http://debianws.lexgopc.com/wiki143/api.php?action=feedcontributions&feedformat=atom&user=45.187.103.2 2026-05-14T16:47:25Z User contributions MediaWiki 1.43.1 http://debianws.lexgopc.com/wiki143/index.php?title=Uruguayan_Portuguese&diff=2488072 2025-06-26T23:39:06Z

<p>45.187.103.2: /* Vowels */</p> <hr /> <div>{{pp-move-dispute|small=yes}}<br /> {{short description|Portuguese dialect of northeast Uruguay}}<br /> {{Use dmy dates|date=August 2024}}<br /> {{Original research|date=April 2009}}<br /> <br /> {{Infobox language<br /> | name = Uruguayan Portuguese<br /> | nativename = {{lang|pt-UY|português uruguaio}}<br /> | pronunciation = <br /> | states = North-eastern [[Uruguay]], near Brazilian border<br /> | ethnicity = [[Brazilian Uruguayans]], [[Portuguese Uruguayans]]<br /> | speakers = {{sigfig|30,600|1}}<br /> | date = 2016<br /> | ref = &lt;ref&gt;{{e25|por|Portugues}}&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> | familycolor = Indo-European<br /> | fam2 = [[Italic languages|Italic]]<br /> | fam3 = [[Latin]]<br /> | fam4 = [[Romance language|Romance]]<br /> | fam5 = [[Western Romance languages|Western]]<br /> | fam6 = [[Ibero-Romance languages|Ibero-Romance]]<br /> | fam7 = [[West Iberian languages|West Iberian]]<br /> | fam8 = [[Galician-Portuguese]]<br /> | fam9 = [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]<br /> | isoexception = dialect<br /> | script = {{plainlist|<br /> *[[Latin script|Latin]] ([[Portuguese alphabet]])<br /> *[[Portuguese Braille]]}}<br /> | glotto = none<br /> | lingua = 51-AAA-am&lt;ref name=&quot;Linguasphere-Register&quot;&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.hortensj-garden.org/index.php?tnc=1&amp;tr=lsr&amp;nid=51-AAA-am|title=Fronteiriço - hortensj-garden.org|website=www.hortensj-garden.org}}&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> | notice = IPA<br /> | ietf = pt-UY<br /> | fam10 = [[Brazilian Portuguese]]<br /> }}<br /> {{Culture of Uruguay}}<br /> '''Uruguayan Portuguese''' ({{lang|pt|português uruguaio}}, {{IPA|pt-UY|poɾtuˈɣes uɾuˈɣwajo|}}), also known as '''{{lang|pt|fronteiriço}}'''&lt;ref name=&quot;Linguasphere-Register&quot; /&gt; ({{IPA|pt-UY|fɾõteˈɾiso|}}) and '''riverense''', and referred to by its speakers as '''{{lang|pt-UY|portunhol}}'''{{sfn|Lipski|2006|p=7}} ({{IPA|pt-UY|poɾtuˈɲɔl|local}}), is a variety of [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] in [[South America]] with heavy influence from [[Rioplatense Spanish]]. It is spoken in north-eastern [[Uruguay]], near the Brazilian border, mainly in the region of the twin cities of [[Rivera]] (Uruguay) and [[Santana do Livramento]] (Brazil). This section of the frontier is called &quot;[[Peace Border]]&quot; ({{langx|pt|Fronteira da Paz}}; {{langx|es|Frontera de la Paz}}), because there is no legal obstacle to crossing the [[border]] between the two countries.<br /> <br /> The varieties of Uruguayan Portuguese share many similarities with the countryside dialects of the southern Brazilian state of [[Rio Grande do Sul]], such as the [[denasalization]] of final unstressed [[nasal vowels]], replacement of [[palatal lateral approximant|lateral palatal]] {{IPAslink|ʎ}} with [[semivowel]] {{IPAslink|j}}, no raising of final unstressed {{IPAslink|e}}, [[alveolar trill]] {{IPAslink|r}} instead of the [[guttural R]], and [[lateral consonant|lateral]] realization of coda {{IPAslink|l}} instead of [[L-vocalization]]. The first two features are rare among accents of Portuguese, whereas L-vocalization is the norm in Brazil but not in other countries.{{sfn|Carvalho|2004|p=131}}<br /> <br /> Recent changes in Uruguayan Portuguese include the urbanization of this variety, acquiring characteristics from urban [[Brazilian Portuguese]], such as a distinction between {{IPA|/ʎ/}} and {{IPA|/j/}}, [[affrication]] of {{IPA|/t/}} and {{IPA|/d/}} before {{IPA|/i/}} and {{IPA|/ĩ/}}, and other features of [[television in Brazil|Brazilian broadcast media]].{{sfn|Carvalho|2004|p=144}} Uruguayan Portuguese now exists on a spectrum, ranging from working-class rural varieties to middle class urban ones. Middle class Uruguayan Portuguese has undergone heavy convergence to the monolingual Brazilian Portuguese standard, and is perceived by middle class Brazilians to be similar to their own speech.{{sfn|Carvalho|2014}}<br /> <br /> == History ==<br /> The origin of Portuguese in Uruguay can be traced back to the time of the dominion of the kingdoms of [[Spain]] and [[Portugal]], and the [[Empire of Brazil]]. In those times, the ownership of those lands was not very well defined, passing back and forth from the hands of one crown to the other. Before its independence after the [[Cisplatine War]] in 1828, Uruguay was one of the provinces of the [[Empire of Brazil]] as [[Cisplatina]].{{sfn|Montgomery|Pontes|2024}}<br /> <br /> Portuguese was the only language spoken throughout northern Uruguay until the end of the 19th century. To assure the homogeneity of the newly formed country, the government made an effort to impose the Spanish language into [[lusophone]] communities through educational policies and language planning, and [[bilingualism]] became widespread and [[diglossic]].{{sfn|Carvalho|2004|p=130}}<br /> <br /> ==Phonology==<br /> ===Vowels===<br /> {{Unreferenced section|date=July 2024}}<br /> {|class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> !Uruguayan Portuguese ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]])<br /> !Pronunciation ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]])<br /> !Uruguayan Portuguese<br /> !Brazilian Portuguese<br /> !English<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|{{IPA|a}}<br /> |{{IPA|[ˈp'''a'''p'''a''']}}<br /> |{{lang|pt|papa}}<br /> |{{lang|pt|batata}}<br /> |potato<br /> |-<br /> |{{IPA|[k'''a'''t'''a'''ˈɾ'''a'''t'''a''']}}<br /> |{{lang|pt|catarata}}<br /> |{{lang|pt|cachoeira/catarata/queda d'água}}<br /> |waterfall<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|{{IPA|e}}<br /> |{{IPA|[ˈp'''e'''ʃ'''e''']}}<br /> |{{lang|pt|peixe}}<br /> |{{lang|pt|peixe}}<br /> |fish<br /> |-<br /> |{{IPA|[d'''e'''t'''e'''rˈχ'''e'''nt'''e''']}}<br /> |{{lang|pt|detergente}}<br /> |{{lang|pt|detergente}}<br /> |detergent<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|{{IPA|i}}<br /> |{{IPA|[ˈs'''i'''sko]}}<br /> |{{lang|pt|cisco}}<br /> |{{lang|pt|lixo}}<br /> |garbage<br /> |-<br /> |{{IPA|[ˈn'''i'''ɲo]}}<br /> |{{lang|pt|ninho}}<br /> |{{lang|pt|ninho}}<br /> |nest<br /> |-<br /> |{{IPA|j}}<br /> |{{IPA|[s'''j'''a]}}<br /> |{{lang|pt|cear}}<br /> |{{lang|pt|jantar/cear}}<br /> |to have dinner<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |{{IPA|o}}<br /> |{{IPA|['''o'''nˈt'''o'''nte]}}<br /> |{{lang|pt|anteontem}}<br /> |{{lang|pt|anteontem}}<br /> |day before yesterday<br /> |-<br /> |{{IPA|[ˈ'''o'''j'''o''']}}<br /> |{{lang|pt|olho}}<br /> |{{lang|pt|olho}}<br /> |eye<br /> |-<br /> |{{IPA|[ˈp'''o'''s'''o''']}}<br /> |{{lang|pt|poço}}<br /> |{{lang|pt|poço}}<br /> |well<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|{{IPA|u}}<br /> |{{IPA|[ʒ'''u'''ɾ'''u'''ˈɾ'''u''']}}<br /> |{{lang|pt|jururu}}<br /> |{{lang|pt|triste/melancólico/jururu}}<br /> |sad, melancholic<br /> |-<br /> |{{IPA|[n'''u''']}}<br /> |{{lang|pt|no}}<br /> |{{lang|pt|no}}<br /> |in the ({{gcl|M}})<br /> |-<br /> |{{IPA|w}}<br /> |{{IPA|[aˈk'''w'''a]}}<br /> |{{lang|pt|acoar}}<br /> |{{lang|pt|latir/ladrar/acoar}}<br /> |to bark<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |{{IPA|ɛ}}<br /> |{{IPA|[t'''ɛ''']}}<br /> |{{lang|pt|té}}<br /> |{{lang|pt|chá}}<br /> |tea<br /> |-<br /> |{{IPA|[p'''ɛ'''l]}}<br /> |{{lang|pt|pele}}<br /> |{{lang|pt|pele}}<br /> |skin<br /> |-<br /> |{{IPA|[ˈv'''ɛ'''ja]}}<br /> |{{lang|pt|velha}}<br /> |{{lang|pt|velha}}<br /> |old ({{gcl|F}})<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|{{IPA|ɔ}}<br /> |{{IPA|[f'''ɔ'''ˈf'''ɔ'''ka]}}<br /> |{{lang|pt|fofoca}}<br /> |{{lang|pt|fofoca}}<br /> |gossip<br /> |-<br /> |{{IPA|[ˈp'''ɔ'''so]}}<br /> |{{lang|pt|posso}}<br /> |{{lang|pt|posso}}<br /> | (I) can<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |{{IPA|ã}}<br /> |{{IPA|[maˈs'''ã''']}}<br /> |{{lang|pt|maçã}}<br /> |{{lang|pt|maçã}}<br /> |apple<br /> |-<br /> |{{IPA|[l'''ã''']}}<br /> |{{lang|pt|lã}}<br /> |{{lang|pt|lã}}<br /> |wool<br /> |-<br /> |{{IPA|[s'''ã''']}}<br /> |{{lang|pt|sã}} ({{gcl|ADJ}})<br /> |{{lang|pt|sã}}<br /> |healthy ({{gcl|F}})<br /> |-<br /> |{{IPA|[ˈk'''ã'''ʃa]}}<br /> |{{lang|pt|cancha}}<br /> |{{lang|pt|quadra esportiva}}<br /> |sports ground<br /> |-<br /> |{{IPA|ẽ}}<br /> |{{IPA|[ˈp'''ẽ'''saw̃]}}<br /> |{{lang|pt|pensam}}<br /> |{{lang|pt|pensam}}<br /> |(they) think<br /> |-<br /> |{{IPA|ĩ}}<br /> |{{IPA|['''ĩ'''ˈtõse]}}<br /> |{{lang|pt|entonces}}<br /> |{{lang|pt|então}}<br /> |then<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |{{IPA|õ}}<br /> |{{IPA|[ɡarˈs'''õ''']}}<br /> |{{lang|pt|garçom}}<br /> |{{lang|pt|garçom/empregado de mesa}}<br /> |waiter (bar, restaurant)<br /> |-<br /> |{{IPA|[t'''õ''']}}<br /> |{{lang|pt|tom}}<br /> |{{lang|pt|tom}}<br /> |tone<br /> |-<br /> |{{IPA|[ĩˈt'''õ'''se]}}<br /> |{{lang|pt|entonces}}<br /> |{{lang|pt|então}}<br /> |then<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |{{IPA|ũ}}<br /> |{{IPA|['''ũ''']}}<br /> |{{lang|pt|um}}<br /> |{{lang|pt|um}}<br /> |one ({{gcl|M}})<br /> |-<br /> |{{IPA|[k'''ũ'''ˈtiɣo]}}<br /> |{{lang|pt|contigo}}<br /> |{{lang|pt|contigo}}<br /> |with you<br /> |-<br /> |{{IPA|[niˈɲ'''ũ'''a]}}<br /> |{{lang|pt|nenhuma}}<br /> |{{lang|pt|nenhuma}}<br /> |no one ({{gcl|F}})<br /> |-<br /> |{{IPA|w̃}}<br /> |{{IPA|[ma'''w̃''']}}<br /> |{{lang|pt|mão}}<br /> |{{lang|pt|mão}}<br /> |hand<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Consonants===<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;<br /> |+Consonant phonemes of Uruguayan Portuguese (Tacuaremboense variant){{sfn|Hensey|1972|p=44-45}}<br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; |<br /> ! [[Labial consonant|Labial]]<br /> ! [[Dental consonant|Dental]]/&lt;br /&gt;[[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]<br /> ! [[Alveolo-palatal consonant|Alveo-palatal]]<br /> ! [[Velar consonant|Velar]]<br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Plosive]]<br /> | {{IPA link|p}}<br /> | {{IPA link|t}}<br /> |<br /> | {{IPA link|k}}<br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Fricative]]<br /> ! {{small|[[Tenseness|tense]]}}<br /> | {{IPA link|f}}<br /> | {{IPA link|s}}<br /> | {{IPA link|ʃ}}<br /> | {{IPA link|x}}<br /> |-<br /> ! {{small|[[Tenseness|lax]]}}<br /> | {{IPA link|β}}<br /> | {{IPA link|ð}}<br /> |<br /> | {{IPA link|ɣ}}<br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]<br /> | {{IPA link|m}}<br /> | {{IPA link|n}}<br /> | {{IPA link|ɲ̟}}<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Lateral consonant|Lateral]]<br /> |<br /> | {{IPA link|l}}<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Trill consonant|Trill]]<br /> ! {{small|[[Tenseness|tense]]}}<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> | {{IPA link|r̃}}<br /> |-<br /> ! {{small|[[Tenseness|lax]]}}<br /> |<br /> | {{IPA link|r}}<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |}<br /> <br /> The variant described above is known as &quot;Tacuaremboense&quot; and is spoken in the interior of [[Rivera Department|Rivera]]. Stops and tense fricatives can be voiced or voiceless, while the lax fricatives are always voiced. The [[Implosive consonant|implosive]] [[allophone]] of /s/ is sibilant, not aspirated.{{sfn|Hensey|1972|p=44-45}}<br /> <br /> == See also ==<br /> * [[Comparison of Portuguese and Spanish]]<br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> {{reflist|20em}}<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> * {{cite book<br /> |first= Frederick |last= Hensey<br /> |title= The Sociolinguistics of the Brazilian-Uruguayan Border<br /> |year= 1972<br /> |isbn= 9789027923264<br /> |publisher= Mouton<br /> |location= Netherlands<br /> |pages= 44–45<br /> |language= en<br /> }}<br /> * {{cite journal<br /> |first= Ana Maria |last= Carvalho |author-link= Ana Maria Carvalho<br /> |year= 2003<br /> |title= Variation and diffusion of Uruguayan Portuguese in a bilingual border town<br /> |journal= Actas do 1 Simposio Internacional sobre o Bilingüismo<br /> |location= Vigo<br /> |pages= 642–651<br /> |url= http://webs.uvigo.es/ssl/actas1997/05/Carvalho.pdf<br /> |url-status= live<br /> |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20240116122040/http://ssl.webs.uvigo.es/actas1997/05/Carvalho.pdf<br /> |archive-date= 16 January 2024<br /> }}<br /> * {{cite book <br /> |last1=Carvalho |first1=Ana Maria <br /> |editor1-last=Callahan |editor1-first=Laura <br /> |title=Spanish and Portuguese across Time, Place, and Borders <br /> |date=2014 <br /> |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan London <br /> |isbn=978-1-349-46484-5 <br /> |pages=183–199 <br /> |chapter=Linguistic Continuity along the Uruguayan-Brazilian Border: Monolingual Perceptions of a Bilingual Reality<br /> |doi=10.1057/9781137340450<br /> }}<br /> * {{cite thesis<br /> |first= Kendra |last= Douglas<br /> |year= 2004<br /> |title= Uruguayan Portuguese in Artigas: Tri-dimensionality of transitional local varieties in contact with Spanish and Portuguese standards<br /> |type= Ph.D. dissertation<br /> |location= Madison, WI<br /> |publisher= University of Wisconsin<br /> }}<br /> *{{cite journal<br /> |first= John M. |last= Lipski<br /> |title= Too close for comfort? The genesis of 'portuñol/portunhol'<br /> |year= 2006<br /> |journal= Selected Proceedings of the 8th Hispanic Linguistics Symposium<br /> |editor-first1= Timothy L. |editor-last1= Face<br /> |editor-first2= Carol A. |editor-last2= Klee<br /> |publisher= Cascadilla Proceedings Project<br /> |location= Somerville, MA<br /> |pages= 1–22<br /> |url= http://www.lingref.com/cpp/hls/8/paper1251.pdf<br /> |url-status= live<br /> |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20240117175142/http://www.lingref.com/cpp/hls/8/paper1251.pdf<br /> |archive-date= 17 January 2024<br /> }}<br /> * {{cite book<br /> |first1= Nicolás |last1= Brian<br /> |first2= Claudia |last2= Brovetto<br /> |first3= Javier |last3= Geymonat<br /> |title= Portugués del Uruguay y educación bilingüe<br /> |lang= es<br /> |year= 2007<br /> }}<br /> * {{cite book<br /> |first= Ralph |last= Penny<br /> |section= New dialects: {{lang|es|fronterizo}}<br /> |pages= 163–166<br /> |title= Variation and Change in Spanish<br /> |publisher= Cambridge University Press<br /> |year= 2000<br /> |isbn= 9780521780452<br /> |url= https://archive.org/details/variationchangei0000penn<br /> }}<br /> *{{cite journal<br /> |first= Ana Maria |last= Carvalho |author-link= Ana Maria Carvalho<br /> |title= I speak like the guys on TV: Palatalization and the urbanization of Uruguayan Portuguese<br /> |journal= Language Variation and Change<br /> |volume= 16<br /> |issue= 2<br /> |pages= 127–151<br /> |year= 2004<br /> |doi= 10.1017/S0954394504162030<br /> |doi-broken-date= 1 November 2024 |s2cid= 144351313<br /> |url= https://www.academia.edu/6268461<br /> }}<br /> *{{cite web<br /> |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/385556523_The_Province_of_Cysplatine_and_the_Plata_Bay_Wars_British_Influence_in_the_Independence_of_Uruguay_from_the_Brazilian_Empire<br /> |title=The Province of Cysplatine and the Plata Bay Wars: British Influence in the Independence of Uruguay from the Brazilian Empire<br /> |doi=10.13140/RG.2.2.30324.16007<br /> |author-first1=Richard Murdoch<br /> |author-last1=Montgomery<br /> |author-first2=José Alfredo Vidigal<br /> |author-last2=Pontes<br /> |year=2024<br /> |publisher=Universidade de Aveiro<br /> |via=ResearchGate<br /> }}<br /> <br /> == External links ==<br /> * [http://www.labeurb.unicamp.br/elb/americanas/dialetos_portugueses_uruguai.html Page about Uruguayan Portunhol (in Portuguese) at Unicamp - University of Campinas, São Paulo] (in Portuguese)<br /> * [https://web.archive.org/web/20060924153049/http://www.fhuce.edu.uy/academica/linguistica/sicosocio/CVElizaincin.htm Adolfo Elizaincín website]<br /> * {{in lang|ia|en|pt|es}} [http://hkyson.wordpress.com/2011/08/01/portuniol-un-nove-lingua-que-sta-a-ganiar-popularitate-inter-le-personsas-qui-vive-presso-le-frontieras-del-brasil-e-su-paises-hispanoparlante-vicin/ Portuñol, a new language that is gaining popularity among people who live close to the borders of Brazil and its neighboring Spanish-speaking countries]<br /> <br /> {{Portuguese dialects}}<br /> {{Languages of Brazil}}<br /> {{Languages of Uruguay}}<br /> <br /> {{DEFAULTSORT:Riverense Portunol Language}}<br /> [[Category:Portuguese dialects]]<br /> [[Category:Portuguese language in the Americas]]<br /> [[Category:Languages of Uruguay]]<br /> [[Category:Languages of Brazil]]<br /> [[Category:Rivera Department]]<br /> [[Category:Brazil–Uruguay border]]</div>

45.187.103.2 http://debianws.lexgopc.com/wiki143/index.php?title=Culture_of_Uruguay&diff=2025002 2025-06-26T22:57:25Z

