys" with several of the former members of the Pender Troupe, and he starred in a variety show named "Better Times" at the Hippodrome towards the end of the year.{{sfnm|1a1=McCann|1y=1997|1p=51|2a1=Wansell|2y=2011|2p=18}} While serving as a paid escort for the opera singer [[Lucrezia Bori]] at a Park Avenue party, he met [[George C. Tilyou#Personal life|George C. Tilyou Jr.]], whose family owned [[Steeplechase Park]].{{sfn|Wansell|2011|p=18}} Learning of his acrobatic experience, Tilyou hired him to work as a stilt-walker and attract large crowds on the newly opened [[Coney Island Boardwalk]], wearing a bright [[greatcoat]] and a [[sandwich board]] that advertised the amusement park.{{sfn|McCann|1997|p=49}}

[[File:Casino Theatre, Broadway and 39th Street, Manhattan - crop.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Casino Theatre (New York City)|Casino Theater]] on Broadway and 39th Street, where Grant appeared in Shubert's ''Boom-Boom'']]

Grant spent the next couple of years touring the United States with "The Walking Stanleys". He visited Los Angeles for the first time in 1924, which made a lasting impression on him.{{sfn|Wansell|2011|p=18}} The group split up and he returned to New York, where he began performing at the National Vaudeville Artists Club on West 46th Street, doing comic sketches, juggling, performing acrobatics, and as "Rubber Legs", riding a unicycle.{{sfn|McCann|1997|p=51}} The experience was a particularly demanding one, but it gave Grant the opportunity to improve his comic technique and to develop skills that benefitted him later in Hollywood.{{sfnm|1a1=McCann|1y=1997|1p=53|2a1=Roberts|2y=2014|2p=100}}

Grant became a leading man alongside [[Jean Dalrymple]] and decided to form the "Jack Janis Company", which began touring vaudeville.{{sfn|Slide|2012|p=211}} He was sometimes mistaken for an Australian during this period and was nicknamed "Kangaroo" or "Boomerang".{{sfn|Wansell|2011|pp=18–19}} His accent seemed to have changed as a result of moving to London with the Pender troupe and working in so many music halls in the UK and the US, eventually developing a sort of [[Good American Speech|transatlantic or mid-Atlantic accent]].{{sfnm|1a1=McCann|1y=1997|1pp=59–60|2a1=Walker|2y=2015|2p=187}}{{efn|Grant likely made further changes to his accent after electing to remain in the United States, in an effort to make himself more employable.{{sfn|McCann|1997|pp=59–60}} The slight Cockney accent that Grant had picked up during his time with the Pender troupe, blended with his efforts to sound American, resulted in his unique manner of speaking.{{sfn|Nelson|2002|pp=55–56}}}} In 1927, he was cast as an Australian in Reggie Hammerstein's musical ''Golden Dawn'', for which he earned $75 a week.{{sfn|Wansell|2011|p=19}} The show was not well received, but it lasted for 184 performances and several critics started to notice Grant as the "pleasant new juvenile" or "competent young newcomer".{{sfn|Wansell|2011|p=19}}

In 1928, he joined the [[William Morris Agency]] and was offered another juvenile part by Hammerstein in his play ''Polly'', an unsuccessful production.{{sfnm|1a1=Donnelley|1y=2003|1p=290|2a1=Wansell|2y=2011|2p=19}} One critic wrote that Grant "has a strong masculine manner, but unfortunately fails to bring out the beauty of the score".{{sfn|McCann|1997|p=53}} Wansell notes that the pressure of a failing production began to make him fret, and he was eventually dropped from the run after six weeks of poor reviews.{{sfn|Wansell|2011|p=20}} Despite the setback, Hammerstein's rival [[Florenz Ziegfeld]] made an attempt to buy Grant's contract, but Hammerstein sold it to the [[Shubert Brothers]] instead.{{sfn|Wansell|2011|p=20}}

[[J. J. Shubert]] cast him in a small role as a Spaniard opposite [[Jeanette MacDonald]] in the French risqué comedy ''Boom-Boom'' at the Casino Theater on Broadway, which premiered on January 28, 1929, ten days after his 25th birthday.{{sfnm|1a1=Wansell|1y=1983|1p=75|2a1=Turk|2y=1998|2p=350}} MacDonald later admitted that Grant was "absolutely terrible in the role", but he exhibited a charm that endeared him to people and effectively saved the show from failure.{{sfn|Wansell|2011|p=20}} The play ran for 72 shows, and Grant earned $350 a week before moving to Detroit, and then to Chicago.{{sfnm|1a1=McCann|1y=1997|1p=54|2a1=Wansell|2y=2011|2p=20}}{{efn|The play's success prompted a screen test for Grant and MacDonald by Paramount Publix Pictures at [[Astoria Studios]] in New York, which resulted in MacDonald being cast opposite [[Maurice Chevalier]] in ''[[The Love Parade]]'' (1929). Grant was rejected, and informed that his neck was "too thick" and his legs were "too bowed".{{sfn|Wansell|2011|p=20}}}}

[[File:Cary Grant circa 1930.jpg|thumb|upright|Grant in 1930]]

To console himself, Grant bought a 1927 [[Packard]] sport [[phaeton body|phaeton]].{{sfn|Wansell|2011|p=20}} He visited his half-brother Eric in England, and he returned to New York to play the role of Max Grunewald in a Shubert production of ''A Wonderful Night''.{{sfn|Traubner|2004|p=115}} It premiered at the Majestic Theatre on October 31, 1929, two days after the [[Wall Street Crash]], and lasted until February 1930 with 125 shows.{{sfnm|1a1=McCann|1y=1997|1p=55|2a1=Wansell|2y=2011|2p=20}} The play received mixed reviews; one critic criticized his acting, likening it to a "mixture of [[John Barrymore]] and [[cockney]]", while another announced that he had brought a "breath of elfin Broadway" to the role.{{sfn|McCann|1997|p=55}} Grant found it difficult forming relationships with women, remarking that he "never seemed able to fully communicate with them" even after many years "surrounded by all sorts of attractive girls" in the theater, on the road, and in New York.{{sfn|Wansell|2011|p=21}}

In 1930, Grant toured for nine months in a production of the musical ''The Street Singer''.{{sfn|McCann|1997|p=56}} It ended in early 1931, and the Shuberts invited him to spend the summer performing on the stage at [[The Muny]] in [[St. Louis, Missouri]]; he appeared in 12 different productions, putting on 87 shows.{{sfn|Deschner|1973|p=6}}{{efn|The productions included ''[[Irene (musical)|Irene]]'', ''Music in May'', ''Nina Rosa'', ''[[Rio Rita (musical)|Rio Rita]]'', and ''[[The Three Musketeers (musical)|The Three Musketeers]]''.{{sfnm|1a1=Botto|1a2=Viagas|1y=2010|1p=493|2a1=Wansell|2y=2011|2p=21}}}} He received praise from local newspapers for these performances, gaining a reputation as a romantic leading man.{{sfn|McCann|1997|p=56}} Significant influences on his acting in this period were [[Gerald du Maurier]], [[A. E. Matthews]], [[Jack Buchanan]], and [[Ronald Squire]].{{sfn|McCann|1997|p=71}} He admitted that he was drawn to acting because of a "great need to be liked and admired".{{sfn|Wansell|2011|p=13}}

He was eventually fired by the Shuberts at the end of the summer season when he refused to accept a pay cut because of financial difficulties caused by the [[Great Depression|Depression]].{{sfn|Wansell|2011|p=21}} His unemployment was short-lived, however; impresario [[William B. Friedlander]] offered him the romantic lead in his musical ''Nikki'', and Grant starred opposite [[Fay Wray]] as a soldier in post-World War I France. The production opened on September 29, 1931, in New York, but was stopped after just 39 performances due to the effects of the Depression.{{sfn|Wansell|2011|p=21}}

== Film career ==
{{See also|List of Cary Grant performances}}

=== 1932–1936: Debut and early roles ===
[[File:This is the Night.jpg|thumb|right|With [[Roland Young]] (''right''), [[Lili Damita]] (''center''), and [[Charlie Ruggles]] (''far left'') in his debut film ''[[This Is the Night (1932 film)|This is the Night]]'' (1932)]]
Grant's role in ''Nikki'' was praised by [[Ed Sullivan]] of ''[[The New York Daily News]]'', who noted that the "young lad from England" had "a big future in the movies".{{sfn|Eliot|2004|pp=54–55}} The review led to another screen test by Paramount Publix, resulting in an appearance as a sailor in ''[[Singapore Sue]]'' (1931),<ref>{{Cite book|last=Bonet Mojica|first=Lluis|title=Cary Grant|year=2004|isbn=84-95602-58-X|pages=37–38|publisher=T & B Editores }}</ref> a ten-minute short film by [[Casey Robinson]].{{sfn|Eliot|2004|pp=54–55}} Grant delivered his lines "without any conviction" according to McCann.{{efn|Grant was later so embarrassed by the scene and he requested that it be omitted from his 1970 Academy Award footage.{{sfn|McCann|1997|p=57}}}} Through Robinson, Grant met with [[Jesse L. Lasky]] and [[B. P. Schulberg]], the co-founder and general manager of [[Paramount Pictures]] respectively.{{sfn|Eliot|2004|pp=56–57}} After a successful screen-test directed by [[Marion Gering]],{{efn|Grant would later work with Gering in ''[[Devil and the Deep]]'' and ''[[Madame Butterfly (1932 film)|Madame Butterfly]]'' (both 1932)}} Schulberg signed a contract with the 27-year-old Grant on December 7, 1931, for five years,{{sfn|McCann|1997|p=62}} at a starting salary of $450 a week.{{sfnm|1a1=Vermilye|1y=1973|p=19|2a1=Wansell|2y=2011|2p=21}} Schulberg demanded that he change his name to "something that sounded more all-American like [[Gary Cooper]]", and they eventually agreed on Cary Grant.{{sfn|Eliot|2004|p=57}}{{efn|Grant agreed that "Archie just doesn't sound right in America. It doesn't sound particularly right in Britain either".{{sfn|McCann|1997|p=61}} While having dinner with Fay Wray, she suggested that he choose "Cary Lockwood", the name of his character in ''Nikki''. Schulberg agreed the name "Cary" was acceptable, but was less satisfied with "Lockwood" as it was too similar to another actor's surname. Schulberg then gave Grant a list of surnames compiled by Paramount's publicity department, out of which he chose "Grant".{{sfn|Eliot|2004|p=57}}}}

Grant set out to establish himself as what McCann calls the "epitome of masculine glamour", and made Douglas Fairbanks his first role model.{{sfn|McCann|1997|p=65}} McCann notes that Grant's career in Hollywood immediately took off because he exhibited a "genuine charm", which made him stand out among the other good looking actors at the time, making it "remarkably easy to find people who were willing to support his embryonic career".{{sfn|McCann|1997|p=60}} He made his feature film debut with the [[Frank Tuttle]]-directed comedy ''[[This Is the Night (1932 film)|This is the Night]]'' (1932), playing an Olympic javelin thrower opposite [[Thelma Todd]] and [[Lili Damita]].{{sfnm|1a1=Vermilye|1y=1973|1p=20|2a1=Eliot|2y=2004|2p=62}} Grant disliked his role and threatened to leave Hollywood,{{sfnm|1a1=Eliot|1y=2004|1p=62|2a1=Wansell|2y=2011|2p=22}} but to his surprise a critic from ''[[Variety (magazine)|Variety]]'' praised his performance, and thought that he looked like a "potential femme rave".{{sfn|Eliot|2004|p=63}}

In 1932, Grant played a wealthy [[playboy lifestyle|playboy]] opposite [[Marlene Dietrich]] in ''[[Blonde Venus]]'', directed by [[Josef von Sternberg]]. Grant's role is described by [[William Rothman]] as projecting the "distinctive kind of nonmacho masculinity that was to enable him to incarnate a man capable of being a romantic hero".{{sfn|Rothman|2014|p=71}} Grant found that he conflicted with the director during the filming and the two often argued in German.{{sfn|McCann|1997|p=80}} He played a suave playboy type in a number of films: ''[[Merrily We Go to Hell]]'' opposite [[Fredric March]] and [[Sylvia Sidney]], ''[[Devil and the Deep]]'' with [[Tallulah Bankhead]], [[Gary Cooper]] and [[Charles Laughton]] (Cooper and Grant had no scenes together), ''[[Hot Saturday]]'' opposite [[Nancy Carroll]] and [[Randolph Scott]],{{sfn|Wansell|2011|p=29}} and ''[[Madame Butterfly (1932 film)|Madame Butterfly]]'' with Sidney.<ref name="Filmography">{{cite web |url = https://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/person/75180%7C28068/cary-grant#filmography |title = Cary Grant – Complete Filmography With Synopsis |publisher = [[Turner Classic Movies]] |access-date = November 16, 2015 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151116122928/http://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/person/75180%7C28068/Cary-Grant/filmography-with-synopsis.html |archive-date = November 16, 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{sfn|Eliot|2004|pp=63–68}} According to biographer Marc Eliot, while these films did not make Grant a star, they did well enough to establish him as one of Hollywood's "new crop of fast-rising actors".{{sfn|Eliot|2004|p=66}}
[[File:Grant West I'm No Angel Still 1933.jpg|thumb|left|Grant and [[Mae West]] in ''[[I'm No Angel]]'' (1933)]]
In 1933, Grant gained attention for appearing in the [[Pre-Code Hollywood|pre-Code films]] ''[[She Done Him Wrong]]'' and ''[[I'm No Angel]]'' opposite [[Mae West]].{{efn|''She Done Him Wrong''—an adaptation of Mae West's own play ''[[Diamond Lil (play)|Diamond Lil]]'' (1928)—was nominated in the [[Academy Award for Best Picture]] category, but lost to ''[[Cavalcade (1933 film)|Cavalcade]]'' (1933).{{sfn|Eliot|2004|pp=68–69}}<ref>{{cite web |url = https://www.oscars.org/oscars/ceremonies/1934 |title = The 6th Academy Awards 1934 |publisher = [[Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences]] |date = March 16, 1934 |access-date = June 7, 2016 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160607094822/https://www.oscars.org/oscars/ceremonies/1934 |archive-date = June 7, 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref>}} West would later claim that she had discovered Cary Grant.{{sfn|Wansell|2011|p=30}}{{efn|According to biographer Jerry Vermilye, Grant had caught West's eye in the studio and had queried about him to one of Paramount's office boys. The boy replied, "Oh, that's Cary Grant. He's making [''Madame''] ''Butterfly'' with Sylvia Sidney". West then retorted, "I don't care if he's making Little Nell. If he can talk, I'll take him."{{sfn|Vermilye|1973|p=30}}}} Of course Grant had already made ''Blonde Venus'' the previous year in which he was Marlene Dietrich's [[leading man]]. [[Pauline Kael]] noted that Grant did not appear confident in his role as a [[Salvation Army]] director in ''She Done Him Wrong'', which made it all the more charming.{{sfn|McCann|1997|p=86}}<ref name="Kael">{{cite magazine |url = https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/1975/07/14/the-man-from-dream-city |title = The Man From Dream City |magazine = [[The New Yorker]] |date = July 14, 1975 |access-date = June 9, 2016 |first = Pauline |last = Kael |author-link = Pauline Kael |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160609003841/http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/1975/07/14/the-man-from-dream-city |archive-date = June 9, 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> The film was a box office hit, earning more than $2 million in the United States,{{sfn|Wansell|2011|p=31}} and has since won much acclaim.{{efn|The film is ranked at 75 in [[AFI's 100 Years... 100 Laughs]] list, while West's line "Why don't you come up sometime and see me?" was voted number 26 in [[AFI's 100 Years... 100 Movie Quotes]].<ref name="AFI Laughs">{{cite web |url = http://www.afi.com/100Years/laughs.aspx |title = AFI's 100 Funniest American Movies Of All Time |publisher = [[American Film Institute]] |access-date = November 16, 2015 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151116134020/http://www.afi.com/100Years/laughs.aspx |archive-date = November 16, 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.afi.com/100Years/quotes.aspx |title = AFI's 100 Greatest Movie Quotes Of All Time |publisher = American Film Institute |access-date = November 16, 2015 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151116134035/http://www.afi.com/100Years/quotes.aspx |archive-date = November 16, 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref>}} For ''I'm No Angel'', Grant's salary was increased from $450 to $750 a week.{{sfn|Eliot|2004|p=73}} The film was even more successful than ''She Done Him Wrong'', and saved Paramount from bankruptcy;{{sfn|Eliot|2004|p=73}} Vermilye cites it as one of the best comedy films of the 1930s.{{sfnm|1a1=Vermilye|1y=1973|1pp=37–38|2a1=Eliot|2y=2004|2p=91}}

A string of financially unsuccessful films followed, including roles as a president of a company who is sued for knocking down a boy in an accident in ''[[Born to Be Bad (1934 film)|Born to Be Bad]]'' (1934) for 20th Century Fox,{{efn|''The New York Times'' called ''Born to Be Bad'' a "hopelessly unintelligent hodgepodge", while ''Variety'' labelled his performance "colorless" and "meaningless".{{sfn|Wansell|2011|p=36}}}} a cosmetic surgeon in ''[[Kiss and Make-Up]]'' (1934),{{sfn|Halliwell|1976|p=23}} and a blinded pilot opposite [[Myrna Loy]] in ''[[Wings in the Dark]]'' (1935). Amid press reports of problems in his marriage to Cherrill,{{efn|In December 1934 Virginia Cherrill informed a jury in a Los Angeles court that Grant "drank excessively, choked and beat her, and threatened to kill her". The press continued to report on the turbulent relationship which began to tarnish his image.{{sfn|Wansell|2011|p=38}}}} Paramount concluded that Grant was expendable.{{sfn|Wansell|2011|p=38}}{{efn|Though Grant's films in the 1934–1935 period were commercial failures, he was still getting positive comments from the critics, who thought that his acting was getting better. One reviewer from ''Daily Variety'' wrote of ''Wings in the Dark'': "Cary Grant tops all his past work. The part gave him a dimension to play with and he took it headlong. He never flaws in the moving, pathetic, but inspiring behavior of a man whose career seems ruined by an accident but comes back through a mental hell, by virtue of love and the saving ruses of friendship. His acting here lifts him definitely above his prior standing."{{sfn|Deschner|1973|p=84}} Graham Greene of ''The Spectator'' thought that he played his role in ''The Last Outpost'' "extremely well".{{sfn|Deschner|1973|p=86}}}}

[[File:Ladies Should Listen 2.jpg|thumb|Lobby card for ''[[Ladies Should Listen]]'' (1934) with [[Frances Drake]] and Grant]]
Grant's prospects picked up in the latter half of 1935 when he was loaned out to [[RKO Pictures]].{{sfn|Vermilye|1973|p=48}} Producer [[Pandro Berman]] agreed to take him on in the face of failure because "I'd seen him do things which were excellent, and [[Katharine Hepburn|[Katharine] Hepburn]] wanted him too."{{sfn|Wansell|2011|p=39}} His first venture with RKO, playing a raffish Cockney swindler in [[George Cukor]]'s ''[[Sylvia Scarlett]]'' (1935), was the first of four collaborations with Hepburn.{{sfnm|1a1=Vermilye|1y=1973|1pp=48–49|2a1=Deschner|2y=1973|2pp=88–89}}{{efn|The pair would later on feature in ''[[Bringing Up Baby]]'' (1938), ''[[Holiday (1938 film)|Holiday]]'' (1938) and ''[[The Philadelphia Story (film)|The Philadelphia Story]]'' (1940).{{sfn|Vermilye|1973|pp=146–148}}}} Though a commercial failure,{{sfn|Schickel|1998|p=46}} his dominating performance was praised by critics,{{sfnm|1a1=Vermilye|1y=1973|1pp=48–49|2a1=Wansell|2y=2011|2p=41}} and Grant always considered the film to have been the breakthrough for his career.{{sfn|McCann|1997|p=89}}

When his contract with Paramount ended in 1936 with the release of ''[[Wedding Present (film)|Wedding Present]]'', Grant decided not to renew it and wished to work freelance. Grant claimed to be the first freelance actor in Hollywood.{{sfn|Vermilye|1973|p=55}} His first venture as a freelance actor was ''[[The Amazing Quest of Ernest Bliss]]'' (1936), which was shot in England.{{sfn|McCann|1997|p=89}} The film was a [[box office bomb]] and prompted Grant to reconsider his decision. Critical and commercial success with ''[[Suzy (film)|Suzy]]'' later that year in which he played a French airman opposite [[Jean Harlow]] and [[Franchot Tone]], led to him signing joint contracts with RKO and [[Columbia Pictures]], enabling him to choose the stories that he felt suited his acting style.{{sfn|Vermilye|1973|p=55}} His Columbia contract was a four-film deal over two years, guaranteeing him $50,000 each for the first two and $75,000 each for the others.{{sfn|Wansell|2011|p=42}}

=== 1937–1945: Hollywood stardom ===
In 1937, Grant began the first film under his contract with Columbia Pictures, ''[[When You're in Love (film)|When You're in Love]]'', portraying a wealthy American artist who eventually woos a famous opera singer ([[Grace Moore]]). His performance received positive feedback from critics, with Mae Tinee of ''[[The Chicago Daily Tribune]]'' describing it as the "best thing he's done in a long time".<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.carygrant.net/reviews/love.html |title = When You're In Love – Reviews |publisher = Carygrant.net |access-date = April 2, 2016 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160402065803/http://www.carygrant.net/reviews/love.html |archive-date = April 2, 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> After a commercial failure in his second RKO venture ''[[The Toast of New York]]'',{{sfn|Wansell|2011|p=43}}<ref name="rko">Richard Jewel, 'RKO Film Grosses: 1931–1951', ''Historical Journal of Film, Radio and Television'', Vol 14 No 1, 1994 p. 57.</ref> Grant was loaned to [[Hal Roach]]'s studio for ''[[Topper (film)|Topper]]'', a [[screwball comedy]] film distributed by [[MGM]], which became his first major comedy success.{{sfn|Vermilye|1973|p=58}} Grant played one half of a wealthy, freewheeling married couple with [[Constance Bennett]],<ref>{{cite web |url = http://emanuellevy.com/comment/topper-1937-ghost-comedy-with-cary-grant-and-constance-bennett/ |title = Topper (1937): Ghost Comedy with Cary Grant and Constance Bennett |publisher = Emmanuellevy.com |date = August 3, 2014 |access-date = April 2, 2016 |first = Emanuel |last = Levy |author-link = Emanuel Levy |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160402084140/http://emanuellevy.com/comment/topper-1937-ghost-comedy-with-cary-grant-and-constance-bennett/ |archive-date = April 2, 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> who wreak havoc on the world as ghosts after dying in a car accident.<ref>{{cite web |url = https://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/title/614613/topper#articles-reviews |title = Topper (1937) |publisher = Turner Classic Movies |access-date = April 2, 2016 |first = Frank |last = Miller |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160402073600/http://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/title/614613/Topper/articles.html |archive-date = April 2, 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> ''Topper'' became one of the most popular movies of the year, with a critic from ''Variety'' noting that both Grant and Bennett "do their assignments with great skill".<ref>{{cite web |url = https://variety.com/1936/film/reviews/topper-1200411301/ |title = Review: 'Topper' |work = Variety |date = December 31, 1936 |access-date = April 2, 2016 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160402081032/http://variety.com/1936/film/reviews/topper-1200411301/ |archive-date = April 2, 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> Vermilye described the film's success as "a logical springboard" for Grant to star in ''[[The Awful Truth]]'' that year,{{sfn|Vermilye|1973|p=60}} his first film made with [[Irene Dunne]] and [[Ralph Bellamy]]. Though director [[Leo McCarey]] reportedly disliked Grant,{{sfn|Wansell|2011|pp=48–49}} who had mocked the director by enacting his mannerisms in the film,{{sfn|Gehring|2005|p=152}} he recognized Grant's comic talents and encouraged him to improvise his lines and draw upon his skills developed in vaudeville.{{sfn|Wansell|2011|pp=48–49}} The film was a critical and commercial success and made Grant a top Hollywood star,{{sfnm|1a1=Vermilye|1y=1973|1p=61|2a1=Higham|2a2=Moseley|2y=1990|2p=103}} establishing a screen persona for him as a sophisticated light comedy leading man in screwball comedies.{{sfn|Gehring|2002|p=115}}
[[File:Bringing up baby film still.jpg|thumb|right|upright|[[Katharine Hepburn]] and Grant in ''[[Bringing Up Baby]]'' (1938)]]
''The Awful Truth'' began what film critic [[Benjamin Schwarz (writer)|Benjamin Schwarz]] of ''[[The Atlantic]]'' later called "the most spectacular run ever for an actor in American pictures" for Grant.<ref name="schwarz20070102">{{cite news |url = https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2007/01/becoming-cary-grant/305548/ |title = Becoming Cary Grant |work = [[The Atlantic]] |date = January 2007 |access-date = April 9, 2016 |first = Benjamin |last = Schwarz |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160409073816/http://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2007/01/becoming-cary-grant/305548/ |archive-date = April 9, 2016 |url-status=live |author-link = Benjamin Schwarz (writer) }}</ref> In 1938, he starred opposite [[Katharine Hepburn]] in the screwball comedy ''[[Bringing Up Baby]]'', featuring a [[leopard]] and frequent bickering and verbal jousting between Grant and Hepburn.{{sfnm|1a1=Mast|1y=1988|1p=265|2a1=Karnick|2a2=Jenkins|2y=2013|2p=330}} He was initially uncertain how to play his character, but was told by director [[Howard Hawks]] to think of [[Harold Lloyd]].{{sfn|Mast|1988|p=294}} Grant was given more leeway in the comic scenes, the editing of the film and in educating Hepburn in the art of comedy.{{sfn|McCann|1997|p=115}} Despite losing over $350,000 for RKO,{{sfn|Wansell|2011|p=52}} the film earned rave reviews from critics.<ref>{{cite web |url = https://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/bringing_up_baby/ |title = Bringing Up Baby (1938) |website = Rotten Tomatoes |access-date = June 15, 2016 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160615023058/https://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/bringing_up_baby/ |archive-date = June 15, 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> He again appeared with Hepburn in the romantic comedy ''[[Holiday (1938 film)|Holiday]]'' later that year, which did not fare well commercially, to the point that Hepburn was considered to be "box office poison" at the time.{{sfn|Gehring|2002|p=123}}

Despite a series of commercial failures, Grant was now more popular than ever and in high demand.{{sfn|Wansell|2011|p=53}} According to Vermilye, in 1939, Grant played roles that were more dramatic, albeit with comical undertones.{{sfn|Vermilye|1973|p=67}} He played a British army sergeant opposite [[Douglas Fairbanks Jr.]] in the [[George Stevens]]-directed adventure film ''[[Gunga Din (film)|Gunga Din]]'', set at a military station in [[British India|India]].{{sfnm|1a1=Wansell|1y=2011|1p=53|2a1=Mintz|2a2=Roberts|2a3=Welky|2y=2016|2p=144}}{{efn|The film was actually shot at [[Lone Pine, California]] in one of the largest sets ever assembled, with over 1,500 extras.{{sfn|Wansell|2011|p=54}}}} Roles as a pilot opposite [[Jean Arthur]] and [[Rita Hayworth]] in Hawks' ''[[Only Angels Have Wings]]'',{{sfn|Wansell|2011|p=55}} and a wealthy landowner alongside [[Carole Lombard]] in ''[[In Name Only]]'' followed.{{sfn|Gehring|2003|p=188}}

In 1940, Grant played a callous newspaper editor who learns that his ex-wife and former journalist, played by [[Rosalind Russell]], is to marry insurance officer Ralph Bellamy in Hawks' comedy ''[[His Girl Friday]]'',<ref>{{cite web |url = https://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/title/206/his-girl-friday#synopsis |title = His Girl Friday (1940) – Full Synopsis |publisher = Turner Classic Movies |access-date = June 10, 2016 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160610042834/http://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/title/206/His-Girl-Friday/full-synopsis.html |archive-date = June 10, 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> which was praised for its strong chemistry and "great verbal athleticism" between Grant and Russell.{{sfn|Wansell|2011|pp=59–60}}<ref name="Guardian HGF">{{cite news |url = https://www.theguardian.com/film/2010/oct/18/his-girl-friday-comedy |title = His Girl Friday: No 13 best comedy film of all time |first = Kilian |last = Fox |work = The Guardian |date = October 18, 2010 |access-date = June 6, 2016 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160613131740/https://www.theguardian.com/film/2010/oct/18/his-girl-friday-comedy |archive-date = June 13, 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{efn|''His Girl Friday'' is ranked number 19 on [[American Film Institute]]'s [[AFI's 100 Years...100 Laughs|100 Years...100 Laughs]] and number 13 on ''The Guardian''{{'}}s list of the greatest comedy films of all time, compiled in 2010.<ref name="AFI Laughs" /><ref name="Guardian HGF" />}} Grant reunited with Irene Dunne in ''[[My Favorite Wife]]'', a "first rate comedy" according to ''[[Life (magazine)|Life]]'' magazine,<ref>{{cite book |title = Life|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=0j8EAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA55 |date = May 13, 1940 |publisher = Time Inc |page = 55 |issn = 0024-3019 }}</ref> which became RKO's second biggest picture of the year, with profits of $505,000.{{sfn|Jewell|Harbin|1982|p=55}}{{efn|''Time'' claim that Grant himself earned $100,000 for the film.{{sfn|Deschner|1973|p=143}}}} After playing a Virginian backwoodsman in ''[[The Howards of Virginia]]'', set during the American Revolution – which McCann considers to have been Grant's worst film and performance{{sfn|McCann|1997|p=173}} – his last film of the year was in the critically lauded romantic comedy ''[[The Philadelphia Story (film)|The Philadelphia Story]]'', in which he played the ex-husband of Hepburn's character.<ref>{{cite web |url = https://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/philadelphia_story |title = The Philadelphia Story (1940) |website = Rotten Tomatoes |access-date = June 15, 2016 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160615023934/https://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/philadelphia_story |archive-date = June 15, 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url = https://www.nytimes.com/movie/review?res=9F04E0D71F3CE73ABC4F51DFB467838B659EDE |title = The Screen; A Splendid Cast Adorns the Screen Version of ''The Philadelphia Story'' at the Music Hall |work = The New York Times |date = December 27, 1940 |access-date = June 15, 2016 |first = Bosley |last = Crowther |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160615022448/http://www.nytimes.com/movie/review?res=9F04E0D71F3CE73ABC4F51DFB467838B659EDE |archive-date = June 15, 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{sfn|Morecambe|Sterling|2001|p=124}} Grant felt his performance was so strong that he was bitterly disappointed not to have received an Oscar nomination, especially since both his lead co-stars, Hepburn and [[James Stewart]], received them, with Stewart winning for Best Actor.{{sfn|Morecambe|Sterling|2001|pp=133, 135}} Grant joked "I'd have to blacken my teeth first before the Academy will take me seriously".{{sfn|Morecambe|Sterling|2001|pp=133, 135}} Film historian David Thomson wrote that "the wrong man got the Oscar" for ''The Philadelphia Story'' and that "Grant got better performances out of Hepburn than (her long-time companion) [[Spencer Tracy]] ever managed."<ref name="David Thompson 1994, pg. 301">Thomson, David, ''A Biographical Dictionary of Film'', Martin Secker and Warburg Ltd, London, 1994, p. 301.</ref> Stewart's winning the Oscar "was considered a gold-plated apology for his being robbed of the award" for the previous year's ''[[Mr. Smith Goes to Washington]]''.<ref name="auto">Kinn, Gail, and Jim Piazza, "The Academy Awards: The Complete History of Oscar", Black Dog and Leventhal Publishers, New York, 2002, p. 57.</ref><ref>Michael Gebert, ''The Encyclopedia of Movie Awards'', St. Martin's Paperbacks, New York, 1996, p. 96.</ref> Grant's not being nominated for ''His Girl Friday'' the same year is also a "sin of omission" for the Oscars.<ref name="auto" />

[[File:Cary Grant Joan Fontaine Suspicion.jpg|thumb|left|upright|With [[Joan Fontaine]] in ''[[Suspicion (1941 film)|Suspicion]]'' (1941)]]
The following year Grant was considered for the [[Academy Award for Best Actor]] for ''[[Penny Serenade]]''—his first nomination from the academy. Wansell claims that Grant found the film to be an emotional experience, because he and wife-to-be [[Barbara Hutton]] had started to discuss having their own children.{{sfn|Wansell|2011|p=120}} Later that year he appeared in the romantic psychological thriller ''[[Suspicion (1941 film)|Suspicion]]'', the first of Grant's four collaborations with director [[Alfred Hitchcock]]. Grant did not warm to co-star [[Joan Fontaine]], finding her to be temperamental and unprofessional.{{sfn|Wansell|2011|p=122}} Film critic [[Bosley Crowther]] of ''The New York Times'' considered that Grant was "provokingly irresponsible, boyishly gay and also oddly mysterious, as the role properly demands".<ref>{{cite news |url = https://www.nytimes.com/movie/review?res=9F06EFD6163AE233A25752C2A9679D946093D6CF |title = 'Suspicion' a Hitchcock Thriller, at Music Hall—'Shadow of Thin Man,' at Capitol—Errol Flynn as Gen. Caster at Strand |work = The New York Times |date = November 21, 1941 |access-date = June 7, 2016 |first = Bosley |last = Crowther |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160607051840/http://www.nytimes.com/movie/review?res=9F06EFD6163AE233A25752C2A9679D946093D6CF |archive-date = June 7, 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> Hitchcock later stated that he thought the conventional happy ending of the film (with the wife discovering her husband is innocent rather than his being guilty and she letting him kill her with a glass of poisoned milk) "a complete mistake because of making that story with Cary Grant. Unless you have a cynical ending it makes the story too simple".{{sfn|Chandler|2008|p=124}} Geoff Andrew of ''[[Time Out (magazine)|Time Out]]'' believes ''Suspicion'' served as "a supreme example of Grant's ability to be simultaneously charming and sinister".<ref>{{cite web |url = https://www.timeout.com/london/film/suspicion |title = Suspicion |work = [[Time Out (magazine)|Time Out]] |access-date = June 7, 2016 |first = Geoff |last = Andrew |date = September 22, 2014 |author-link = Geoff Andrew |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160607052449/http://www.timeout.com/london/film/suspicion |archive-date = June 7, 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref>

In 1942, Grant participated in a three-week tour of the United States as part of a group to help the war effort and was photographed visiting wounded marines in hospital. He appeared in several routines of his own during these shows and often played the straight-man opposite [[Bert Lahr]].{{sfn|Deschner|1973|pp=12, 18}} In May 1942, when he was 38, the ten-minute propaganda short ''[[Road to Victory (1944 film)|Road to Victory]]'' was released, in which he appeared alongside [[Bing Crosby]], [[Frank Sinatra]] and [[Charles Ruggles]].{{sfn|Deschner|1973|p=270}} On film, Grant played Leopold Dilg, a convict on the run in ''[[The Talk of the Town (1942 film)|The Talk of the Town]]'' (1942), who escapes after being wrongly convicted of arson and murder. He hides in a house with characters played by Jean Arthur and [[Ronald Colman]], and gradually plots to secure his freedom. Crowther praised the script, and noted that Grant played Dilg with a "casualness which is slightly disturbing".<ref>{{cite news |first = Bosley |last = Crowther |url = https://www.nytimes.com/movie/review?res=950DE3DC1E3CE33BBC4051DFBE668389659EDE |title = 'The Talk of the Town,' a Smart Comedy, Starring Cary Grant, Ronald Colman, Jean Arthur, Arrives at the Music Hall |work = The New York Times |date = August 28, 1942 |access-date = June 6, 2016 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160613141724/http://www.nytimes.com/movie/review?res=950DE3DC1E3CE33BBC4051DFBE668389659EDE |archive-date = June 13, 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> After a role as a foreign correspondent opposite [[Ginger Rogers]] and [[Walter Slezak]] in the off-beat comedy ''[[Once Upon a Honeymoon]]'',{{sfn|Wansell|2011|p=132}} in which he was praised for his scenes with Rogers,<ref>{{cite news |first = Bosley |last = Crowther |url = https://www.nytimes.com/movie/review?res=9403E6DF163DE13BBC4B52DFB7678389659EDE |title = 'Once Upon Honeymoon', With Ginger Rogers, Cary Grant, Opens at Music Hall – ''Seven Sweethearts'' at the Capitol |work = The New York Times |date = November 13, 1942 |access-date = June 6, 2016 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160616001608/http://www.nytimes.com/movie/review?res=9403E6DF163DE13BBC4B52DFB7678389659EDE |archive-date = June 16, 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> he appeared in ''[[Mr. Lucky (film)|Mr. Lucky]]'' the following year, playing a gambler in a casino aboard a ship.{{sfn|Schickel|1998|pp=82–84}} The commercially successful submarine war film ''[[Destination Tokyo]]'' (1943) was shot in just six weeks in September and October, which left him exhausted;{{sfnm|1a1=Deschner|1y=1973|1p=12|2a1=Wansell|2y=2011|2p=138}} the reviewer from ''[[Newsweek]]'' thought it was one of the finest performances of his career.{{sfn|Deschner|1973|p=169}}

In 1944, Grant starred alongside [[Priscilla Lane]], [[Raymond Massey]] and [[Peter Lorre]],{{sfn|Bubbeo|2001|p=140}} in [[Frank Capra]]'s dark comedy ''[[Arsenic and Old Lace (film)|Arsenic and Old Lace]]'', playing the manic Mortimer Brewster, who belongs to a bizarre family that includes two murderous aunts and an uncle claiming to be President Teddy Roosevelt.{{sfn|Richards|2014|p=242}} Grant took up the role after it was originally offered to [[Bob Hope]], who turned it down owing to schedule conflicts.{{sfn|Mell|2005|p=21}} Grant found the macabre subject matter of the film difficult to contend with and believed that it was the worst performance of his career.{{sfn|McCann|1997|pp=175–176}} That year he received his second Oscar nomination for a role, opposite [[Ethel Barrymore]] and [[Barry Fitzgerald]] in the [[Clifford Odets]]-directed film ''[[None but the Lonely Heart (film)|None but the Lonely Heart]]'', set in London during the Depression.<ref name="CG44">{{cite book |title = What's Happening in Hollywood: News of Current Pictures, Trends, and Production |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=sSEvAQAAIAAJ |year = 1944 |page = 7 }}</ref> Late in the year he featured in the CBS Radio series ''[[Suspense (radio drama)#1942–1962|Suspense]]'', playing a tormented character who hysterically discovers that his amnesia has affected the masculine order in society in ''[[The Black Curtain]]''.<ref>{{cite book |title = Cineaction! |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Yx1AAQAAIAAJ |year = 1989 |publisher = CineAction Collective |page = 58 }}</ref>

=== 1946–1953: Post-War success and slump ===
[[File:Cary Grant & Ingrid Bergman Notorious.jpg|thumb|upright|right|Grant and [[Ingrid Bergman]] in ''[[Notorious (1946 film)|Notorious]]'' (1946)]]
After making a brief cameo appearance opposite [[Claudette Colbert]] in ''[[Without Reservations]]'' (1946),{{sfn|Halliwell|Walker|2001|p=520}} Grant portrayed [[Cole Porter]] in the musical ''[[Night and Day (1946 film)|Night and Day]]'' (1946).{{sfn|Morecambe|Sterling|2001|p=162}} The production proved to be problematic, with scenes often requiring multiple takes, frustrating the cast and crew.{{sfn|Morecambe|Sterling|2001|p=162}} Grant next appeared with [[Ingrid Bergman]] and [[Claude Rains]] in the Hitchcock-directed film ''[[Notorious (1946 film)|Notorious]]'' (1946), playing a government agent who recruits the American daughter of a convicted Nazi spy (Bergman) to infiltrate a Nazi organization in Brazil after World War II.<ref>{{cite book |title = Woman's Home Companion |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Cz1aAAAAYAAJ |date = 1946 |publisher = Crowell-Collier Publishing Company |page = 11 }}</ref> During the course of the film Grant and Bergman's characters fall in love and share one of the longest kisses in film history at around two and a half minutes.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Notorius |journal = New York |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=j-ICAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA107 |date = October 11, 1982 |publisher = New York Media, LLC |page = 107 |issn = 0028-7369 }}</ref>{{sfn|Connolly|2014|p=215}} Wansell notes how Grant's performance "underlined how far his unique qualities as a screen actor had matured in the years since ''The Awful Truth''".{{sfn|Wansell|1996|p=99}}

In 1947, Grant played an artist who becomes involved in a court case when charged with assault in the comedy ''[[The Bachelor and the Bobby-Soxer]]'' (released in the U.K. as "Bachelor Knight"), opposite [[Myrna Loy]] and [[Shirley Temple]].<ref>{{cite book |title = The New Yorker |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=VL0LAQAAIAAJ |date = July 1947 |publisher = F-R Publishing Corporation |page = 47 }}</ref>{{sfn|Leider|2011|p=265}} The film was praised by the critics, who admired the picture's [[slapstick]] qualities and chemistry between Grant and Loy;<ref>{{cite web |url = https://variety.com/1946/film/reviews/the-bachelor-and-the-bobby-soxer-1200414998/ |title = The Bachelor and the Bobby-Soxer |work = Variety |date = December 31, 1946 |access-date = June 6, 2016 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160614141316/http://variety.com/1946/film/reviews/the-bachelor-and-the-bobby-soxer-1200414998/ |archive-date = June 14, 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> it became one of the biggest-selling films at the box office that year.{{sfn|McCann|1997|p=195}} Later that year he starred opposite [[David Niven]] and [[Loretta Young]] in the comedy ''[[The Bishop's Wife]]'', playing an angel who is sent down from heaven to straighten out the relationship between the bishop (Niven) and his wife (Loretta Young).<ref name="Life48" /> The film was a major commercial and critical success, and was nominated for five Academy Awards.{{sfn|McCann|1997|p=194}} ''Life'' magazine called it "intelligently written and competently acted".<ref name="Life48">{{cite book |title = Life |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=mVIEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA71 |date = January 12, 1948 |publisher = Time Inc |page = 71 |issn = 0024-3019 }}</ref>

[[File:Cary Grant Myrna Loy Mr Blandings Builds His Dream House 1948.JPG|thumb|left|upright|Grant and [[Myrna Loy]] publicity photo for ''[[Mr. Blandings Builds His Dream House]]'' (1948)]]
The following year, Grant played neurotic Jim Blandings, the title-sake in the comedy ''[[Mr. Blandings Builds His Dream House]]'', again with Loy. Though the film lost money for RKO,{{sfn|Leider|2011|p=226}} [[Philip T. Hartung]] of ''Commonweal'' thought that Grant's role as the "frustrated advertising man" was one of his best screen portrayals.{{sfn|Deschner|1973|p=196}} In ''[[Every Girl Should Be Married]]'', an "airy comedy", he appeared with Betsy Drake and [[Franchot Tone]], playing a bachelor who is trapped into marriage by Drake's conniving character.<ref name="Maltin1995">{{cite book |last = Maltin |first = Leonard |title = Leonard Maltin's Movie and Video Guide |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=-R8IAQAAMAAJ |year = 1995 |publisher = Plume |page = 391 |isbn = 978-0-452-27327-6 }}</ref> He finished the year as the fourth most popular film star at the box office.{{sfn|McCann|1997|p=212}} In 1949, Grant starred alongside [[Ann Sheridan]] in the comedy ''[[I Was a Male War Bride]]'' in which he appeared in scenes dressed as a woman, wearing a skirt and a wig.{{sfn|Benshoff|Griffin|2011|p=348}} During the filming he was taken ill with infectious [[hepatitis]] and lost weight, affecting the way he looked in the picture.{{sfn|Erickson|2012|p=274}} The film, based on the autobiography of Belgian [[Belgian Resistance|resistance fighter]] [[Roger Charlier]], proved to be successful, becoming the highest-grossing film for 20th Century Fox that year with over $4.5 million in takings and being likened to Hawks's screwball comedies of the late 1930s.{{sfn|McCann|1997|p=195}} By this point he was one of the highest paid Hollywood stars, commanding $300,000 per picture.{{sfn|Wansell|2011|p=163}}

The early 1950s marked the beginning of a slump in Grant's career.<ref name="TCMDW" />{{sfn|Morecambe|Sterling|2001|p=192}} His roles as a top brain surgeon who is caught in the middle of a bitter revolution in a Latin American country in ''[[Crisis (1950 film)|Crisis]]'',{{sfn|Hanson|Dunkleberger|1999|p=509}} and as a medical-school professor and orchestra conductor opposite [[Jeanne Crain]] in ''[[People Will Talk]]'' were poorly received.<ref>{{cite news |title = The Screen In Review; 'Crisis,' With Cary Grant and Jose Ferrer, Is New Feature at the Capitol Theatre |first = Bosley |last = Crowther |work = The New York Times |date = July 4, 1950 |url = https://www.nytimes.com/movie/review?res=9F01E2DE103FE23BBC4C53DFB166838B649EDE |access-date = June 5, 2016 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160611161248/http://www.nytimes.com/movie/review?res=9F01E2DE103FE23BBC4C53DFB166838B649EDE |archive-date = June 11, 2016 |url-status=live }} {{cite book |title = The New Yorker |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=UaAeAQAAMAAJ |date = August 2009 |publisher = New Yorker Magazine|page = 16 }}</ref>{{sfn|Deschner|1973|pp=207–209}} Grant had become tired of being Cary Grant after twenty years, being successful, wealthy and popular, and remarked: "To play yourself, your ''true'' self, is the hardest thing in the world".{{sfn|McCann|1997|p=197}} In 1952, Grant starred in the comedy ''[[Room for One More (film)|Room for One More]]'', playing an engineer husband who, with his wife ([[Betsy Drake]]), adopt two children from an orphanage.{{sfn|Wansell|1996|p=116}}<ref>{{cite journal |title = Orange Coast Magazine |journal = Orange Coast|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=4GAEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA296 |date = December 1987 |publisher = Emmis Communications |page = 296 |issn = 0279-0483 }}</ref> He reunited with Howard Hawks to film the off-beat comedy ''[[Monkey Business (1952 film)|Monkey Business]]'', co-starring Ginger Rogers and [[Marilyn Monroe]].{{sfn|Shevey|1990|p=204}} Though the critic from ''[[Motion Picture Herald]]'' wrote gushingly that Grant had given a career's best with an "extraordinary and agile performance", which was matched by Rogers,{{sfn|Deschner|1973|p=214}} it received a mixed reception overall.{{efn|Critical response to the film at the time was mixed. Bosley Crowther wrote: "It is simply a concoction of crazy, fast, uninhibited farce. This sort of thing, when done well—as it generally is, in this case—can be insanely funny (if it hits right). It can also be a bore."<ref>{{cite news |first = Bosley |last = Crowther |url = https://www.nytimes.com/movie/review?res=9A0DE5DC133AE23BBC4E53DFBF668389649EDE |title = The Screen In Review; 'Monkey Business,' a 'Screwball Comedy' With a Chimpanzee, Starts Run at the Roxy |work = The New York Times |date = September 6, 1952 |access-date = June 6, 2016 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160611161011/http://www.nytimes.com/movie/review?res=9A0DE5DC133AE23BBC4E53DFBF668389649EDE |archive-date = June 11, 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref>}} Grant had hoped that starring opposite [[Deborah Kerr]] in the romantic comedy ''[[Dream Wife]]'' would salvage his career,<ref name="TCMDW">{{cite web |url = https://www.tcm.com/this-month/article/76199 |title = Dream Wife – Article |publisher = Turner Classic Movies |access-date = June 11, 2016 |first = Margarita |last = Landazuri |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160614141023/http://www.tcm.com/this-month/article/76183%7C76199/Dream-Wife.html |archive-date = June 14, 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> but it was a critical and financial failure upon release in July 1953, when Grant was 49. Though he was offered the leading part in ''[[A Star is Born (1954 film)|A Star is Born]]'', Grant decided against playing that character. He believed that his film career was over, and briefly left the industry.{{sfn|McCann|1997|pp=211–212}}