<p>45.187.103.2: /* Languages */</p> <hr /> <div>{{Short description|none}} &lt;!-- &quot;none&quot; is a legitimate description when the title is already adequate; see [[WP:SDNONE]] --&gt;<br /> {{More citations needed|date=November 2020}}<br /> [[File:Atardecer en el Palacio Legislativo.jpg|thumb|The [[Legislative Palace of Uruguay]].]]<br /> {{Culture of Uruguay}}<br /> {{Uruguay main topics}}<br /> The '''culture of [[Uruguay]]''' is diverse since the nation's population is one of multicultural origins. Modern Uruguayan culture and lifestyle are heavily influenced by European traditions, due to the contributions of large numbers of [[Immigration to Uruguay|immigrants]] who arrived in the country from the 19th century onwards, especially from [[Italy]] and [[Spain]]. <br /> <br /> From the year 1858 to 1950 large waves of European immigrants began arriving to Uruguay, with the majority of the immigrants coming from [[Italy]]. Minor European immigrant groups – [[French people|French]], [[Germans]], [[Swiss people|Swiss]], [[Russians]], [[Jews]], and [[Armenians]], among others – also migrated to Uruguay. Uruguay has century-old remains and fortresses of the colonial era. Its cities have a rich architectural heritage, and a number of writers, artists, and musicians. [[Carnaval]] and [[candombe]] are the most important examples of African influence by slaves, as well as [[Umbanda]] religious beliefs and practices. [[Guarani people|Guarani]] traditions can be seen in the national drink, [[Mate (beverage)|mate]].<br /> <br /> ==Visual arts==<br /> ===Painting and sculpture===<br /> [[File:Casapueblo.jpg|left|200px|thumb|The Casapueblo, one of Carlos Páez Vilaró most famous art piece]]<br /> Well-known Uruguayan painters include realists such as [[Juan Manuel Blanes]], constructivists such as [[Joaquín Torres García]], nativists like [[Carlos María Herrera]], post-impressionists such as [[Pedro Figari]] and [[Felipe Seade]], abstract artists such as [[Carlos Páez Vilaró]], and numerous others.<br /> <br /> [[File:El entrevero.jpg|thumb|José Belloni: ''The Struggle'', 1965]]<br /> Well-known sculptors include realists [[Pablo Atchugarry]], [[José Belloni]], and [[José Luis Zorrilla de San Martín]], as well as contemporary sculptors such as [[Juan José Calandria]], [[Águeda Dicancro]], Hugo Nantes, [[Claudio Silveira Silva]], [[Mariví Ugolino]], and [[Carlos Páez Vilaró]], who created an internationally renowned &quot;livable sculpture&quot;, ''[[Casapueblo Uruguay|Casapueblo]]''.<br /> <br /> ===Architecture===<br /> Due to European migration, new forms of art and design started to enter during the formation of Uruguay. Many buildings in Uruguay are European influenced, for example, the [[Palacio Salvo]] was designed by [[Italy|Italian]] architect [[Mario Palanti]].<br /> <br /> Many well recognized architects around the world are Uruguayan. Some famous Uruguayan architects include [[Juan Antonio Scasso]], [[Juan Giuria]], [[Leopoldo Artucio]], [[Eladio Dieste]], and [[Carlos Ott]].<br /> <br /> [[Rafael Viñoly]] is a Uruguayan architect known for his most recognized project being the [[432 Park Avenue]] in [[New York City]]. The building stands at 1,396 feet (425.5 m) with 96 floors, making it the [[List of tallest residential buildings in the world|tallest residential building in the world]]. He is also credited for designing other buildings such as the [[Tokyo International Forum]], [[Kimmel Center for the Performing Arts]], and Uruguay's international airport [[Carrasco International Airport]].<br /> <br /> ==Modern society==<br /> ===Immigration===<br /> {{Main|Immigration to Uruguay}}<br /> <br /> Among the several peoples who settled Uruguay and formed the backbone of its society must be highlighted [[Spanish Uruguayan|Spaniards]] and [[Italian Uruguayan|Italians]], together with some [[Afro-Uruguayan|descendants of African slaves]]. While Spaniards being the greatest contributor to other South American countries, Italians are arguably the greatest contributor to Uruguay. There are also significant minorities: Armenians, Austrians, Basque, Britons, Bulgarians, Croats, French, Germans, Greeks, Roma, Hungarians, Irish, Scots, Jews, Lebanese, Lithuanians, Poles, Russians, Slovaks, [[Slovene communities in South America#Uruguay|Slovenes]], Swiss, and Ukrainians. There are very small Asian communities, mainly from [[Chinese people in Uruguay|China]], [[Japanese Uruguayan|Japan]] and [[Koreans in Uruguay|Korea]].&lt;ref name=&quot;multicult&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author=Felipe Arocena |title=The contribution of immigrants to Uruguay |url=http://multiculturalismoenuruguay.com/Docs/Articulos/ArocenaCEIC.doc.pdf |access-date=21 October 2013 |publisher=Multiculturalismoenuruguay.com |language=es |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304075617/http://multiculturalismoenuruguay.com/Docs/Articulos/ArocenaCEIC.doc.pdf |archive-date=4 March 2016 |url-status=dead }}&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Languages===<br /> {{Main|Languages of Uruguay}}<br /> {{See also|Rioplatense Spanish|Uruguayan Spanish}}<br /> [[Spanish language|Spanish]] is the de facto [[national language]], and is virtually spoken by the entire population.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2020-07-29 |title=Proponen establecer por ley que el idioma oficial de Uruguay es el español |url=https://www.sarandi690.com.uy/2020/07/29/proponen-establecer-por-ley-que-el-idioma-oficial-de-uruguay-es-el-espanol/ |access-date=2023-11-15 |website=Radio Sarandí 690 AM |language=es}}&lt;/ref&gt; The standard language is [[Uruguayan Spanish]], which is a variant of [[Rioplatense Spanish]].&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.cervantes.es/imagenes/file/biblioteca/situacion_espanol/uruguay_situacion_espanol.pdf Particularities of the Spanish language in Uruguay]&lt;/ref&gt; This variant is known in the [[Hispanosphere]] for its marked [[Italian language|Italian]] influence in its intonation and vocabulary.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Meo Zilio |first=Giovanni |date=1963–64 |title=Genovesismos en el español rioplatense |journal=Nueva Revista de Filología Hispánica |volume=T. 17, No. 3/4 (1963/1964) |issue=3/4 |pages=245–263 |jstor=40297676}}&lt;/ref&gt; Additionally, [[lunfardo]] argot is widely used among the population.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=2007-07-21 |title=El lunfardo y su etimología |url=https://www.elpais.com.uy/tvshow/el-lunfardo-y-su-etimologia |access-date=2025-01-21 |website=EL PAIS |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; <br /> <br /> The [[Uruguayan Portuguese]] or ''fronteiriço—''a set of varieties of Portuguese''—''are spoken in the northeast of the country, where cultural exchanges occur between communities on both sides of the [[Brazil–Uruguay border|border]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Hacia el portuñol &quot;patrimonio inmaterial de la humanidad&quot; {{!}} Comisión Coordinadora del Interior |url=https://www.cci.edu.uy/node/95 |access-date=2023-11-15 |website=www.cci.edu.uy}}&lt;/ref&gt; Minority languages in Uruguay include Italian, [[French language|French]], [[German language|German]], [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], and other [[Languages of Europe|European languages]], which are present in the country due to the significant waves of migration from Europe. [[English language|English]] is the most widespread foreign language among the Uruguayan people.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=diaria |first=la |date=2020-07-22 |title=56% de los uruguayos tienen conocimientos de inglés, aunque solo 13,6% tiene certificación oficial |url=https://ladiaria.com.uy/educacion/articulo/2020/7/56-de-los-uruguayos-tienen-conocimientos-de-ingles-aunque-solo-136-tiene-certificacion-oficial/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220522074234/https://ladiaria.com.uy/educacion/articulo/2020/7/56-de-los-uruguayos-tienen-conocimientos-de-ingles-aunque-solo-136-tiene-certificacion-oficial/ |archive-date=2022-05-22 |access-date=2023-11-15 |website=la diaria |language=es-UY}}&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Since 2001, [[Uruguayan Sign Language]] is an official language.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Meyers |first=Stephen |last2=Lockwood |first2=Elizabeth |date=2014-12-06 |title=The Tale of Two Civil Societies: Comparing disability rights movements in Nicaragua and Uruguay |url=https://dsq-sds.org/article/view/3845 |journal=Disability Studies Quarterly |language=en |volume=34 |issue=4 |doi=10.18061/dsq.v34i4.3845 |issn=2159-8371 |doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Gestures===<br /> {{Main|Cheek kissing}}<br /> Uruguayan gestures are mostly adopted from [[Southern European]] culture, with hand gestures and tones being all used commonly throughout the country. A gesture that is only specifically used in Argentina and Uruguay is males kissing other males on the cheek, sometimes both cheeks, as a way of greeting. For the rest of Latin America, kissing on cheek as a form of greeting is mostly towards a male and female, or a female to another female.<br /> <br /> ==Popular culture==<br /> ===Humour===<br /> Uruguayan humour has been present for over 200 years. Written humour has been developed by notable writers. Later on, during the civic-military dictatorship, satirical magazines such as ''El dedo'' and ''[[Guambia]]'' were notable vehicles for expressing dissatisfaction.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|access-date=19 July 2024 |date=19 July 2024 |first=María José |language=es |last=Santacreu |location=Montevideo |title=Un asunto serio: la historia del humor escrito en Uruguay |url=https://brecha.com.uy/un-asunto-serio/ |website=[[Brecha (Uruguan)|Brecha]]}}&lt;!-- auto-translated from Spanish by Module:CS1 translator --&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Modern media have been crucial in its development. The television programme ''[[Telecataplúm]]'' made history both in Uruguay and Argentina, followed by ''[[Decalegrón]]''. <br /> <br /> Currently the radio figure [[Orlando Petinatti]] leads the radio programme ''[[Malos Pensamientos]]''.<br /> <br /> ===Music===<br /> {{Main|Music of Uruguay}}<br /> {{See also|Tango}}<br /> [[Image:Tango-Show-Buenos-Aires-01.jpg|thumb|upright|The Tango, which originated in the areas of Argentina and Uruguay]]<br /> Uruguayans enjoy music such as [[Tango music|tango]], [[Folk music|folk]], and [[waltz]] as well as local forms such as [[candombe]], [[Milonga (music)|milonga]] and [[murga]]. Both tango and candombe have been recognized by [[UNESCO]] as [[Intangible Cultural Heritage]] of Humanity. Uruguay's annual [[Carnival]] is a major event with many unique features distinguishing it from those of its neighbours. [[Rock music|Rock]], [[jazz]], [[Pop music|pop]] and other international genres also enjoy great popularity in Uruguay.<br /> <br /> ===Motion pictures===<br /> {{Main|List of Uruguayan films}}<br /> {{See also|Whisky (film)}}<br /> The first Uruguayan motion picture is &quot;[[Carrera de bicicletas en el velódromo de Arroyo Seco]]&quot;. The film was directed by Félix Oliver, the pioneer of cinematography in Uruguay. The best reviewed Uruguayan movie is the 2004 film, ''Whisky''. Directed by [[Juan Pablo Rebella]] and [[Pablo Stoll]], with a starring cast of Andrés Pazos, [[Mirella Pascual]], and Jorge Bolani, it was well-received by film critics.<br /> <br /> ===Smoking===<br /> {{Main|Smoking in Uruguay}}<br /> Roughly 1/3 of Uruguayan adults smoke [[tobacco]], according to Uruguayan research groups.&lt;ref&gt;http://www.latimes.com on 2007-02-17&lt;/ref&gt; On March 1, 2006, a law went into effect banning smoking in all enclosed public spaces in Uruguay, including restaurants and bars, among the toughest smoking bans worldwide and the strictest in Latin America. The penalty for businesses that allow smoking is a fine of roughly US $1,100 or a three-day closure. One opinion poll found that 70% of smokers supported the ban.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/4761624.stm|title=Uruguay curbs smoking in public|date=1 March 2006|access-date=16 October 2017|website=News.bbc.co.uk}}&lt;/ref&gt; Current President of Uruguay in that year, [[Tabaré Vázquez]], was a medic doctor specializing in [[Oncology|cancer treatment]].<br /> <br /> ==Literature==<br /> {{Main|Uruguayan literature}}<br /> {{See also|Generación del 45}}<br /> [[File:José Enrique Rodó.jpg|thumb|[[José Enrique Rodó]]]]<br /> One of Uruguay's most famous works of [[literature]] is ''Ariel'' by [[José Enrique Rodó]] (1871–1917). Written in 1900, the book deals with the need to maintain [[Spirituality|spiritual]] values while pursuing material and technical progress. [[Florencio Sánchez]] (1875–1910) wrote [[Play (theatre)|plays]] about social problems that are still performed today. [[Juan Zorrilla de San Martín]] (1855–1931) wrote epic [[poems]] about [[History of Uruguay|Uruguayan history]] (notably ''[[Tabaré (poem)|Tabaré]]''). [[Juana de Ibarbourou]] (1895–1979) and [[Delmira Agustini]] (1866–1914) were also notable poets.<br /> <br /> The [[Generación del 45]] (Generation of '45) were of group of writers, mainly from Uruguay, who were famously known to have an influence on literature and culture of the region. Well-known writers belonged to this group such as [[Mario Benedetti]], [[Amanda Berenguer]], [[Juan Carlos Onetti]], Mauricio Müller, [[Humberto Megget]], [[Armonía Somers]], [[Idea Vilariño]], [[Emir Rodríguez Monegal]], [[Carlos Maggi]], [[Zenobia Camprubí]] and among others.<br /> <br /> ==Religion==<br /> {{Main|Religion in Uruguay}}<br /> Since 1919, church and state have been separated, and the constitution, as revised in 1966, guarantees religious freedom. The largest religion in Uruguay are the [[Roman Catholicism|Roman Catholics]], making about 66% of the population. Most Uruguayans baptize their children and marry in churches, but don't attend church that often. There is an estimated amount of 20,000 [[Jews]] in Uruguay, making it one of the largest Jewish communities in South America and in the world. Most Jews in Uruguay are [[Sephardi Jews]], followed by [[Ashkenazim]], [[Mizrahim]], and [[Italkim]]. During European migration to South America, many [[German Jews]] and [[Italian Jews]] migrated to Uruguay. There are also several [[Evangelism|Evangelical]] [[Protestant]] groups, making 2% of the Uruguayan population. [[Macumba]] and [[Umbanda]], religions of [[Afro-Brazilian]] origin, are currently the [[fastest-growing religion]]s in Uruguay. There are a few Christian missionary organizations in Uruguay, such as Serve the City (Run by Matthew Daniels). There is also a number of [[Jehovah's Witnesses]], with 11,825 publishers and 156 congregations located within the country.<br /> <br /> ==Cuisine==<br /> {{Main|Uruguayan cuisine}}<br /> [[File:TipicoMateUruguayo.jpg|thumb|190px|The invigorating [[yerba mate]] in its gourd with thermos. It is a fixture in Uruguayan daily life.]]Uruguayans consume a large amount of [[beef]],&lt;ref name=&quot;consumption&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=http://en.mercopress.com/2010/08/17/uruguay-world-s-leading-consumer-of-beef-with-58.2-kilos-per-capita-per-annum|title=Uruguay: world's leading consumer of beef with 58.2 kilos per capita per annum|website=En.mercopress.com|access-date=16 October 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt; primarily at gatherings known in the continent as the ''[[asado]]''. The ''parrillada'' (beef platter), ''[[Chivito (sandwich)|chivito]]'' (a substantial steak sandwich), and [[pasta]] are the national dishes. Uruguayan cuisine is greatly influenced by [[Italian cuisine]], due to the large number of immigrants who arrived in the country in the 19th and 20th centuries.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |last=Dazzo |first=Rino |date=2021-05-08 |title=Carne sí, ma sempre con pasta, milanesa, fainá, tallarines con tuco e il 29 di ogni mese, gnocchi |url=https://www.genteditalia.org/2021/05/08/carne-si-ma-sempre-con-pasta-milanesa-faina-tallarines-con-tuco-e-il-29-di-ogni-mese-gnocchi/ |access-date=2023-11-15 |website=Gente d'Italia |language=it-IT}}&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Other Uruguayan dishes include ''morcilla dulce'' (a type of [[blood sausage]] cooked with ground [[orange fruit]], orange peel, and [[walnuts]]) and ''[[milanesa]]'' (a [[veal]] [[breaded cutlet]] similar to the German [[Wienerschnitzel]]). Snacks include ''olímpicos'' (club sandwiches), ''húngaras'' (spicy sausage in a [[hot dog]] roll), and ''masas surtidas'' (bite-sized pastries). Typical drinks include [[Mate (beverage)|mate]], [[tea]], ''clericó'' (a mixture of white wine and fruit juice), and ''medio y medio'' (part sparkling wine and part white wine).<br /> <br /> ===Wine===<br /> {{Main|Uruguayan wine}}<br /> Plantings of [[Tannat]] (also known in Uruguay as ''Harriague'') have been increasing in Uruguay each year as that country's [[wine]] industry develops, and the country is considered the second most notable Tannat region after [[Madiran]], France. The Tannat wines produced here are characterized by more elegant and softer tannins and [[blackberry]] fruit notes. [[Vineyards]] in Uruguay have begun to distinguish between the &quot;old vines&quot; that are descendants from the original [[Cutting (plant)|cuttings]] brought over from Europe and the new [[Cloning#Horticultural|clones]] being produced today. The newer vines tend to produce more powerful wines with a higher [[alcohol level]], but less acidity and complex fruit characteristics. Some [[winery|wineries]] utilize both vines to make blends.&lt;ref&gt;Oz Clarke ''Encyclopedia of Grapes'' pg 241 Harcourt Books 2001 {{ISBN|0-15-100714-4}}&lt;/ref&gt; Now the wines typically spend about 20 months in oak prior to release.&lt;ref name=&quot;Oxford pg 679&quot;&gt;J. Robinson (ed) ''&quot;The Oxford Companion to Wine&quot;'' Third Edition pg 679 Oxford University Press 2006 {{ISBN|0-19-860990-6}}&lt;/ref&gt; Today it is often blended with [[Pinot noir]] and [[Merlot]], and is made in a variety of styles including those reminiscent of [[Port wine|Port]] and [[Beaujolais]].<br /> <br /> ==Sports==<br /> {{Main|Sport in Uruguay}}<br /> {{See also|Uruguay national football team}}<br /> [[File:Uruguay_players_with_CA_trophy.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Uruguay National Football Team winning the 2011 edition of the Copa America, hosted by Argentina]]<br /> <br /> Sports in Uruguay have been a key element to the culture since the nation's independence.<br /> <br /> [[Association football|Football]] ([[Spanish language|Spanish]]: ''fútbol'') is the most popular sport in Uruguay. Uruguay has won an Olympic gold medal in 1924, and another one in 1928, which were considered the most important tournaments in football, before the [[FIFA World Cup]] began in 1930, hence the four stars on the Uruguayan jersey. The first World Cup, which Uruguay won,&lt;ref&gt;[http://worldsoccer.about.com/cs/worldcup/a/wcupwinz.htm World Soccer&lt;!-- Bot generated title --&gt;] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050819130356/http://worldsoccer.about.com/cs/worldcup/a/wcupwinz.htm |date=2005-08-19 }}&lt;/ref&gt; was held in [[1930 FIFA World Cup|1930]] in [[Montevideo]]. The [[Estadio Centenario]] was built for the World Cup, and serves to this day as the country's main football stadium.<br /> <br /> Uruguay also won the World Cup in [[1950 FIFA World Cup|1950]], beating [[Brazil national football team|Brazil]] in [[Rio de Janeiro]] at the [[Estádio do Maracanã]]. The event has had astounding impacts on the history of the sport, due to Brazil being a heavily favoured team at that time, and is also known as the ''[[Uruguay v Brazil (1950 FIFA World Cup)|Maracanazo]]''.<br /> <br /> Uruguay has the second most [[Copa América]] titles, the most important football tournament in the South American region. Uruguay currently has 15 titles to their name, the most recent being the [[2011 Copa América]] hosted by Argentina.<br /> <br /> Uruguay has two major clubs, [[Peñarol]] and [[Club Nacional de Football]], which both have won major tournaments both nationally and internationally. Peñarol has won the [[Uruguayan Primera División]] a total of 49 times, while Nacional have won the division 46 times. Peñarol has won the [[Copa Libertadores]], the most prestigious club tournament in South America, 5 times and Nacional have won 3 times. Both teams have won the [[Intercontinental Cup (1960–2004)|Intercontinental Cup]] a total of 3 times (which is the present day [[FIFA Club World Cup]]). In September 2009, Peñarol was chosen as the [[International Federation of Football History &amp; Statistics#Continental Clubs of the 20th century|South American Club of the Century]] by the [[IFFHS]].<br /> <br /> Uruguayans are internationally known in the football world and have produced some of the biggest names of the sport. Some names include:<br /> <br /> *[[Enzo Francescoli]]<br /> *[[Juan Alberto Schiaffino]]<br /> *[[Hector Scarone]]<br /> *[[Diego Forlán]]<br /> *[[Luis Suárez]]<br /> *[[Álvaro Recoba]]<br /> *[[Jose Nasazzi]]<br /> *[[Diego Godín]]<br /> *[[Edinson Cavani]]<br /> *[[Diego Lugano]]<br /> *[[Alcides Ghiggia]]<br /> *[[Antonio Pacheco D'Agosti]]<br /> *[[Ladislao Mazurkiewicz]]<br /> *[[Paolo Montero]]<br /> <br /> Other popular sports in Uruguay include [[sport of athletics|athletics]], [[auto racing]], [[basketball]], [[boxing]], [[cycle sport|cycling]], [[field hockey]], [[fishing]], [[golf]], [[handball]], [[mountaineering]], [[padel tennis]], [[polo]], [[Roller hockey (Quad)|roller hockey]], [[Rowing (sport)|rowing]], [[rugby union]], [[Sailing (sport)|sailing]], [[skiing]], [[Swimming (sport)|swimming]], [[tennis]], and [[volleyball]].<br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> {{Reflist}}<br /> <br /> ==External links==<br /> * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110809113827/http://portal.gub.uy/ Uruguayan Government Portal]<br /> * [http://cvc.cervantes.es/el_rinconete/anteriores/agosto_04/09082004_02.htm Uruguayan writers in ''Centro Virtual Cervantes'']<br /> <br /> {{Uruguay topics}}<br /> {{Latin America topic|Culture of|Latin American culture}}<br /> <br /> {{DEFAULTSORT:Culture Of Uruguay}}<br /> [[Category:Culture of Uruguay| ]]</div>