=== 1955–1966: Film resurgence and final roles ===
In 1955, Grant agreed to star opposite [[Grace Kelly]] in ''[[To Catch a Thief]]'', playing a retired jewel thief named John Robie, nicknamed "The Cat", living in the [[French Riviera]].<ref>{{cite web |url = https://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/title/4285/to-catch-a-thief#synopsis |title = To Catch a Thief – Full Synopsis |publisher = Turner Classic Movies |access-date = June 9, 2016 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160609005039/http://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/title/4285/To-Catch-a-Thief/full-synopsis.html |archive-date = June 9, 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> Grant and Kelly worked well together during the production, which was one of the most enjoyable experiences of Grant's career. He found Hitchcock and Kelly to be very professional,{{sfn|McCann|1997|p=214}} and later stated that Kelly was "possibly the finest actress I've ever worked with".<ref name="86interview">{{cite web |url = http://www.carygrant.net/articles/few%20words.htm |title = A Few Words with Cary Grant |work = [[The Dallas Morning News]] |first = Philip |last = Wuntch |date = March 20, 1986 |access-date = June 9, 2016 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160611160350/http://www.carygrant.net/articles/few%20words.htm |archive-date = June 11, 2016 |url-status=live |via = Carygrant.net }} {{Open access}}</ref>{{efn|Grant also continued to find the experience of working with Hitchcock a positive one, remarking: "Hitch and I had a rapport and understanding deeper than words. He was a very agreeable human being, and we were very compatible ... Nothing ever went wrong. He was so incredibly well prepared. I never know anyone as capable".{{sfn|McCann|1997|p=214}}}} Grant was one of the first actors to go independent by not renewing his studio contract,{{sfn|Prono|2008|p=127}} effectively leaving the [[studio system]], which almost completely controlled all aspects of an actor's life.{{sfn|Hollinger|2013|p=42}} He decided which films he was going to appear in, often had personal choice of directors and co-stars, and at times negotiated a share of the gross revenue, something uncommon at the time.{{sfn|McCann|1997|p=218}} Grant received more than $700,000 for his 10% of the gross of the successful ''To Catch a Thief'', while Hitchcock received less than $50,000 for directing and producing it.{{sfn|Hodgins|1957|p=146}} Though critical reception to the overall film was mixed, Grant received high praise for his performance, with critics commenting on his suave, handsome appearance in the film.{{sfn|McCann|1997|p=218}}
[[File:Cary Grant, actor USA, at Kastrup Airport.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Grant in 1956]]
In 1957, Grant starred opposite [[Deborah Kerr]] in the romance ''[[An Affair to Remember]]'', playing an international playboy who becomes the object of her affections. Schickel sees the film as one of the definitive romantic pictures of the period, but remarks that Grant was not entirely successful in trying to supersede the film's "gushing sentimentality".{{sfn|Schickel|1998|p=112}} That year, Grant also appeared opposite [[Sophia Loren]] in ''[[The Pride and the Passion]]''. He had expressed an interest in playing [[William Holden]]'s character in ''[[The Bridge on the River Kwai]]'' at the time, but found that it was not possible because of his commitment to ''The Pride and the Passion''.{{sfn|Schickel|1998|p=109}} The film was shot on location in Spain and was problematic, with co-star [[Frank Sinatra]] irritating his colleagues and leaving the production after just a few weeks.{{sfn|Leigh|2015|p=236}} Although Grant had an affair with Loren during filming, Grant's attempts to woo Loren to marry him during the production proved fruitless,{{efn|Loren later professed about rejecting Grant: "At the time I didn't have any regrets, I was in love with my husband. I was very affectionate with Cary, but I was 23 years old. I couldn't make up my mind to marry a giant from another country and leave Carlo. I didn't feel like making the big step."<ref name="Thorpe">{{cite news |first = Vanessa |last = Thorpe |url = https://www.theguardian.com/film/2014/oct/19/sophia-loren-reveals-the-story-of-cary-grants-passion |title = Sophia Loren: how Cary Grant begged me to become his lover |work = The Guardian |date = October 19, 2014 |access-date = June 5, 2016 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160611160014/https://www.theguardian.com/film/2014/oct/19/sophia-loren-reveals-the-story-of-cary-grants-passion |archive-date = June 11, 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref>}} which led to him expressing anger when Paramount cast her opposite him in ''[[Houseboat (film)|Houseboat]]'' (1958) as part of her contract.{{sfn|Higham|Moseley|1990|p=254}} The sexual tension between the two was so great during the making of ''Houseboat'' that the producers found it almost impossible to make.<ref name="Thorpe" /> Later in 1958, Grant starred opposite Bergman in the romantic comedy ''[[Indiscreet (1958 film)|Indiscreet]]'', playing a successful financier who has an affair with a famous actress (Bergman) while pretending to be a married man.{{sfn|Chandler|2007|p=214}} During the filming he formed a closer friendship and gained new respect for her as an actress.{{sfn|Higham|Moseley|1990|p=266}} Schickel stated that he thought the film was possibly the finest romantic comedy film of the era, and that Grant himself had professed that it was one of his personal favorites.{{sfn|Schickel|1998|p=115}} Grant received his first of five [[Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy]] nominations for his performance and finished the year as the most popular film star at the box office.{{sfn|McCann|1997|p=212}}

[[File:North by Northwest Cary Grant airplane chase.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Grant chased by the crop duster during ''North by Northwest'' (1959)]]
In 1959, Grant starred in the Hitchcock-directed film ''[[North by Northwest]]'', playing an advertising executive who becomes embroiled in a case of mistaken identity. Like ''Indiscreet'',<ref>{{cite news |author-link = A. H. Weiler |first = A. H. |last = Weiler |url = https://www.nytimes.com/movie/review?res=9407E2DA163EE43BBC4F51DFB0668383649EDE |title = The Screen: 'Indiscreet'; Film at Music Hall Is Airy as a Souffle |work = The New York Times |date = June 27, 1958 |access-date = June 12, 2016 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160612060619/http://www.nytimes.com/movie/review?res=9407E2DA163EE43BBC4F51DFB0668383649EDE |archive-date = June 12, 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url = https://variety.com/1957/film/reviews/indiscreet-2-1200419114/ |title = Review: 'Indiscreet' |work = Variety |date = December 31, 1957 |access-date = June 12, 2016 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160612060731/http://variety.com/1957/film/reviews/indiscreet-2-1200419114/ |archive-date = June 12, 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> it was warmly received by the critics and was a major commercial success,{{sfnm|1a1=Higham|1a2=Moseley|1y=1990|1p=277|2a1=Morecambe|2a2=Sterling|2y=2001|2p=242}}
and is now often listed as one of the greatest films of all time.{{efn|''North by Northwest'' is placed at the 41st position on AFI's 100 Years...100 Movies,<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.afi.com/100Years/movies.aspx |title = AFI's 100 Greatest American Movies Of All Time |publisher = American Film Institute |access-date = June 11, 2016 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160611142910/http://www.afi.com/100Years/movies.aspx |archive-date = June 11, 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> 7th on its 100 Years...100 Thrills list,<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.afi.com/100Years/thrills.aspx |title = AFI's Most Thrilling American Films |publisher = American Film Institute |access-date = June 11, 2016 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160611142759/http://www.afi.com/100Years/thrills.aspx |archive-date = June 11, 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> and was voted the 7th greatest [[mystery film]] in its 10 Top 10 mystery films list.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.afi.com/10top10/category.aspx?cat=5 |title = AFI's 10 Top 10 – Mystery |publisher = American Film Institute |access-date = June 11, 2016 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160611143148/http://www.afi.com/10top10/category.aspx?cat=5 |archive-date = June 11, 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref>}} Weiler, writing in ''The New York Times'', praised Grant's performance, remarking that the actor "was never more at home than in this role of the advertising-man-on-the-lam" and handled the role "with professional aplomb and grace".<ref>{{cite news |first = A. H. |last = Weiler |url = https://www.nytimes.com/movie/review?res=9404E7D91631EE3BBC4F53DFBE668382649EDE |title = Hitchcock Takes Suspenseful Cook's Tour; ' North by Northwest' Opens at Music Hall |work = The New York Times |date = August 7, 1959 |access-date = June 11, 2016 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160422100726/http://www.nytimes.com/movie/review?res=9404E7D91631EE3BBC4F53DFBE668382649EDE |archive-date = April 22, 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> Grant wore one of his most well-known suits in the film, which became very popular, a fourteen-gauge, mid-gray, subtly plaid, worsted wool that was custom-made on [[Savile Row]].<ref>{{cite web |url = https://www.gentlemansgazette.com/cary-grant-gentleman-style/ |title = Cary Grant – Gentleman of Style |publisher = Gentleman's Gazette |date = October 27, 2014 |access-date = June 16, 2016 |first = J. A. |last = Shapira |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160616093913/https://www.gentlemansgazette.com/cary-grant-gentleman-style/ |archive-date = June 16, 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url = https://www.telegraph.co.uk/luxury/mens-style/6647/why-it-works-cary-grant-in-north-by-northwest.html |title = Why it works: Cary Grant in North by Northwest |work = [[The Daily Telegraph]] |date = September 20, 2013 |access-date = June 16, 2016 |first = Mansel |last = Fletcher |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160616093943/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/luxury/mens-style/6647/why-it-works-cary-grant-in-north-by-northwest.html |archive-date = June 16, 2016 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Grant finished the year playing a U.S. Navy submarine skipper opposite [[Tony Curtis]] in the comedy ''[[Operation Petticoat]]''.{{sfn|Erickson|2012|p=202}} The reviewer from ''Daily Variety'' saw Grant's comic portrayal as a classic example of how to attract the laughter of the audience without lines, remarking that "In this film, most of the gags play off him. It is his reaction, blank, startled, etc., always underplayed, that creates or releases the humor".{{sfn|Deschner|1973|p=247}} The film was major box office success, and in 1973, Deschner ranked the film as the highest earning film of Grant's career at the US box office, with takings of $9.5 million.{{sfn|Deschner|1973|p=274}}

In 1960, Grant appeared opposite [[Deborah Kerr]], [[Robert Mitchum]], and [[Jean Simmons]] in ''[[The Grass Is Greener]]'', which was shot in England at [[Osterley Park]] and [[Shepperton Studios]].{{sfn|Silverman|1996|p=279}} McCann notes that Grant took great relish in "mocking his aristocratic character's over-refined tastes and mannerisms",{{sfn|McCann|1997|p=223}} though the film was panned and was seen as his worst since ''Dream Wife''.{{sfn|Morecambe|Sterling|2001|p=247}} In 1962, Grant starred in the romantic comedy ''[[That Touch of Mink]]'', playing suave, wealthy businessman Philip Shayne romantically involved with an office worker, played by [[Doris Day]]. He invites her to his apartment in [[Bermuda]], but her guilty conscience begins to take hold.{{sfn|Grindon|2011|p=35}} The picture was praised by critics, and it received three Academy Award nominations and won the [[Golden Globe Award for Best Motion Picture – Musical or Comedy|Golden Globe Award for Best Comedy Picture]],{{sfn|Messina|2012|p=62}} in addition to landing Grant another Golden Globe Award nomination for Best Actor.{{sfn|McGee|2005|p=155}} Deschner ranked the film as the second highest grossing of Grant's career.{{sfn|Deschner|1973|p=274}}
[[File:Audrey Hepburn and Cary Grant 1.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Grant and [[Audrey Hepburn]] in ''[[Charade (1963 film)|Charade]]'' (1963)]]
Producers [[Albert R. Broccoli]] and [[Harry Saltzman]] originally sought Grant for the role of [[James Bond (literary character)|James Bond]] in ''[[Dr. No (film)|Dr. No]]'' (1962) but discarded the idea as Grant would be committed to only one feature film; therefore, the producers decided to go after someone who could be part of a franchise after [[James Mason]] would only agree to commit to three films.<ref>{{cite news |last = Holpuch |first = Amanda |title = How Cary Grant Nearly Made Global James Bond Day an American Affair |url = https://www.theguardian.com/film/us-news-blog/2012/oct/05/cary-grant-global-james-bond-day |work = The Guardian |date = October 5, 2012 |access-date = August 24, 2018|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160617002627/https://www.theguardian.com/film/us-news-blog/2012/oct/05/cary-grant-global-james-bond-day |archive-date = June 17, 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> In 1963, Grant appeared in his last typically suave, romantic role opposite [[Audrey Hepburn]] in ''[[Charade (1963 film)|Charade]]''.{{sfn|Monaco|1992|p=121}} Grant found the experience of working with Hepburn "wonderful" and believed that their close relationship was clear on camera,{{sfn|McCann|1997|p=228}} though according to Hepburn, he was particularly worried during the filming that he would be criticized for being far too old for her and seen as a "cradle snatcher".{{sfn|Morecambe|Sterling|2001|p=254}} Author Chris Barsanti writes: "It's the film's canny flirtatiousness that makes it such ingenious entertainment. Grant and Hepburn play off each other like the pros that they are".{{sfn|Barsanti|2010|p=124}} The film, well received by the critics,<ref>{{cite web |url = https://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/1003883-charade/ |title = Charade (1963) |website = Rotten Tomatoes |access-date = June 11, 2016 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160611151117/https://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/1003883-charade/ |archive-date = June 11, 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> is often called "the best Hitchcock film Hitchcock never made".<ref name="EmpireIanNathan">{{cite web |url = https://www.empireonline.com/movies/charade/review/ |title = Charade Review |work = [[Empire (film magazine)|Empire]] |date = October 14, 2015 |access-date = June 11, 2016 |first = Ian |last = Nathan |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160611151123/http://www.empireonline.com/movies/charade/review/ |archive-date = June 11, 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url = http://player.bfi.org.uk/film/watch-charade-1963/ |title = Charade (1963) |publisher = British Film Institute |access-date = June 11, 2016 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160611151940/http://player.bfi.org.uk/film/watch-charade-1963/ |archive-date = June 11, 2016 |url-status=dead }}</ref>{{sfn|Esquith|2007|p=210}}

In 1964, Grant changed from his typically suave, distinguished screen persona to play a grizzled beachcomber who is coerced into serving as a [[coastwatcher]] on an uninhabited island in the World War II romantic comedy ''[[Father Goose (film)|Father Goose]]''.<ref>{{cite book |title = Life |url = https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_kFEEAAAAMBAJ |date = December 18, 1964 |publisher = Time Inc |page = [https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_kFEEAAAAMBAJ/page/n108 99] |issn = 0024-3019 }}</ref> The film was a major commercial success, and upon its release at Radio City at Christmas 1964 it took over $210,000 at the box-office in the first week, breaking the record set by ''Charade'' the previous year.{{sfn|Morecambe|Sterling|2001|p=263}} Grant's final film, ''[[Walk, Don't Run (film)|Walk, Don't Run]]'' (1966), a comedy co-starring [[Jim Hutton]] and [[Samantha Eggar]], was shot on location in Tokyo,{{sfn|Vermilye|1973|p=139}} and is set amid the backdrop of the housing shortage of the [[1964 Tokyo Olympics]].<ref name="Inc1966">{{cite magazine |title = Will Cary Never Lose His Cool? |magazine = Life |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=qlUEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA11 |date = August 19, 1966 |page = 11 |issn = 0024-3019 }}</ref> ''Newsweek'' concluded: "Though Grant's personal presence is indispensable, the character he plays is almost wholly superfluous. Perhaps the inference to be taken is that a man in his 50s or 60s has no place in romantic comedy except as a catalyst. If so, the chemistry is wrong for everyone".{{sfn|Deschner|1973|p=268}} Hitchcock had asked Grant to star in ''[[Torn Curtain]]'' that year, only to learn that he had decided to retire.{{sfn|Coffin|2014|p=175}}

== Later years ==
[[File:Cary Grant 2 Allan Warren.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Grant at 69 in 1973]]
In 1966, when his daughter [[Jennifer Grant]] was born, Grant retired from the screen so he could focus on bringing her up and to provide a sense of permanence and stability in her life.{{sfn|Wansell|1996|p=255}} He had become increasingly disillusioned with cinema in the 1960s, rarely finding a script of which he approved. He remarked: "I could have gone on acting and playing a grandfather or a bum, but I discovered more important things in life".{{sfn|McCann|1997|p=233}} He knew after he had made ''Charade'' that the "Golden Age" of Hollywood was over.{{sfn|Morecambe|Sterling|2001|p=259}} Grant expressed little interest in making a career comeback, and would respond to the suggestion with "fat chance".{{sfnm|1a1=McCann|1y=1997|1p=265|2a1=Moore|2y=2009|2p=148}} He did, however, briefly appear in the audience for [[Elvis Presley]]'s 1970 Las Vegas concert documentary ''[[Elvis: That's the Way It Is]]''.{{sfn|Morecambe|Sterling|2001|p=295}} In the 1970s, he was given the negatives from a number of his films, and he sold them to television for a sum of over $2 million dollars in 1975 {{USDCY|2000000|1975}}.{{sfn|Morecambe|Sterling|2001|p=294}}

Morecambe and Stirling argue that Grant's absence from film after 1966 was not because he had "irrevocably turned his back on the film industry," but because he was "caught between a decision made and the temptation to eat a bit of humble pie and re-announce himself to the cinema-going public".{{sfn|Morecambe|Sterling|2001|pp=295–296}} In the 1970s, MGM was keen on remaking ''[[Grand Hotel (1932 film)|Grand Hotel]]'' (1932) and hoped to lure Grant out of retirement. Hitchcock had long wanted to make a film based on the idea of ''Hamlet'', with Grant in the lead role.{{sfn|Morecambe|Sterling|2001|p=296}} Grant stated that [[Warren Beatty]] had made a big effort to get him to play the role of Mr. Jordan in ''[[Heaven Can Wait (1978 film)|Heaven Can Wait]]'' (1978), which eventually went to James Mason.<ref name="86interview" /> Morecambe and Stirling claim that Grant had also expressed an interest in appearing in ''[[A Touch of Class (film)|A Touch of Class]]'' (1973), ''[[The Verdict]]'' (1982), and a film adaptation of [[William Goldman]]'s 1983 book about screenwriting, ''[[Adventures in the Screen Trade]]''.{{sfn|Morecambe|Sterling|2001|pp=295–296}}

In the late 1970s and early '80s, Grant became troubled by the deaths of many close friends, including [[Howard Hughes]] in 1976, [[Howard Hawks]] in 1977, [[Lord Mountbatten]] and Barbara Hutton in 1979, Alfred Hitchcock in 1980, Grace Kelly and Ingrid Bergman in 1982, and [[David Niven]] in 1983. At the [[Funeral of Louis Mountbatten, 1st Earl Mountbatten of Burma|funeral of Mountbatten]], he was quoted as remarking to a friend: "I'm absolutely pooped, and I'm so goddamned old. ...I'm going to quit all next year. I'm going to lie in bed... I shall just close all doors, turn off the telephone, and enjoy my life".{{sfn|McCann|1997|p=264}} Grace Kelly's death was the hardest on him, as it was unexpected and the two had remained close friends after filming ''To Catch a Thief''.{{efn|[[Prince Rainier of Monaco]], Kelly's widower, said: "Grace loved and admired Cary. She valued his friendship".{{sfn|Morecambe|Sterling|2001|p=319}}}} Grant visited Monaco three or four times each year during his retirement,{{sfnm|1a1=Morecambe|1a2=Sterling|1y=2001|1p=319|2a1=Grant|2y=2011|2p=52}} and showed his support for Kelly by joining the board of the [[Princess Grace Foundation]].{{sfn|Morecambe|Sterling|2001|p=319}}

In 1980, the [[Los Angeles County Museum of Art]] put on a two-month retrospective of more than 40 of Grant's films.{{sfn|McCann|1997|p=265}} In 1982, he was honored with the "Man of the Year" award by the [[New York Friars Club]] at the [[Waldorf-Astoria Hotel]].{{sfn|Morecambe|Sterling|2001|p=299}} He turned 80 on January 18, 1984, and [[Peter Bogdanovich]] noticed that a "serenity" had come over him.{{sfn|McCann|1997|p=273}} Grant was in good health until he had a mild stroke in October that year.{{sfn|Donnelley|2003|p=292}} In the last few years of his life, he undertook tours of the United States in the one-man show ''A Conversation with Cary Grant'', in which he would show clips from his films and answer audience questions.{{sfn|Trachtenberg|Jaynes|2004}}<ref name="Decker, Cathleen">{{cite news |first = Cathleen |last = Decker |url = https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1986-12-04-me-1412-story.html |title = Cary Grant Will Leaves Bulk of Estate to His Widow, Daughter |work = [[Los Angeles Times]] |date = December 4, 1986 |access-date = June 8, 2012 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160615101404/http://articles.latimes.com/1986-12-04/local/me-1412_1_cary-grant |archive-date = June 15, 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> He made some 36 public appearances in his last four years, from New Jersey to Texas, and his audiences ranged from elderly film buffs to enthusiastic college students discovering his films for the first time. Grant admitted that the appearances were "ego-fodder", remarking that "I know who I am inside and outside, but it's nice to have the outside, at least, substantiated".{{sfn|McCann|1997|p=270}}

== Business interests ==
[[File:North by Northwest stars pose at Rushmore.jpg|thumb|right|upright|[[James Mason]], [[Eva Marie Saint]] and Grant at [[Mount Rushmore]] during ''North by Northwest'' (1959)]]
Stirling refers to Grant as "one of the shrewdest businessmen ever to operate in Hollywood".{{sfn|Morecambe|Sterling|2001|p=xviii}} His long-term friendship with Howard Hughes from the 1930s onward saw him invited into the most glamorous circles in Hollywood and their lavish parties.{{sfn|McCann|1997|p=84}} Biographers Morecambe and Stirling state that Hughes played a major role in the development of Grant's business interests so that by 1939, he was "already an astute operator with various commercial interests".{{sfn|Morecambe|Sterling|2001|pp=97–98}} Scott also played a role, encouraging Grant to invest his money in shares, making him a wealthy man by the end of the 1930s.{{sfn|Wansell|2011|p=53}} In the 1940s, Grant and Barbara Hutton invested heavily in real estate development in [[Acapulco]] at a time when it was little more than a fishing village,{{sfn|Higham|Moseley|1990|p=152}} and teamed up with [[Richard Widmark]], [[Roy Rogers]], and [[Red Skelton]] to buy a hotel there.{{sfn|Foster|Foster|2000|p=96}} Behind his business interests was a particularly intelligent mind, to the point that his friend David Niven once said: "Before computers went into general release, Cary had one in his brain".{{sfn|Morecambe|Sterling|2001|pp=97–98}} Film critic [[David Thomson (film critic)|David Thomson]] believes that Grant's intelligence came across on screen, and stated that "no one else looked so good and so intelligent at the same time".{{sfn|Morecambe|Sterling|2001|p=200}}

After Grant retired from the screen, he became more active in business. He accepted a position on the board of directors at [[Fabergé (cosmetics)|Fabergé]].{{sfn|Bernstein|Hamm|Rubini|2011|p=211}} This position was not honorary, as some had assumed; Grant regularly attended meetings and traveled internationally to support them.{{sfnm|1a1=Wansell|1y=1996|1p=277|2a1=Guttman|2y=2015|2p=13}} His pay was modest in comparison to the millions of his film career, a salary of a reported $15,000 a year.{{sfn|Morecambe|Sterling|2001|p=289}} Such was Grant's influence on the company that [[George Barrie]] once claimed that Grant had played a role in the growth of the firm to annual revenues of about $50 million in 1968, a growth of nearly 80% since the inaugural year in 1964.{{sfn|McCann|1997|p=243}} The position also permitted the use of a private plane, which Grant could use to fly to see his daughter wherever her mother, Dyan Cannon, was working.{{sfn|Roberts|2014|p=103}}