45.187.103.2 http://debianws.lexgopc.com/wiki143/index.php?title=Claridade&diff=2176085 2025-06-14T12:32:27Z

<p>45.187.103.2: /* Publication history and contents */</p> <hr /> <div>{{short description|Cape Verdean literary reviews}}<br /> {{Infobox magazine <br /> | image_file = Claridade.jpg<br /> | image_size = 350px<br /> | image_caption = The first issue of Claridade issued in 1936<br /> | staff_writer = Jaime de Figueiredo, João Lopes<br /> | category = Cultural magazine<br /> | country = Cape Verde in the Portuguese Empire<br /> | language = [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]<br /> | publisher = ''None''<br /> | founded = 1936<br /> | finaldate = 1960<br /> | pages = <br /> | oclc = <br /> }}<br /> '''''Claridade''''' ([[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] for &quot;light&quot;) was a literary review inaugurated in 1936 in the city of [[Mindelo]] on the island of [[São Vicente, Cape Verde|São Vicente]], [[Cape Verde]]. It was part of a movement of cultural, social, and political emancipations of the Cape Verdean society. The founding contributors were [[Manuel Lopes (writer)|Manuel Lopes]], [[Baltasar Lopes da Silva]], who used the poetic pseudonym of Osvaldo Alcântara, and [[Jorge Barbosa (writer)|Jorge Barbosa]], born in the Islands of São Nicolau, Santiago and São Vicente, respectively. The magazine followed the steps of the [[Portuguese New Realism|Portuguese neorealist]] writers, and contributed to the building of &quot;Cape Verdeanity&quot;, an autonomous cultural identity for the archipelago.<br /> <br /> ''Claridade'' revolutionized [[Culture of Cape Verde|Cape Verdean literature]]. It set new standards of literary aesthetics and language, overcoming the conflict between Portuguese [[Romanticism]]—dominant during the 19th century—and the [[New Realism]]. Its founders aimed to free Cape Verdean writers from the Portuguese canons, awaken the Cape Verdean collective conscience and recover local cultural elements that had long been repressed by Portuguese colonialism, such as [[Cape Verdean Creole]].<br /> <br /> The project was a facet of the political and ideological unrest that existed in Cape Verde in the 1930s during [[António de Oliveira Salazar|Salazar]]'s fascist regime, caused by widespread misery and colonial mismanagement, and exacerbated by severe droughts.<br /> <br /> ''Claridade'''s editors had to deal with the Portuguese colonial censorship system and the surveillance of [[PIDE]] (International and State Defence Police). Subversive activities could lead to torture and to the political prison of Tarrafal, on the Island of [[Santiago, Cape Verde|Santiago]].<br /> <br /> The founders of ''Claridade'' had considered creating a newspaper, but found the required deposit of 50 thousand [[Portuguese escudo]]s excessive, and settled for a magazine. The title reflected the hope that the publication would become an intellectual &quot;beacon&quot;. Its founding can be viewed in the context of nineteenth century liberalism.<br /> <br /> ==Origin of the name==<br /> The name of the review was inspired by the French book ''Clarté'' by [[Henri Barbusse]], later another review and a peace group were later made with the Argentine review ''[[Claridad (review)|Claridad]]''&lt;ref&gt;Jorge Miranda Alfama, ''postface à Récits et nouvelles du Cap-Vert'', p. 193-200&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> == Endogenous and exogenous elements ==<br /> Prior to the foundation of ''Claridade'', certain literary and cultural elements had been developed both within and outside of Cape Verde, which to some extent influenced directly or indirectly the magazine. As the endogenous factors, stood out: <br /> * During the 'pre-Claridade' generation, later named classical-romantic generation, the three literary and cultural figures of Cape Verde, [[Eugénio Tavares]], [[Pedro Cardoso (poet)|Pedro Cardoso]] and [[José Lopes da Silva (poet)|José Lopes]], from the Islands of [[Brava, Cape Verde|Brava]], [[Fogo, Cape Verde|Fogo]], and [[São Nicolau, Cape Verde|São Nicolau]], respectively, contributed immensely to the appreciation of Cape Verdean people and language;<br /> * the publication of the book of poems by [[António Pedro]], named ''Diário'' (1929);<br /> * the hidden speech among the founders of ''Claridade'';<br /> * the publication of Jorge Barbosa's book, ''Arquipélago'' (1935), which opened the door to modern Cape Verdean literature, demonstrated a complete change in rhetoric and thematic poetry of Cape Verde.<br /> <br /> With regard to the exogenous elements, the following are highlighted:<br /> * the personal presence of some Portuguese writers in Cape Verde in late 1920 and early 1930, including [[Augusto Casimiro]], António Pedro and José Osório de Oliveira;<br /> * the Portuguese magazine, named ''Presença'', published in 1927 in [[Coimbra]];<br /> * the Brazilian modern literature and Northeast realism.<br /> is title is inspired by Clarity, a book by Henri Barbusse, then a review and pacifist group animated by the latte<br /> <br /> == Publication history and contents ==<br /> ''Claridade'''s articles were written in Portuguese and [[Cape Verdean Creole]]. Nine numbered issues appeared between 1936 and 1960. They can be divided into two distinct periods, with an interval of a decade, due to financial difficulties and the dispersal of members of the group throughout the islands. The first three issues, published on March and August 1936 and March 1937, were written almost exclusively by the founders, while the works of the remaining seven, that took place between 1947 and 1960 (fourth issue in January 1947, fifth issue later in September, sixth in July 1948, seventh in December 1949, eighth in May 1958 and the last in December 1960),&lt;ref&gt;Soares, Risanda dos Reis [http://pt.scribd.com/doc/40470429/Sao-Vicente-de-Cabo-Verde-no-pos-guerra-1945-1960 ''São Vicente de Cabo Verde no pós guerra (1945-1960)''], University of Porto, 2009 {{in lang|pt}}&lt;/ref&gt; were primarily conducted by Baltasar da Silva, because during this period, Jorge Barbosa had been stationary on the Island of Sal, and Manuel Lopes was already on [[Faial Island]], [[Azores]], where he had been transferred to, as a [[Western Telegraph]] operator.<br /> <br /> The first issue of ''Claridade'' presented three poetic texts of oral tradition in Creole – ''Lantuna &amp; 2 reasons of finaçom'' (''finaçom'' being a drum musical style from the Island of Santiago). The second issue had the ''[[Morna (music)|morna]]'' () called ''Vénus'' by Francisco Xavier da Cruz of São Vicente, better known as B. Leza, and other literary and cultural articles also in Portuguese. The remaining issues, predominantly in the Cape Verdean language, featured ''finaçom'' and ''batucu'', the poetic folklore of Santiago, and Ana Procópio's songs of the Island of Fogo; the novelistic folklore of the Islands of São Nicolau and Santo Antão; ethnographic studies of peoples from Santiago and Fogo; and studies on the social structure of the latter island and on the human originality of the other islands.<br /> <br /> == Writers of ''Claridade'' ==<br /> <br /> Besides the above founders of ''Claridade'', we should mention two other very important contributors: painter and critic Jaime de Figueiredo and writer João Lopes, who cooperated immensely at early stages of the magazine. Additionally, throughout the existence of ''Claridade'' several other bilingual writers contributed greatly to the magazine's development, in particular, and to modern Cape Verde literature in general. They were Pedro Corsino de Azevedo and José Osório de Oliveira on the first issues, and [[Henrique Teixeira de Sousa]], Félix Monteiro, Nuno Miranda, [[Sergio Frusoni]], [[Abílio Duarte]], Arnaldo França, [[Corsino Fortes]], Tomás Martins, Virgílio Pires, [[Onésimo Silveira]], [[Francisco Xavier da Cruz]], [[Artur Augusto da Silva|Artur Augusto]], Virgílio de Melo, [[Luís Romano de Madeira Melo]], among others, in other published magazine issues.<br /> <br /> == Intellectual development and national sovereignty ==<br /> <br /> The establishing of the ecclesiastical and secular Advanced School (Liceu-Seminário) of Ribeira Brava, on the Island of [[São Nicolau, Cape Verde|São Nicolau]], was one of the most fundamental building blocks in the development of modern Cape Verdean literature. Years later, the Advanced Schools in the cities of [[Mindelo]] and [[Praia]] were founded, which, in addition to form the ruling classes of the Cape Verdean administration, were responsible of creating crucibles from where came successive generations of intellectuals, who have led the reaction against the strong hand of colonialist process. Such a process would then open the door to political demand, so the [[History of Cape Verde]] would reach its apogee with the [[African Party for the Independence of Cape Verde|National Independence]] on July 5, 1975, and with the affirmation of Democracy, the social and economic development, currently enjoyed by the Cape Verdeans.<br /> <br /> == Literary publications ==<br /> ''Claridade'' has further awakened and illuminated the Cape Verdean intellectuality and the vestiges of this effect can be verified in the masterpieces released by the founders of ''Claridade'', which remarkably enhanced the Cape Verdean literature, such as ''[[Arquipélago (novel)|Arquipélago]]'',&lt;ref&gt;Barbosa, Jorge. ''Arquipélago'' Mindelo: ICL, 1935.&lt;/ref&gt; [[Chiquinho (novel)|''Chiquinho'']],&lt;ref&gt;Silva, Baltazar Lopes da. ''Chiquinho''. Lisbon: ALAC, 1982 (1st ed. 1947).&lt;/ref&gt; ''[[Chuva Braba]]'',&lt;ref&gt;Lopes, Manuel. ''Chuva Braba''. Lisbon: Edições 70, 1982 (1st ed. 1956).&lt;/ref&gt; and ''[[Os Flagelados do Vento Leste]].''.&lt;ref&gt;Lopes, Manuel. ''Os Flagelados do Vento Leste''. Lisbon: Edições 70, 1984 (1st ed. 1959).&lt;/ref&gt; Similarly, the same literary magazine released literary seeds that would germinate in other major Cape Verdean publications, such as, ''[[Certeza]]'' (1944), ''Suplemento Cultural'' (1958), ''Raízes'' (1977) and ''Ponto &amp; Vírgula'' (1983), which featured brilliant writers, such as [[Gabriel Mariano]], [[Ovídio Martins]], [[Aguinaldo Fonseca]], [[Terêncio Anahory]], [[Yolanda Morazzo]], [[Leão Lopes]] and [[Germano de Almeida]].<br /> <br /> ==Selected issues==<br /> *Number 1:<br /> **&quot;Lantuna e 2 motivais de finaçom&quot;<br /> *Number 5:<br /> **&quot;A estrutura social da Ilha do Fogo&quot; (&quot;Social Structure on the Island of Fogo&quot;) by [[Henrique Teixeira de Sousa]]<br /> *Number 8:<br /> **&quot;Bandeiras da Ilha do Fogo — O Senhor e o Escravo Divertem-se&quot; (&quot;Flags of the Island of Fogo&quot;) by Félix Monteiro<br /> **&quot;Sobrados, lojas e funcos&quot; (&quot;Sobradoes, Lojas and Funcos&quot;) by Henrique Teixeira de Sousa<br /> <br /> ==See also==<br /> *[[Literature of Cape Verde]]<br /> *[[Certeza]]<br /> <br /> == Biographical references ==<br /> &lt;references/&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Further reading==<br /> * George Alao, (1999). &quot;The Development of Lusophone Africa's Literary Magazines.&quot; ''Research in African Literatures'', Vol. 30, No. 1, pp.&amp;nbsp;169–183.<br /> *Richard A. Lobban Jr et Paul Khalil Saucier, &quot;Claridade movement&quot;, ''Historical dictionary of the Republic of Cape Verde'', Scarecrow Press, Lanham, Maryland ; Toronto ; Plymouth, UK, 2007, p.&amp;nbsp;57 {{ISBN|978-0-8108-4906-8}}<br /> * ''Baltazar Lopes et le mouvement Claridade : littérature, expositions, entretiens, mémoire'' (''Baltasar Lopes and the Claridade Movement: Literature, Expos, Interviews, Memoirs''), Cahiers lusophones, Paris, 2007, 128 p. (no 30 was a special issue published in ''Latitudes'', 2007)<br /> *João Nobre de Oliveira: ''A Imprensa Cabo-Verdiana 1820–1975'' [''Press of Cape Verde: 1820-1975''], Fundação Macau, Macau 1998 {{ISBN|978-972-65-8017-1}}<br /> *''Récits &amp; nouvelles du Cap-Vert. &quot;Claridade&quot;'', Chandeigne, 1996, republished in. 2006<br /> *[[Eugénio Tavares|Eugene Tavares]], ''Claridade and the Question of Political Conscience (1936–1960)'', New [[University of Sorbonne]], 2007, 494 pages (thesis studies in Portuguese)<br /> *[[Manuel Veiga (writer)|Manuel Veiga]], Elisa Silva Andrade, ''Insularité et littérature aux îles du Cap-Vert'', Karthala, 1997<br /> <br /> == External links ==<br /> * [https://web.archive.org/web/20051120133425/http://www.instituto-camoes.pt/revista/revista1ru.htm From classicism to realism in ''Claridade''] by Alberto Carvalho<br /> * [http://www.library.uu.nl/digiarchief/dip/diss/2003-0310-101002/pt3c2.pdf The Creation of a Creole Literature] (pdf)<br /> * [https://web.archive.org/web/20060927164117/http://www.codesria.org/Links/Publications/arb_dec05/almada.pdf Cape Verde Fiction] (pdf)<br /> <br /> {{Mindelo, Cape Verde}}<br /> <br /> [[Category:1930s establishments in Cape Verde]]<br /> [[Category:1960 disestablishments in Portugal]]<br /> [[Category:Defunct literary magazines published in Europe]]<br /> [[Category:Defunct magazines published in Portugal]]<br /> [[Category:Magazines established in 1936]]<br /> [[Category:Magazines disestablished in 1960]]<br /> [[Category:Culture of São Vicente, Cape Verde]]<br /> [[Category:Mass media in Cape Verde]]<br /> [[Category:Mass media in Mindelo]]<br /> [[Category:Portuguese-language magazines]]<br /> [[Category:Literary magazines published in Portugal]]</div>

45.187.103.2 http://debianws.lexgopc.com/wiki143/index.php?title=Chapbook&diff=858518 2025-06-14T04:22:58Z

<p>45.187.103.2: /* Terminology */</p> <hr /> <div>{{Short description|Short inexpensive booklet}}<br /> {{hatgrp|{{Redirect|Chap-Book|the 19th-century American magazine|The Chap-Book{{!}}''The Chap-Book''}}<br /> {{Distinguish|chapter book}}}}<br /> {{More citations needed|date=February 2024}}<br /> [[File:Chapbook Jack the Giant Killer.jpg|thumbnail|Chapbook (c. 1800) of ''[[Jack the Giant Killer]]'']]<br /> A '''chapbook''' is a type of small printed booklet that was a popular medium for [[street literature]] throughout [[early modern Europe]]. Chapbooks were usually produced cheaply, illustrated with crude [[woodcut]]s and printed on a single sheet folded into 8, 12, 16, or 24 pages, sometimes bound with a [[saddle stitch]]. Printers provided chapbooks on credit to chapmen, who sold them both from door to door and at markets and fairs, then paying for the stock they sold. The tradition of chapbooks emerged during the 16th century as printed books were becoming affordable, with the medium ultimately reaching its height of popularity during the 17th and 18th centuries. Various [[ephemera]] and popular or folk literature were published as chapbooks, such as [[almanac]]s, [[children's literature]], [[folklore]], [[ballads]], [[nursery rhyme]]s, [[pamphlet]]s, [[poetry]], and political and religious [[Tract (literature)|tract]]s. The term ''chapbook'' remains in use by publishers to refer to short, inexpensive booklets.<br /> <br /> ==Terminology==<br /> ''Chapbook'' is first attested in English in 1824, and seemingly derives from ''[[chapmen|chapman]]'', the word for the itinerant salesmen who would sell such books.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Spufford |first=Margaret |author-link=Margaret Spufford |title=The Great Reclothing of Rural England |publisher=Hambledon |year=1984 |isbn=0-907-62847-8 |location=London}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Leitch |first=R. |year=1990 |title='Here Chapman Billies Take Their Stand': A Pilot Study of Scottish Chapmen, Packmen and Pedlars |journal=Proceedings of the Scottish Society of Antiquarians 120 |pages=173–188}}&lt;/ref&gt; The first element of ''chapman'' comes in turn from Old English {{lang|ang|cēap}} 'barter', 'business', 'dealing',&lt;ref&gt;''Oxford English Dictionary'', s.vv. ''chap-book, n.'' and ''chapman, n.''.&lt;/ref&gt; from which the modern adjective ''cheap'' was ultimately derived.<br /> <br /> Chapbooks correspond to Portuguese [[Cordel literature]], and to French {{lang|fr|[[bibliothèque bleue]]}} 'blue library' literature, because they were often wrapped in cheap blue paper that was usually reserved as a wrapping for sugar.{{sfn|Lyons|2011|p=121}} Chapbooks are called {{lang|de|Volksbuch}} 'people's book' in German, and as {{lang|es|pliegos sueltos}} 'loose sheets' in Spanish, with the latter name referring to their method of assembly.{{sfn|Lyons|2011|p=121}} ''[[Lubok]]'' books are the Russian equivalent.{{sfn|Lyons|2011|p=158}}<br /> <br /> ==History==<br /> [[File:Fairies dancing in a ring woodcut.png|thumb|Woodcut of a [[fairy-circle]] from a 17th-century chapbook]]<br /> [[Broadside ballad]]s were popular songs, sold for a [[penny]] or [[halfpenny (British pre-decimal coin)|halfpenny]] in the streets of towns and villages around Britain between the 16th and the early 20th centuries. They preceded chapbooks but had similar content, marketing, and distribution systems. There are records from [[Cambridgeshire]] as early as in 1553 of a man offering a scurrilous ballad &quot;maistres mass&quot; at an [[alehouse]], and a pedlar selling &quot;lytle books&quot; to people,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Spufford |first=Margaret |title=Small books and pleasant histories: popular fiction and its readership in seventeenth-century England |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1985 |isbn=978-0-521-31218-9}}&lt;/ref&gt; including a patcher of old clothes in 1578. These sales are probably characteristic of the market for chapbooks.<br /> <br /> The form factor originated in Britain, but was also used in North America. Chapbooks gradually disappeared from the mid-19th century in the face of competition from cheap newspapers and, especially in Scotland, from tract societies that regarded them as ungodly.