In 1975, Grant was an appointed director of MGM. In 1980, he sat on the board of MGM Films and MGM Grand Hotels following the division of the parent company. He played an active role in the promotion of [[MGM Grand Las Vegas|MGM Grand Hotel]] in Las Vegas when it opened in 1973, and he continued to promote the city throughout the 1970s.{{sfn|Morecambe|Sterling|2001|p=290}} When [[Allan Warren]] met Grant for a photo shoot that year he noticed how tired Grant looked, and his "slightly melancholic air".{{sfn|Morecambe|Sterling|2001|pp=292–293}} Grant later joined the boards of [[Pinnacle Entertainment|Hollywood Park]], the Academy of Magical Arts ([[The Magic Castle]], Hollywood, California), and Western Airlines (acquired by [[Delta Air Lines]] in 1987).{{sfn|Trachtenberg|Jaynes|2004}}<ref name="Fristoe">{{cite news |url = https://www.tcm.com/this-month/article/76185 |title =Synopsis of documentary "Cary Grant: A Class Apart" |publisher = Turner Classic Movies |access-date = June 15, 2016 |first = Roger |last = Fristoe |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160615101410/http://www.tcm.com/this-month/article/76185%7C0/Cary-Grant-A-Class-Apart.html |archive-date = June 15, 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Personal life ==
[[File:Cary Grant and Margaux Hemingway, 1976.jpg|thumb|right|upright|With friend [[Margaux Hemingway]] in 1976]]
Grant became a [[naturalized United States citizen]] on June 26, 1942, aged 38, at which time he also legally changed his name to Cary Grant.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.carygrant.net/faq.html |title = Frequently asked questions |publisher = Carygrant.net |access-date = May 21, 2013 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160615095930/http://www.carygrant.net/faq.html |archive-date = June 15, 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url = https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/discussion/2005/05/24/DI2005052400695.html |title = Barbara Grant Jaynes and Robert Trachtenberg – Live Q&As transcript |date = May 26, 2005 |newspaper = The Washington Post |access-date = January 27, 2017 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170128170559/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/discussion/2005/05/24/DI2005052400695.html |archive-date = January 28, 2017 |url-status=live |quote = Barbara Grant Jaynes: He lived in this country from when he was 16 years old... He also became an American citizen in 1942. }}</ref> At the time of his naturalization, he listed his middle name as Alexander rather than Alec.<ref name=McCarthy>{{cite web |first = Andy |last = McCarthy |url = https://www.nypl.org/blog/2016/07/01/us-immigration-history |title = A Brief Passage in U.S. Immigration History |website =[[New York Public Library]]|date = July 1, 2016 |access-date = March 17, 2017 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170415152437/https://www.nypl.org/blog/2016/07/01/us-immigration-history |archive-date = April 15, 2017 }}</ref>

One of the wealthiest stars in Hollywood, Grant owned houses in [[Beverly Hills]], [[Malibu, California|Malibu]], and [[Palm Springs]].{{sfn|Govoni|1973|p=207}} He was immaculate in his personal grooming, and [[Edith Head]], the renowned Hollywood costume designer, appreciated his "meticulous" attention to detail and considered him to have had the greatest fashion sense of any actor she had worked with.{{sfn|McCann|1997|pp=178–179}} McCann attributed his "almost obsessive maintenance" with tanning, which deepened the older he got,{{sfn|Morecambe|Sterling|2001|p=23}} to Douglas Fairbanks, who also had a major influence on his refined sense of dress.{{sfn|McCann|1997|p=67}} McCann notes that because Grant came from a working-class background and was not well educated, he made a particular effort over the course of his career to mix with high society and absorb their knowledge, manners, and etiquette.{{sfn|McCann|1997|pp=64–65}} His image was meticulously crafted from the early days in Hollywood, where he would frequently sunbathe; he avoided being photographed smoking despite smoking two packs a day at the time.{{sfn|Wansell|2011|p=32}} Grant quit smoking in the early 1950s through [[hypnotherapy]].{{sfn|Wansell|1996|p=122}} He remained health-conscious, staying very trim and athletic even into his late career, though he claimed that he "never crook[ed] a finger to keep fit",{{sfn|Morecambe|Sterling|2001|p=143}} saying that he did "everything in moderation. Except making love."{{sfn|Morecambe|Sterling|2001|p=317}}

Grant's daughter, Jennifer, said that her father made hundreds of friends from all walks of life, and that their house was frequently visited by the likes of Frank and [[Barbara Sinatra]], [[Quincy Jones]], [[Gregory Peck]] and his wife [[Veronique Peck|Veronique]], [[Johnny Carson]] and his wife, [[Kirk Kerkorian]], and [[Merv Griffin]]. She said that Grant and Sinatra were the closest of friends, that the two men had a similar radiance and "indefinable incandescence of charm", and that they were eternally "high on life".{{sfn|Grant|2011|p=43}} While raising Jennifer, Grant archived artifacts of her childhood and adolescence in a bank-quality, room-sized vault he had installed in the house. Jennifer attributed this meticulous collection to the fact that artifacts of his own childhood had been destroyed during the [[Bristol Blitz|Luftwaffe's bombing of Bristol]] in World War II (an event that also claimed the lives of his uncle, aunt, cousin, and his cousin's husband and grandson), and he may have wanted to prevent her from experiencing a similar loss.{{sfn|Grant|2011|pp=234, 263}}

[[File:Randolph Scott and Cary Grant over a seafood lunch.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Randolph Scott ''(left)'' and Grant in 1933 (from ''[[Modern Screen]]'' promotional feature)]]
Grant lived with costume designer [[Orry-Kelly]] from 1925 to 1931 in the West Village, New York, until both moved to Hollywood. They met when Grant was a struggling performer who had just been evicted from a boarding house for nonpayment; they had a volatile, on-and-off relationship over three decades until Orry-Kelly died in 1964, when Grant became one of his pallbearers.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Orry-Kelly. |title=Women I've Undressed. |publisher=Random House Australia |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-85798-563-7}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=STITCHES IN TIME |url=https://www.smh.com.au/interactive/2015/orry-kelly/ |access-date=February 2, 2024 |website=The Sydney Morning Herald}}</ref> While Kelly stops short of claiming that Grant was his boyfriend in his memoir, director Gillian Armstrong's documentary on Kelly's memoir states so outright.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kates |first=Ariel |date=2021-07-28 |title=Cary Grant Before He Was Cary Grant, in Greenwich Village - Village Preservation |url=https://www.villagepreservation.org/2021/07/28/cary-grant-before-he-was-cary-grant-in-greenwich-village/ |access-date=2025-02-25 |website=www.villagepreservation.org |language=en-US}}</ref>

Grant lived with actor [[Randolph Scott]] off and on for 12 years.{{sfnm|1a1=Higham|1a2=Moseley|1y=1990|1p=57|2a1=Schickel|2y=1998|2p=44|3a1=Laurents|3y=2001|3p=131|4a1=Mann|4y=2001|4p=154|5a1=Prono|5y=2008|5p=126|6a1=Guilbert|6y=2009|6p=126}} The two met early in Grant's career, in 1932, at the Paramount studio when Scott was filming ''[[Sky Bride]]'' while Grant was shooting ''[[Sinners in the Sun]];'' they moved in together soon afterwards.{{sfn|Braun|2007|p=1920}} Whether the relationship was romantic is a matter of biographical dispute.{{sfn|Nott|2004|p=12}} [[Richard Blackwell]], then an actor at RKO, [[Jerome Zerbe]], a photographer who shot a series of publicity photographs of the couple in their home, and [[Scotty Bowers]], a Hollywood pimp, all claimed to have slept with the pair. Blackwell wrote in his autobiography that Grant and Scott "were deeply, madly in love, their devotion was complete".<ref>Blackwell, Richard ''From Rags To Bitches'', General Pub Group 1994; {{ISBN|978-1881649571}}, p.54</ref><ref>Mann, William J., ''Behind the screen : how gays and lesbians shaped Hollywood, 1910–1969'', Viking 2001, {{ISBN| 978-0142001141}} p.159.</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title='Pimp to the Stars' Claims He Had a 'Three-Way' with Cary Grant and Randolph Scott |url=https://people.com/movies/pimp-to-the-stars-lovers-cary-grant-randolph-scott-threeway/ |access-date=December 25, 2023 |website=Peoplemag |language=en}}</ref> Biographer and friend of Grant's, Bill Royce, claimed that in old age Grant confessed to him that he and Scott had been bisexual, and that their relationship was the first time he'd ever been in love, characterising the memory as: "Have you ever heard of gravity collapse?" However, he allegedly also told Royce that while Scott had loved him "on some profound level", Scott had not desired him physically to the same degree, but that they had explored the imbalance of their attraction. Since Grant's death, journalists such as David Canfield writing for ''[[Vanity Fair (magazine)|Vanity Fair]]'' have revisited the rumours and speculation.<ref>{{cite web|last=Canfield|first=David|title= Cary Grant and Randolph Scott's Hollywood Story: "Our Souls Did Touch"|website=[[Vanity Fair (magazine)|Vanity Fair]]|date=January 18, 2024|url=https://www.vanityfair.com/hollywood/cary-grant-randolph-scott-hollywood-story}}</ref>

Grant's daughter, Jennifer, has denied her father was bisexual.{{sfn|Grant|2011|p=87}} When [[Chevy Chase]] joked on television in 1980 that Grant was a "homo. What a gal!", Grant sued him for slander, and Chase was forced to retract his words.{{sfnm|1a1=McCann|1y=1997|1p=307|2a1=Seymour|2y=2009|2pp=114–115}} Grant became a fan of comedians [[Morecambe and Wise]] in the 1960s, and remained friends with [[Eric Morecambe]] until his death in 1984.{{sfn|Morecambe|Sterling|2001|p=260}}

Grant began experimenting with [[LSD]] in the late 1950s,{{sfn|Schickel|1998|p=4}} before it became more widely popular. His wife at the time, Betsy Drake, displayed a keen interest in psychotherapy, and through her Grant developed a considerable knowledge of the field of [[psychoanalysis]]. Radiologist Mortimer Hartman began treating him with LSD in the late 1950s, with Grant optimistic that it could make him feel better about himself and rid him of the inner turmoil from his childhood and failed relationships. He had an estimated 100 sessions over several years.{{sfn|McCann|1997|pp=205–206}} For a long time, Grant viewed the drug positively, saying that it was the solution after many years of "searching for his peace of mind", and that for the first time in his life he was "truly, deeply and honestly happy".{{sfn|McCann|1997|pp=205–206}} Dyan Cannon claimed during a court hearing that he was an "apostle of LSD", and that he was still taking the drug in 1967 as part of a remedy to save their relationship.{{sfn|McCann|1997|p=239}} Grant later remarked that "taking LSD was an utterly foolish thing to do but I was a self-opinionated boor, hiding all kinds of layers and defences, hypocrisy and vanity. I had to get rid of them and wipe the slate clean."{{sfn|Morecambe|Sterling|2001|p=215}}

=== Marriages ===

Grant was married five times.{{sfn|Drury|2008|p=51}} He wed [[Virginia Cherrill]] on February 9, 1934, at the [[Caxton Hall]] [[register office]] in London.{{sfn|Wansell|2011|p=35}} She divorced him on March 26, 1935,{{sfn|Houseman|1991|p=128}} following charges that he had hit her.{{sfn|Eliot|2004|p=249}} They were involved in a bitter divorce case which was widely reported in the press, with Cherrill demanding $1,000 a week from him in benefits from his Paramount earnings.{{sfn|Wansell|2011|p=38}} Grant then dated actress [[Phyllis Brooks]] from 1937. They considered marriage and vacationed together in Europe in mid-1939, visiting the Roman villa of Dorothy Taylor Dentice di Frasso in Italy, but the relationship ended later that year.{{sfn|Wansell|2011|p=57}}

He married [[Barbara Hutton]] in 1942,{{sfn|Seymour|2009|p=260}} one of the wealthiest women in the world, following a $50 million inheritance from her grandfather [[Frank Winfield Woolworth]].{{sfn|Gressor|Cook|2005|p=259}} They were derisively nicknamed "Cash and Cary",{{sfn|McIntosh|Weaver|1983|p=41}} although Grant refused any financial settlement in a prenuptial agreement{{sfn|Heymann|1987|p=294}} to avoid the accusation that he married for money.{{Efn|Grant was quoted as saying: "I may not have married for very sound reasons, but money was never one of them."{{sfn|Hadleigh|2012|p=212}}}} Toward the end of their marriage they lived in a white mansion at 10615 Bellagio Road in Bel Air.{{sfnm|1a1=Higham|1a2=Moseley|1y=1990|1p=183|2a1=Chase|2y=2004|2p=97}} They divorced in 1945, although they remained the "fondest of friends".<ref>{{cite book |title = Cary Grant in the spotlight |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=hKMcHcq3c8QC |year = 1980 |publisher = Galley Press |isbn = 978-0-8317-3957-7 |page = 69 }}</ref> He dated Betty Hensel for a period,{{sfn|Wansell|1983|p=189}} then married [[Betsy Drake]], the co-star of two of his films, on December 25, 1949. In 1957 Grant had an affair with [[Sophia Loren]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Thorpe |first=Vanessa |date=October 18, 2014 |title=Sophia Loren: how Cary Grant begged me to become his lover |url=https://www.theguardian.com/film/2014/oct/19/sophia-loren-reveals-the-story-of-cary-grants-passion |accessdate=August 23, 2024 |work=[[The Guardian]]}}</ref> Drake and Grant separated in 1958,<ref>{{cite news |last1=Roberts |first1=Sam |title=Betsy Drake, 92, Actress Who Starred With (and Wed) Cary Grant, Dies |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/11/12/movies/betsy-drake-movie-and-stage-actress-dies-at-92.html |access-date=23 August 2024 |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=November 12, 2015}} ISSN 0362-4331</ref> divorcing on August 14,1962.{{sfn|Parish|2010|p=200}} It was his longest marriage.{{sfn|Schickel|2009|p=28}}
[[File:Cary Grant Betsy Drake Dick Stabile 1955.jpg|thumb |right|upright|Grant with [[Betsy Drake]] and saxophonist [[Dick Stabile]] ''(right)'' in 1955]]
Grant married [[Dyan Cannon]] on July 22, 1965, at the [[Desert Inn]] in Las Vegas,{{sfnm|1a1=Higham|1a2=Moseley|1y=1990|1p=312|2a1=Drury|2y=2008|2p=52}} and their daughter [[Jennifer Grant|Jennifer]], his only child, was born on February 26, 1966;<ref name=ew>{{cite magazine |first = Nancy |last = Sidewater |url = https://www.ew.com/article/2009/08/07/cary-grant-weds-dyan-cannon-1965l |title = Cary Grant Weds Dyan Cannon (1965) |magazine = Entertainment Weekly |date = August 7, 2009 |access-date = March 13, 2013 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160615100046/http://www.ew.com/article/2009/08/07/cary-grant-weds-dyan-cannon-1965 |archive-date = June 15, 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> he frequently called her his "best production".<ref>{{cite news |url = https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=yVkiAAAAIBAJ&pg=1816,133428 |title = Hollywood loses a legend |work = Montreal Gazette |date = December 1, 1986 |page = 1 |access-date = March 13, 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190402101845/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=yVkiAAAAIBAJ&sjid=TagFAAAAIBAJ&pg=1816,133428&dq=cary+grant+best+production |archive-date = April 2, 2019 |df = mdy-all }}</ref> He said of fatherhood:

<blockquote>My life changed the day Jennifer was born. I've come to think that the reason we're put on this earth is to procreate. To leave something behind. Not films, because you know that I don't think my films will last very long once I'm gone. But another human being. That's what's important.{{sfn|McCann|1997|p=237}}</blockquote>

Grant and Cannon separated in August 1967.<ref>''New York Daily News.'' March 21, 1968. p. 2.</ref>

On March 12, 1968, Grant was involved in a car accident in Queens, New York, en route to [[JFK Airport]], when a truck hit the side of his limousine. He was hospitalized for 17 days with three broken ribs and bruising. A female companion, Baroness Gratia von Furstenberg, was also injured in the accident.{{sfn|McIntosh|Weaver|1983|p=65}}<ref>''New York Daily News.'' March 13, 1968. p. 2.</ref> Grant and Cannon divorced nine days later.<ref>{{cite news |url = https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=AF5AAAAAIBAJ&pg=2446,6230818 |title = Cary Grant's wife granted divorce |work = [[Windsor Star]] |date = March 22, 1968 |page = 48 |access-date = March 31, 2024 |url-status=live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150924215751/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=AF5AAAAAIBAJ&sjid=BVIMAAAAIBAJ&pg=2446,6230818&dq=cary+grant+dyan+cannon+divorce |archive-date = September 24, 2015 |df = mdy-all }}</ref>

Grant had a brief affair with actress [[Cynthia Bouron]] in the late 1960s.{{sfnm|1a1=McIntosh|1a2=Weaver|1y=1983|1p=15|2a1=Eliot|2y=2004|2pp=14–15}} He had been at odds with the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences since 1958, but received an Academy Honorary Award in 1970.{{sfn|Eliot|2004|pp=14–15}} He announced that he would attend the awards ceremony to accept it, ending his 12-year boycott of the ceremony. Two days after his announcement, Bouron filed a paternity suit against him and publicly stated that he was the father of her seven-week-old daughter,{{sfn|Eliot|2004|pp=14–15}}{{efn|Grant had a reputation for filing lawsuits against the film industry since the 1930s. The basis of these suits was that he had been cheated by the respective company. Most were described as frivolous and were settled out of court. A proposal was made to present him with an Academy Honorary Award in 1969; it was vetoed by angry Academy members. The proposal garnered enough votes to pass in 1970. It is believed{{by whom|date=March 2019}} that Bouron's accusations were part of a smear campaign organized by those in the film industry.{{sfn|Eliot|2004|pp=13–19}}}} and she named him as the father on the child's birth certificate.<ref name="films">{{cite book |title = Films in Review |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=KRELAQAAMAAJ |year = 1971 |publisher = Then and There Media, LCC. |page = 192 }}</ref> Grant challenged her to a blood test and Bouron failed to provide one, and the court ordered her to remove his name from the certificate.<ref name="films" /><ref>{{cite news |url = https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1946&dat=19701020&id=FJIuAAAAIBAJ&pg=5361,5283628 |title = Court rejects suit against Grant |agency = Reuters |date = October 20, 1970 |work = Montreal Gazette |page = 23 |access-date = March 13, 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160615100224/https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1946&dat=19701020&id=FJIuAAAAIBAJ&sjid=OKEFAAAAIBAJ&pg=5361,5283628 |archive-date = June 15, 2016 |df = mdy-all }}</ref>{{efn|In 1973, Bouron was found murdered in a San Fernando parking lot.<ref>{{cite news |url = https://www.newspapers.com/clip/5443251/the_san_bernardino_county_sun/ |title = Final chapter in lurid biography |first = Marilyn |last = Beck |author-link = Marilyn Beck |date = November 6, 1973 |newspaper = [[The San Bernardino Sun]] |page = 12 |via = [[Newspapers.com]] |access-date = June 15, 2016 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160615100440/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/5443251/the_san_bernardino_county_sun/ |archive-date = June 15, 2016 |url-status=live }} {{Open access}}</ref>}} Between 1973 and 1977, he dated British photojournalist Maureen Donaldson,{{sfn|Hofstede|1994|p=194}} followed by the much younger Victoria Morgan.{{sfn|Royce|Donaldson|1989|p=131}}

On April 11, 1981, Grant married Barbara Harris, a British hotel public relations agent 46 years his junior.{{sfnm|1a1=Wansell|1y=1996|1p=281|2a1=Roberts|2y=2014|2p=106}} They met in 1976 at the [[Royal Lancaster Hotel]] in London, where Harris was working at the time and Grant was attending a Fabergé conference. They became friends, but it was not until 1979 that she moved to live with him in California. Grant's friends felt that she had a positive impact on him, and [[Prince Rainier of Monaco]] remarked that Grant had "never been happier" than he was in his last years with her.{{sfn|Morecambe|Sterling|2001|pp=312–314}}

=== Politics ===
Biographer Nancy Nelson noted that Grant did not openly align himself with political causes but occasionally commented on current events. Grant spoke out against the [[blacklisting]] of his friend [[Charlie Chaplin]] during the period of [[McCarthyism]], arguing that Chaplin was not a [[communist]] and that his status as an entertainer was more important than his political beliefs. In 1950, he told a reporter that he would like to see a female president of the United States but asserted a reluctance to comment on political affairs, believing it was not the place of actors to do so.<ref>{{Google books|id=oIksQz7tXUcC&pg=PA180|title=Evenings With Cary Grant: Recollections in His Own Words and by Those Who Knew Him Best}}</ref> Grant supported [[Thomas Dewey]] in the [[1944 United States presidential election]], appearing at a rally at the [[Los Angeles Coliseum]] after the New York governor won the Republican nomination.<ref>{{Cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QfHXAAAAQBAJ&q=June%20Allyson | title=When Hollywood Was Right: How Movie Stars, Studio Moguls, and Big Business Remade American Politics| isbn=978-1107650282| last1=Critchlow| first1=Donald T.| date=2013| publisher=Cambridge University Press}}</ref>

In 1963 Grant visited Washington and with Attorney General [[Robert Kennedy]] went to a schoolyard, then a nearby junkyard as the two men considered what turning it into a playground might do for the children of Washington, DC,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kaufman |first=Sarah |date=February 20, 2016 |title=Cary Grant & Bobby Kennedy: Two Gentlemen of the Junkyard |url=https://sarahlkaufman.com/2016/02/what-were-cary-grant-bobby-kennedy-doing-in-that-junkyard/ |access-date=December 6, 2023}}</ref>
On December 10, 1967, Grant attended the Democratic National Committee Fundraising Dinner at the Plaza Hotel in New York City.

In 1976, Grant made a public appearance at the [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]] National Convention in [[Kansas City, Missouri|Kansas City]] during which he gave a speech in support of [[Gerald Ford]]'s reelection and for female equality before introducing [[Betty Ford]] onto the stage.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/a-star-studded-gop-convention-in-1976/ |title=A star-studded GOP convention...in 1976 |publisher=[[CBS News]] |date=July 14, 2016 |access-date=March 5, 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.fordlibrarymuseum.gov/library/document/0003/1069133.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.fordlibrarymuseum.gov/library/document/0003/1069133.pdf |archive-date=October 9, 2022 |url-status=live|title=1976/08/19 – Cary Grant Introduction of Betty Ford, Kansas City, Missouri |publisher=fordlibrarymuseum.gov |access-date=March 4, 2022}}</ref> A 1977 interview with Grant in ''[[The New York Times]]'' noted his political beliefs to be conservative but observed that Grant did not actively campaign for candidates.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1977/07/03/archives/the-other-cary-grant-being-handsome-elegant-and-everybodys-favorite.html |title=The Other Cary Grant |newspaper=The New York Times |date=July 3, 1977 |access-date=March 4, 2022|last1=Hoge |first1=Warren }}</ref>

=== Death ===
[[File:Cary Grant North by Northwest Original Still.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Still for ''North by Northwest'']]
Grant was at the [[Adler Theater]] in [[Davenport, Iowa]], on the afternoon of Saturday, November 29, 1986, preparing for his performance in ''A Conversation with Cary Grant'' when he was taken ill; he had been feeling unwell as he arrived at the theater. Basil Williams photographed him there and thought that he still looked his usual suave self, but he noticed that he seemed very tired and that he stumbled once in the auditorium. Williams recalls that Grant rehearsed for half an hour before "something seemed wrong" all of a sudden, and he disappeared backstage. Grant was taken back to the Blackhawk Hotel where he and his wife had checked in, and a doctor was called and discovered that Grant was having a massive stroke, with a blood pressure reading of 210 over 130. Grant refused to be taken to the hospital. The doctor recalled: "The stroke was getting worse. In only fifteen minutes he deteriorated rapidly. It was terrible watching him die and not being able to help. But he wouldn't let us." By 8:45 p.m., Grant had slipped into a coma and was taken to [[St. Luke's Hospital (Davenport, Iowa)|St. Luke's Hospital]] in Davenport, Iowa.{{sfn|Morecambe|Sterling|2001|pp=323–324}} He spent 45 minutes in the emergency room before being transferred to intensive care. He died at 11:22 pm, aged 82.{{sfn|Morecambe|Sterling|2001|p=324}}

{{quote box
| width = 30em
| bgcolor = #c6dbf7
| align = right
| quote = Death? Of course I think of it. But I don't want to dwell on it ... I think the thing you think about when you're my age is how you're going to do it and whether you'll behave well.
| source = —Grant at age 73{{sfn|McCann|1997|p=274}}
}}

An editorial in ''The New York Times'' stated: "Cary Grant was not supposed to die. ... Cary Grant was supposed to stick around, our perpetual touchstone of charm and elegance and romance and youth."<ref name="nyt-editorial">{{cite news |author= |title=Cary Grant's Promise |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1986/12/02/opinion/cary-grant-s-promise.html |work=The New York Times |date=December 2, 1986 |page=A34 |access-date=August 22, 2018}}</ref> His body was taken back to California, where it was cremated and his ashes scattered in the Pacific Ocean.{{sfn|Morecambe|Sterling|2001|p=325}} No funeral was conducted for him following his request, which Roderick Mann remarked was appropriate for "the private man who didn't want the nonsense of a funeral".{{sfn|McCann|1997|p=276}} His estate was worth in the region of 60 to 80 million dollars;{{sfnm|1a1=Wansell|1y=1996|1p=188|2a1=McCann|2y=1997|2p=277}} the bulk of it went to Barbara Harris and Jennifer.<ref name="Decker, Cathleen" />

== Screen persona ==
[[File:Cary Grant Indiscreet 1958.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Grant in 1958]]
McCann wrote that one of the reasons why Grant's film career was so successful is that he was not conscious of how handsome he was on screen, acting in a fashion that was most unexpected and unusual from a Hollywood star of that period.{{sfn|McCann|1997|p=104}} George Cukor once stated: "You see, he didn't depend on his looks. He wasn't a narcissist, he acted as though he were just an ordinary young man. And that made it all the more appealing, that a handsome young man was funny; that was especially unexpected and good because we think, 'Well, if he's a Beau Brummel, he can't be either funny or intelligent', but he proved otherwise".{{sfn|McCann|1997|p=104}} Jennifer Grant acknowledged that her father neither relied on his looks nor was a character actor, and said that he was just the opposite of that, playing the "basic man".{{sfn|Grant|2011|p=67}}

Grant's appeal was unusually broad among both men and women. [[Pauline Kael]] remarked that men wanted to be him and women dreamed of dating him. She noticed that Grant treated his female co-stars differently than many of the leading men at the time, regarding them as subjects with multiple qualities rather than "treating them as sex objects".<ref name="Kael" /> [[Leslie Caron]] said that he was the most talented leading man she worked with.<ref name="hattenstone20210621">{{Cite news |last=Hattenstone |first=Simon |date=June 21, 2021 |title='I am very shy. It's amazing I became a movie star': Leslie Caron at 90 on love, art and addiction |language=en |work=The Guardian |url=http://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2021/jun/21/i-am-very-shy-its-amazing-i-became-a-movie-star-leslie-caron-at-90-on-love-art-and-addiction |access-date=June 22, 2021}}</ref> [[David Shipman (writer)|David Shipman]] writes that "more than most stars, he belonged to the public".{{sfn|McCann|1997|p=284}} A number of critics have argued that Grant had the rare star ability to turn a mediocre picture into a good one. Philip T. Hartung of ''The Commonweal'' stated in his review for ''Mr. Lucky'' (1943) that, if it "weren't for Cary Grant's persuasive personality, the whole thing would melt away to nothing at all".{{sfn|Deschner|1973|p=166}} Political theorist [[C. L. R. James]] saw Grant as a "new and very important symbol", a new type of Englishman who differed from [[Leslie Howard]] and Ronald Colman, who represented the "freedom, natural grace, simplicity, and directness which characterise such different American types as Jimmy Stewart and Ronald Reagan", which ultimately symbolized the growing relationship between Britain and America.{{sfn|McCann|1997|p=109}}

{{quote box|width=20em|bgcolor=#c6dbf7|align=left|quote=Once he realized that each movement could be stylized for humor, the eyepopping, the cocked head, the forward lunge, and the slightly ungainly stride became as certain as the pen strokes of a master cartoonist.|source=—Film critic [[Pauline Kael]] on the development of Grant's comic acting in the late 1930s<ref name="Kael" />}}

McCann notes that Grant typically played "wealthy privileged characters who never seemed to have any need to work in order to maintain their glamorous and hedonistic lifestyle".{{sfn|McCann|1997|p=104}} [[Martin Stirling]] thought that Grant had an acting range that was "greater than any of his contemporaries", but felt that a number of critics underrated him as an actor. He believes that Grant was always at his "physical and verbal best in situations that bordered on farce".{{sfn|Morecambe|Sterling|2001|pp=xvii, 174}} Charles Champlin identifies a paradox in Grant's screen persona, in his unusual ability to "mix polish and pratfalls in successive scenes". He remarks that Grant was "refreshingly able to play the near-fool, the fey idiot, without compromising his masculinity or surrendering to camp for its own sake".{{sfn|Deschner|1973|p=3}} Wansell further notes that Grant could, "with the arch of an eyebrow or the merest hint of a smile, question his own image".{{sfn|Wansell|2011|p=7}} Stanley Donen stated that his real "magic" came from his attention to minute details and always seeming real, which came from "enormous amounts of work" rather than being God-given.{{sfn|McCann|1997|p=128}} Grant remarked of his career: "I guess to a certain extent I did eventually become the characters I was playing. I played at being someone I wanted to be until I became that person, or he became me".{{sfn|McCann|1997|p=59}} He professed that the real Cary Grant was more like his scruffy, unshaven fisherman in ''Father Goose'' than the "well-tailored charmer" of ''Charade''.{{sfn|McCann|1997|p=250}}

Grant often poked fun at himself with statements such as, "Everyone wants to be Cary Grant—even I want to be Cary Grant",<ref>{{cite magazine |title = Cary in the Sky with Diamonds |magazine = Vanity Fair |number = 600 |date = August 2010 |page = 174 }}</ref> and in ad-lib lines such as in ''His Girl Friday'' (1940): "Listen, the last man who said that to me was Archie Leach, just a week before he cut his throat."{{sfn|Kaklamanidou|Tally|2014|p=167}} In ''Arsenic and Old Lace'' (1944), a gravestone is seen bearing the name Archie Leach.<ref>{{cite magazine |url = http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,827480-3,00.html |title = Old Cary Grant Fine |magazine = Time |date = July 27, 1962 |access-date = April 12, 2016 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160404175039/http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0%2C9171%2C827480-3%2C00.html |archive-date = April 4, 2016 |url-status=live}} {{subscription required}}</ref>{{sfn|Halliwell|Walker|2001|p=184}} Alfred Hitchcock thought that Grant was very effective in darker roles, with a mysterious, dangerous quality, remarking that "there is a frightening side to Cary that no one can quite put their finger on".{{sfn|Wansell|2011|p=10}} Wansell notes that this darker, mysterious side extended to his personal life, which he took great lengths to cover up to retain his debonair image.{{sfn|Wansell|2011|p=10}} In a profile, [[Tom Wolfe]] wrote that "Cary Grant plays a wonderful Cary Grant." Upon being recognized by a fan, Wolfe writes that Grant "cocks his head and gives her the Cary Grant mock-quizzical look—just like he does in the movies—the look that says, 'I don't know what's happening, but we're not going to take it very seriously, are we? Or are we?'"<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wolfe |first=Tom |title=[[The Kandy-Kolored Tangerine-Flake Streamline Baby]] |year=1964 |pages=168}}</ref>

== Legacy ==
{{quote box|width=30em|bgcolor=#c6dbf7|align=right|quote=No other man seemed so classless and self-assured ... at ease with the romantic as the comic ... aged so well and with such fine style ... in short, played the part so well: Cary Grant made men seem like a good idea.|source=—Biographer Graham McCann on Cary Grant.{{sfn|McCann|1997|pp=3–4}}}}
Biographers Morecambe and Stirling believe that Cary Grant was the "greatest leading man Hollywood had ever known".{{sfn|Morecambe|Sterling|2001|p=287}} Schickel stated that there are "very few stars who achieve the magnitude of Cary Grant, art of a very high and subtle order" and thought that he was the "best star actor there ever was in the movies".<ref>{{cite news |url = https://www.cbsnews.com/news/remembering-cary-grant-at-100/ |title = Remembering Cary Grant at 100 |publisher = [[CBS News]] |date = May 21, 2004 |access-date = June 14, 2016 |first1 = Pete |last1 = Hammond |first2 = Mary-Jayne |last2 = McKay |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160614133211/http://www.cbsnews.com/news/remembering-cary-grant-at-100/ |archive-date = June 14, 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{sfn|Schickel|1998|p=vi}} [[David Thomson (film critic)|David Thomson]] and directors [[Stanley Donen]] and [[Howard Hawks]] concurred that Grant was the greatest and most important actor in the history of the cinema.<ref name="schwarz20070102" />{{sfnm|1a1=McCann|1y=1997|1p=4|2a1=McBride|2y=2013|2p=85}} He was a favorite of Hitchcock's, who admired him and called him "the only actor I ever loved in my whole life".{{sfn|McCann|1997|p=3}} He remained one of Hollywood's top box-office attractions for almost 30 years.<ref>{{cite web |title =About: Cary Grant |url = https://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/person/75180%7C28068/Cary-Grant/ |publisher = Turner Classic Movies |access-date = December 15, 2015 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160614005221/http://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/person/75180%7C28068/Cary-Grant/ |archive-date = June 14, 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Pauline Kael]] stated that the world still thinks of him affectionately because he "embodies what seems a happier time−a time when we had a simpler relationship to a performer".<ref name="Kael" />

[[File:Cary Grant Statue.jpg|upright|thumb|''Cary Grant'' statue by [[Graham Ibbeson]] (2001) in [[Millennium Square (Bristol)|Millennium Square]], Bristol]]
Grant was nominated for Academy Awards for ''[[Penny Serenade]]'' (1941) and ''[[None But the Lonely Heart (film)|None But the Lonely Heart]]'' (1944),{{sfn|Crouse|2005|p=99}} but he never won a competitive Oscar.{{efn|Jennifer Grant states that her father was quite outspoken on the discrimination that he felt against handsome men and comedians in Hollywood. He questioned "are good looks their own reward, canceling out the right to more"? She recalls that he once said of [[Robert Redford]]: "It'll be tough for him to be awarded anything, he's just too good looking".{{sfn|Grant|2011|p=68}}}}{{sfn|Ringler|2000|p=182}} He did, however, receive a special [[Academy Honorary Award|Academy Award for Lifetime Achievement]] in 1970.{{sfn|Prono|2008|p=127}} The inscription on his statuette read "To Cary Grant, for his unique mastery of the art of screen acting with respect and affection of his colleagues". Presenting the award to Grant, [[Frank Sinatra]] announced: "No one has brought more pleasure to more people for so many years than Cary has, and nobody has done so many things so well".{{sfn|McCann|1997|pp=246–247}}

Grant was awarded a special plaque at the Straw Hat Awards in New York in May 1975, which recognized him as a "star and superstar in entertainment". In July 1976, [[Betty Ford]] invited him to attend the Bicentennial dinner for Queen [[Elizabeth II]] at the [[White House]] and to give a speech introducing her at the [[Republican National Convention]] in [[Kansas City, Missouri|Kansas City]] the following month. He was invited to a royal charity gala in 1978 at the [[London Palladium]]. In 1979, he hosted the American Film Institute's tribute to Alfred Hitchcock, and presented [[Laurence Olivier]] with his honorary Oscar.{{sfn|Morecambe|Sterling|2001|p=300}}

In 1981, Grant was accorded the [[Kennedy Center Honors]].{{sfn|Clear|1993|p=80}} In 1984, a theater on the MGM lot was renamed the "Cary Grant Theatre".{{sfn|McCann|1997|p=265}} In 1995, more than 100 leading film directors were asked to reveal their favorite actor of all time in a ''Time Out'' poll, and Grant came second only to [[Marlon Brando]].{{sfn|Wansell|2011|p=8}} In December 2001, a statue of Grant by [[Graham Ibbeson]] was unveiled in [[Millennium Square (Bristol)|Millennium Square]], a regenerated area next to [[Bristol Harbour]], Bristol, the city where he was born.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://aprb.co.uk/projects/all-projects/1999/cary-grant-by-graham-ibbeson |title = Cary Grant |publisher = Art and the Public Realm Bristol |access-date = December 8, 2015 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160615014416/http://aprb.co.uk/projects/all-projects/1999/cary-grant-by-graham-ibbeson |archive-date = June 15, 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> In November 2005, Grant again came first in ''Premiere'' magazine's list of "The 50 Greatest Movie Stars of All Time".<ref>{{cite web |url = http://designarchives.aiga.org/#/entries/%2Bid%3A2695/_/detail/relevance/asc/0/7/2695/the-50-greatest-movie-stars-of-all-time/1 |title = The 50 Greatest Movie Stars of All Time |work = [[Premiere (magazine)|Premiere]] |access-date = December 8, 2015 |archive-url = https://archive.today/20161213104606/http://designarchives.aiga.org/%23/entries/%2Bid:2695/_/detail/relevance/asc/0/7/2695/the-50-greatest-movie-stars-of-all-time/1 |archive-date = December 13, 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref> The biennial Cary Comes Home Festival was established in 2014 in his hometown [[Bristol]].<ref>{{Cite news|date=November 23, 2018|title=Cary Grant festival celebrates third year|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-bristol-46178044|access-date=August 9, 2020}}</ref> McCann declared that Grant was "quite simply, the funniest actor cinema has ever produced".{{sfn|McCann|1997|p=35}}

There is a street named after Grant in [[San Antonio|San Antonio, Texas]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Brown |first=Merrisa |date=September 30, 2014 |title=San Antonio street names and groupings |url=https://www.mysanantonio.com/news/local/slideshow/San-Antonio-street-names-and-groupings-94695.php |website=mysanantonio.com}}</ref>

In November 2024, a [[Historic England]] national [[blue plaque]] was unveiled on his childhood home at 50 Berkeley Road, [[Bishopston, Bristol]], where he lived from about age four to six, by Heritage Minister [[Sir Chris Bryant]].<ref name=bp-20241122>{{cite news |url=https://www.bristolpost.co.uk/news/bristol-news/blue-plaque-honouring-cary-grant-9731844 |title=Blue plaque honouring Cary Grant unveiled at his childhood home in Bristol |last=Minchin |first=Rod |newspaper=Bristol Post |agency=PA |date=22 November 2024 |access-date=23 November 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-11-25 |title=Cary Grant (Archie Leach) {{!}} Historic England |url=https://historicengland.org.uk/listing/national-blue-plaque-scheme/cary-grant/ |access-date=2024-11-27 |website=historicengland.org.uk |language=en}}</ref>

===Portrayals===
Grant was portrayed by [[John Gavin]] in the 1980 made-for-television biographical film ''[[Sophia Loren: Her Own Story]]'',<ref>{{Cite news|title=GAVIN AS GRANT: A TEST OF TASTE|author=Mann, Roderick.|date=July 1, 1980|work=Los Angeles Times|page=g1}}</ref> and in the similar 1987 TV serialisation ''[[Poor Little Rich Girl: The Barbara Hutton Story]]'', [[James Read]] played Grant as Barbara Hutton's third husband.

The British miniseries ''[[Archie (miniseries)|Archie]]'', covering Grant's life, was broadcast from November 2023 on [[ITV (TV network)|ITV]]. Grant is portrayed by Dainton Anderson, [[Oaklee Pendergast]], [[Calam Lynch]] and [[Jason Isaacs]] at successive stages of his life.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Singh |first1=Anita |title=Cary Grant's British accent to be heard for first time in new ITV drama |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2023/11/07/cary-grant-itv-drama-archie-british-accent-secret-recording/ |access-date=November 13, 2023 |work=The Daily Telegraph |date=November 7, 2023}}</ref>

== Filmography and stage work ==
{{Main|List of Cary Grant performances}}

From 1932 to 1966, Grant starred in over seventy films. In 1999, the [[American Film Institute]] named him the second-greatest male star of [[Classical Hollywood cinema|Golden Age Hollywood]] cinema (after [[Humphrey Bogart]]).<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.afi.com/100Years/stars.aspx | title=AFI's 100 Years .... 100 Stars | publisher=American Film Institute | access-date=October 10, 2018 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181010155029/https://www.afi.com/100Years/stars.aspx | archive-date=October 10, 2018 | url-status=dead }}</ref> He was nominated for the [[Academy Award for Best Actor]] for ''[[Penny Serenade]]'' (1941) and ''[[None but the Lonely Heart (film)|None but the Lonely Heart]]'' (1944).<ref name="CG44"/>{{sfnm|1a1=Crouse|1y=2005|1p=99|2a1=Wansell|2y=2011|2p=120}}

Widely recognized for comedic and dramatic roles, among his best-known films are:<ref name="ATCF" />
* ''[[Blonde Venus]]'' (1932) with [[Marlene Dietrich]]
* ''[[She Done Him Wrong]]'' (1933) with [[Mae West]]
* ''[[Sylvia Scarlett]]'' (1935) with [[Katharine Hepburn]]
* ''[[The Awful Truth]]'' (1937) with [[Irene Dunne]]
* ''[[Bringing Up Baby]]'' (1938) with Katharine Hepburn
* ''[[Gunga Din (film)|Gunga Din]]'' (1939) with [[Victor McLaglen]] and [[Douglas Fairbanks Jr.]]
* ''[[Only Angels Have Wings]]'' (1939) with [[Jean Arthur]] and [[Rita Hayworth]]
* ''[[My Favorite Wife]]'' (1940) with Irene Dunne
* ''[[His Girl Friday]]'' (1940) with [[Rosalind Russell]]
* ''[[The Philadelphia Story (film)|The Philadelphia Story]]'' (1940) with Katharine Hepburn and [[James Stewart]]
* ''[[Suspicion (1941 film)|Suspicion]]'' (1941) with [[Joan Fontaine]]
* ''[[Arsenic and Old Lace (film)|Arsenic and Old Lace]]'' (1944) with [[Peter Lorre]]
* ''[[Notorious (1946 film)|Notorious]]'' (1946) with [[Ingrid Bergman]]
* ''[[Monkey Business (1952 film)|Monkey Business]]'' (1952) with [[Ginger Rogers]] and [[Marilyn Monroe]]
* ''[[To Catch a Thief]]'' (1955) with [[Grace Kelly]]
* ''[[An Affair to Remember]]'' (1957) with [[Deborah Kerr]]
* ''[[North by Northwest]]'' (1959) with [[Eva Marie Saint]] and [[James Mason]]
* ''[[Charade (1963 film)|Charade]]'' (1963) with [[Audrey Hepburn]]

== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}

== References ==
{{Reflist|22em}}

== Sources ==
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* {{cite book |last = McCann |first = Graham |title = Cary Grant: A Class Apart |publisher = Fourth Estate |location = London |year = 1997 |isbn = 978-1-85702-574-3 }} Also published by Columbia University Press, 1998; [https://books.google.com/books?id=RK_91TR_YE0C preview available online].
* {{cite book |last1 = McIntosh |first1 = William Currie |last2 = Weaver |first2 = William |title = The private Cary Grant |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=0UQ3AAAAIAAJ |year = 1983 |publisher = Sidgwick & Jackson |isbn = 978-0-283-98989-6 }}
* {{cite book |last = Miniter |first = Frank |title = The Ultimate Man's Survival Guide |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=vo_mAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA194 |date = 2013 |publisher = Regnery Publishing |isbn = 978-1-59698-804-0 }}
* {{cite book |last = Monaco |first = James |title = The Movie Guide |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=s7MUAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA121 |year = 1992 |publisher = Perigee Books |isbn = 978-0-399-51780-8 }}
* {{cite book |last = Moore |first = Roger |title = My Word is My Bond: The Autobiography |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=5B7dAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT148 |date = 2009 |publisher = Michael OMara |isbn = 978-1-84317-419-6 }}
* {{cite book |last1 = Morecambe |first1 = Gary |last2 = Sterling |first2 = Martin |title = Cary Grant: In Name Only |url = https://archive.org/details/carygrantinnameo0000more |url-access = registration |year = 2001 |publisher = Robson |isbn = 978-1-86105-466-1 }}
* {{cite book |last1 = Morecambe |first1 = Gary |last2 = Sterling |first2 = Martin |title = Cary Grant: In Name Only |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Y8mrk5V_z9gC |date = 2004 |publisher = Robson Books |isbn = 978-1-86105-639-9 }}
* {{cite book |last = McGee |first = Garry |title = Doris Day: Sentimental Journey |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=fYXeCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA155 |date = 2005 |publisher = McFarland |isbn = 978-0-7864-6107-3 }}
* {{cite book |last = Mell |first = Eila |title = Casting Might-Have-Beens: A Film by Film Directory of Actors Considered for Roles Given to Others |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=8AMyBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA21 |date = 2005 |publisher = McFarland |isbn = 978-0-7864-2017-9 }}
* {{cite book |last = Messina |first = Elizabeth |title = What's His Name? John Fiedler: The Man the Face the Voice |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=XqaWtV6Om1sC&pg=PA62 |date = 2012 |publisher = AuthorHouse |isbn = 978-1-4685-5857-9 }}
* {{cite book |last1 = Mintz |first1 = Steven |last2 = Roberts |first2 = Randy W. |last3 = Welky |first3 = David |title = Hollywood's America: Understanding History Through Film |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=mindCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA144 |date =2016 |publisher = John Wiley & Sons |isbn = 978-1-118-97649-4 }}
* {{cite book |last = Nelson |first = Nancy |year = 2002 |orig-year = 1991 |publisher = Citadel Press |isbn = 978-0-8065-2412-2 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=oIksQz7tXUcC |title = Evenings With Cary Grant: Recollections in His Own Words and by Those Who Knew Him Best }}
* {{cite book |last = Nott |first = Robert |title = The Films of Randolph Scott |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=LnONAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA12 |date = 2004 |publisher = McFarland |isbn = 978-1-4766-1006-1 }}
* {{cite book |last = Parish |first = James Robert |title = The Hollywood Book of Breakups |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=gSh2HyQ8OsQC&pg=PT200 |date = 2010 |publisher = John Wiley & Sons |isbn = 978-1-118-04067-6 }}
* {{cite book |last = Prono |first = Luca |title = Encyclopedia of Gay and Lesbian Popular Culture |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Y3FYzMPH2OwC&pg=PT127 |year = 2008 |publisher = ABC-CLIO |isbn = 978-0-313-33599-0 }}
* {{cite book |last = Richards |first = Jeffrey |title = Visions of Yesterday |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=MA6uAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA242 |date = 2014 |publisher = Routledge |isbn = 978-1-317-92861-4 }}
* {{cite book |last = Ringler |first = Stephen M. |title = A Dictionary of Cinema Quotations from Filmmakers and Critics: Over 3400 Axioms, Criticisms, Opinions and Witticisms from 100 Years of the Cinema |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=mYeACgAAQBAJ&pg=PA182 |date = 2000 |publisher = McFarland |isbn = 978-0-7864-3763-4 }}
* {{cite book |last = Roberts |first = Paul G. |title = Style Icons Vol 1 Golden Boys |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=S7KqBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT103 |date = 2014 |publisher = Fashion Industry Broadcast |isbn = 978-1-62776-032-4 }}
* {{cite book |last = Rood |first = Karen Lane |title = American culture after World War II |url = https://archive.org/details/americanculturea00rood |url-access = registration |date =1994 |publisher = Gale Research |isbn = 978-0-8103-8481-1 }}
* {{cite book |last = Rothman |first = William |title = Must We Kill the Thing We Love?: Emersonian Perfectionism and the Films of Alfred Hitchcock |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=NcjbAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA71 |date = 2014 |publisher = Columbia University Press |isbn = 978-0-231-53730-8 }}
* {{cite book |last1 = Royce |first1 = William |last2 = Donaldson |first2 = Maureen |title = An Affair to Remember: My Life With Cary Grant |url = https://archive.org/details/affairtoremember00dona |url-access = registration |year = 1989 |publisher = Putnam |isbn = 978-0399134500 }}
* {{cite book |last = Schickel |first = Richard |title = Cary Grant: A Celebration by Richard Schickel |publisher = Pavilion Books |year = 1998 |isbn = 978-1-86205-018-1 }}
* {{cite book |last = Schickel |first = Richard |title = Cary Grant: A Celebration |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Dao5AQAAQBAJ&pg=PT28 |date = 2009 |publisher = Little, Brown |isbn = 978-0-316-09032-2 }}
* {{cite book |last = Seymour |first = Miranda |title = Chaplin's Girl: The Life and Loves of Virginia Cherrill |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=gUZMA5w1uZUC&pg=PT114 |date = 2009 |publisher = Simon and Schuster |isbn = 978-1-84737-737-1 }}
* {{cite book |last = Shevey |first = Sandra |title = The Marilyn Scandal |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=ZiW0lE15fZcC |date = 1990 |publisher = Arrow |isbn = 978-0-09-960760-1 }}
* {{cite book |last = Silverman |first = Stephen M. |title = Dancing on the ceiling: Stanley Donen and his movies |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=8GhZAAAAMAAJ |date = 1996 |publisher = Knopf |isbn = 978-0-679-41412-4 }}
* {{cite book |last = Slide |first = Anthony |title = The Encyclopedia of Vaudeville |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Hu3nNSmRjZ0C&pg=PA211 |date = 2012 |publisher = Univ. Press of Mississippi |isbn = 978-1-61703-250-9 }}
* {{cite AV media |people=Trachtenberg, Robert (writer, director, producer); Jaynes, Barbara Grant (co-producer) |year=2004 |title=Cary Grant: A Class Apart|location=Burbank, California |publisher= [[Turner Classic Movies]] (TCM) and [[Turner Entertainment]] |type=Motion picture documentary |language= en |url=https://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/title/450555/cary-grant-a-class-apart#overview |id=Running time: 1:27 |ref={{sfnref|Trachtenberg|Jaynes|2004}} }}
* {{cite book |last = Traubner |first = Richard |title = Operetta: A Theatrical History |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=tkCTAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA115 |date = 2004 |publisher = Routledge |isbn = 978-1-135-88783-4 }}
* {{cite book |last = Turk |first = Edward Baron |title = Hollywood Diva: A Biography of Jeanette MacDonald |url = https://archive.org/details/hollywooddivabio0000turk |url-access = registration |page = [https://archive.org/details/hollywooddivabio0000turk/page/350 350] |date = 1998 |publisher = University of California Press |isbn = 978-0-520-92457-4 }}
* {{cite book |last = Vermilye |first = Jerry |title = Cary Grant |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=ZOpkAAAAMAAJ |date = 1973 |publisher = Pyramid Publications |isbn = 978-0-515-03246-8 }}
* {{cite book |last = Walker |first = Elsie |title = Understanding Sound Tracks Through Film Theory |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=SwcIBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA187 |year = 2015 |publisher = Oxford University Press |isbn = 978-0-19-989632-5 }}
* {{cite book |last = Wansell |first = Geoffrey |title = Cary Grant, Dark Angel |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=xjAhAgAAQBAJ |year = 2011 |orig-year = 1996 |publisher = [[Skyhorse Publishing]] |isbn = 978-1-62872-336-6 }}
* {{cite book |last = Wansell |first = Geoffrey |title = Cary Grant, Dark Angel |url = https://archive.org/details/carygrantdarkang00wans |url-access = registration |year = 1996 |publisher = [[Arcade Publishing]] |isbn = 978-1-55970-369-7 }}
* {{cite book |last = Wansell |first = Geoffrey |title = Cary Grant, Haunted Idol |url = https://archive.org/details/carygranthaunted0000wans |url-access = registration |date = 1983 |publisher = Collins |isbn = 978-0002163712 }}
* {{cite book |last = Weiten |first = Wayne |title = Psychology: Themes and Variations |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=TWDWAAAAMAAJ |year = 1996 |publisher = Brooks/Cole |isbn = 978-0-534-33926-5 }}
{{div col end}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite journal |last1=Crofts |first1=Charlotte |title=Bristol Fashion: Reclaiming Cary Grant for Bristol – Film Heritage, Screen Tourism and Curating the Cary Comes Home Festival |journal=Open Screens |date=December 31, 2021 |volume=4 |issue=2 |doi=10.16995/OS.8018 |url=https://www.openscreensjournal.com/article/id/8018/ |access-date=May 9, 2022 |language=en |issn=2516-2888|doi-access=free }}
* {{cite book|last=Eyman|first=Scott|author-link=Scott Eyman|title=Cary Grant: A Brilliant Disguise|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gejNDwAAQBAJ|date=2020|publisher=Simon & Schuster|isbn=978-1-5011-9212-8|ref=none}}
* {{Cite book|last=Glancy|first=Mark|year=2020|title=Cary Grant: The Making of a Hollywood Legend|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3vQTEAAAQBAJ|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-1900-5313-0|ref=none}}