<br /> <br /> Chapbooks were generally aimed at buyers who did not maintain libraries, and due to their flimsy construction they rarely survive as individual items. In an era when paper was expensive, chapbooks were sometimes used for wrapping, baking, or as [[toilet paper]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Spufford |first=Margaret |title=Small books and pleasant histories: popular fiction and its readership in seventeenth-century England |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1985 |isbn=978-0-521-31218-9 |pages=48–49}}&lt;/ref&gt; Many of the surviving chapbooks come from the collections of [[Samuel Pepys]] between 1661 and 1688 which are now held at [[Magdalene College, Cambridge]]. The antiquary [[Anthony Wood (antiquary)|Anthony Wood]] also collected 65 chapbooks, including 20 from before 1660, which are now in the [[Bodleian Library]]. There are also significant Scottish collections, such as those held by the [[University of Glasgow]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Scottish Chapbooks |url=http://special.lib.gla.ac.uk/chapbooks/search/ |access-date=2015-10-22 |publisher=University of Glasgow}}&lt;/ref&gt; and the [[National Library of Scotland]].&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Chapbooks |url=https://www.nls.uk/collections/rare-books/collections/chapbooks |access-date=2020-05-28 |publisher=National Library of Scotland}}&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> Modern collectors such as [[Peter Opie]], have chiefly a scholarly interest in the form.&lt;ref&gt;[http://admin.oral-tradition.chs.orphe.us/wp-content/uploads/files/articles/28ii/05_28.2.pdf &quot;The Working Papers of Iona and Peter Opie&quot; Julia C. Bishop], http://admin.oral-tradition.chs.orphe.us. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191106071616/http://admin.oral-tradition.chs.orphe.us/wp-content/uploads/files/articles/28ii/05_28.2.pdf |date=2019-11-06}}, February 28, 2013&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/115332/1/The%20Lives%20and%20Legacies%20of%20Iona%20and%20Peter%20Opie%20FINAL.pdf &quot;The lives and legacies of Iona and Peter Opie&quot;], http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk&lt;/ref&gt; Modern small literary presses, such as [[Louffa Press]], [[Black Lawrence Press]] and [[Ugly Duckling Presse]], continue to issue several small editions of chapbooks a year, updated in technique and materials, often to high fabrication standards, such as [[letterpress]].<br /> <br /> ==Production and distribution==<br /> Chapbooks were cheap, anonymous publications that were the usual reading material for lower-class people who could not afford books. Members of the upper classes occasionally owned chapbooks, and sometimes bound them in leather. Printers typically tailored their texts for the popular market. Chapbooks were usually between four and twenty-four pages long, and produced on rough paper with crude, frequently recycled, woodcut illustrations. Millions of chapbooks were sold each year. After 1696, English chapbook peddlers had to be licensed, and 2,500 of them were then authorized, 500 in London alone. In France, there were 3,500 licensed [[colporteur]]s by 1848, and they sold 40 million books annually.{{sfn|Lyons|2011|pp=121–122}}<br /> <br /> The centre of the chapbook and ballad production was London, and until the [[Great Fire of London]] in 1666 the printers were based around [[London Bridge]]. However, a feature of chapbooks is the proliferation of provincial printers, especially in Scotland and [[Newcastle upon Tyne]].&lt;ref&gt;See the &quot;Introduction&quot; ''in'' Simons, John (1998) ''Guy of Warwick and other Chapbook Romances'' University of Exeter Press, Exeter, England, {{ISBN|0-85989-445-2}}, for issues of definition.&lt;/ref&gt; The first Scottish publication was the tale of ''[[Tom Thumb]],'' in 1682.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Content==<br /> [[File:CalasChapbook.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.1|The frontispiece of a late 18th-century chapbook edition of [[Voltaire]]'s ''The Extraordinary Tragical Fate of Calas'', depicting [[Jean Calas]] being [[broken on the wheel]]]]<br /> Chapbooks were an important medium for the dissemination of popular culture to the common people, especially in rural areas. They were a medium of entertainment and information. Though the content of chapbooks has been criticized as unsophisticated narratives which were heavily loaded with repetition and emphasized adventure through mostly anecdotal structures,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Hoeveler |first=D. L. |year=2010 |title=Gothic Chapbooks and the Urban Reader |url=https://epublications.marquette.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1130&amp;context=english_fac |journal=Wordsworth Circle |volume=41 |issue=3 |pages=155–158 |doi=10.1086/TWC24043706 |s2cid=53571972|url-access=subscription }}&lt;/ref&gt; they are valued as a record of popular culture, preserving cultural artefacts that may not survive in any other form.<br /> <br /> Chapbooks were priced for sales to workers, although their market was not limited to the working classes. Broadside ballads were sold for a [[halfpenny (British pre-decimal coin)|halfpenny]], or a few [[pence]]. Prices of chapbooks were from 2d. to 6d., when agricultural labourers' wages were 12d. per day. The literacy rate in England in the 1640s was around 30 percent for males and rose to 60 percent in the mid-18th century. Many working people were readers, if not writers, and pre-industrial working patterns provided periods during which they could read. <br /> <br /> Chapbooks were used for reading to family groups or groups in alehouses. They contributed to the development of literacy, and there is evidence of their use by [[autodidact]]s. In the 1660s, as many as 400,000 [[almanac]]s were printed annually, enough for one family in three in England. One 17th-century publisher of chapbooks in London stocked one book for every 15 families in the country.{{Clarify|date=February 2024|reason=How many is that?}} In the 1520s the Oxford bookseller John Dorne noted in his day-book selling up to 190 [[ballads]] a day at a halfpenny each. The probate inventory of the stock of Charles Tias, of ''The sign of the Three Bibles'' on London Bridge, in 1664 included books and printed sheets to make approximately 90,000 chapbooks (including 400 reams of paper) and 37,500 ballad sheets. This was not regarded as an outstanding figure in the trade. The inventory of Josiah Blare, of ''The Sign of the Looking Glass'' on London Bridge, in 1707 listed 31,000 books, plus 257 reams of printed sheets. A conservative estimate of sales in Scotland alone in the second half of the 18th century was over 200,000 per year.<br /> <br /> Printers provided chapbooks on credit to chapmen, who sold them both from door to door and at markets and fairs, then paying for the stock they sold. This facilitated wide distribution and large sales with minimum outlay, and also provided the printers with feedback about what titles were most popular. Popular works were reprinted, pirated, edited, and produced in different editions.<br /> <br /> Publishers also issued catalogues, and chapbooks are found in the libraries of provincial [[yeomen]] and [[gentry]]. John Whiting, a Quaker yeoman imprisoned at [[Ilchester, Somerset]], in the 1680s had books sent by carrier from London, and left for him at an inn.<br /> <br /> Samuel Pepys had a collection of ballads bound into volumes, under the following classifications, into which could fit the subject matter of most chapbooks: <br /> # Devotion and Morality<br /> # History – true and fabulous<br /> # Tragedy: viz. Murders, executions, and judgments of God<br /> # State and Times<br /> # Love – pleasant<br /> # Ditto – unpleasant<br /> # Marriage, Cuckoldry, &amp;c.<br /> # Sea – love, gallantry &amp; actions<br /> # Drinking and good fellowship<br /> # Humour, frollicks and mixt.<br /> <br /> Stories in many chapbooks have much earlier origins. ''Bevis of Hampton'' was an Anglo-Norman romance of the 13th century, which probably drew on earlier themes. The structure of ''[[The Seven Sages of Rome]]'' was of Eastern origin, and was used by [[Geoffrey Chaucer]]. Many jests about ignorant and greedy clergy in chapbooks were taken from ''The Friar and the Boy'' printed about 1500 by [[Wynkyn de Worde]], and ''The Sackfull of News'' (1557).<br /> <br /> Historical stories set in a mythical and fantastical past were popular, while many significant historical figures and events appear rarely or not at all: in the Pepys collection, [[Charles I of England|Charles I]], and [[Oliver Cromwell]] do not appear as historical figures, [[The Wars of the Roses]] and the [[English Civil War]] do not appear at all, [[Elizabeth I]] appears only once, and [[Henry VIII]] and [[Henry II of England|Henry II]] appear in disguise, {{Clarify|date=February 2024|text=standing up for the right}} with cobblers and millers and then inviting them to court and rewarding them. There was a pattern of high born heroes overcoming reduced circumstances by valour, such as [[Saint George]], [[Guy of Warwick]], [[Robin Hood]], and heroes of low birth who achieve status through force of arms, such as Clim of Clough, and William of Cloudesley. Clergy often appear as figures of fun, and foolish countrymen were also popular (e.g., ''[[The Wise Men of Gotham]]''). Other works were aimed at regional and rural audience (e.g., ''The Country Mouse and the Town Mouse'').<br /> <br /> From 1597, works were published that were aimed at specific trades, such as [[cloth merchant]]s, [[Weaver (occupation)|weavers]] and [[shoemakers]]. The latter were commonly literate.{{Clarify|date=February 2024}} Thomas Deloney, a weaver, wrote ''Thomas of Reading'', about six clothiers from [[Reading, Berkshire|Reading]], [[Gloucester]], [[Worcester, England|Worcester]], [[Exeter]], [[Salisbury]] and [[Southampton]], traveling together and meeting at [[Basingstoke]] their fellows from [[Kendal]], [[Manchester]] and [[Halifax, West Yorkshire|Halifax]]. In his ''Jack of [[Newbury, Berkshire|Newbury]]'', set during [[Henry VIII]]'s reign, an apprentice to a [[broadcloth]] weaver takes over his business and marries his widow on his death. On achieving success, he is liberal to the poor and refuses a knighthood for his substantial services to the king.<br /> <br /> Other examples from the Pepys collection include ''The Countryman's Counsellor, or Everyman his own Lawyer'', and ''Sports and Pastimes'', written for schoolboys, including magic tricks, like how to &quot;fetch a shilling out of a handkerchief&quot;,{{Quote without source|date=February 2024}} write invisibly, make roses out of paper, snare wild duck, and make a maid-servant fart uncontrollably.<br /> <br /> The provinces and Scotland had their own local heroes. [[Robert Burns]] commented that one of the first two books he read in private was &quot;the history of Sir [[William Wallace]] ... poured a Scottish prejudice in my veins which will boil along there till the flood-gates of life shut in eternal rest&quot;.{{Quote without source|date=February 2024}}<br /> <br /> ==Influence==<br /> Chapbooks had a wide and continuing influence. Eighty percent of English folk songs collected by early-20th-century collectors have been linked to printed broadsides, including over 90 of which could only be derived from those printed before 1700. It has been suggested the majority of surviving ballads can be traced to 1550–1600 by internal evidence.<br /> <br /> One of the most popular and influential chapbooks was Richard Johnson's ''Seven Champions of Christendom'' (1596), believed to be the source for the introduction of [[Saint George]] into English [[folk play]]s.<br /> <br /> [[Robert Greene (16th century)|Robert Greene]]'s 1588 novel ''[[Dorastus and Fawnia]]'', the basis of Shakespeare's ''[[The Winter's Tale]]'', was still being published in cheap editions in the 1680s. Some stories were still being published in the 19th century, (e.g., ''Jack of Newbury'', ''Friar Bacon'', ''Dr Faustus'' and ''[[The Seven Champions of Christendom]]'').<br /> <br /> ==Later production==<br /> [[File:Chapbook.JPG|thumb|right|A modern chapbook]]<br /> ''Chapbook'' is also a term currently used to denote publications of up to about 40 pages, usually poetry bound with some form of [[saddle stitch]], though many are [[perfect bound]], folded, or wrapped. These publications range from low-cost productions to finely produced, hand-made editions that may sell to collectors for hundreds of dollars. More recently,{{when|date=February 2024}} the popularity of fiction and non-fiction chapbooks has also increased. In the UK they are more often referred to as [[pamphlet]]s.<br /> <br /> The genre has been revitalized in the past 40 years by the widespread availability of first [[mimeograph]] technology, then low-cost copy centres and digital printing, and by the cultural revolutions spurred by both [[zines]] and [[poetry slam]]s, the latter generating hundreds upon hundreds of self-published chapbooks that are used to fund tours. The Center for the Humanities at the [[City University of New York]] Graduate Center has held the NYC/CUNY Chapbook Festival, focused on &quot;the chapbook as a work of art, and as a medium for alternative and emerging writers and publishers&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=NYC/CUNY Chapbook Festival |url=http://chapbookfestival.org |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170917155034/http://chapbookfestival.org/ |archive-date=2017-09-17 |access-date=2018-11-23 |publisher=City University of New York}}&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==Collections==<br /> {{cleanup list|date=May 2024}}<br /> * The [[National Library of Scotland]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Chapbooks |url=https://www.nls.uk/collections/rarebooks/collections/chapbooks |access-date=2 August 2019 |publisher=National Library of Scotland}}&lt;/ref&gt; holds a large collection of Scottish chapbooks; approximately 4,000 of an estimated total of 15,000 published – including several in [[Lowland Scots Language|Lowland Scots]] and [[Scottish Gaelic|Gaelic]].&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite web |last=Hagan |first=Anette |date=August 2019 |title=Chapbooks: the poor person's reading material |url=https://blog.europeana.eu/2019/08/chapbooks-the-poor-persons-reading-material/ |access-date=2019-10-10 |website=[[Europeana]]}}&lt;/ref&gt; Records for most Scottish chapbooks have been catalogued online. Approximately 3,000 of these have been digitized and can be accessed from the Library's [https://digital.nls.uk/chapbooks-printed-in-scotland/archive/104184103 Digital Gallery]. A project is underway to add every chapbook in the collection to [[Wikisource]] called [https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Wikisource:WikiProject_NLS WikiProject NLS].<br /> * The [[Glasgow University Library]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Introduction to our Collections |url=https://www.gla.ac.uk/myglasgow/specialcollections/introductiontoourcollections/ |access-date=2 August 2019 |publisher=University of Glasgow}}&lt;/ref&gt; has over 1,000 examples throughout the collections, searchable online via the Scottish Chapbooks Catalogue of c. 4,000 works, which covers the Lauriston Castle collection, Edinburgh City libraries and Stirling University. The University of South Carolina's G. Ross Roy Collection is collaborating in research for the Scottish Chapbook Project.<br /> *The [[Bodleian Library]] of the University of Oxford&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Bodleian Library Broadside Ballads |url=http://www.bodley.ox.ac.uk/ballads/ballads.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040404051546/http://www.bodley.ox.ac.uk/ballads/ballads.htm |archive-date=2004-04-04 |access-date=2006-01-07}}&lt;/ref&gt; has over 30,000 ballads in several major collections. The original printed materials range from the 16th to the 20th century. The Broadside Ballads project makes the digitized copies of the sheets and ballads available.<br /> *Sir [[Frederick Madden]]'s Collection of Broadside Ballads, at [[Cambridge University Library]],&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Publisher's Introduction: Madden Ballads From Cambridge University Library |url=http://microformguides.gale.com/Data/Introductions/30330FM.htm |access-date=2 August 2019 |publisher=Cambridge University Library}}&lt;/ref&gt; is possibly the largest collection from London and provincial presses between 1775 and 1850, with earlier 18th-century garlands and Irish volumes.<br /> *The [[Lilly Library]], Indiana University&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=6 December 2013 |title=Chapbook Collection Guide: Special databases: The Collections: The Lilly Library |url=http://www.indiana.edu/~liblilly/chapbook.shtml |access-date=2 August 2019 |publisher=Indiana University |location=Bloomington}}&lt;/ref&gt; has 1,900 chapbooks from England, Scotland, Ireland, France, and the United States, which were part of the Elisabeth W. Ball collection. Online search facility<br /> *[[Rutgers University]], Special Collections and University Archives&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Special Collections and University Archives |url=https://www.libraries.rutgers.edu/rul/libs/scua/scua.shtml |access-date=2 August 2019 |publisher=Rutgers University}}&lt;/ref&gt; houses the Harry Bischoff Weiss collection of 18th- and 19th-century chapbooks, illustrated with catchpenny prints.<br /> *The [[John Rylands University Library]] at University of Manchester&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Sharpe Chapbook Collection |url=http://rylibweb.man.ac.uk/data2/spcoll/sharpe/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/19991007083550/http://rylibweb.man.ac.uk/data2/spcoll/sharpe/ |archive-date=7 October 1999 |access-date=14 January 2022 |publisher=University of Manchester}}&lt;/ref&gt; contains 600 items in The Sharpe Collection of chapbooks, formed by [[Charles Kirkpatrick Sharpe]]. These are 19th-century items printed in Scotland and Newcastle upon Tyne.<br /> *Literatura de Cordel Brazilian Chapbook Collection Library of Congress, [[American Folklife Center]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=13 January 2006 |title=2005 Junior Fellows Program Projects (Junior Fellows Program, Library of Congress) |url=http://www.loc.gov/rr/jrfell/2005-proj.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060113080859/http://www.loc.gov/rr/jrfell/2005-proj.html |archive-date=2006-01-13 |access-date=2 August 2019 |website=[[Library of Congress]]}}&lt;/ref&gt; has a collection of over 7200 works of [[cordel literature]]. Descended from the medieval troubadour and chapbook tradition of cordel literature has been published in Brazil for over a century.<br /> *The Archival and Special Collections at the [[University of Guelph Library]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=31 December 2005 |title=Scottish chapbook collection |url=http://www.lib.uoguelph.ca/resources/archives/Scottish/chapbooks.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051231070112/http://www.lib.uoguelph.ca/resources/archives/Scottish/chapbooks.htm |archive-date=2005-12-31 |access-date=2 August 2019 |publisher=University of Guelph Library}}&lt;/ref&gt; has a collection of more than 550 chapbooks in its extensive Scottish holdings.<br /> * The [[National Art Library]], Victoria &amp; Albert Museum in London&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Search Victoria and Albert Museum |url=https://nal-vam.on.worldcat.org/discovery |access-date=2 August 2019 |publisher=National Art Library}}&lt;/ref&gt; has a collection of approximately 800 chapbooks, all catalogued.