== External links ==
{{Sister project links |collapsible=true |wikt=no |s=no |v=no |b=no}}
* {{IMDb name}}
* {{Tcmdb name}}
* {{IBDB name}}
* {{NPG name}}
* {{Playbill person}}
* {{cite web |title = Archibald Leach's entry in the England/Wales Census |year = 1911 |url = https://familysearch.org/pal:/MM9.1.2/1GP5-Y94/p_10351531937 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120419072833/https://familysearch.org/pal%3A/MM9.1.2/1GP5-Y94/p_10351531937 |archive-date = April 19, 2012 |publisher = Familysearch.org |access-date = June 18, 2016 |url-status=dead}}
* {{cite web |url = https://familysearch.org/pal:/MM9.1.2/MS4P-MQF/p1 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120419073247/https://familysearch.org/pal%3A/MM9.1.2/MS4P-MQF/p1 |archive-date = April 19, 2012 |year = 1920 |title = Archibald Leach's US immigration record |publisher = Familysearch.org |access-date = June 18, 2016 |url-status=dead}}
* {{cite web |url = https://familysearch.org/pal:/MM9.1.2/86HV-N6Z/p_12933692915 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120419073724/https://familysearch.org/pal%3A/MM9.1.2/86HV-N6Z/p_12933692915 |archive-date = April 19, 2012 |title = Social Security Death index |year = 1986 |publisher = Familysearch.org |access-date = June 18, 2016 |url-status=dead}}
* {{cite book |url = http://catalog.oscars.org/vwebv/holdingsInfo?bibId=66252 |title = Cary Grant papers |via = Margaret Herrick Library |author = Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences |access-date = June 18, 2016|ref=none}}
* {{cite web |url = https://www.familysearch.org/ark:/61903/3:1:3Q9M-CS2B-6WWJ-R?i=377&cc=2786603&personaUrl=%2Fark%3A%2F61903%2F1%3A1%3AQGF9-F1SV |title = Cary Grant – WW2 Draft Registration Card |website = [[FamilySearch]] }}

{{Navboxes
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Whitechapel

2025-04-24T05:28:09Z

47.32.9.63:

{{Short description|Area in London, England}}
{{about|the East London district|the deathcore band|Whitechapel (band)|other uses}}
{{Use British English|date=February 2012}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2021}}
{{Infobox UK place
| official_name = Whitechapel
| london_borough = Tower Hamlets
| region = London
| country = England
| static_image_name = File:Whitechapel LU roundel totem pole.jpg
| static_image_caption = Entrance to [[Whitechapel tube station|Whitechapel station]]
| population = {{london ward populations|00BGGN|population}}
| population_ref = ({{london ward populations|00BGGN|ward}} ward {{london ward populations|year}}){{london ward populations|reference}}
| coordinates = {{Wikidatacoord|Q124539|display=inline,title}}
| constituency_westminster = [[Bethnal Green and Stepney (UK Parliament constituency)|Bethnal Green and Stepney]]
| post_town = LONDON
| postcode_area = E
| postcode_district = E1
| dial_code = 020
| os_grid_reference = TQ335815
}}

'''Whitechapel''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|w|ʌ|ɪ|t|'|tʃ|æ|p|ə|l}}) is an area in London, England, and is located in the [[London Borough of Tower Hamlets]]. It is in [[east London]] and part of the [[East End of London|East End]]. It is the location of [[Tower Hamlets Town Hall]] and therefore the borough town centre. Whitechapel is located {{convert|3.4|mi|km|1}} east of [[Charing Cross]].

The district is primarily built around [[Whitechapel High Street]] and [[Whitechapel Road]], which extend from the [[City of London]] boundary to just east of [[Whitechapel station]]. These two streets together form a section of the originally Roman Road from the [[Aldgate]] to [[Colchester]], a route that later became known as the ''Great Essex Road''. Population growth resulting from ribbon development along this route, led to the creation of the parish of Whitechapel, a daughter parish of [[Stepney#Manor and Ancient Parish|Stepney]], from which it was separated, in the 14th century.

Whitechapel has a long history of having a high proportion of immigrants within the community. From the late 19th century until the late 20th century the area had a very high Jewish population, and it subsequently became a significant settlement for the [[British Bangladeshi]] community. Whitechapel and neighbouring [[Spitalfields]] were the locations of the infamous 11 [[Whitechapel murders]] (1888–91), some of which were attributed to the unidentified [[serial killer]] known as [[Jack the Ripper]]. These factors and others have led to Whitechapel being seen by many as the embodiment of London's East End, and for that reason it is often used to [[East End literature|represent the East End in art and literature]].<ref>''Brewers Dictionary of London Phrase and Fable'', Russ Willey, Chambers, 2009</ref>

Landmarks include Tower Hamlets Town Hall, the [[Royal London Hospital]] and the [[East London Mosque]].

==History==

===Origin and toponymy===
[[File:Stepney Civil Parish Map 1870.png|thumb|right|250px|The daughter-parishes of Stepney that would evolve into the modern [[London Borough of Tower Hamlets]]]]
Whitechapel was originally part of the [[Stepney#Manor and Ancient Parish|Manor and Parish of Stepney]], but population growth resulting from its position just outside the [[Aldgate]] on the Roman Road to [[Essex]] resulted in significant population growth, so a [[chapel of ease]], dedicated to [[St Mary]] was established so people did not have to make the longer journey to Stepney's parish church [[St Dunstan's, Stepney|St Dunstans]]. The earliest known rector was Hugh de Fulbourne in 1329.

Whitechapel takes its name from that church, [[St Mary Matfelon]], which like the nearby [[White Tower (Tower of London)|White Tower]] of the [[Tower of London]] was at one time whitewashed to give it a prominent and attractive appearance. The etymology of the ''Matfelon'' element is unclear and apparently unique.

Around 1338, Whitechapel became an independent parish, with ''St Mary Matfelon'', originally a [[chapel of ease]] within Stepney, becoming the parish church.

===Geography of the ancient parish===
Whitechapel's spine is the old Roman Road, that ran from the [[Aldgate]] on [[London Wall|London's Wall]], to [[Colchester]] in [[Essex]] ([[Roman Britain|Roman Britannia's]] first capital), and beyond. This road, which was later named the ''Great Essex Road'', is now designated the [[A11 road (Great Britain)|A11]]. This historic route has the names Whitechapel High Street and Whitechapel Road as it passes through, or along the boundary, of Whitechapel.<ref>[http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.asp?compid=22732 'Stepney: Communications', A History of the County of Middlesex: Volume 11: Stepney, Bethnal Green (1998), pp. 7–13] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928030615/http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.asp?compid=22732 |date=28 September 2007 }} accessed: 9 March 2007</ref> For many centuries travellers to and from London on this route were accommodated at the many [[coaching inns]] that lined Whitechapel High Street.<ref name="Christopher Hibbert 1983"/>

The area of the parish extended around 1400 metres from the City of London boundary, originally marked by ''Aldgate Bars'' around 180 metres east of the [[Aldgate]] itself, to vicinity of the junction with Cambridge Heath Road where it met the boundaries of [[Mile End]] and [[Bethnal Green]].

The northern boundary included Wentworth Street and parts of Old Montague Street. The parish also included an area around [[Goodman's Fields Theatre|Goodman's Fields]], close to the City and south of St Mary's, the parish church.

===Administrative history===
[[File:Stepney Met. B Ward Map 1916.svg|thumb|The parish of Whitechapel formed three of the wards, in the Metropolitan Borough of Stepney, which was created in 1900.]]
The area became an independent parish around 1338. At that time parish areas only had an ecclesiastical (church) function, with parallel civil parishes being formed in the Tudor period. The original purpose of the civil parishes was poor relief. The area was part of the [[Historic counties of England|historic (or ancient) county]] of [[Middlesex]], but military and most (or all) civil county functions were managed more locally, by the [[Tower division|Tower Division (also known as the Tower Hamlets)]].

The role of the ''Tower Division'' ended when Whitechapel became part of the new [[County of London]] in 1889, and most civil parish functions were removed when the area joined the [[Metropolitan Borough of Stepney]] in 1900.

In 1965 there was a further round of changes when the ''Metropolitan Borough of Stepney'' merged with the [[Metropolitan Borough of Bethnal Green]] and the [[Metropolitan Borough of Poplar]] to form the new [[London Borough of Tower Hamlets]]. The new borough of Tower Hamlets covered only part of the historic Tower Division (or Tower Hamlets). At the same time, the area became part of the new [[Greater London]], which replaced the older, smaller ''County of London''.

===Early history===
[[File:Whitechapel High Street 1905.JPG|thumb|Whitechapel High Street, and St Mary Matfelon, in 1905]]

====Early development====
Whitechapel, along with areas such as neighbouring [[Shoreditch]], [[Holborn]] (west of the city) and Southwark (south of the Thames), was one of London's earlier extra-mural suburbs. Beyond controls of the [[City of London Corporation]], Whitechapel was used for more polluting and land-intensive industries the city market demanded, such as tanneries, builders' goods yards, laundries, clothes dyers, [[slaughterhouse]]-related work, soaperies, and breweries. Whitechapel was strongly notable for foundries, foremost of which was the [[Whitechapel Bell Foundry]], which later cast [[Philadelphia]]'s [[Liberty Bell]], Westminster's [[Clock Tower, Palace of Westminster|Big Ben]], [[St Mary-le-Bow|Bow Bells]] and more recently the London [[Olympic Bell]] in 2012. Population shifts from rural areas to London from the 17th century to the mid-19th century resulted in great numbers of more or less destitute people taking up residence amidst the industries, businesses and services ancillary to the [[City of London]] that had attracted them.

====Whitechapel Mount====
{{main|Whitechapel Mount}}
The [[Whitechapel Mount]] was a large, probably artificial mound, of unknown origin, that stood on the south side of Whitechapel Road, about 1200 metres east of the [[Aldgate]], immediately west of the modern Royal London Hospital. The Mount is widely believed to have formed part of London's defences during the [[Wars of the Three Kingdoms]] in the mid-17th century. This was either as part of a ring of fortifications known as the [[Lines of Communication (London)|Lines of Communication]], which were in operation from 1642 to 1647,<ref>Civil War London, David Flintham, Helion and Company, 2017</ref> or additionally or alternatively, as one of the three forts replacing that system of defence immediately afterwards.

The mount was removed to allow residential development in 1807–1808.
[[File:The London Hospital, Whitechapel; seen from the northern sid Wellcome L0002107.jpg|thumb|The [[London Hospital]], Whitechapel in 1753. The [[Whitechapel Mount]] stands immediately to the right (west).]]

====Davenant Foundation School====
{{Main|Davenant Foundation School|Davenant Centre}}
In 1680, [[Ralph Davenant]] (rector of the parish of Whitechapel), his wife and his sister-in-law bequeathed a large sum for a schoolmaster to teach literacy, numeracy and the "principles of the Church of England" to forty boys of the parish. In the same deed Henry and Sarah Gullifer undertook to provide for the education of thirty poor girls; namely a schoolmistress was to teach them the "catechism, reading, knitting, plain sewing, and any other useful work".<ref name=davenant /> In 1701 an unknown donor gave the foundation £1,000 ({{Inflation|GBP|1000|1700|r=-4|fmt=eq|cursign=£}}) so the children might be suitably clothed as well as educated.<ref name=davenant /> Between 1783 and 1830 the school received twenty gifts totalling over £5,000.<ref name=davenant /> Typical income seems to have been about £500 per year, which was much more than most vicar's and rector's livings, net.<ref name=davenant /> Supporting modern education, the [[Davenant Centre]] continues and the [[Davenant Foundation School]] has, since 1966, been based at [[Loughton]] in [[Essex]].<ref name=davenant>''[[Victoria County History|A History of the County of Middlesex]]: Volume 1, Physique, Archaeology, Domesday, Ecclesiastical Organization, the Jews, Religious Houses, Education of Working Classes To 1870, Private Education From Sixteenth CenturySchools'': Davenant Foundation Grammar School, editors: J S Cockburn, H P F King and K G T McDonnell (London, 1969), pages 293–294. British History Online http://www.british-history.ac.uk/vch/middx/vol1/pp293-294 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221231154400/https://www.british-history.ac.uk/vch/middx/vol1/pp293-294 |date=31 December 2022 }}</ref>

====Royal London Hospital====
The London Infirmary was established as a [[voluntary hospital]] in 1740, and within a year soon moved from [[Finsbury]] to Prescot Street, a very densely populated and deprived part of southern Whitechapel. Its aim was "The relief of all sick and diseased persons and, in particular, manufacturers, seamen in the merchant service and their wives and children".

The hospital moved to the then largely rural Whitechapel Road site in 1757, and was renamed the London Hospital. It became known as the [[Royal London Hospital]] on its 250th anniversary in 1990. The new building, adjacent to the old building it replaced, was opened in 2012.<ref>History section of the official website https://www.bartshealth.nhs.uk/the-royal-london-our-history {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230428175711/https://www.bartshealth.nhs.uk/the-royal-london-our-history |date=28 April 2023 }}</ref>

In 2023 the old hospital building became the new [[Tower Hamlets Town Hall]], replacing the [[Mulberry Place]] site in [[Poplar, London|Poplar]].

===18th and 19th centuries===
In common with many other parts of the [[East End of London]], Whitechapel gained a reputation for severe poverty, overcrowding, and the social problems that came with it.<ref>Whitechapel CP through time : Housing Statistics : Total Houses, A Vision of Britain through Time, GB Historical GIS / University of Portsmouth, http://www.visionofbritain.org.uk/unit/10071306/cube/HOUSES {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221231163420/https://www.visionofbritain.org.uk/unit/10071306/cube/HOUSES |date=31 December 2022 }}</ref><ref>Whitechapel CP through time : Population Statistics : Total Population, A Vision of Britain through Time, GB Historical GIS / University of Portsmouth, http://www.visionofbritain.org.uk/unit/10071306/cube/TOT_POP {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221231163421/https://www.visionofbritain.org.uk/unit/10071306/cube/TOT_POP |date=31 December 2022 }}</ref>
[[File:Booth map of Whitechapel.jpg|thumb|right|Part of Charles Booth's map of Whitechapel, 1889. The red areas are "middle-class"; the black areas are "semi-criminal".]]
[[File:Booth poverty map colour key.jpg|thumb|400px|right|{{center|Colour key for Booth's [[poverty map]].}}]]

[[William Booth]] began his ''Christian Revival Society'', preaching the gospel in a tent, erected in the ''Friends Burial Ground'', Thomas Street, Whitechapel, in 1865. Others joined his ''Christian Mission'', and on 7 August 1878 the [[Salvation Army]] was formed at a meeting held at 272 Whitechapel Road.<ref>[http://www1.salvationarmy.org/heritage.nsf/titles/1878_Foundation_Deed_Of_The_Salvation_Army 1878 Foundation Deed Of The Salvation Army] accessed 15 February 2007 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120525050352/http://www1.salvationarmy.org/heritage.nsf/titles/1878_Foundation_Deed_Of_The_Salvation_Army |date=25 May 2012 }}</ref> A statue commemorates both his mission and his work in helping the poor.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.lonelyplanet.com/england/london/attractions/whitechapel-road/a/poi-sig/1278840/358914 |access-date=14 September 2021 |title=Whitechapel Road |website=Lonely Planet |archive-date=7 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190407090407/https://www.lonelyplanet.com/england/london/attractions/whitechapel-road/a/poi-sig/1278840/358914 |url-status=live }}</ref>
[[File:Edward VII Whitechapel.jpg|left|thumb|Plaque commemorating King Edward VII, with the inscription "erected with subscriptions raised by Jewish inhabitants of East London 1911"]]
[[File:"The London" - geograph.org.uk - 36866.jpg|thumb|Royal London Hospital's old building from the 18th century]]

The population grew quickly with migrants from the English countryside and further afield. Many of these incomers were Irish or Jewish. Western Whitechapel, and neighbouring areas of Wapping, became known as ''Little Germany'' due to the large numbers of German people who came to the area; many of these people, and their descendants, worked in the sugar industry. The [[St George's German Lutheran Church]] on [[Alie Street]] is a legacy of that part of the community.<ref>East London Record - No 13 - 1990 https://www.mernick.org.uk/elhs/Record/ELHS%20RECORD%2013%20(1990).pdf</ref>

Writing of the period 1883–1884, [[Yiddish theatre]] actor [[Jacob Pavlovich Adler|Jacob Adler]] wrote, "The further we penetrated into this Whitechapel, the more our hearts sank. Was this London? Never in Russia, never later in the worst slums of New York, were we to see such poverty as in the London of the 1880s."<ref>Jacob Adler, ''A Life on the Stage: A Memoir'', translated and with commentary by Lulla Rosenfeld, Knopf, New York, 1999, {{ISBN|0679413510}}. p. 232–233</ref>

This endemic poverty drove many women to prostitution. In October 1888 the [[Metropolitan Police]] estimated that there were 1,200 prostitutes "of very low class" resident in Whitechapel and about 62 brothels.<ref>Donald Rumbelow (2004) ''The Complete Jack the Ripper'': 12. Penguin</ref> Reference is specifically made to them in [[Charles Booth (philanthropist)|Charles Booth]]'s ''[[Life and Labour of the People in London]]'', especially to dwellings called [[Blackwall Buildings]] belonging to Blackwall Railway. Such prostitutes were numbered amongst the 11 [[Whitechapel murders]] (1888–91), some of which were committed by the legendary serial killer known as "[[Jack the Ripper]]". These attacks caused widespread terror in the district and throughout the country and drew the attention of social reformers to the squalor and vice of the area, even though these crimes remain unsolved today.<ref>Nicholas Connell (2005) ''Walter Dew: The Man Who Caught Crippen'': 7–55</ref>

[[London County Council]], founded 1889, helped deliver investment in new housing and [[Slum clearance in the United Kingdom|slum clearance]]; objectives which were a popular cause at the time.

The "Elephant Man" [[Joseph Merrick]] (1862–1890) became well known in Whitechapel – he was exhibited in a shop on the Whitechapel Road before being helped by [[Sir Frederick Treves, 1st Baronet|Frederick Treves]] (1853–1923) at the [[Royal London Hospital]], opposite the actual shop. There is a museum in the hospital about his life.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.timeout.com/london/blog/seven-places-in-london-connected-with-the-elephant-man-020117 |title=Seven places in London connected with the Elephant Man |website=Time Out London |date=February 2017 |language=en |access-date=16 April 2020 |archive-date=25 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210225222317/https://www.timeout.com/london/blog/seven-places-in-london-connected-with-the-elephant-man-020117 |url-status=live }}</ref>

===20th century===
In 1902, American author [[Jack London]], looking to write a counterpart to [[Jacob Riis]]'s seminal book ''[[How the Other Half Lives]]'', donned ragged clothes and boarded in Whitechapel, detailing his experiences in ''[[The People of the Abyss]]''.
[[File:Winston Churchill at the Siege of Sidney Street, 3 January 1911.jpeg|thumb|Home Secretary Churchill observing the events at Sidney Street, Whitechapel]]

The [[Siege of Sidney Street]] (also known as the ''Battle of Stepney'', after the [[Metropolitan Borough of Stepney]] of which Whitechapel was part) in January 1911 was a gunfight between police and military forces, and Latvian revolutionaries. Then Home Secretary [[Winston Churchill]] took over the operation, and his presence caused a political row over the level of his involvement during the time. His biographers disagreed and claimed that he gave no operational commands to the police,<ref>{{cite ODNB |last=Addison |first=Paul |title=Churchill, Sir Winston Leonard Spencer |author-link=Paul Addison |doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/32413 |date=2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Jenkins |first=Roy |author-link=Roy Jenkins |title=Churchill |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BmOzDFxEdtQC |year=2012 |publisher=Pan Macmillan |location=London |isbn=978-0-330-47607-2 |page=195 |access-date=28 August 2022 |archive-date=31 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230831071608/https://books.google.com/books?id=BmOzDFxEdtQC |url-status=live }}</ref> but a Metropolitan Police account states that the events of Sidney Street were "a very rare case of a Home Secretary taking police operational command decisions".{{efn|Subsequent stories that a bullet passed through Churchill's top hat are apocryphal, and no reference to such an occurrence appears in either the official records, or Churchill's accounts of the siege.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Waldren |first1=Mike |title=The Siege of Sidney Street |url=http://www.pfoa.co.uk/uploads/asset_file/The%20Siege%20of%20Sidney%20Street%20v3.pdf |publisher=Police Firearms Officers Association |access-date=30 January 2016 |date=July 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160323052214/http://www.pfoa.co.uk/uploads/asset_file/The%20Siege%20of%20Sidney%20Street%20v3.pdf |archive-date=23 March 2016 |page=11}}</ref>}}

The [[Freedom Press]], a socialist publishing house, thought it worthwhile to explore conditions in the leading city of the nation that had invented modern capitalism. He{{who|date=January 2025}} concluded that English poverty was far rougher than the American variety. The juxtaposition of the poverty, homelessness, exploitative work conditions, prostitution, and infant mortality of Whitechapel and other East End locales with some of the greatest personal wealth the world has ever seen made it a focal point for leftist reformers and revolutionaries of all kinds, from [[George Bernard Shaw]], whose [[Fabian Society]] met regularly in Whitechapel, to [[Vladimir Lenin]], led rallies in Whitechapel during his exile from Russia.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.whitechapelgallery.org/first-thursdays/galleries/first-thursday-gallery-46/ |title=First Thursday GALLERY 46 |website=Whitechapelgallery.org |access-date=6 January 2018 |archive-date=29 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171029012722/http://www.whitechapelgallery.org/first-thursdays/galleries/first-thursday-gallery-46/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The area is still home to Freedom Press, the anarchist publishing house founded by [[Charlotte Wilson]].

On Sunday 4 October 1936, the [[British Union of Fascists]] led by [[Oswald Mosley]], intended to march through the East End, an area with a large Jewish population. The BUF mustered on and around [[Tower Hill]] and hundreds of thousands of local people turned out to block the march. There were violent clashes with the BUF around Tower Hill, but most of the violence occurred as police tried to clear a route through the crowds for the BUF to follow.

The police fought protesters at nearby [[Cable Street]] – the series of clashes becoming known as the [[Battle of Cable Street]] – and Tower Hill, but the largest confrontations took place at [[Aldgate]] and Whitechapel, notably at [[Gardiner's (department store)|Gardiner's Corner]], at the junction of [[Leman Street]], [[Commercial Street, London|Commercial Street]] and [[Whitechapel High Street]].<ref name="Guardian newspaper">{{cite web |publisher=Guardian newspaper |title=Fascist march stopped after disorderly scenes |date=5 October 1936 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/theguardian/1936/oct/05/fromthearchive |access-date=2 November 2022 |archive-date=2 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221102204141/https://www.theguardian.com/theguardian/1936/oct/05/fromthearchive |url-status=live }}</ref>

The Halal restaurant on the junction of St Mark Street and [[Alie Street]] opened in 1939 to serve the many Indian seamen living in the area.{{citation needed|reason=The article mentions the year the restaurant opened, but says nothing about Indian sailors.|date=February 2025}} It is now the oldest Indian restaurant in East London.<ref>INews article on publicity campaign to save the restaurant after Covid 19 https://inews.co.uk/inews-lifestyle/food-and-drink/east-london-oldest-indian-restaurant-threat-city-workers-custom-572955 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230417200018/https://inews.co.uk/inews-lifestyle/food-and-drink/east-london-oldest-indian-restaurant-threat-city-workers-custom-572955 |date=17 April 2023 }}</ref>
[[File:Whitechapel Marker.jpg|thumb|Whitechapel was the centre of British Jewish refugee immigrant life in the late 19th and early 20th century.]]

Whitechapel remained poor through the first half of the 20th century, though somewhat less desperately so. It suffered great damage from enemy bombers during [[the Blitz]], and from the subsequent [[Nazi Germany|German]] [[V-weapons|V-weapon]] attacks. The parish church, [[St Mary Matfelon]], was badly damaged in a raid on 29 December 1940, a raid so damaging that it caused the [[Second Great Fire of London]].

The remains were demolished in 1952. St Mary's traced stone footprint and former graveyard remain, as part of [[Altab Ali Park]].<ref name="Christopher Hibbert 1983">Ben Weinreb and Christopher Hibbert (eds) (1983) "Whitechapel" in ''The London Encyclopaedia'': 955-6</ref><ref>Andrew Davies (1990) ''The East End Nobody Knows'': 15–16</ref>

On 4 May 1978, three teenagers murdered [[Altab Ali]], a 24 year old Bangladesh-born clothing worker, in a racially motivated attack, as he walked home after work. The attack took place on Adler Street, by St Mary's Churchyard, where St Mary Matfelon had previously stood. The reaction to his murder provoked the mass mobilisation of the local Bengali community. The gardens of the former churchyard were later renamed [[Altab Ali Park]] in his memory.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.london-footprints.co.uk/wkaldgateroute.htm |title=Aldgate |publisher=London-footprints.co.uk |access-date=29 April 2014 |archive-date=4 February 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150204083623/http://www.london-footprints.co.uk/wkaldgateroute.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.worldwrite.org.uk/londonbehindthescenes/bricklane/altabalipark.html |title=Brick Lane Tour :: Stop 10: Altab Ali Park |publisher=Worldwrite.org.uk |date=4 May 1978 |access-date=29 April 2014 |archive-date=31 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151031174902/http://www.worldwrite.org.uk/londonbehindthescenes/bricklane/altabalipark.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

The [[Metropolitan line]] between Hammersmith and Whitechapel was withdrawn in 1990 and shown separately as a new line called the [[Hammersmith & City line]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Rose |first=Douglas |title=The London Underground: A Diagrammatic History |edition=8th |date=December 2007 |orig-year=1980 |publisher=Capital Transport |isbn=978-1-85414-315-0}}</ref><ref name="T90">{{cite web |title=London Underground map 1990 |url=http://www.clarksbury.com/cdl/maps/tube90.jpg |work=The London Tube map archive |access-date=21 November 2012 |archive-date=16 August 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120816005041/http://www.clarksbury.com/cdl/maps/tube90.jpg |url-status=live }}</ref>

===21st century===
[[File:Whitechapel Station.jpg|thumb|Bengali signage on [[Whitechapel station]].]]
[[Crossrail]] calls at Whitechapel station<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.crossrail.co.uk/route/stations/whitechapel/ |title=Whitechapel station |website=Crossrail.co.uk |access-date=6 January 2018 |archive-date=22 January 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180122041112/http://www.crossrail.co.uk/route/stations/whitechapel/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> on the [[Elizabeth line]]. Eastbound services will be split into two branches after leaving the historic station, which underwent a massive redevelopment that started in 2010.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.crossrail.co.uk/route/maps/route-map |title=Route map |website=Crossrail.co.uk |access-date=6 January 2018 |archive-date=28 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171228093702/http://www.crossrail.co.uk/route/maps/route-map |url-status=dead}}</ref>

In order to prepare for Crossrail, in January 2016, the old Whitechapel station was closed for refurbishment and modernisation work in order to improve services and increase capacity in the station.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://tfl.gov.uk/info-for/media/press-releases/2016/january/whitechapel-station-to-be-modernised-in-preparation-for-crossrail |title=Whitechapel Station to be modernised in preparation for Crossrail |website=Transport for London |access-date=6 January 2018 |archive-date=7 January 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180107061043/https://tfl.gov.uk/info-for/media/press-releases/2016/january/whitechapel-station-to-be-modernised-in-preparation-for-crossrail |url-status=live }}</ref>

The Royal London Hospital was closed and re-opened behind the original site in 2012 in a brand new building costing £650m.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-london-17214333 |title=New Royal London Hospital opens |date=2 March 2012 |access-date=6 January 2018 |work=[[BBC News]] |archive-date=26 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181026044229/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-london-17214333 |url-status=live }}</ref> The old site was then repurchased by the local council to open a new town hall,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.eastlondonadvertiser.co.uk/news/politics/old-royal-london-hospital-sold-for-9m-to-tower-hamlets-council-for-a-new-town-hall-1-3947250 |title=Old Royal London Hospital sold for £9m to Tower Hamlets council for a new town hall |first=Mike |last=Brooke |website=Eastlondonadvertiser.co.uk |date=6 February 2015 |access-date=6 January 2018 |archive-date=7 January 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180107061156/http://www.eastlondonadvertiser.co.uk/news/politics/old-royal-london-hospital-sold-for-9m-to-tower-hamlets-council-for-a-new-town-hall-1-3947250 |url-status=live }}</ref> replacing the existing Town Hall at Mulberry Place.

In March 2022, [[Whitechapel station]] signs had "হোয়াইটচ্যাপেল" in [[Bengali script|Bengali]] installed.<ref name=tha>{{cite news |date=16 March 2022 |title=Whitechapel Station gets new Bengali signage ahead of Elizabeth line opening |publisher=[[London Borough of Tower Hamlets]] |url=https://www.towerhamlets.gov.uk/News_events/2022/March-2022/Whitechapel-Station-gets-new-Bengali-signage-ahead-of-Elizabeth-line-opening.aspx |access-date=16 March 2022 |archive-date=24 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220924230525/https://www.towerhamlets.gov.uk/News_events/2022/March-2022/Whitechapel-Station-gets-new-Bengali-signage-ahead-of-Elizabeth-line-opening.aspx |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[British-Pakistani]] [[Mayor of London]] [[Sadiq Khan]] was "delighted" that the signage was installed ahead of [[Independence Day (Bangladesh)|Bangladesh Independence Day]] on 26 March.<ref name=tha/> The installation was attended by [[Bangladeshis|Bangladeshi]] diplomats and [[Mamata Banerjee]], the [[List of chief ministers of West Bengal|Chief Minister]] of [[West Bengal]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/whitechapel-station-in-london-gets-bengali-signage-mamata-banerjee-is-proud-2821293 |work=[[NDTV]] |location=[[India]] |title=London Station Gets Bengali Signage. Mamata Banerjee Reacts |date=14 March 2022 |access-date=16 March 2022 |archive-date=16 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220316200956/https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/whitechapel-station-in-london-gets-bengali-signage-mamata-banerjee-is-proud-2821293 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Also in 2022 a historical marker was placed in Whitechapel, on the site of the former Adler House at the junction of Adler and Coke Streets by the [[Jewish American Society for Historic Preservation]] UK Branch. Adler House was named in honour of the Chief Rabbi of the British Empire, Herman Adler, 1891–1911. The marker recognises the significance of Whitechapel as the centre of British Jewish refugee life in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.hmdb.org/m.asp?m=201062 |title=Whitechapel Historical Marker |access-date=30 July 2022 |archive-date=30 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730142959/https://www.hmdb.org/m.asp?m=201062 |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Governance==
{{Main|London Borough of Tower Hamlets}}
Local council facilities will be grouped within the old [[Royal London Hospital]] building as a civic centre. The local [[library]], now called an ''Idea Store'' is located on [[Whitechapel Road]].

==Culture==
[[File:Whitechapel art gallery 1.jpg|right|thumb|upright|The distinctive tiled frontage of the [[Whitechapel Art Gallery]]]]
[[File:Aerial view of East London Mosque complex - Feb 2014.jpg|thumb|The [[East London Mosque]] was one of the first in Britain to be allowed to use loudspeakers to broadcast the [[adhan]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Eade |first1=John |editor1-last=Metcalf |editor1-first=Barbara Daly |title=Making Muslim Space in North America and Europe |date=1996 |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley |isbn=0520204042 |url=https://archive.org/details/makingmuslimspac0000unse |access-date=24 April 2015 |chapter=Nationalism, Community, and the Islamization of Space in London |quote=As one of the few mosques in Britain permitted to broadcast calls to prayer (azan), the mosque soon found itself at the center of a public debate about "noise pollution" when local non-Muslim residents began to protest. |url-access=registration}}</ref>]]
Whitechapel Road was the location of two 19th-century theatres: The Effingham (1834–1897) and [[Pavilion Theatre, Whitechapel|The Pavilion Theatre]] (1828–1935; building demolished in 1962). [[Charles Dickens Jr.]] (eldest child of [[Charles Dickens]]), in his 1879 book ''[[Dickens's Dictionary of London]]'', described the Pavilion this way: "A large East-end theatre capable of holding considerably over 3,000 persons. Melodrama of a rough type, farce, pantomime, [[et cetera|&c.]]"<ref>{{cite web |author=Dickens, Charles Jr. |year=1879 |title=Pavilion Theatre |work=[[Dickens's Dictionary of London]] |url=http://www.victorianlondon.org/dickens/dickens-p.htm |access-date=22 August 2007 |author-link=Charles Dickens Jr. |archive-date=27 September 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927203338/http://www.victorianlondon.org/dickens/dickens-p.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> In the early 20th century it became the home of Yiddish theatre, catering to the large Jewish population of the area, and gave birth to the Anglo-Jewish 'Whitechapel Boys' avant-garde literary and artistic movement.

Since at least the 1970s, Whitechapel and other nearby parts of East London have figured prominently in London's art scene. Probably the area's most prominent art venue is the [[Whitechapel Art Gallery]], founded in 1901 and long an outpost of high culture in a poor neighbourhood. As the neighbourhood has gentrified, it has gained citywide, and even international, visibility and support. From 2005 the gallery underwent a major expansion, with the support of £3.26 million from the Heritage Lottery Fund. The expanded facility opened in 2009.

Whitechapel in the early 21st century has figured prominently in London's punk rock and skuzz rock scenes, with the main focal point for this scene being Whitechapel Factory and Rhythm Factory bar, restaurant, and nightclub. This scene includes the likes of The Libertines, Zap!, [[Nova (Italian band)|Nova]], [[The Others (band)|The Others]], Razorlight, and The Rakes, all of whom have had some commercial success in the music charts.
[[File:Whitechapel market.JPG|thumb|left|Whitechapel Street Market at night]]

===Demographics===
The total population of Whitechapel in 2021 was 18,841.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.citypopulation.de/en/uk/london/wards/tower_hamlets/E05009336__whitechapel/|title= Whitechapel Ward in London|date=2021|accessdate=23 July 2024}}</ref>
[[British Bangladeshi|Bangladeshis]] are the largest ethnic group in the area, making up 40% of the Whitechapel ward total population.<ref name=BanPop>{{NOMIS2011|id=1237320252|title=Whitechapel 2011 Census Ward|access-date=9 February 2018}}</ref> The [[East London Mosque]] at the end of Whitechapel Road is one of the largest mosques in Europe. The mosque group was established as early as 1910, and the demand for a mosque grew as the [[Sylhet]]i community grew rapidly over the years.

In 1985 this large, purpose built mosque with a dome and minaret was built in the heart of Whitechapel, attracting thousands of worshippers every week, and it was further expanded with the [[London Muslim Centre]] in 2004.<ref>[http://www.eastlondonmosque.org.uk/?page=history History of East London Mosque] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090210110847/http://eastlondonmosque.org.uk/?page=history |date=10 February 2009 }} East London Mosque & London Muslim Centre. Retrieved 24 April 2009.</ref>

A library, the Whitechapel [[Idea Store]], constructed in 2005 at a cost of £12 million by [[William Verry]] to a design by [[David Adjaye]], was nominated for the 2006 [[Stirling Prize]].<ref>[http://www.ajplus.co.uk/b_bank/search_results_details/?report_ID=7048] {{dead link|date=June 2016|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ideastore.co.uk/ |title=Idea Store website |publisher=Ideastore.co.uk |access-date=29 April 2014 |archive-date=16 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140416125010/http://ideastore.co.uk/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
!Whitechapel compared 2021<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.citypopulation.de/en/uk/london/wards/tower_hamlets/E05009336__whitechapel/|title= Whitechapel Ward in London|date=2021|accessdate=23 July 2024}}</ref>
![[White British]] or [[Other White]]
![[Asian British|Asian]]
![[Black British|Black]]
|-
|Whitechapel Population 18,841
|34.6%
|51.3%
|4.9%
|-
|[[London Borough of Tower Hamlets]]
|39.4%
|44.4%
|7.3%
|}

===In literature===
[[File:Bangla lights Whitechapel.jpg|thumb|The Whitechapel Library with the word "[[Bengali language|বাংলা]]" illuminated in its front.]]
Whitechapel features in [[Charles Dickens]]'s ''[[Pickwick Papers]]'' (chapter 22) as the location of the Bull Inn, where the Pickwickians take a coach to [[Ipswich]]. En route, driving along Whitechapel Road, [[Sam Weller (fictional character)|Sam Weller]] opines that it is "not a wery nice neighbourhood" and notes the correlation between poverty and the abundance of oyster stalls here.<ref>{{cite book |url=http://www.victorianlondon.org/etexts/dickens/pickwick-0022.shtml |access-date=14 September 2021 |title=The Pickwick Papers |chapter=Chapter XXII Mr. PICKWICK JOURNEYS TO IPSWICH AND MEETS WITH A ROMANTIC ADVENTURE WITH A MIDDLE-AGED LADY IN YELLOW CURL-PAPERS |author=Charles Dickens |year=1836 |archive-date=25 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210425051204/https://www.victorianlondon.org/etexts/dickens/pickwick-0022.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref> One of [[Fagin]]'s dens in Dickens's ''[[Oliver Twist]]'' was located in Whitechapel, and Fagin himself was possibly based on a notorious local [[fence (criminal)|'fence']] named [[Ikey Solomon]] (1785–1850).

Whitechapel is also the setting of several novels by Jewish authors such as ''Children of the Ghetto'' and ''[[The King of Schnorrers]]'' by [[Israel Zangwill]] and ''Jew Boy'' by [[Simon Blumenfeld]]. Several chapters of [[Sholem Aleichem]]'s classic [[Yiddish]] novel ''[[Adventures of Mottel the Cantor's Son]]'' take place in early 20th-century Whitechapel, depicted from the point of view of an impoverished East European Jewish family fleeing the pogroms. The novel ''[[Journey Through a Small Planet]]'' by [[Emanuel Litvinoff]] vividly describes Whitechapel and its Jewish inhabitants in the 1920s and 1930s.

The prostitute and daughter of a [[Luddite]] leader Sybil Gerard, main character of [[William Gibson]] and [[Bruce Sterling]]'s novel [[The Difference Engine]] comes from Whitechapel. The novel's plot begins there.

One of the episodes in [[Michael Moorcock]]'s novel ''[[Breakfast in the Ruins]]'' takes place in 1905 Whitechapel, described from the point of view of an eleven year old [[Polish Jews|Jewish refugee from Poland]], working with his parents at a [[sweatshop]], who is caught up in the deadly confrontation between Russian revolutionaries and agents of the [[Okhrana|Czar's Secret Police]].

''Brick Lane'', the 2003 novel by [[Monica Ali]] is based in Whitechapel and documents the life of a young Bangladeshi woman's experience of living in [[London Borough of Tower Hamlets|Tower Hamlets]] in the 1990s and early 2000s.

Whitechapel is used as a location in most [[Jack the Ripper fiction]]. One such example is the bizarre ''White Chappel Scarlet Tracings'' (1987) by [[Iain Sinclair]].<ref>Glinert, Ed (2000). ''A Literary Guide to London''. London: Penguin. Page 256.</ref> It also features as the setting for the science fiction [[Webcomic]] ''[[FreakAngels]]'', written by popular comics writer [[Warren Ellis]].

Whitechapel is one of the worldwide locations referenced in [[Edith Piaf]]'s song ''C'est à Hambourg'' [https://www.google.co.il/search?sxsrf=ALeKk02PwU2vEUrq71kz2idNxlAhbeJzjQ%3A1599481773385&ei=rSdWX7PdFofgkgXXtK6wCQ&q=edith+piaf+c%27est+a+hambourg+lyrics&oq=%22Edith+piaf%22+%2B+C%27est+%C3%80+Hamburg+lyrica&gs_lcp=CgZwc3ktYWIQARgAMgYIABAWEB46CAghEBYQHRAeOgYIABANEB5QkBhYoHFg8IABaABwAHgAgAGkAYgBiA6SAQQwLjEzmAEAoAECoAEBqgEHZ3dzLXdpesABAQ&sclient=psy-ab], describing the harsh life of prostitutes.

In 2002, Whitechapel was used as the setting for a [[Sherlock Holmes]] film, ''[[The Case of the Whitechapel Vampire]]'', based on the [[Arthur Conan Doyle]] story ''[[The Adventure of the Sussex Vampire]]''.

Whitechapel serves as the setting for the television series ''[[Ripper Street]]'', which aired 2013–2016.

==Education==
{{main|List of schools in the London Borough of Tower Hamlets}}

==Transport==
===Current railway stations===
Whitechapel has two underground stations: [[Aldgate East station|Aldgate East]] and [[Whitechapel station|Whitechapel]]. Aldgate East is served by the [[District line]] and the [[Hammersmith & City line|Hammersmith & City]]. Whitechapel is also served by these lines, as well by the [[Elizabeth line]] and the East and South London lines of the [[London Overground]], soon to be renamed the Windrush line.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Matters |first=Transport for London {{!}} Every Journey |title=Introduction of new London Overground line names and colours will soon start |url=https://tfl.gov.uk/info-for/media/press-releases/2024/november/introduction-of-new-london-overground-line-names-and-colours-will-soon-start |access-date=2024-11-29 |website=Transport for London |language=en-GB}}</ref>

===Historic railway stations===
Whitechapel station was originally called ''Whitechapel (Mile End)'' to reflect its position just inside Whitechapel's boundary with [[Mile End]] and also its boundary with Bethnal Green.

Aldgate East station was originally 150 metres west of its current location and there was once an additional district line station immediately east of the modern [[East London Mosque]] called [[St Mary's (Whitechapel Road) tube station|''St Mary's (Whitechapel Road)'']].

In the 1930s, Aldgate East station was relocated 150 metres east of its original position, meaning there would then be three stations in very close proximity; as a result, the railway economised by closing St Mary's, in the middle of the three stations.

===Other modes===
[[London Buses]] [[London Buses route 15|15]], [[London Buses route 25|25]], [[London Buses route 106|106]], [[London Buses route 115|115]], [[London Buses route 135|135]], [[London Buses route 205|205]], [[London Buses route 254|254]], [[London Buses route D3|D3]], [[London Buses route N15|N15]], [[London Buses route N205|N205]], [[London Buses route N253|N253]], [[London Buses route N550|N550]] and [[London Buses route N551|N551]] all operate within the area.

Whitechapel is connected to the [[Roads in the United Kingdom|National Road Network]] by both the [[A11 road (Great Britain)|A11]] on [[Whitechapel Road]] in the centre and, to the south, the [[A13 road (Great Britain)|A13]] and [[The Highway (London)|The Highway]] A1203 running east–west.

[[List of cycle routes in London|Cycle Superhighway CS2]] runs from [[Aldgate]] to [[Stratford, London|Stratford]] on the A11.