<br /> * The [[McGill University Library]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Chapbook Collection |url=http://digital.library.mcgill.ca/chapbooks/index.php |publisher=McGill Library}}&lt;/ref&gt; has over 900 British and American chapbooks published in the 18th and 19th centuries. The chapbooks have been digitized and can be read online.<br /> * The Grupo de investigación sobre relaciones de sucesos (siglos XVI–XVIII) en la Península Ibérica, [[Universidade da Coruña]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=18 September 2010 |title=Relaciones de Sucesos |url=http://rosalia.dc.fi.udc.es/relaciones/index.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100918043533/http://rosalia.dc.fi.udc.es/relaciones/index.html |archive-date=2010-09-18 |access-date=2 August 2019 |language=es}}&lt;/ref&gt; Catalog and Digital Library of &quot;Relaciones de sucesos&quot; (16th–18th centuries). Bibliographical database of more than 5,000 chap-books, pamphlets, Early modern press news, etc. Facsimilar reproduction of many of the copies: [https://web.archive.org/web/20110921192809/http://rosalia.dc.fi.udc.es/RelacionesSucesosBusqueda/ Catálogo y Biblioteca Digital de Relaciones de Sucesos (siglos XVI–XVIII)] <br /> * The [[Ball State University]] Digital Media Repository Chapbooks collection&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=CONTENTdm |url=https://dmr.bsu.edu/digital/collection/chapbks |access-date=2 August 2019 |publisher=Ball State University}}&lt;/ref&gt; provides online access to 173 chapbooks from the 19th and 20th centuries.<br /> * The Elizabeth Nesbitt Room, [[University of Pittsburgh]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=27 September 2011 |title=The Elizabeth Nesbitt Room: A Goodly Heritage |url=http://www.library.pitt.edu/libraries/is/enroom/index.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927023910/http://www.library.pitt.edu/libraries/is/enroom/index.html |archive-date=2011-09-27 |access-date=2 August 2019 |publisher=University of Pittsburgh}}&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> * [[Cambridge Digital Library]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Spanish Chapbooks |url=http://cudl.lib.cam.ac.uk/collections/spanishchapbooks |access-date=2 August 2019 |publisher=Cambridge Digital Library}}&lt;/ref&gt; hosts a growing number of digital facsimiles of Spanish chapbooks from the collections of Cambridge University Library and the [[British Library]].<br /> * The [[Biblioteca Nacional de España]] has a digitized collection of chapbooks.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=Search results |url=http://bdh.bne.es/bnesearch/Search.do?destacadas1=Pliegos+sueltos&amp;home=true&amp;languageView=en |access-date=2 August 2019 |publisher=Biblioteca Digital Hispánica |language=es}}&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> * The project [https://desenrollandoelcordel.unige.ch/inicio.html ''Untangling the cordel''] offers a collection of almost 1000 ''pliegos de cordel'', the Spanish equivalent of English chapbooks, kept at the University Library of the University of Geneva.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Carta |first=Constance |last2=Leblanc |first2=Elina |date=May 2021 |title=Le projet « Démêler le cordel » : une bibliothèque numérique pour l'étude de la littérature éphémère espagnole du XIX e siècle |url=https://hal.science/hal-03526522 |language=fr |access-date=24 February 2024 |website=Archive ouverte HAL}}&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> * ''[http://biblioteca.cchs.csic.es/MappingPliegos/ Mapping Pliegos]'' is a portal dedicated to 19th-century Spanish chapbook literature. It brings together the digitized collections of over a dozen partner libraries.<br /> <br /> == See also ==<br /> {{portal|Novels}}<br /> * [[Gothic bluebooks]]<br /> * [[Penny dreadful]]<br /> * [[Špalíček (ballet)]]<br /> * [[Zine]]<br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> === Citations ===<br /> {{Reflist}}<br /> <br /> === Works cited ===<br /> {{Refbegin}}<br /> *{{Cite web |last=The Department of Rare Books and Special Collections |title=The Scottish Chapbook Project |url=http://www.sc.edu/library/spcoll/britlit/cbooks/cbook.html |publisher=University of South Carolina}}<br /> *{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/captaincoxhisba01lanegoog |title=Captain Cox, His Ballads and Books |year=1871 |editor-last=Furnivall |editor-first=F. J. |editor-link=F. J. Furnivall}}<br /> * {{Cite book |last=Lyons |first=Martyn |title=Books: a living history |publisher=J. Paul Getty Museum |year=2011 |isbn=978-1-606-06083-4 |location=Los Angeles}}<br /> *{{Cite book |last=Neuburg |first=Victor E. |author-link=Victor E. Neuburg |title=Chapbooks: A guide to reference material on English, Scottish and American chapbook literature of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries |publisher=Woburn |year=1972 |edition=2nd |location=London}}<br /> *{{Cite book |last=Neuburg |first=Victor E. |author-link=Victor E. Neuburg |title=The penny histories: a study of chapbooks for young readers over two centuries ''(illustrated with facsimiles of seven chapbooks)'' |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1968 |location=London}}<br /> *{{Cite book |last=Neuburg |first=Victor E. |author-link=Victor E. Neuburg |title=Chapbooks: a bibliography of references to English and American chapbook literature of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries |publisher=Vine |year=1964 |location=London}}<br /> *{{Cite book |last=Neuburg |first=Victor E. |author-link=Victor E. Neuburg |title=A select handlist of references to chapbook literature of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries |publisher=J. A. Birkbeck |year=1952 |location=Edinburgh}}<br /> *{{Cite book |last=Spufford |first=Margaret |author-link=Margaret Spufford |title=Small Books and Pleasant Histories: Popular Fiction and its Readership in seventeenth Century England |publisher=Methuen |year=1981}}<br /> *{{Cite book |last=Weiss |first=Harry B. |url=https://archive.org/details/bookaboutchapboo0000weis |title=A book about chapbooks |publisher=Folklore Associates |year=1969 |location=Hatboro |url-access=registration}}<br /> *{{Cite book |last=Weiss |first=Harry B. |title=A catalogue of chapbooks in the New York Public Library |publisher=New York Public Library |year=1936}}<br /> {{Refend}}<br /> <br /> ==External links==<br /> {{Commons category|Chapbooks}}<br /> * {{cite EB1911|wstitle=Chapbook |volume=5 |short=x}}<br /> *[https://libguides.stir.ac.uk/c.php?g=530467&amp;p=3628581 Chapbooks with Scottish imprint from 1790-1890 Collection at University of Stirling Archives]<br /> <br /> {{Authority control}}<br /> <br /> [[Category:Chapbooks| ]]<br /> [[Category:1820s neologisms]]<br /> [[Category:Book formats]]<br /> [[Category:Early modern literature]]</div>

45.187.103.2 http://debianws.lexgopc.com/wiki143/index.php?title=West_Iberian_languages&diff=583877 2025-05-30T04:00:38Z

<p>45.187.103.2: /* Classification */</p> <hr /> <div>{{short description|Branch of the Ibero-Romance languages}}<br /> {{Infobox language family<br /> | name = West Iberian<br /> | altname = Western Iberian Romance<br /> | ethnicity = <br /> | region = [[Iberian Peninsula]], [[Latin America]], [[Africa]], [[Israel]], [[Philippines]], [[East Timor]], [[Easter Island]], [[Goa]]<br /> | familycolor = Indo-European<br /> | fam2 = [[Italic languages|Italic]]<br /> | fam3 = [[Latino-Faliscan languages|Latino-Faliscan]]<br /> | fam4 = [[Latin]]ic<br /> | fam5 = [[Romance languages|Romance]]<br /> | fam6 = [[Italo-Western languages|Italo-Western]]<br /> | fam7 = [[Western Romance languages|Western Romance]]<br /> | fam8 = [[Iberian Romance languages|Iberian Romance]]<br /> | child1 = [[Asturleonese language|Asturleonese]]{{indent|1}}{{*}}[[Asturian language|Asturian]]{{indent|1}}{{*}}[[Cantabrian language|Cantabrian]]{{indent|1}}{{*}}[[Leonese language|Leonese]]{{indent|1}}{{*}}[[Mirandese language|Mirandese]]<br /> | child2 = [[Old Spanish|Castilian]]{{indent|1}}{{*}}[[Spanish language|Spanish]]{{indent|1}}{{*}}[[Judaeo-Spanish]]{{indent|1}}{{*}}[[Extremaduran language|Extremaduran]]<br /> | child3 = [[Galician–Portuguese#Divergence|Galician–Portuguese]]{{indent|1}}{{*}}[[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]{{indent|1}}{{*}}[[Judaeo-Portuguese]]{{indent|1}}{{*}}[[Galician language|Galician]]{{indent|1}}{{*}}[[Fala language|Fala]]<br /> | child4 = [[Navarro-Aragonese]]{{indent|1}}{{*}}[[Aragonese language|Aragonese]]{{indent|1}}{{*}}[[Navarrese dialect|Navarrese]]{{indent|1}}{{*}}[[Old Riojan|Riojan]]<br /> | glotto = west2838<br /> | glottorefname = West Ibero-Romance<br /> | glotto2 = unsh1234<br /> | glottorefname2 = Unshifted Western Romance<br /> | map = Mapa lingüístic de la Península Ibèrica.svg<br /> | mapcaption = Languages of the Iberian Peninsula&lt;br&gt;'''West Iberian Romance:'''<br /> {{legend|orange|[[Aragonese language|Aragonese]]}}<br /> {{legend|aqua|[[Asturleonese language|Asturleonese]] (incl. [[Mirandese language|Mirandese]])}}<br /> {{legend|lime|[[Galician language|Galician]]}}<br /> {{legend|green|[[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]}}<br /> {{legend|#D55400|[[Fala language|Fala]]}}<br /> {{legend|teal|[[Extremaduran language|Extremaduran]]}}<br /> {{legend|#40D088|[[Barranquenho]]}}<br /> {{legend|yellow|[[Spanish language|Spanish]]}}<br /> '''[[Occitano-Romance]]:'''{{legend|red|[[Catalan language|Catalan]] (incl. [[Valencian language|Valencian]])}} {{legend|fuchsia|[[Occitan language|Occitan]]}}<br /> '''Non-Indo-European:'''{{legend|blue|[[Basque language|Basque]] {{small|([[language isolate]])}}}}<br /> | ancestor = <br /> | glottoname = <br /> | notes = <br /> }}<br /> <br /> '''West Iberian''' is a branch of the [[Iberian Romance languages|Ibero-Romance languages]] that includes the Castilian languages ([[Spanish language|Spanish]], [[Judaeo-Spanish]]), [[Astur-Leonese]] ([[Asturian language|Asturian]], [[Leonese dialect|Leonese]], [[Mirandese language|Mirandese]], [[Extremaduran language|Extremaduran]] (sometimes), [[Cantabrian dialect|Cantabrian]]),&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last=Menéndez Pidal|first=R|title=El dialecto Leonés|orig-year=1906|year=2006|publisher=El Buho Viajero|location=León|isbn=84-933781-6-X}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;unesco&quot;&gt;[http://www.unesco.org/culture/ich/index.php?pg=00206 UNESCO Interactive Atlas of the World’s Languages in Danger], where Cantabrian is listed in the [[Astur-Leonese linguistic group]].&lt;/ref&gt; [[Navarro-Aragonese]] and the descendants of [[Galician-Portuguese]].<br /> <br /> Until a few centuries ago, they formed a [[dialect continuum]] covering the western, central and southern parts of the Iberian Peninsula—excepting the [[Basque language|Basque]] and [[Catalan language|Catalan-speaking]] territories. This is still the situation in a few regions, particularly in the northern part of the peninsula, but due to the differing sociopolitical histories of these languages (independence of [[Portugal]] since the early 12th century, unification of [[Spain]] in the late 15th century under the [[Catholic Monarchs]], who privileged Castilian Spanish over the other Iberian languages), Spanish and Portuguese have tended to overtake and to a large extent absorb their sister languages while they kept diverging from each other.<br /> <br /> There is controversy over whether the members of the modern Galician-Portuguese and Astur-Leonese sub-groups are languages or dialects. A common, though disputed, classification is to state that Portuguese and Galician are separate languages, as are Asturian, Leonese, and Mirandese. Cantabrian and Extremaduran are considered codialects of the Leonese language for UNESCO, whereas the latter is a Castilian dialect in the ISO codes.<br /> <br /> [[Papiamento]] is a West Iberian creole language spoken in the [[Dutch West Indies]] and believed to be derived from [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], [[Judaeo-Portuguese]] and [[Spanish language|Spanish]].<br /> <br /> ==Classification==<br /> Bold indicates [[language family|language families]]. Daggers indicate extinct languages.<br /> {{tree list}}<br /> *'''West Iberian'''<br /> **'''[[Asturleonese language|Asturleonese]]'''<br /> ***[[Asturian language|Asturian]]<br /> ***[[Leonese dialect|Leonese]]<br /> ***[[Mirandese language|Mirandese]]<br /> ***[[Extremaduran language|Extremaduran]]{{efn|name=Extremaduran}}<br /> ***[[Cantabrian dialect|Cantabrian]]<br /> **'''Castilian'''<br /> ***[[Extremaduran language|Extremaduran]]{{efn|name=Extremaduran|[[Extremaduran language|Extremaduran]] is sometimes considered an [[Asturleonese language|Asturleonese]] or a Castilian dialect.}}<br /> ***[[Judaeo-Spanish]]<br /> ***[[Spanish language|Spanish]]<br /> ****[[Amazonic Spanish|Loreto-Ucayali]]<br /> **'''[[Galician-Portuguese]]'''<br /> ***[[Galician language|Galician]]<br /> ****[[Galician–Asturian|Galician-Asturian]]<br /> ***[[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]<br /> ***[[Fala language|Fala]]<br /> ***{{Extinct}} [[Judaeo-Portuguese]]<br /> **'''Pyrenean–Mozarabic'''<br /> ***{{Extinct}}[[Mozarabic language|Andalusi Romance]]<br /> ***[[Navarro-Aragonese]]<br /> ****[[Aragonese language|Aragonese]]<br /> *****{{Extinct}} [[Judaeo-Aragonese]]<br /> ****{{Extinct}} [[Navarrese Romance|Navarrese]]<br /> ****{{Extinct}} [[Old Riojan]]<br /> {{tree list/end}}<br /> <br /> ==Notes and references==<br /> ===Notes===<br /> {{Notelist}}<br /> <br /> ===References===<br /> {{Reflist}}<br /> <br /> {{Romance languages}}<br /> <br /> {{Romance-lang-stub}}<br /> {{IndoEuropean-lang-stub}}<br /> <br /> {{DEFAULTSORT:West Iberian Languages}}<br /> [[Category:West Iberian languages| ]]</div>

45.187.103.2 http://debianws.lexgopc.com/wiki143/index.php?title=Grammatical_conjugation&diff=8239 2025-05-29T06:29:23Z

<p>45.187.103.2: /* Examples */</p> <hr /> <div>{{Short description|Creation of derived forms of a verb from its principal parts by inflection}}<br /> {{Distinguish|Conjunction (grammar)}}<br /> [[File:Conjugation of verb-es.svg|thumb|270px|Part of the conjugation of the [[Spanish language|Spanish]] verb ''correr'', &quot;to run&quot;, the lexeme is &quot;corr-&quot;.&lt;br /&gt; Red represents the speaker, purple the [[Interlocutor (linguistics)|addressee]] (or speaker/hearer) and teal a third person.&lt;br /&gt;One person represents the singular number and two, the plural number. &lt;br /&gt;Dawn represents the past (specifically the [[preterite]]), noon the present and night the future.]]<br /> {{Grammatical categories}}<br /> In [[linguistics]], '''conjugation''' ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|k|ɒ|n|dʒ|ᵿ|ˈ|ɡ|eɪ|ʃ|ən}} {{respell|con|juug|AY|shən}}{{refn|{{Cite dictionary |url=http://www.lexico.com/definition/conjugation |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200322182042/https://www.lexico.com/definition/conjugation |url-status=dead |archive-date=2020-03-22 |title=conjugation |dictionary=[[Lexico]] UK English Dictionary |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]}} }}{{refn|{{MerriamWebsterDictionary|access-date=2016-01-26|conjugation}}}}) is the creation of derived forms of a [[verb]] from its [[principal parts]] by [[inflection]] (alteration of form according to rules of [[grammar]]). For instance, the verb ''break'' can be conjugated to form the words ''break'', ''breaks'', and ''broke''. While English has a relatively simple conjugation, other languages such as [[French language|French]] and [[Arabic]] or [[Spanish language|Spanish]] are more complex, with each verb having dozens of conjugated forms. Some languages such as [[Georgian language|Georgian]] and [[Basque language|Basque]] (some verbs only) have highly complex conjugation systems with hundreds of possible conjugations for every verb.<br /> <br /> Verbs may inflect for [[grammatical category|grammatical categories]] such as [[grammatical person|person]], [[grammatical number|number]], [[grammatical gender|gender]], [[grammatical case|case]], [[grammatical tense|tense]], [[Grammatical aspect|aspect]], [[grammatical mood|mood]], [[grammatical voice|voice]], [[possession (linguistics)|possession]], [[definiteness]], [[politeness]], [[Causative|causativity]], [[clusivity]], [[interrogative]]s, [[Transitivity (grammar)|transitivity]], [[Valency (linguistics)|valency]], [[Affirmation and negation|polarity]], [[telicity]], [[Volition (linguistics)|volition]], [[mirativity]], [[evidentiality]], [[animacy]], associativity,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.grammaticalfeatures.net/features/associativity.html|title=Grammatical Features - Associativity|website=www.grammaticalfeatures.net|access-date=18 March 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[pluractionality]], and [[Reciprocal (grammar)|reciprocity]]. Verbs may also be affected by [[agreement (linguistics)|agreement]], [[polypersonal agreement]], [[Incorporation (linguistics)|incorporation]], [[noun class]], [[noun classifier]]s, and [[verb classifier]]s.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|url=https://www.academia.edu/10502997|title=Verb Classifiers - 'Misfits' of Nominal Classification?|first=Matthias|last=Passer|website=academia.edu|access-date=18 March 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Agglutinative]] and [[polysynthetic language]]s tend to have the most complex conjugations, although some [[fusional language]]s such as [[Archi language|Archi]] can also have extremely complex conjugation. Typically the principal parts are the [[root (linguistics)|root]] and/or several modifications of it ([[stem (linguistics)|stem]]s). All the different forms of the same verb constitute a [[lexeme]], and the canonical form of the verb that is conventionally used to represent that lexeme (as seen in dictionary entries) is called a [[lemma (morphology)|lemma]].<br /> <br /> The term conjugation is applied only to the inflection of verbs, and not of other parts of speech (inflection of [[noun]]s and [[adjective]]s is known as [[declension]]){{citation needed|date=November 2022}}. Also it is generally restricted to denoting the formation of [[finite verb|finite forms]] of a verb – these may be referred to as ''conjugated forms'', as opposed to [[non-finite verb|non-finite forms]], such as an [[infinitive]], [[gerund]], or [[participle]] which respectively comprise their own grammatical categories{{citation needed|date=November 2022}}.<br /> <br /> ''Conjugation'' is also the traditional term for a group of verbs that share a similar conjugation pattern in a particular language (a ''verb class''). For example, [[Latin]] is said to have four conjugations of verbs. This means that any [[regular verb|regular]] Latin verb can be conjugated in any person, number, tense, mood, and voice by knowing which of the four conjugation groups it belongs to, and its principal parts. A verb that does not follow all of the standard conjugation patterns of the language is said to be an [[irregular verb]]. The system of all conjugated variants of a particular verb or class of verbs is called a '''verb paradigm'''; this may be presented in the form of a '''conjugation table'''.<br /> <br /> ==Verbal agreement==<br /> '''Verbal agreement''', or '''concord''', is a [[morphology (linguistics)|morpho]]-[[syntax|syntactic]] construct in which properties of the [[subject (grammar)|subject]] and/or [[object (grammar)|object]]s of a [[verb]] are indicated by the verb form. Verbs are then said to [[agreement (linguistics)|agree]] with their subjects (resp. objects).<br /> <br /> Many [[English language|English]] verbs exhibit subject agreement of the following sort: whereas ''I go'', ''you go'', ''we go'', ''they go'' are all grammatical in standard English, ''he go'' is not (except in the [[subjunctive]], as &quot;They requested that ''he go'' with them&quot;). Instead, a special form of the verb ''to go'' has to be used to produce ''he goes''. On the other hand ''I goes'', ''you goes'' etc. are not grammatical in standard English. (Things are different in some English dialects that lack agreement.) A few English verbs have no special forms that indicate subject agreement (''I may'', ''you may'', ''he may''), and the verb ''to be'' has an additional form ''am'' that can only be used with the pronoun ''I'' as the subject.<br /> <br /> Verbs in written [[French verbs|French]] exhibit more intensive agreement [[morphology (linguistics)|morphology]] than English verbs: {{lang|fr|je suis}} (I am), {{lang|fr|tu es}} (&quot;you are&quot;, singular [[T–V distinction|informal]]), {{lang|fr|elle est}} (she is), {{lang|fr|nous sommes}} (we are), {{lang|fr|vous êtes}} (&quot;you are&quot;, plural), {{lang|fr|ils sont}} (they are). Historically, English used to have a similar verbal paradigm. Some historic verb forms are used by [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]] as slightly archaic or more formal variants (''I do'', ''thou dost'', ''he doth'') of the modern forms.<br /> <br /> Some languages with verbal agreement can leave certain subjects [[null-subject language|implicit]] when the subject is fully determined by the verb form. In [[Spanish language|Spanish]], for instance, subject pronouns do not need to be explicitly present, but in French, its close relative, they are obligatory. The Spanish equivalent to the French {{lang|fr|je suis}} (I am) can be simply {{lang|es|soy}} (lit. &quot;am&quot;). The pronoun {{lang|es|yo}} (I) in the explicit form {{lang|es|yo soy}} is used only for emphasis or to clear ambiguity in complex texts.<br /> <br /> Some languages have a richer agreement system in which verbs agree also with some or all of their objects. [[Ubykh language|Ubykh]] exhibits verbal agreement for the subject, direct object, indirect object, benefaction and ablative objects ({{lang|uby|a.w3.s.xe.n.t'u.n}}, ''you gave it to him for me'').<br /> <br /> [[Basque language|Basque]] can show agreement not only for subject, direct object and indirect object but it also can exhibit agreement for the listener as the implicit benefactor: {{lang|eu|autoa ekarri digute}} means &quot;they brought us the car&quot; (neuter agreement for the listener), but {{lang|eu|autoa ekarri ziguten}} means &quot;they brought us the car&quot; (agreement for feminine singular listener).<br /> <br /> Languages with a rich agreement morphology facilitate relatively free word order without leading to increased ambiguity. The canonical word order in Basque is [[subject–object–verb]], but all permutations of subject, verb and object are permitted.<br /> <br /> ===Nonverbal person agreement===<br /> In some languages,&lt;ref&gt;Stassen, Leon; '''Intransitive Predication (Oxford Studies in Typology and Linguistic Theory)'''; published 1997 by [[Oxford University Press]]; p. 39. {{ISBN|0-19-925893-7}}&lt;/ref&gt; predicative [[adjective]]s and [[copula (linguistics)|copular]] complements receive a form of person agreement that is distinct from that used on ordinary [[predicative verb]]s. Although that is a form of conjugation in that it refers back to the person of the subject, it is not &quot;verbal&quot; because it always derives from [[pronouns]] that have become [[clitic]] to the nouns to which they refer.&lt;ref&gt;Stassen; '''Intransitive Predication'''; pp. 77 &amp; 284-288&lt;/ref&gt; An example of nonverbal person agreement, along with contrasting verbal conjugation, can be found from [[Beja language|Beja]]&lt;ref name=&quot;Stassen40&quot;&gt;Stassen, '''Intransitive Predication'''; p. 40&lt;/ref&gt; (person agreement affixes in bold):<br /> <br /> * {{lang|bej-latn|wun.tu.'''wi'''}}, “you (fem.) are big”<br /> * {{lang|bej-latn|hadá.b.'''wa'''}}, “you (masc.) are a sheik”<br /> * {{lang|bej-latn|'''e'''.n.fór}}, “he flees”<br /> <br /> Another example can be found from [[Ket language|Ket]]:&lt;ref name=&quot;Stassen40&quot;/&gt;<br /> <br /> * {{lang|ket-latn|fèmba.'''di'''}}, “I am a [[Tungusic peoples|Tungus]]”<br /> * {{lang|ket-latn|'''dɨ'''.fen}}, “I am standing”<br /> <br /> In [[Turkic languages|Turkic]], and a few [[Uralic languages|Uralic]] and [[indigenous Australian languages|Australian Aboriginal languages]], predicative adjectives and copular complements take affixes that are identical to those used on predicative verbs, but their [[negation (linguistics)|negation]] is different. For example, in [[Turkish language|Turkish]]:<br /> <br /> * {{lang|tr|koş.u.yor.'''sun'''}} “you are running”<br /> * {{lang|tr|çavuş.'''sun'''}} “you are a sergeant”<br /> <br /> Under negation, that becomes (negative affixes in bold):<br /> <br /> * {{lang|tr|koş.'''mu'''.yor.sun}} “you are not running”<br /> * {{lang|tr|çavuş '''değil'''.sin}} “you are not a sergeant”<br /> <br /> Therefore, the person agreement affixes used with predicative adjectives and nominals in Turkic languages are considered to be nonverbal in character. In some analyses, they are viewed as a form of verbal takeover by a copular strategy.<br /> <br /> ==Factors that affect conjugation==&lt;!-- &quot;Verb form&quot; redirects here --&gt;<br /> These common [[grammatical category|grammatical categories]] affect how verbs can be conjugated:<br /> *[[Finite verb|Finite verb forms]]:<br /> **[[Grammatical person]]<br /> **[[Grammatical number]]<br /> **[[Grammatical gender]]<br /> **[[Grammatical tense]]<br /> **[[Grammatical aspect]]<br /> **[[Grammatical mood]]<br /> **[[Grammatical voice]]<br /> *[[Non-finite verb|Non-finite verb forms]].<br /> <br /> Here are other factors that may affect conjugation:<br /> *Degree of formality (see [[T–V distinction]], [[Honorific speech in Japanese]], [[Korean speech levels]])<br /> *[[Clusivity]] (of personal pronouns)<br /> *[[Transitivity (grammatical category)|Transitivity]]<br /> *[[Valency (linguistics)|Valency]]<br /> <br /> ==Examples==<br /> [[Indo-European languages]] usually [[inflection|inflect]] verbs for several grammatical categories in complex [[Inflectional paradigm|paradigm]]s, although some, like English, have simplified verb conjugation to a large extent. Below is the conjugation of the verb ''to be'' in the present tense (of the infinitive, if it exists, and indicative moods), in [[English language|English]], [[German language|German]], [[Yiddish language|Yiddish]], [[Dutch language|Dutch]], [[Afrikaans]], [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]], [[Faroese language|Faroese]], [[Swedish language|Swedish]], [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]], [[Latvian language|Latvian]], [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]], [[Serbo-Croatian]], [[Polish language|Polish]], [[Slovenian language|Slovenian]], [[Macedonian language|Macedonian]], [[Urdu]] or [[Hindi]], [[Bengali Language|Bengali]], [[Persian language|Persian]], [[Latin]], [[French language|French]], [[Italian language|Italian]], [[Spanish language|Spanish]], [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], [[Russian language|Russian]], [[Albanian language|Albanian]], [[Armenian language|Armenian]], [[Irish language|Irish]], [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]], [[Ancient Attic Greek]] and [[Modern Greek]]. This is usually the most irregular verb. The similarities in corresponding verb forms may be noticed. Some of the conjugations may be disused, like the English ''[[thou]]''-form, or have additional meanings, like the English ''[[you]]''-form, which can also stand for second person singular or be [[generic you|impersonal]].<br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |+ |&quot;To be&quot; in several Indo-European languages<br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | Branch<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | Language<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | Present&lt;br /&gt;infinitive<br /> ! colspan=&quot;6&quot; | Present indicative<br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;3&quot; | Singular persons<br /> ! colspan=&quot;3&quot; | Plural persons<br /> |-<br /> ! 1st !! 2nd !! 3rd<br /> ! 1st !! 2nd !! 3rd<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;9&quot; style=&quot;height:3px&quot; |<br /> |-<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; rowspan=&quot;14&quot; | Germanic<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | Proto-Germanic<br /> | {{wikt-lang|gem-x-proto|*wesaną}}<br /> | *immi<br /> | *izi <br /> | *isti <br /> | *izum <br /> | *izud <br /> | *sindi <br /> |-<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | Anglo-Saxon<br /> | {{wikt-lang|ang|wesan}}<br /> | eom<br /> | eart<br /> | is<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; | sind&lt;br /&gt;sindon<br /> |-<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | English<br /> | {{wikt-lang|en|be}}<br /> | am<br /> | are&lt;br /&gt;art&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br /&gt;beest&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;<br /> | is&lt;br /&gt;are&lt;sup&gt;11&lt;/sup&gt;<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; | are<br /> |-<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | German<br /> | {{wikt-lang|de|sein}}<br /> | bin<br /> | bist<br /> | ist<br /> | sind<br /> | seid<br /> | sind<br /> |-<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | Yiddish&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;''transliterated''&lt;/small&gt;<br /> | {{wikt-lang|yi|זײַן|זיין}}&lt;br /&gt;{{transliteration|yi|zayn}}<br /> | בין&lt;br /&gt;''bin''<br /> | ביסט&lt;br /&gt;''bist''<br /> | איז&lt;br /&gt;''iz''<br /> | זענען/זײַנען&lt;br /&gt;''zenen/zaynen''<br /> | זענט/זײַט&lt;br /&gt;''zent/zayt''<br /> | זענען/זײַנען&lt;br /&gt;''zenen/zaynen''<br /> |-<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | Luxembourgish<br /> | {{wikt-lang|lb|sinn}}<br /> | sinn<br /> | bass<br /> | ass<br /> | sinn<br /> | sidd<br /> | sinn<br /> |-<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | Dutch<br /> | {{wikt-lang|nl|zijn}}<br /> | ben<br /> | bent&lt;br /&gt;zijt&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;<br /> | is<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; | zijn<br /> |-<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | Afrikaans<br /> | {{wikt-lang|af|wees}}<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; | is<br /> |-<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | Old Norse<br /> | {{wikt-lang|non|vesa}}&lt;br /&gt;{{wikt-lang|non|vera}}<br /> | em<br /> | est&lt;br /&gt;ert<br /> | es&lt;br /&gt;er<br /> | erum<br /> | eruð<br /> | eru<br /> |-<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | Icelandic<br /> | {{wikt-lang|is|vera}}<br /> | er<br /> | ert<br /> | er<br /> | erum<br /> | eruð<br /> | eru<br /> |-<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | Faroese<br /> | {{wikt-lang|fo|vera}}<br /> | eri<br /> | ert<br /> | er<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; | eru<br /> |-<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | Norwegian<br /> | {{wikt-lang|no|være}}&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; &lt;small&gt;(Bokmål)&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;{{wikt-lang|no|vera}}, {{wikt-lang|no|vere}}&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; &lt;small&gt;(Nynorsk)&lt;/small&gt;<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot;| er<br /> |-<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | Danish<br /> | {{wikt-lang|da|være}}<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; | er<br /> |-<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | Swedish<br /> | {{wikt-lang|sv|vara}}<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; | är<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;text align:center&quot; | är&lt;br&gt;äro&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;9&quot; style=&quot;height:3px&quot; |<br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;13&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | Italic<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | Latin<br /> | esse<br /> | {{wikt-lang|la|sum}}<br /> | es<br /> | est<br /> | sumus<br /> | estis<br /> | sunt<br /> |-<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | Italian<br /> | {{wikt-lang|it|essere}}<br /> | sono<br /> | sei<br /> | è<br /> | siamo&lt;br /&gt;semo&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;<br /> | siete&lt;br /&gt;sète&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;<br /> | sono&lt;br /&gt;enno&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | French<br /> | {{wikt-lang|fr|être}}<br /> | suis<br /> | es<br /> | est<br /> | sommes<br /> | êtes<br /> | sont<br /> |-<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | Catalan<br /> | {{wikt-lang|ca|ésser}}&lt;br /&gt;{{wikt-lang|ca|ser}}<br /> | sóc<br /> | ets&lt;br /&gt;eres&lt;sup&gt;14&lt;/sup&gt;<br /> | és<br /> | som<br /> | sou<br /> | són<br /> |-<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | Lombard<br /> | {{wikt-lang|lmo|vésser}}<br /> | ''(a)'' son<br /> | ''te'' sé<br /> | ''l'''è<br /> | som&lt;br /&gt;sem&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;<br /> | sî<br /> | ''i'' è&lt;br /&gt;''(i)'' enn&lt;sup&gt;14&lt;/sup&gt;<br /> |-<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | Venetian<br /> | {{wikt-lang|vec|èsar}}<br /> | son<br /> | ''te'' si<br /> | ''el'' ze<br /> | semo<br /> | si<br /> | ''i'' ze<br /> |-<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | Spanish<br /> | {{wikt-lang|es|ser}}<br /> | soy<br /> | eres<br /> | es<br /> | somos<br /> | sois<br /> son<br /> | son<br /> |-<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | Galician<br /> | {{wikt-lang|gl|ser}}<br /> | son<br /> | es<br /> | é<br /> | somos<br /> | sodes<br /> | son<br /> |-<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | Portuguese<br /> | {{wikt-lang|pt|ser}}<br /> | sou<br /> | és<br /> | é<br /> | somos<br /> | sois<br /> | são<br /> |-<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | Sardinian ([[Limba Sarda Comuna|LSC]])<br /> | {{wikt-lang|sc|èssere}}<br /> | so<br /> | ses<br /> | est<br /> | semus<br /> | seis<br /> | sunt<br /> |-<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | Friulian<br /> | {{wikt-lang|fur|jessi}}<br /> | soi<br /> | sês<br /> | è<br /> | sin<br /> | sês<br /> | son<br /> |-<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | Neapolitan<br /> | {{wikt-lang|nap|èssere}}<br /> | songo, so<br /> | sî<br /> | è<br /> | simmo<br /> | site<br /> | songo, so<br /> |-<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | Romanian<br /> | a {{wikt-lang|ro|fi}}<br /> | sunt<br /> | ești<br /> | este<br /> | suntem<br /> | sunteți<br /> | sunt<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;9&quot; style=&quot;height:3px&quot; |<br /> |-<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | Celtic<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | Irish<br /> | bheith<br /> | {{wikt-lang|ga|bím}}<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; |bíonn<br /> | bímid<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; |bíonn<br /> |-<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | Welsh (standard form)<br /> | {{wikt-lang|cy|bod}}<br /> | rydw<br /> | rwyt<br /> | mae<br /> | rydych<br /> | rydyn<br /> | maen<br /> |-<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | Breton<br /> | {{wikt-lang|br|bezañ}}<br /> | on<br /> | out<br /> | eo<br /> | omp<br /> | oc'h<br /> | int<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;9&quot; style=&quot;height:3px&quot; |<br /> |-<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | Greek<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | Ancient&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;''transliterated''&lt;/small&gt;<br /> | {{lang|grc|εἶναι}}&lt;br /&gt;''eînai''<br /> | {{lang|grc|εἰμί}}&lt;br /&gt;''eimí''<br /> | {{lang|grc|εἶ}}&lt;br /&gt;''eî''<br /> | {{lang|grc|ἐστί}}&lt;br /&gt;''estí''<br /> | {{lang|grc|ἐσμέν}}&lt;br /&gt;''esmén''<br /> | {{lang|grc|ἐστέ}}&lt;br /&gt;''esté''<br /> | {{lang|grc|εἰσί}}&lt;br /&gt;''eisí''<br /> |-<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | Modern&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;''transliterated''&lt;/small&gt;<br /> | όντας&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br /&gt;''óntas''<br /> | είμαι&lt;br /&gt;''eímai''<br /> | είσαι&lt;br /&gt;''eísai''<br /> | είναι&lt;br /&gt;''eínai''<br /> | είμαστε&lt;br /&gt;''eímaste''<br /> | είσ(ασ)τε&lt;br /&gt;''eís(as)te''<br /> | είναι&lt;br /&gt;''eínai''<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;9&quot; style=&quot;height:3px&quot; |<br /> |-<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Albanian<br /> | ''me qenë''<br /> | jam<br /> | je<br /> | është<br /> | jemi<br /> | jeni<br /> | janë<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;9&quot; style=&quot;height:3px&quot; |<br /> |-<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot;| Armenian<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | Western&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;''transliterated''&lt;/small&gt;<br /> | {{wikt-lang|hy|ըլլալ}}&lt;br /&gt;ĕllal<br /> | {{lang|hy|Եմ}}&lt;br /&gt;''em''<br /> | {{lang|hy|ես}}&lt;br /&gt;''es''<br /> | {{lang|hy|է}}&lt;br /&gt;''ē''<br /> | {{lang|hy|ենք}}&lt;br /&gt;''enk‘''<br /> | {{lang|hy|էք}}&lt;br /&gt;''ēk‘''<br /> | {{lang|hy|են}}&lt;br /&gt;''en''<br /> |-<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | Eastern&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;''transliterated''&lt;/small&gt;<br /> | {{wikt-lang|hy|լինել}}&lt;br /&gt;''linel''<br /> | {{lang|hy|Եմ}}&lt;br /&gt;''em''<br /> | {{lang|hy|ես}}&lt;br /&gt;''es''<br /> | {{lang|hy|է}}&lt;br /&gt;''ē''<br /> | {{lang|hy|ենք}}&lt;br /&gt;''enk‘''<br /> | {{lang|hy|եք}}&lt;br /&gt;''ek‘''<br /> | {{lang|hy|են}}&lt;br /&gt;''en''<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;9&quot; style=&quot;height:3px&quot; |<br /> |-<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; rowspan=&quot;10&quot; | Slavic<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | Czech<br /> | {{wikt-lang|cs|být}}<br /> | jsem<br /> | jsi<br /> | je<br /> | jsme<br /> | jste<br /> | jsou<br /> |-<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | Slovak<br /> | {{wikt-lang|sk|byť}}<br /> | som<br /> | si<br /> | je<br /> | sme<br /> | ste<br /> | sú<br /> |-<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | Polish<br /> | {{wikt-lang|pl|być}}<br /> | jestem<br /> | jesteś<br /> | jest<br /> | jesteśmy<br /> | jesteście<br /> | są<br /> |-<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | Russian&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;''transliterated''&lt;/small&gt;<br /> | {{wikt-lang|ru|быть}}&lt;br /&gt;''byt'''<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; | есть&lt;br /&gt;''yest'''<br /> |-<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | Ukrainian&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;''transliterated''&lt;/small&gt;<br /> | {{wikt-lang|uk|бути}}&lt;br /&gt;''buty''<br /> | colspan=&quot;6&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; | є&lt;br /&gt;''ye''<br /> |-<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | Serbo-Croatian&lt;small&gt;'' strong''&lt;/small&gt;<br /> | biti<br /> | jesam<br /> | jesi<br /> | jest(e)<br /> | jesmo<br /> | jeste<br /> | jesu<br /> |-<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | Serbo-Croatian&lt;small&gt;'' clitic''&lt;/small&gt;<br /> | ''none''<br /> | sam<br /> | si<br /> | je<br /> | smo<br /> | ste<br /> | su<br /> |-<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | Slovenian<br /> | biti<br /> | sem<br /> | si<br /> | je<br /> | smo<br /> | ste<br /> | so<br /> |-<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | Bulgarian&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;''transliterated''&lt;/small&gt;<br /> | ''none''<br /> | {{wikt-lang|bg|съм}}&lt;br /&gt;''săm''<br /> | си&lt;br /&gt;''si''<br /> | е&lt;br /&gt;''e''<br /> | сме&lt;br /&gt;''sme''<br /> | сте&lt;br /&gt;''ste''<br /> | са&lt;br /&gt;''să''<br /> |-<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | Macedonian&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;''transliterated''&lt;/small&gt;<br /> | ''none''<br /> | {{wikt-lang|mk|сум}}&lt;br /&gt;''sum''<br /> | си&lt;br /&gt;''si''<br /> | е&lt;br /&gt;''e''<br /> | сме&lt;br /&gt;''sme''<br /> | сте&lt;br /&gt;''ste''<br /> | се&lt;br /&gt;''se''<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;9&quot; style=&quot;height:3px&quot; |<br /> |-<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot;| Baltic<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | Latvian<br /> | {{wikt-lang|lv|būt}}<br /> | esmu<br /> | esi<br /> | ir<br /> | esam<br /> | esat<br /> | ir<br /> |-<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | Lithuanian<br /> | {{wikt-lang|lt|būti}}<br /> | esu<br /> | esi<br /> | yra<br /> | esame<br /> | esate<br /> | yra<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;9&quot; |<br /> |-<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; rowspan=&quot;7&quot; | Indo-Iranian<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | Persian&lt;small&gt;''&lt;br /&gt;transliterated''&lt;/small&gt;<br /> | {{wikt-lang|fa|بودن}} &lt;br /&gt;''budan''<br /> | {{lang|fa|ام}} &lt;br /&gt;''æm''<br /> | {{lang|fa|ای}} &lt;br /&gt;''ei''<br /> | {{lang|fa|(است (ا}}&lt;br /&gt;''æst'' (''æ'')&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;<br /> | {{lang|fa|ایم}} &lt;br /&gt;''eem''<br /> | {{lang|fa|(اید (این}}&lt;br /&gt;''eed &lt;small&gt;(spoken: een)&lt;/small&gt;''<br /> | {{lang|fa|(اند (ان}} &lt;br /&gt;''and &lt;small&gt;(spoken: an)&lt;/small&gt;''<br /> |-<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | Sanskrit&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;''transliterated''&lt;/small&gt;<br /> | {{wikt-lang|sa|अस्ति}}&lt;br/&gt;''{{Transliteration|sa|asti}}''<br /> | अस्मि&lt;br&gt;''asmi''<br /> | असि&lt;br&gt;''asi''<br /> | अस्ति&lt;br&gt;''asti''<br /> | स्मः&lt;br&gt;''smah''<br /> | स्थ&lt;br&gt;''stha''<br /> | सन्ति&lt;br&gt;''santi''<br /> |-<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | Hindustani&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;''Devanagari Script''&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;''Perso-Arabic Script''&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;''transliterated''&lt;/small&gt; ''&lt;small&gt;([[ISO 15919|ISO 15819]])&lt;/small&gt;''<br /> | {{wikt-lang|hi|होना}}&lt;br&gt;{{lang|inc-Aran|{{nq|ہونا}}}}&lt;br&gt;{{Transliteration|hi|honā}}<br /> | हूँ&lt;br&gt;{{lang|inc-Aran|{{nq|ہوں}}}}&lt;br&gt;''hūm̥''<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | है&lt;br&gt;{{lang|inc-Aran|{{nq|ہے}}}}&lt;br&gt;''hai''<br /> | हैं&lt;br&gt;{{lang|inc-Aran|{{nq|ہیں}}}}&lt;br&gt;''haim̥''<br /> | हो&lt;br&gt;{{lang|inc-Aran|{{nq|ہو}}}}&lt;br&gt;''ho''<br /> | हैं&lt;br&gt;{{lang|inc-Aran|{{nq|ہیں}}}}&lt;br&gt;''haim̥''<br /> |-<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | Marathi&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;''transliterated ([[ISO 15919|ISO 15819]])''&lt;/small&gt;<br /> | {{wikt-lang|mr|असणे}}&lt;br/&gt;{{Transliteration|mr|asṇe}}<br /> | आहे&lt;br&gt;''āhe''<br /> | आहेस&lt;br&gt;''āhes''<br /> | आहे&lt;br&gt;''āhe''<br /> | आहोत&lt;br&gt;''āhot''<br /> | आहात&lt;br&gt;''āhāt''<br /> | आहेत&lt;br&gt;''āhet''<br /> |-<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | Gujarati&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;''transliterated ([[ISO 15919|ISO 15819]])''&lt;/small&gt;<br /> | {{wikt-lang|gu|હોવું}}&lt;br&gt;{{Transliteration|gu|hovũ}}<br /> | છું&lt;br&gt;''chũ''<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; | છે&lt;br&gt;''che''<br /> | છીએ&lt;br&gt;''chīe''<br /> | છો&lt;br&gt;''cho''<br /> | છે&lt;br&gt;''che''<br /> |-<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | Bengali&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;''transliterated ([[ISO 15919|ISO 15819]])''&lt;/small&gt;<br /> | {{wikt-lang|bn|হওয়া}}&lt;br&gt;{{Transliteration|bn|hôoā}}<br /> | হই&lt;br&gt;''hoi''<br /> | হও&lt;sup&gt;12&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;''hôo''<br /> | হয়&lt;sup&gt;12&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;''hôy''<br /> | হই&lt;br&gt;''hoi''<br /> | হও&lt;sup&gt;12&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;''hôo''<br /> | হয়&lt;sup&gt;12&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;''hôy''<br /> |-<br /> ! style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | Assamese&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;''transliterated ([[ISO 15919|ISO 15819]])''&lt;/small&gt;<br /> | {{wikt-lang|as|হোৱা}}&lt;br&gt;{{Transliteration|as|hüa}}<br /> | হওঁ&lt;br&gt;''hoü̃''<br /> | হোৱা&lt;br&gt;''hüa''<br /> | হয়&lt;br&gt;''hoy''<br /> | হওঁ&lt;br&gt;''hoü̃''<br /> | হোৱা&lt;br&gt;''hüa''<br /> | হয়&lt;br&gt;''hoy''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> :&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; Archaic, poetical; used only with the pronoun 'thou'.<br /> :&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; In Flemish dialects.<br /> :&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; In the [[bokmål]] written standard.<br /> :&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; In the [[nynorsk]] written standard. ''vera'' and ''vere'' are both alternate forms.<br /> :&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; Archaic<br /> :&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt; Attic.<br /> :&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt; 'eínai' is only used as a noun (&quot;being, existence&quot;).<br /> :&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Ptc: {{wikt-lang|sq|qenë}}.<br /> :&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt; In the Tosk and Geg dialects, respectively.<br /> :&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; Existential: هست (hæst) has another meaning. Usage of (''æ'') is considered to be colloquial, now. See, [[Indo-European copula]]<br /> :&lt;sup&gt;11&lt;/sup&gt; With the [[Singular they]] 3rd person pronoun.<br /> :&lt;sup&gt;12&lt;/sup&gt; Bengali verbs are further conjugated according to [[T–V distinction|formality]]. There are three verb forms for 2nd person pronouns: হও (''hôo'', familiar), হোস (''hoś'', very familiar) and হন (''hôn'', polite). Also two forms for 3rd person pronouns: হয় (''hôy'', familiar) and হন (''hôn'', polite). Plural verb forms are exact same as singular.<br /> :&lt;sup&gt;13&lt;/sup&gt; Valencian.<br /> :&lt;sup&gt;14&lt;/sup&gt; Western varieties only.<br /> <br /> == Conjugation classes ==<br /> === Pama-Nyungan languages ===<br /> One common feature of [[Pama–Nyungan languages]], the largest family of [[Australian Aboriginal languages]], is the notion of conjugation classes, which are a set of groups into which each lexical verb falls. They determine how a verb is conjugated for [[Tense–aspect–mood]]. The classes can but do not universally correspond to the transitivity or valency of the verb in question. Generally, of the two to six conjugation classes in a Pama-Nyungan language, two classes are open with a large membership and allow for new coinages, and the remainder are closed and of limited membership.&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite book|last=Westerlund, Torbjörn|title=A grammatical sketch of Ngarla (Ngayarta, Pama-Nyungan)|year=2015|isbn=978-1-922185-15-0|location=Anu, A.C.T.|oclc=903244888}}&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ==== Wati ====<br /> In [[Wati languages]], verbs generally fall into four classes:<br /> <br /> * '''l''' class<br /> * '''∅''' class<br /> * '''n''' class<br /> * '''ng''' class&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|last=Dixon, R. M. W.|title=The Languages of Australia|date=2011|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-511-71971-4|location=Cambridge|oclc=889953941}}&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> They are labelled by using common morphological components of verb endings in each respective class in infinitival forms. In [[Wanman language|the Wanman language]] these each correspond to '''''la'', ''ya'', ''rra'',''' and '''''wa''''' verbs respectively.<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |+Example Verb Conjugations in [[Warnman]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |title=Warnman. Part one, Sketch grammar. |date=2003 |publisher=Wangka Maya Pilbara Aboriginal Language Centre |others=Wangka Maya Pilbara Aboriginal Language Centre. |isbn=1-875946-01-2 |location=South Hedland, W.A. |oclc=271859132}}&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> !Class<br /> !Past<br /> !Present<br /> !Future<br /> !Imperative<br /> !Past Continuous<br /> !Habitual<br /> |-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |'''LA'''<br /> | -rna<br /> | -npa/-rni<br /> | -nku<br /> | -la<br /> | -rninya<br /> |la<br /> |-<br /> |''waka-rna''<br /> |''waka-rni''<br /> |''waka-nku''<br /> |''waka-la''<br /> |''waka-rninya''<br /> |''waka-la''<br /> |-<br /> |speared<br /> |is spearing<br /> |will spear<br /> |spear it!<br /> |used to spear<br /> |spears<br /> |-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |'''YA'''<br /> | -nya<br /> | -manyi<br /> | -ku<br /> | -∅/-ya<br /> | -minya<br /> | -∅/-ya<br /> |-<br /> |''wanti-nya''<br /> |''wanti-manyi''<br /> |''wanti-ku''<br /> |''wanti-ya''<br /> |''wanti-minya''<br /> |''wanti-ya''<br /> |-<br /> |stayed<br /> |is staying<br /> |will stay<br /> |stay!<br /> |used to stay<br /> |stays<br /> |-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |'''RRA'''<br /> | -na<br /> | -npa<br /> | -nku<br /> | -rra<br /> | -ninya<br /> | -rra<br /> |-<br /> |''ya-na''<br /> |''ya-npa''<br /> |''ya-nku''<br /> |''ya-rra''<br /> |''ya-ninya''<br /> |''ya-rra''<br /> |-<br /> |went<br /> |is going<br /> |will go<br /> |go!<br /> |used to go<br /> |goes<br /> |-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |'''WA'''<br /> | -nya<br /> | -nganyi<br /> | -ngku<br /> | -wa<br /> | -nganyinya<br /> | -wa<br /> |-<br /> |''pi-nya''<br /> |''pi-nganyi''<br /> |''pi-ngku''<br /> |''pi-wa''<br /> |''pi-nganyinya''<br /> |''pi-wa''<br /> |-<br /> |hit<br /> |is hitting<br /> |will hit<br /> |hit it!<br /> |used to hit<br /> |hits<br /> |}<br /> <br /> See also a similar table of verb classes and conjugations in Pitjantjatjara, a [[Wati language]] wherein the correlating verb classes are presented below also by their imperative verbal endings '''-la, -∅, -ra''' and '''-wa''' respectively<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |+<br /> Example Verb Conjugations in [[Pitjantjatjara dialect|Pitjantjatjara]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |last=Eckert |first=Paul |title=Wangka wir̲u: a handbook for the Pitjantjatjara language learner |date=1988 |publisher=University of South Australia /South Australian College of Advanced Education |others=Hudson, Joyce., South Australian College of Advanced Education. Aboriginal Studies and Teacher Education Centre, Summer Institute of Linguistics. |isbn=0-86803-230-1 |location=Underdale, S. Aust. |oclc=27569554}}&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> !Class<br /> !Past<br /> !Present<br /> !Future<br /> !Imperative<br /> !Past Continuous<br /> !Habitual<br /> |-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |'''LA'''<br /> | -nu<br /> | -ni<br /> | -lku<br /> | -la<br /> | -ningi<br /> | -lpai<br /> |-<br /> |''kati-nu''<br /> |''kati-ni''<br /> |''kati-leu''<br /> |''kati-la''<br /> |''kati-ningi''<br /> |''kati-lpai''<br /> |-<br /> |took<br /> |is taking<br /> |will take<br /> |take it!<br /> |used to take<br /> |takes<br /> |-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |'''&lt;big&gt;∅&lt;/big&gt;'''<br /> | -ngu<br /> | -nyi<br /> | -ku<br /> | -∅<br /> | -ngi<br /> | -pai<br /> |-<br /> |''tawa-ngu''<br /> |''tawa-nyi''<br /> |''tawa-ku''<br /> |''tawa-'''∅'''''<br /> |''tawa-ngi''<br /> |''tawa-pai''<br /> |-<br /> |dug<br /> |is digging<br /> |will dig<br /> |dig!<br /> |used to dig<br /> |digs<br /> |-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |'''RA'''<br /> | -nu<br /> | -nangi<br /> | -nkuku<br /> | -ra<br /> | -nangi<br /> | -nkupai<br /> |-<br /> |''a-nu''<br /> |''a-nangi''<br /> |''a-nkuku''<br /> |a-ra<br /> |''a-nangi''<br /> |''a-nkupai''<br /> |-<br /> |went<br /> |is going<br /> |will go<br /> |go!<br /> |used to go<br /> |goes<br /> |-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |'''WA'''<br /> | -ngu<br /> | -nganyi<br /> | -nguku<br /> | -wa<br /> | -ngangi<br /> | -ngkupai<br /> |-<br /> |''pu-ngu''<br /> |''pu-nganyi''<br /> |''pu-nguku''<br /> |''pu-wa''<br /> |''pu-ngangi''<br /> |''pu-ngkupai''<br /> |-<br /> |hit<br /> |is hitting<br /> |will hit<br /> |hit it!<br /> |used to hit<br /> |hits<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ==== Ngayarta ====<br /> [[Ngarla language|Ngarla]], a member of the [[Ngayarda languages|Ngayarda]] sub-family of languages has a binary conjugation system labelled:<br /> <br /> * '''l''' class<br /> * '''∅''' class<br /> <br /> In the case of Ngarla, there is a notably strong correlation between conjugation class and transitivity, with transitive/ditransitive verbs falling in the '''l'''-class and intransitive/semi-transitive verbs in the '''∅-'''class.<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |+<br /> Example Verb Conjugations in [[Ngarla language|Ngarla]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal |last=Westerlund |first=Torbjörn |date=2017-07-03 |title=Verb Classification in Ngarla (Ngayarta, Pama-Nyungan) |journal=Australian Journal of Linguistics |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=328–355 |doi=10.1080/07268602.2017.1298396 |issn=0726-8602 |s2cid=65180912}}&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> !Class<br /> !Present<br /> !Remote Past<br /> !Past<br /> !Past Continuous<br /> !Habitual<br /> !Future<br /> !Speculative<br /> !Purposive<br /> !Optative<br /> !Present Contrafactual<br /> !Past Contrafactual<br /> !Anticipatory<br /> |-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |'''L'''<br /> |&lt;nowiki&gt;-rri&lt;/nowiki&gt;<br /> |&lt;nowiki&gt;-rnta&lt;/nowiki&gt;<br /> |&lt;nowiki&gt;-rnu&lt;/nowiki&gt;<br /> |&lt;nowiki&gt;-yinyu&lt;/nowiki&gt;<br /> |&lt;nowiki&gt;-yirnta&lt;/nowiki&gt;<br /> |&lt;nowiki&gt;-n&lt;/nowiki&gt;<br /> |&lt;nowiki&gt;-mpi&lt;/nowiki&gt;<br /> |&lt;nowiki&gt;-lu&lt;/nowiki&gt;<br /> |&lt;nowiki&gt;-nmara&lt;/nowiki&gt;<br /> |&lt;nowiki&gt;-rrima&lt;/nowiki&gt;<br /> |&lt;nowiki&gt;-nmarnta&lt;/nowiki&gt;<br /> |&lt;nowiki&gt;-rnamarta&lt;/nowiki&gt;<br /> |-<br /> |''jaa-rri''<br /> |''jaa-rnta''<br /> |''jaa-rnu''<br /> |''jaa-yinyu''<br /> |''jaa-yirnta''<br /> |''jaa-n''<br /> |''jaa-mpi''<br /> |''jaa-lu''<br /> |''jaa-nmara''<br /> |''jaa-rrima''<br /> |''jaa-nmarnta''<br /> |''jaa-rnmarta''<br /> |-<br /> |is chopping<br /> |chopped (long ago)<br /> |chopped<br /> |used to chop<br /> |chops<br /> |will chop<br /> |could have chopped<br /> |in order to chop<br /> |ought to chop<br /> |were ''x'' chopping<br /> |had ''x'' chopped<br /> |should ''x'' chop<br /> |-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |'''&lt;big&gt;∅&lt;/big&gt;'''<br /> |&lt;nowiki&gt;-yan&lt;/nowiki&gt;<br /> |&lt;nowiki&gt;-rnta&lt;/nowiki&gt;<br /> |&lt;nowiki&gt;-nyu&lt;/nowiki&gt;<br /> |&lt;nowiki&gt;-yanu&lt;/nowiki&gt;<br /> |&lt;nowiki&gt;-yanta&lt;/nowiki&gt;<br /> |&lt;nowiki&gt;-Ø&lt;/nowiki&gt;<br /> |&lt;nowiki&gt;-mpi&lt;/nowiki&gt;<br /> |&lt;nowiki&gt;-kura&lt;/nowiki&gt;<br /> |&lt;nowiki&gt;-mara&lt;/nowiki&gt;<br /> |&lt;nowiki&gt;-yanma&lt;/nowiki&gt;<br /> |&lt;nowiki&gt;-marnta&lt;/nowiki&gt;<br /> |&lt;nowiki&gt;-nyamarta&lt;/nowiki&gt;<br /> |-<br /> |''warni-yan''<br /> |''warni-rnta''<br /> |''warni-nyu''<br /> |''warni-yanu''<br /> |''warni-yanta''<br /> |''warni-Ø''<br /> |''warni-rnpi''<br /> |''warni-kura''<br /> |''warni-mara''<br /> |''warni-yanma''<br /> |''warni-marnta''<br /> |''warni-nyamarta''<br /> |-<br /> |is falling<br /> |fell (long ago)<br /> |fell<br /> |used to fall<br /> |falls<br /> |will fall<br /> |could have fallen<br /> |in order to fall<br /> |ought to fall<br /> |were ''x'' falling<br /> |had ''x'' fallen<br /> |should ''x'' fall<br /> |}<br /> <br /> These classes even extend to how verbs are nominalized as instruments with the '''l-'''class verb including the addition of an ''/l/'' before the nominalizing suffix and the blank class remaining blank:<br /> <br /> '''l-class example:'''<br /> <br /> {{Interlinear|Kunyjarta-lu mara ku-rnu parnu-nga warnta pirri-lpunyjarri, kurni-rnu kunyjarta kurri|Woman-ERG hand CAUS-PST 3SG-GEN stick dig-INS throw-PST woman teenager|‘(The) woman caused her digging stick to be in (the) hand (i.e. picked up her digging stick), (and) threw (it) at (the) girl.’}}<br /> <br /> '''∅-class example&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;'''<br /> <br /> {{Interlinear|Jarrari-punyjarri waa-n ngajapa pinurru ngaya nyali ja-lu|light-INS give-FUT 1SG.LOC fire 1SG.NOM light CAUS-PURP|‘(A) match (lit. something to light with) give on (i.e. to) me, (a) fire I intend to light.’}}<br /> <br /> ==== Yidiny ====<br /> [[Yidiny language|Yidiny]] has a ternary verb class system with two open classes and one closed class (~20 members). Verbs are classified as:<br /> <br /> * '''-n''' class (open, intransitive/semi-transitive)<br /> * '''-l''' class (open, transitive/ditransitive)<br /> * '''-r''' class (closed, intransitive)<br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |+<br /> Example Verb Conjugations in [[Yidiny language|Yidiny]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book |title=Language description informed by theory |date=2014 |publisher=John Benjamins Publishing Company |others=Pensalfini, Rob., Turpin, Myfany., Guillemin, Diana. |isbn=978-90-272-7091-7 |location=Amsterdam, the Netherlands |pages=157 |oclc=868284094}}&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> !Class<br /> !imperative<br /> !Present/Future<br /> !Past<br /> !Purposive<br /> !Apprehensive<br /> |-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |'''N'''<br /> | -n<br /> | -ng<br /> | -nyu<br /> | -na<br /> | -ntyi<br /> |-<br /> |''nyina-n''<br /> |''nyina-ng''<br /> |''nyina-nyu''<br /> |''nyina-na''<br /> |''nyina-ntyi''<br /> |-<br /> |sit!<br /> |is sitting / will sit<br /> |sat<br /> |in order to sit<br /> |lest ''x'' sit<br /> |-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |'''&lt;big&gt;L&lt;/big&gt;'''<br /> |&lt;big&gt;-∅&lt;/big&gt;<br /> | -l<br /> | -lnyu<br /> | -lna<br /> | -ltyi<br /> |-<br /> |''patya-&lt;big&gt;∅&lt;/big&gt;''<br /> |''patya-l''<br /> |''patya-lnyu''<br /> |''patya-lna''<br /> |''patya-ltyi''<br /> |-<br /> |bite it!<br /> |is biting / will bite<br /> |bit<br /> |in order to bite<br /> |lest ''x'' bite<br /> |-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |'''R'''<br /> | -rr<br /> | -r<br /> | -rnyu<br /> | -rna<br /> | -rtyi<br /> |-<br /> |''pakya-rr''<br /> |''pakya-r''<br /> |''pakya-rnyu''<br /> |''-pakya-rna''<br /> |''pakya-rtyi''<br /> |-<br /> |feel sore!<br /> |is feeling / will feel sore<br /> |felt sore<br /> |in order to feel sore<br /> |lest ''x'' feel sore<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ==See also==<br /> <br /> *[[Agreement (linguistics)]]<br /> *[[Declension]] (nouns, adjectives, ''etc.'')<br /> *[[Inflection]]<br /> *[[Redundancy (linguistics)]]<br /> *[[Screeve]]<br /> *[[Strong inflection]]<br /> *[[Verb]]<br /> *[[Verb argument]]<br /> *[[Volition (linguistics)]]<br /> *[[Weak inflection]]<br /> <br /> === Conjugations by language ===<br /> *[[:Category:Grammatical conjugation]]<br /> *[[Indo-European copula]]<br /> *[https://archivium.biz/strumenti/Coniugazione-Verbi.html Archivium: Italian verbs conjugator, for regular and irregular verbs]<br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> {{Reflist}}<br /> <br /> {{Authority control}}<br /> <br /> {{DEFAULTSORT:Grammatical Conjugation}}<br /> [[Category:Grammatical conjugation| ]]<br /> [[Category:Grammatical number]]<br /> [[Category:Linguistics terminology]]</div>