==Nearest places==
;Districts
*[[Aldgate]]
*[[Bethnal Green]]
*[[City of London]]
*[[East Smithfield]]
*[[Spitalfields]]
*[[Tower Hill]]
*[[Wapping]]
*[[Mile End]]
*[[Mile End New Town]]
{{Geographic Location|title='''Neighbouring areas of London.'''|Northwest=[[Spitalfields]]|North=[[Bethnal Green]] and Spitalfields|Northeast=Bethnal Green|West=[[City of London]]|Centre=Whitechapel|East=[[Stepney]]|Southwest=[[Wapping]]|South=[[Shadwell]] and Wapping|Southeast=Stepney and Shadwell}}

==Notable natives or residents==
In addition to the prominent figures detailed in the article:

===Born in Whitechapel===
*[[Damon Albarn]] – musician, lead singer of [[Blur (band)|Blur]] and co-creator of virtual cartoon rock band [[Gorillaz]], born 1968<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.theguardian.com/observer/comment/story/0,6903,529057,00.html |title=The Observer Profile: Damon Albarn – Comment – The Observer |website=Theguardian.com |access-date=6 January 2018 |archive-date=29 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171029064816/https://www.theguardian.com/observer/comment/story/0,6903,529057,00.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
*[[Julius Stafford Baker]], cartoonist<ref>'BAKER, JULIUS STAFFORD (1869–1961), British cartoonist' in [[Maurice Horn]], Richard Marschall, eds., ''The World Encyclopedia of Cartoons'', vol. 1 (Gale Research Co., 1980), p. 96</ref>
*[[Abraham Beame]], first Jewish mayor of New York City, 1906–2001
*[[Jack Kid Berg]], boxer, "The Whitechapel Windmill", British Lightweight Champion 1934
*[[Stanley Black]], bandleader, 1913–2002.
*[[Simon Blumenfeld]], novelist, playwright and columnist, 1907–2005.
*[[Georgia Brown (English singer)|Georgia Brown]] (born Lillian Klot), actress and singer, 1933–1992
*[[Tina Charles (singer)|Tina Charles]], 1970s disco artist, born 1954
*[[Peter Cheyney]], mystery writer and journalist, 1896–1951
*[[Jack Cohen (businessman)|Jack Cohen]], Anglo-Jewish businessman who founded the Tesco supermarket chain, 1898–1979
*[[Ashley Cole]], [[Chelsea F.C.|Chelsea]] and [[England national football team|England]] footballer 1980
*[[Jack Comer|Jack "Spot" Comer]], Jewish gangster and anti-Fascist, 1912–1996
*[[Roger Delgado]], actor (known for playing "The Master" in ''Doctor Who''), 1918–1973
*[[Lloyd Doyley]], footballer
*[[Bud Flanagan]] (born Chaim Reuven Weintrop), music hall comedian on stage, radio, film and television, 1896–1968
*[[Micky Flanagan]], comedian
*[[Kemal Izzet]], footballer
*[[Muzzy Izzet]], footballer
*[[Kenney Jones]], drummer
*[[Morris Kestelman]], artist
*[[Sydney Kyte]], bandleader, 1896–1981<ref>[[General Register Office for England and Wales|General Register Office]]. ''England and Wales Civil Registration Indexes''. London, England: General Register Office.</ref>
*[[Charlie Lee (English footballer)|Charlie Lee]], [[Leyton Orient F.C.|Leyton Orient]] footballer
*[[Emanuel Litvinoff]], Anglo-Jewish author of ''[[Journey Through a Small Planet]]''
*Margaret Pepys (née Kite), mother of diarist [[Samuel Pepys]], d. 1667
*[[Brendan Perry]], founding member of music group [[Dead Can Dance]]
*[[Ella Purnell]], actress
*[[Abe Saperstein]], founder of the [[Harlem Globetrotters]] basketball team
*[[Barry Silkman]] (born 1952), footballer
*[[Sarah Taylor (cricketer)|Sarah Taylor]], cricketer
*[[Alan Tilvern]], film and television actor, 1918–2003
*[[Anwar Uddin]], captain of Dagenham and Redbridge
*[[Gary Webster (actor)|Gary Webster]], actor

===Resident in or otherwise associated with Whitechapel===
*[[Altab Ali Park|Altab Ali]], murdered in a Whitechapel park in 1978
*[[Barney Barnato]], diamond mining industrialist and [[Randlord]], 1851–1897
*[[Richard Brandon]] (? – 20 June 1649), the reputed [[Executioner of Charles I|executioner]] of [[Charles I of England|King Charles I]] was buried at the Whitechapel parish church of St Mary Matfelon. The church register records that he lived in Rosemary Lane (modern [[Royal Mint Street]]).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.casebook.org/victorian_london/whitechapel1881.html |title=Casebook: Jack the Ripper – Whitechapel |website=Casebook.org |access-date=6 January 2018 |archive-date=18 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180318125801/http://www.casebook.org/victorian_london/whitechapel1881.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
*[[Mary Hughes (social worker)|Mary Hughes]] (1860–1941), a voluntary parish worker who initially lived in the [[Blackwall Buildings]] before moving to a converted pub on Vallance Road where she offered food and shelter to the needy.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://pubshistory.com/LondonPubs/MileEnd/EarlGreysCastle.shtml |title=Earl Grey's Castle, 71 Vallance Road, London, E1 |website=pubshistory.com |access-date=19 March 2018 |archive-date=20 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180320043707/https://pubshistory.com/LondonPubs/MileEnd/EarlGreysCastle.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref>
*[[Jack the Ripper]], [[serial killer]]
*[[Charles Lahr]] (1885–1971), German-born anarchist, London bookseller and publisher, secretary of the Whitechapel branch of the Industrial Union of Direct Actionists (IUDA)
*[[Jack London]], who wrote ''[[The People of the Abyss]]'' while staying in Whitechapel – an account of his 1902 stay amongst the East End poor
*[[Richard Parker (mutineer)|Richard Parker]], [[Royal Navy]] mutineer buried in [[St Mary Matfelon]]
*[[Rudolf Rocker]], [[anarcho-syndicalist]] writer, historian and prominent activist, active in Whitechapel 1895–1918, 1873–1958
*[[Obadiah Shuttleworth]], composer, violinist and organist of the parish church, d. 1734
*[[Abraham Nahum Stencl|Avrom Stencl]] (1897–1983), Polish-born Yiddish poet, early companion of [[Franz Kafka]], published ''Loshn and Lebn'' in Whitechapel

==Future developments==
Whitechapel Market and the A11 corridor is currently the subject of a £20 million investment to improve the public spaces along the route. The London Boroughs of Tower Hamlets & Newham are working with English Heritage and Transport for London to refurbish the historic buildings at this location and improve the market.

==See also==
{{Portal|London}}
*[[British Bangladeshi]]
*[[Stepney Historical Trust]]
*[[Whitechapel Mount]]

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20140107204055/http://www.towerhamlets.gov.uk/lgsl/800001-800100/800018_in_your_ward/whitechapel.aspx Official website] for the ward of Whitechapel
*[http://www.casebook.org/victorian_london/index.html Primary source articles]
*[http://www.thhol.org.uk/ Tower Hamlets History Online]
*[http://www.jacktheripper.de/schauplaetze/nachtaufnahmen Nighttime photos of Whitechapel and environs]. Commentary is in German, but it is mostly photos.

{{LB Tower Hamlets}}
{{London Districts}}
{{Queen Mary University of London}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Whitechapel}}
[[Category:Whitechapel| ]]
[[Category:Areas of London]]
[[Category:Districts of the London Borough of Tower Hamlets]]
[[Category:District centres of London]]
[[Category:Former civil parishes in the London Borough of Tower Hamlets]]

Gil Blas

2025-03-10T21:45:34Z

47.32.9.63:

{{Short description|Picaresque novel by Alain-René Lesage}}
{{about|the novel|the periodical|Gil Blas (periodical)|the 1751 play|Gil Blas (play)}}
{{more citations needed|date=January 2011}}
{{use dmy dates|date=April 2024}}
{{Infobox book
| name = Gil Blas
| title_orig = Histoire de Gil Blas de Santillane
| translator =
| image = GilBlasdeSantillane3.jpg
| caption =
| author = [[Alain-René Lesage]]
| country = France
| language = French
| genre = [[Picaresque novel|Picaresque]]
| publisher = Pierre Ribou
| pub_date = [[1715 in literature|1715]]–[[1735 in literature|1735]]
}}
'''''Gil Blas''''' ({{langx|fr|'''L'Histoire de Gil Blas de Santillane'''}} {{IPA|fr|listwaʁ də ʒil blɑ də sɑ̃tijan|}}) is a [[picaresque novel]] by [[Alain-René Lesage]] published between [[1715 in literature|1715]] and [[1735 in literature|1735]]. It was highly popular, and was translated several times into English, most notably by [[Tobias Smollett]] in 1748 as ''The Adventures of Gil Blas of Santillane''.

==Plot summary==
Gil Blas is born in misery to a stablehand and a chambermaid of [[Santillana del Mar|Santillana]] in [[Cantabria]], and is educated by his uncle. He leaves [[Oviedo]] at the age of seventeen to attend the [[University of Salamanca]]. His bright future is suddenly interrupted when he is forced to help robbers along the route and is faced with jail.

[[File:GilBlas1761TP.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Frontispiece and title page of a 1761 English translation of ''The Adventures of Gil Blas'']]
He becomes a valet and, over the course of several years, is able to observe many different classes of society, both lay and clerical. Because of his occupation, he meets many disreputable people and is able to adjust to many situations, thanks to his adaptability and quick wit.

He finally finds himself at the [[royal court]] as a favorite of the king and secretary to the prime minister. Working his way up through hard work and intelligence, Gil is able to retire to a castle to enjoy a fortune and a hard-earned honest life.


==Literary significance and reception==
''Gil Blas'' is related to Lesage's play ''[[Turcaret]]'' (1709). In both works, Lesage uses witty valets in the service of thieving masters, women of questionable morals, cuckolded yet happy husbands, gourmands, ridiculous poets, false savants, and dangerously ignorant doctors to make his point. Each class and each occupation becomes an archetype.



=== References and allusions in other works===
[[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]] mentions reading ''Gil Blas'' in his ''[[Confessions (Rousseau)|Confessions]]'' (Book IV, 1731–1732), saying it came highly recommended by Mademoiselle du Chatelet who "had a taste for that kind of moral observation which leads to the knowledge of mankind". Rousseau commented that "I read this performance with pleasure, but my judgment was not yet ripe enough to relish that sort of reading".

''Gil Blas'' is mentioned in [[Jean-Paul Sartre]]'s novel ''[[Nausea (novel)|Nausea]]''. The central character is showing the Autodidact some photos. One of them is of Santillana. The Autodidact responds by asking "the Santillana of Gil Blas?"

''Gil Blas'' is referred to by [[Jonathan Swift]] in his satirical ''Directions to Servants'', dated 1731, with recommendations for the servants of rich masters to take the most advantage and have the least trouble in their daily tasks. In the chapter aimed at the "House Steward and Land Steward", Swift specifically instructs the reader to look up what Gil Blas has to say on the matter, as a more qualified source thus acknowledged.

The 1751 play ''[[Gil Blas (play)|Gil Blas]]'' by the British writer [[Edward Moore (dramatist)|Edward Moore]] was performed at the [[Theatre Royal, Drury Lane]] with [[David Garrick]] in the title role.

[[Vasily Narezhny]] imitated Lesage in his 1814 novel ''A Russian Gil Blas'' ({{langx|ru|Российский Жильблаз|italic=yes}}).

{{ill|Friedrich Korn|de}}'s novel ''Der jüdische Gil Blas'' (''The Jewish Gil Blas'') was published in 1834.<ref>{{cite book|author=Friedrich Korn|author-link=:de:Friedrich Korn|url=http://sammlungen.ub.uni-frankfurt.de/freimann/content/titleinfo/419103|title=Der jüdische Gil Blas|via=[[Aron Freimann|Freimann]] Collection, [[Goethe University Frankfurt]]|year=1834|language=de}}</ref>

''Gil Blas'' is alluded to in [[Leopold von Sacher-Masoch]]'s ''[[Venus in Furs]]''. The character Wanda von Dunajew ascribes the cause of her own free thinking to an early introduction to classical works; these include ''Gil Blas'', which she read at the age of ten.

''Gil Blas'' is referred to in [[Honoré de Balzac]]'s ''[[Facino Cane (short story)|Facino Cane]]''. The protagonist promises to spare the narrator "tales of adventures worthy of Gil Blas".

In [[Oliver Wendell Holmes Sr.|Oliver Wendell Holmes]]'s ''[[The Autocrat of the Breakfast-Table]]'' (1857), the Autocrat begins Section IX with the famous quote from Lesage's Preface: "''Aqui esta encerrada el alma del licenciado Pedro Garcia''": "Here is enclosed the soul of the lawyer Pedro Garcia". This signals that his own readers, like the two bachelors of Salamanca who discover Garcia's gravestone, will need to "fix on the moral concealed" beneath the surface of his recollections if they are to receive any benefit from them.

In a letter to [[William Dean Howells]] (July 5, 1875), [[Mark Twain]] tells of just completing the manuscript for ''The Adventures of Tom Sawyer'' (written in the third person) and deciding against taking Tom into adulthood: to do so, he says, "would be fatal ... in any shape but autobiographically – like Gil Blas". Scholar Walter Blair in ''Mark Twain and Huck Finn'' (1960) thus concludes that Twain's new novel, ''The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn'', which, picaresque-like, "would run its protagonist 'through life', had to be written in the first person; ''Gil Blas'' was the model".

In his plan for the novel ''The Life of a Great Sinner'', [[Fyodor Dostoevsky|Dostoevsky]] notes that the [[concision]] of this work will at times mirror that of ''Gil Blas''. Gil Blas is also mentioned in chapter III of Dostoyevsky's ''A Gentle Creature'', in which the narrator asks, "Why, didn't she tell me that amusing story about Gil Blas and the Archbishop of Granada herself the day before yesterday? We were discussing books. She was telling me about the books she had been reading that winter, and it was then that she told me about the scene from ''Gil Blas''."

In ''A Rogue's Life'' by [[Wilkie Collins]] the rogue declares, "I am as even-tempered a rogue as you have met with anywhere since the days of Gil Blas."

[[Edgar Allan Poe]] considered it among "the finest narratives in the world".<ref>[https://www.eapoe.org/works/stedwood/sw0701.htm Cooper's Wyandotte], ''The Works of Edgar Allan Poe'', New York: Stone and Kimball, vol. VII, 1895, pp. 3–18</ref> Also he mentions the archbishop in ''Gil Blas'' in the short story "[[The Angel of the Odd]]": the angel makes a low bow and departs, wishing, in the language of the archbishop, {{lang|fr|beaucoup de bonheur et un peu plus de bon sens}}. (A little happiness and a lot more common sense.)

[[Italo Calvino|Italo Calvino's]] main character in ''[[The Baron in the Trees]]'' reads the book and lends it to a brigand.

''Gil Blas'' is mentioned in [[Thomas Flanagan (writer)|Thomas Flanagan]]'s 1979 novel ''The Year of the French'', in which poet Owen MacCarthy mentions having it with him "on [his] ramblings, years ago". Flanagan uses the book to connect the poor Irish citizens and their French allies in the [[Irish Rebellion of 1798]], illustrating that the Irish may not all be as simple as Arthur Vincent Broome, the loyalist narrator, presumes. This allusion to ''Gil Blas'' also connects the somewhat roguish MacCarthy to the picaresque protagonist Gil Blas.

Chapter 7 of ''[[David Copperfield]]'', by Charles Dickens, relates the story of Gil Blas to Steerforth and Traddles. Poor Traddles' teeth chatter and are overheard by the brutish head master Creakle who goes on to "handsomely flog" Traddles "for disorderly conduct".

[[Charles Dickens]], in ''American Notes for General Circulation and Pictures from Italy''," invokes "the mysterious master of Gil Blas" in reference to a pig in New York City.

One of [[Thomas Edison]]'s closest early friends, Milton F. Adams, was referred to as a modern Gil Blas for his life of travel and dissolution as a "tramp operator", roaming from place to place and as far away as Peru as an itinerant [[telegraph operator]].<ref>From chapter IV In the biography ''Edison His Life and Inventions'' by Frank Dyer and Thomas Martin.</ref>

In ''[[The House of the Seven Gables]]'' [[Nathaniel Hawthorne]], in his description of Holgrave (chapter XII), says "A romance on the plan of Gil Blas, adapted to American society and manners, would cease to be a romance." His implication is that the normal experiences of a young American, such as Holgrave, are so extraordinary in comparison with those of Gil Blas, that they make the latter's adventures seem ordinary. Hawthorne then writes, "The experience of many individuals among us, who think it hardly worth the telling, would equal the vicissitudes of the Spaniard's earlier life; while their ultimate success ... may be incomparably higher than any that a novelist would imagine for a hero."

According to [[Vincent Cronin]]'s biography, the first thing that the 15-year-old [[Napoleon]] did on arriving in Paris was to buy a copy of ''Gil Blas''.

In ''[[Two Years Before the Mast]]'' by [[Richard Henry Dana Jr.]], the author describes the passengers aboard his ship the ''Alert'', as it sailed along the California coast in 1836 from Monterey to Santa Barbara. The author writes: "Among our passengers was a young man who was the best representation of a decayed gentleman I had ever seen. He reminded me much of some of the characters in Gil Blas."<ref>Chapter XXVII (p. 232 of [[Harvard Classics]] edition)</ref> Describing Don Juan Bandiniand, he writes: "He was of the aristocracy of the country, his family being of pure Spanish blood, and once of great importance in Mexico ... Don Juan had with him a retainer, who was as much like many of the characters in Gil Blas as his master. He called himself a private secretary, though there was no writing for him to do, and he lived in the steerage with the carpenter and sailmaker."

In the novel ''Confessions of Con Cregan, the Irish Gil Blas'' by [[Charles Lever]], the eponymous hero of the title states he has not only read ''Gil Blas'', but also knows it almost by heart.<ref>{{cite book |last=Lever |first=Charles James |author-link=Charles Lever
|title=Confessions of Con Cregan, the Irish Gil Blas
|chapter=A First Step on Life's Ladder
|publisher=Little, Brown, and Company |publication-place=Boston
|publication-date=1913 |orig-date=1849
|url=https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/32060
}}</ref>

''Gil Blas'' was the name of a nationalist Brazilian literary journal in 1920, reflecting the Gallic leanings of Brazil's literary scene in the early 20th century and the resonance of the picaresque character in Brazilian culture.

In the fantasy novel ''[[Silverlock]]'' by [[John Myers Myers]], the character Lucius Gil Jones is a composite of Lucius in ''[[The Golden Ass]]'' by [[Apuleius]], Gil Blas, and Tom Jones in ''[[The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling]]'' by [[Henry Fielding]].

In ''The Social History of Bourbon'' (1963), [[Gerald Carson (writer)|Gerald Carson]] notes that the education of young men in [[Antebellum South|antebellum]] Kentucky meant they "read law with the local judge, studied medicine at the Louisville Medical Institute, wrote stilted verses in the neoclassical fashion, read ''Gil Blas'' and books on surveying, farming, and distilling".<ref>{{cite book|author=Gerald Carson|author-link=Gerald Carson (writer)|title=The Social History of Bourbon: An Unhurried Account of Our Star Spangled American Drink|page=55|publisher=Dodd, Mead|year=1963|isbn=9788400072599}}</ref>

In his 1954 novel ''[[A Fable]]'', [[William Faulkner]] has General of Division Gragnon obsessively reading ''Gil Blas'' during his house arrest after his front-line division mutinies. A member of his staff had died protecting a car with prominent visitors by forcing them to stop short of where an incoming shell landed. When he was arrested, Gragnon remembered this officer telling him about ''Gil Blas'' and located the book among his effects.

In his preface to ''[[The Ambassadors]]'', [[Henry James]] mentions the narration methods of ''Gil Blas'' and ''David Copperfield'' as alternatives to the narrative technique he himself used in ''The Ambassadors''.

[[Washington Irving]]'s ''A Tour on the Prairies'' includes a section describing a wanderer on the American prairie frontier, whom he refers to as a "Gil Blas of the frontier".<ref>{{cite book|author=[[Washington Irving]]|title=A Tour on the Prairies|location=Paris|publisher=Baudry's European Library|year=1835|url=https://archive.org/details/atouronprairies02irvigoog/page/n19|via=[[Internet Archive]]|page=7}}</ref>

[[Thomas Jefferson]] included ''Gil Blas'' in his list of recommendations to Robert Skipwith of books for a general personal library.<ref>{{cite book|last=Jefferson|first=Thomas|author-link=Thomas Jefferson|title=A Virginia Gentleman's Library|date=1952|chapter=Letter written August 3, 1771|publisher=Colonial Williamsburg|location=Williamsburg, Virginia|page=14|url=https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/01-01-02-0056}}</ref>

According to [[Arthur Schopenhauer|Schopenhauer]], it is one of the few novels showing "what is really going on in the world".<ref>[https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/11945/pg11945-images.html ''The Essays of Arthur Schopenahuer''] {{page number needed|date=August 2024}}</ref>

In ''O homem que sabia javanês'',<ref>{{cite web |url=https://pt.wikisource.org/wiki/O_homem_que_sabia_javan%C3%AAs |title=O homem que sabia javanês |language=pt |via=[[Wikisource]] |date=2022-07-18 |access-date=2022-08-04}}</ref> a short story by [[Lima Barreto]], written in 1911 and published by ''Gazeta da Tarde'', an allusion is made between the characters of Castelo and Gil Blas.

In chapter 5 of his ''Education of a Wandering Man'', [[Louis L'Amour]] describes his "good fortune" in finding an abandoned copy of ''Gil Blas'' in a laundry room. He later reads it by firelight in the camp where he worked skinning dead cattle "not once but twice, on the plains of West Texas."

In the 1892 novel ''Ask Mama'' published by Bradbury, Agnew & Co. the mule of Gil Blas is referred to when, referring to his horses, "as a buyer he [Major Yammerton] made them out to be all faults, as a seller when they suddenly seemed to become the paragons of perfection".

==Operatic adaptations==
An episode from ''Gil Blas'' was the basis of two separate French operas in the 1790s, both with the same title: ''[[La caverne]]'' (1793) by [[Jean-François Le Sueur|Le Sueur]] and ''[[La caverne (Méhul)|La caverne]]'' by [[Étienne Méhul|Méhul]] (1795).

''Gil Blas'' was the title of a five-act farcical opera by [[John Hamilton Reynolds]] adapting Lesage's novel, perhaps assisted by [[Thomas Hood]], and first performed on 1 August 1822. It was famously five hours long on its first night at the [[Royal Strand Theatre]] on the [[Strand, London|Strand]], and was then cut to three acts and the title changed to ''The Youthful Days of Gil Blas''. According to Reynolds's biographer, Leonidas M. Jones, no text of the play survives.<ref>Leonidas M. Jones, ''The Life of John Hamilton Reynolds'' (University of New England Press, 1984), p. 243.</ref>

{{ill|Théophile Semet|fr}} composed a comic opera on ''Gil Blas'' in five acts (1860).<ref>{{IMSLP|work=Gil-Blas (Semet, Théophile)|cname=''Gil-Blas'' (Théophile Semet)}}</ref> [[Alphons Czibulka]] composed ''Gil Blas von Santillana'', with libretto by [[F. Zell]] and [[Moritz West]]. It was first performed in 1889.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://musicaltheatreguide.com/composers/czibulka/alphons_czibilka.htm|title = Alphons Czibulka – Guide to Musical Theatre – Operetta}}</ref>

==Film adaptation==
In 1956 the film ''[[The Adventures of Gil Blas]]'' was released. A French-Spanish co-production it was directed by [[René Jolivet]] and [[Ricardo Muñoz Suay]] and starred [[Georges Marchal]] as Gil Blas.

==Other adaptations==

[[Lionel Stevenson]] identified [[Robert Browning]] as the translator of one English translation of ''Gil Blas'' which featured a partial [[interlinear gloss|word-by-word interlinear translation]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Stevenson |first=Lionel |author-link=Lionel Stevenson |date=1927 |title=A French Text-Book by Robert Browning |journal=[[Modern Language Notes]]|volume=42 |issue=5 |pages=299–305 |doi=10.2307/2914383 |jstor=2914383}}</ref>

==Publication history==
*''Histoire de Gil Blas de Santillane'', Books 1–6 (1715)
*''Histoire de Gil Blas de Santillane'', Books 7–9 (1724)
*''Histoire de Gil Blas de Santillane'', Books 10–12 (1735)
*''Histoire de Gil Blas de Santillane'', London, M. M. Lackington, Allen & Co 1798, 4 volumes

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{StandardEbooks|Standard Ebooks URL=https://standardebooks.org/ebooks/alain-rene-lesage/gil-blas/tobias-smollett}}
* {{librivox book | title=The Adventures of Gil Blas de Santillane| author=lesage}}
* [https://artuk.org/discover/artworks/view_as/grid/search/keyword:gil-blas Paintings about ''Gil Blas''] displayed at British public galleries

{{Alain-René Lesage}}
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[[Category:1715 novels]]
[[Category:1724 novels]]
[[Category:1735 novels]]
[[Category:18th-century French novels]]
[[Category:French picaresque novels]]
[[Category:French novels adapted into operas]]
[[Category:Literary characters introduced in 1715|Blas, Gil]]
[[Category:Works by Alain-René Lesage]]

Dennis Regan

2025-01-08T01:18:29Z

47.32.9.63:

{{Short description|American Stand-up comedian}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Dennis Regan
| image =
| imagesize =
| caption =
| birth_date =
| birth_place = [[Miami, Florida]], [[United States|U.S.]]
| death_date =
| birth_name = Dennis Brendan Regan
| othername =
| homepage =
}}

'''Dennis Brendan Regan''' is a [[stand-up comedian]] from [[Miami]], [[Florida]].

==Career==
He was a writer for the [[CBS]] [[sitcom]], ''[[The King of Queens]]'' from 2004 to 2007. Dennis shares his birthday, March 30, with his youngest brother, Terry. He is the older brother of stand-up comedian [[Brian Regan (comedian)|Brian Regan]], for whom he often opens. He travels around the country doing shows and has been praised for having a similar comedic style to that of his brother. He mostly relies on observational comedy, and he refrains from using [[off-color humor]], earning something of a reputation as a "clean comic", enjoyed by families. His television credits include multiple appearances on both the "[[Late Show with David Letterman]]" and "[[The Tonight Show with Jay Leno]]", as well as A&E's “Evening at the Improv,” Comedy Central and Showtime,<ref>[https://www.espeakers.com/s/grbl/profile/33963 "Dennis Regan Bio | The Grable Group"]</ref> and Dry Bar Comedy.<ref>[https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=6YkNEIiy2W8 "Failed out of Kindergarten | Dennis Regan"]</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*{{IMDb name|1648376|Dennis Regan}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Regan, Dennis}}
[[Category:American stand-up comedians]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:21st-century American comedians]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]

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