45.187.103.2 http://debianws.lexgopc.com/wiki143/index.php?title=Romance_copula&diff=885099 2025-05-27T19:19:16Z

<p>45.187.103.2: /* History */</p> <hr /> <div>{{Short description|Usage of linking verbs in Romance languages}}<br /> {{About|Romance linguistics|other uses|Copula (disambiguation)}}<br /> {{textbook|date=February 2020}}&lt;!-- all sections after History --&gt;<br /> <br /> In some of the [[Romance languages]] the [[Copula (linguistics)|copula]], the equivalent of the verb ''to be'' in English, is relatively complex compared to its counterparts in other languages. A [[copula (linguistics)|copula]] is a word that links the [[subject (grammar)|subject]] of a sentence with a [[predicate (grammar)|predicate]] (a [[subject complement]]). Whereas English has one main copula verb (and some languages like Russian mostly express the copula implicitly) some Romance languages have more complex forms.<br /> <br /> [[Italian language|Italian]], [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], [[Spanish language|Spanish]], and some other Romance languages have more than one copula verb. Conversely, [[French language|French]] and certain others have only one. The development of copula verbs in Romance languages is explained by the fact that these are ultimately derived from three [[Latin]] verbs: <br /> * '''{{sm|esse}}''' &quot;to be&quot; (ultimately from Proto-Indo-European ''{{PIE|*h₁es-}}'', as in English ''{{lang|en|is}}''). The verb ''{{lang|la|esse}}'' was an irregular, [[suppletion|suppletive verb]], with some of its forms (e.g. ''{{lang|la|fuī}}'' &quot;I was/I have been&quot;) taken from the Proto-Indo-European root ''{{PIE|*bʰuH-}}'' meaning &quot;to become&quot; (as in English ''{{lang|en|be}}'').<br /> * '''{{sm|stāre}}''' &quot;to stand&quot; or &quot;to stay&quot; (ultimately from Proto-Indo-European ''{{PIE|*steh₂-}}'', as in English ''{{lang|en|stand}}'' and German ''{{lang|de|stehen}}'').<br /> * '''{{sm|sedēre}}''' &quot;to sit&quot; (ultimately from [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]] ''{{PIE|*sed-}}'', as in English ''{{lang|en|sit}}''). <br /> <br /> As the Romance languages developed over time, the three separate Latin verbs became just one or two verbs in the Romance languages.<br /> <br /> The reduction of three separate verbs into just one or two appears to have occurred as follows:<br /> *The irregular infinitive {{sm|esse}} was remodeled into {{sm|*essere}}.<br /> *{{sm|*essere}} and {{sm|sedēre}} forms sounded similar in Latin once the latter reduced to {{sm|*seēre}}, and sounded even more similar after stress shifted in Spanish infinitives to the penultimate vowel. As a result, parts of the conjugations of erstwhile {{sm|sedēre}} were subject to being [[Suppletion|integrated]] into conjugation paradigms associated with {{sm|*essere}}, eventually {{sm|ser}}.<br /> *{{sm|stāre}} itself remained a separate verb, but {{sm|stāre}} (later {{sm|*istāre}}) and {{sm|*essere}} were similar in some meanings, so that, especially in the [[Western Romance languages]], {{sm|stāre}} evolved into a second [[copula (linguistics)|copula]], with a meaning of &quot;to be (temporarily or incidentally)&quot;; {{sm|*essere}} was then narrowed to mean &quot;to be (permanently or essentially)&quot;.<br /> <br /> The development of two copular verbs in this manner occurred most completely in [[Spanish language|Spanish]], [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] and [[Catalan language|Catalan]]. In other languages, most usages of English &quot;to be&quot; are still translated by {{sm|*essere}}:<br /> *In [[Italian language|Italian]], the infinitive ''essere'' continues Latin {{sm|esse}} as existential 'to be', while ''stare'' has the primary meaning &quot;to stay&quot; and is used as a copula only in a few situations: to express one's state of physical health (''sto bene'' &quot;I am well&quot;); to form [[progressive aspect]]s (''sto parlando'' &quot;I am speaking&quot;); and (especially in the south of Italy) with the meaning of &quot;to be located&quot;, although a distinction can be expressed in most varieties of Italian: ''è in cucina'' 'it's in the kitchen (where it usually is)' versus ''sta in cucina'' 'it's in the kitchen (where it isn't usually located)'. <br /> *In [[Old French]], the verb ''ester'' &lt; {{sm|stāre}} maintained the [[Proto-Romance]] meaning of &quot;to stand, stay, stop&quot;. In modern [[French language|French]], this verb has almost totally disappeared (see [[#French|below]] for the one exception), although the derivative verb of ''rester'' (&quot;to remain&quot;) exists, and some parts of the conjugation of ''ester'' have become incorporated into ''être'' &quot;to be&quot; &lt; {{sm|*essere}}. As a result of this complex evolution, even though French has a single verb for &quot;to be&quot; (''être''), its conjugation is highly irregular.<br /> <br /> ==History==<br /> <br /> In English, it is possible to say &quot;there stands...&quot; instead of &quot;there is...&quot; in certain contexts. In Latin, too, it became common to eschew {{sm|svm}} &lt;!-- meaning unclear. first person singular conjugation of Latin essere? --&gt; in favour of {{sm|sto}} and say where things &quot;stood&quot; instead of where they &quot;were&quot;. With time, it became common to use this verb to express other states.<br /> <br /> Today, Ibero-Romance languages, [[Catalan language|Catalan]], and (to a lesser extent) Italian commonly use two copulas, one from each of the Latin verbs. The others use just one main copula, from {{sm|svm}}.<br /> <br /> There is also a notable tendency for a derivative of the supine of {{sm|sto}} ({{sm|statvs, stata, statvm}}) to replace the past participle of verbs deriving from {{sm|svm}} (which in Latin had no supine). Examples:<br /> *Italian has ''stato'' as the past participle of not only ''stare'' but also ''essere'', instead of the expected ''essuto'' (which, along with ''suto'', we encounter only in mediaeval texts).<br /> *Standard Catalan has ''estat'' as the past participle of not only ''estar'' but also ''ésser''. However, many people use forms such as ''sigut'' or ''sét'', which are considered also standard for colloquial speech.<br /> *French has ''été'' as the past participle of ''être'', which had a complex phonetic development like many words of the language: {{sm|statvm}} → /sˈtatu/ ([[Vulgar Latin]]) &gt; /esˈtæðo/ (Proto-Gallo-Romance) &gt; /esˈteθ/ (early [[Old French]]) &gt; /ehˈte/ (late Old French) &gt; /eːˈte/ ([[Middle French]]) &gt; /ete/ ([[Modern French]]).<br /> ;Notes<br /> *Following the standard practice, Latin verbs are quoted here in the first person singular of the present indicative. In other words, {{sm|svm}} is literally &quot;I am&quot;, rather than &quot;to be&quot;. Their infinitives were {{sm|esse}} and {{sm|stare}}.<br /> *Although it is normal to use [[lower case]] when writing Latin in modern times, this article, dealing as it does with etymology, presents Latin in the capital letters used by the Romans, and modern innovations such as {{sm|j}}, {{sm|u}}, ligatures, macrons, and breves have been avoided.<br /> * Only the basic simple tenses are given in the conjugation tables, but all languages below have also numerous compound tenses.<br /> * The asterisk (*) indicates an incorrect or unattested form.<br /> <br /> ==Spanish==<br /> [[Image:Page of Lay of the Cid.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Page of the ''Cantar de Mio Cid''. The third line reads:&lt;br /&gt;''Es pagado, e davos su amor''.]]<br /> {{See also|Spanish grammar|Spanish verbs}}<br /> <br /> ===Spanish copulas===<br /> <br /> The [[Spanish language|Spanish]] copulas are ''ser'' and ''estar''. The latter developed as follows:<br /> :{{sm|stare}} → *''estare'' → ''estar''<br /> <br /> The copula ''ser'' developed from two Latin verbs. Thus its inflectional paradigm is a combination: most of it derives from {{sm|svm}} (to be) but the present subjunctive appears to come from {{sm|sedeo}} (to sit) via the Old Spanish verb ''seer''.<br /> <br /> E.g. derivation from {{sm|sedeo}}:<br /> <br /> :{{sm|sedeam}} → ''sea'' (1st person singular, present tense, subjunctive mood)<br /> <br /> Derivation from {{sm|svm}}:<br /> <br /> :{{sm|svmvs}} → ''somos'' (1st person plural, present tense, indicative mood)<br /> <br /> The infinitive (on which the modern future and conditional are based) could have derived from either or both:<br /> <br /> :{{sm|esse}} → ''èssere'' (as in Italian) → ''ésser'' (as in Catalan) → ''ser''&lt;!--depending on dialect, Catalan uses ''ésser'', ''esser'' or ''ser''--&gt;<br /> :{{sm|sedere}} → *''seder'' → ''seer''&lt;!--attested in the DRAE--&gt; → ''ser''<br /> <br /> In the early part of the second millennium, in texts such as the ''[[Cantar de Mio Cid]]'', ''ser'' was still used mostly as in Latin, and there was little place for ''estar''; sentences like ''Es pagado, e davos su amor'', &quot;He is satisfied, and he gives you his favour&quot; are found, where modern Spanish might have ''Queda contento,'' or ''Está satisfecho, y le da su favor''.<br /> <br /> As the centuries went by, ''estar'' spread in use. Today, ''ser'' is used to express the fundamental nature, identity, essence, or characteristics of something – what it ''really is'', while ''estar'' expresses the state or condition something ''happens to be in''. Indeed, ''ser'' is etymologically related to the English words &quot;essence&quot; and &quot;is&quot;, and ''estar'' with &quot;state&quot;, &quot;status&quot;, &quot;standing&quot;, &quot;stance&quot; and &quot;stay&quot;. The distinction is parallel with the concept of [[essence]] versus [[accident (philosophy)|accident]]. <br /> <br /> The verb ''quedar'' (which also has the specific meanings of &quot;to remain&quot;, &quot;to be as a result&quot; and others) is often used in a similar way to ''estar''. It derives from the Latin {{sm|qvieto}} ({{sm|qvietare}} in the infinitive), &quot;to rest&quot;.<br /> <br /> ;Ser<br /> <br /> {| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;background-color: darkgray;&quot; style=&quot;font-size: 90%&quot;<br /> !bgcolor=&quot;gray&quot; colspan=&quot;7&quot;|Non-finite<br /> |-<br /> |'''Infinitive''' ||colspan=&quot;6&quot;| ser<br /> |-<br /> |'''Past participle''' ||colspan=&quot;6&quot;|sido<br /> |-<br /> |'''Gerund''' || colspan=&quot;6&quot; | siendo<br /> |-<br /> !''Person''||''yo''||''tú''||''él''||''nosotros''||''vosotros''||''ellos''<br /> |-<br /> !bgcolor=&quot;gray&quot; colspan=&quot;7&quot;|Indicative<br /> |-<br /> |'''Present'''||soy||eres||es||somos||sois||son<br /> |-<br /> |'''Preterite'''||fui||fuiste||fue||fuimos||fuisteis||fueron<br /> |-<br /> |'''Imperfect'''||era||eras||era||éramos||erais||eran<br /> |-<br /> |'''Future'''||seré||serás||será||seremos||seréis||serán<br /> |-<br /> !bgcolor=&quot;gray&quot; colspan=&quot;7&quot;|Conditional<br /> |-<br /> |&amp;nbsp;||sería||serías||sería||seríamos||seríais||serían<br /> |-<br /> !bgcolor=&quot;gray&quot; colspan=&quot;7&quot;|Subjunctive<br /> |-<br /> |'''Present'''||sea||seas||sea||seamos||seáis||sean<br /> |-<br /> |'''Imperfect'''||fuera / fuese||fueras / fueses||fuera / fuese||fuéramos / fuésemos||fuerais / fueseis||fueran / fuesen<br /> |-<br /> |'''Future'''†||fuere||fueres||fuere||fuéremos||fuereis||fueren<br /> |-<br /> !bgcolor=&quot;gray&quot; colspan=&quot;7&quot;|Imperative<br /> |-<br /> |&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||sé||sea||seamos||sed||sean<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ;Estar<br /> {| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;background-color: darkgray;&quot; style=&quot;font-size: 90%&quot;<br /> !bgcolor=&quot;gray&quot; colspan=&quot;7&quot;|Non-finite<br /> |-<br /> |'''Infinitive''' ||colspan=&quot;6&quot;| estar<br /> |-<br /> |'''Past participle''' ||colspan=&quot;6&quot;|estado<br /> |-<br /> |'''Gerund''' ||colspan=&quot;6&quot;| estando<br /> |-<br /> !''Person''||''yo''||''tú''||''él''||''nosotros''||''vosotros''||''ellos''<br /> |-<br /> !bgcolor=&quot;gray&quot; colspan=&quot;7&quot;|Indicative<br /> |-<br /> |'''Present'''||estoy||estás||está||estamos||estáis||están<br /> |-<br /> |'''Preterite'''||estuve||estuviste||estuvo||estuvimos||estuvisteis||estuvieron<br /> |-<br /> |'''Imperfect'''||estaba||estabas||estaba||estábamos||estabais||estaban<br /> |-<br /> |'''Future'''||estaré||estarás||estará||estaremos||estaréis||estarán<br /> |-<br /> !bgcolor=&quot;gray&quot; colspan=&quot;7&quot;|Conditional<br /> |-<br /> |&amp;nbsp;||estaría||estarías||estaría||estaríamos||estaríais||estarían<br /> |-<br /> !bgcolor=&quot;gray&quot; colspan=&quot;7&quot;|Subjunctive<br /> |-<br /> |'''Present'''||esté||estés||esté||estemos||estéis||estén<br /> |-<br /> |'''Imperfect'''||estuviera / estuviese ||estuvieras / estuvieses ||estuviera / estuviese ||estuviéramos / estuviésemos||estuvierais / estuvieseis||estuvieran / estuviesen<br /> |-<br /> |'''Future'''†||estuviere||estuvieres||estuviere||estuviéremos||estuviereis||estuvieren<br /> |-<br /> !bgcolor=&quot;gray&quot; colspan=&quot;7&quot;|Imperative††<br /> |-<br /> |&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||está||&amp;nbsp;||estemos||estad||&amp;nbsp;<br /> |}<br /> &lt;small&gt;† Archaic.&lt;/small&gt;<br /> <br /> &lt;small&gt;†† ''Estar'' is usually made reflexive in the imperative.&lt;/small&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Nuance===<br /> <br /> :''Él es sucio'' = &quot;He is dirty&quot; (i.e. &quot;He is a dirty person&quot; – characteristic)<br /> :''Él está sucio'' = &quot;He is dirty&quot; (i.e. &quot;He has some dirt on him&quot; – state)<br /> <br /> :''Es abierta'' = &quot;She is open&quot; (i.e. &quot;She is an open sort of person&quot; – characteristic)<br /> :''Está abierta'' = &quot;It is open&quot; (probably referring to a door or window – state)<br /> <br /> :''Es triste'' = &quot;[It/he/she] is sad&quot; (i.e. gloomy – characteristic)<br /> :''Está triste'' = &quot;[It/he/she] is sad&quot; (i.e. feeling down – state)<br /> <br /> :''¿Cómo eres?'' = &quot;What are you like?&quot; (i.e. &quot;describe yourself&quot; – characteristics)<br /> :''¿Cómo estás?'' = &quot;How are you?&quot; (i.e. &quot;how are you doing?&quot; – state)<br /> <br /> With adjectives referring to beauty and the like, ''ser'' means &quot;to be&quot;, and ''estar'' means &quot;to look&quot;.<br /> :''¡Qué bonita es!'' = &quot;Wow, she is so beautiful&quot; (characteristic)<br /> :''¡Qué bonita está!'' = &quot;Wow, she is looking so beautiful / she is done up so nicely&quot; (state)<br /> <br /> The differentiation between &quot;nature&quot; and &quot;state&quot; makes sense when talking about the states of life and death: ''Él está vivo'' (He is alive), ''Él está muerto'' (He is dead). ''Estar'' is used for both alive and dead, since they are both states, although being dead is considered a permanent state.<br /> <br /> ''Ser'' is used when stating the stage of life at which a person is. The old, the young, etc. are seen as groups that one can belong to. It is a question of identity:<br /> :''Él es viejo'' = &quot;He is old&quot;<br /> :''Él es un viejo'' = &quot;He is an old man&quot;<br /> :''Cuando ella era niñita'' = &quot;When she was a little girl&quot;<br /> However, age can also be presented not as a matter of identity but a state:<br /> :''Él está viejo'' = &quot;He is looking old&quot; / &quot;He got old&quot;<br /> <br /> The use of ''estar'' gives a certain special nuance to some verbs. For example, ''estar guapa'', though it has the sense of &quot;to be beautiful&quot;, also emphasizes the use of make-up and clothes to create a beautiful look. ''Ser sucio'' instead of the more usual ''estar sucio'' means to be the sort of person who is likely to be dirty.<br /> <br /> The adjective ''loco'' (&quot;mad&quot;, &quot;crazy&quot;, &quot;insane&quot;) is always used with ''estar'' in Spain, as the implication is that the person &quot;has gone mad&quot; (i.e. a change of state). It is possible to give it a permanent nuance, but only by using it as a noun: ''Él es un loco'', &quot;He is a madman&quot;. ''Ser loco'' is used in certain regions in Latin America, however, meaning a permanent insanity as opposed to ''estar loco'' meaning have gone mad or acting crazy.<br /> <br /> The expression ''como una cabra'' (with the implied ''loco'' omitted) is used with ''estar'' to mean &quot;mad as a hatter&quot;, &quot;crazy as a loon&quot;. ''Ser como una cabra'' would literally mean, &quot;to be like a goat&quot;.<br /> <br /> ''Ser'' is used with adjectives of fundamental belief, nationality, sex, intelligence, etc. The use of ''estar'' with ''francés'' (&quot;French&quot;) would sound quite odd to native Spanish speakers, as though it meant, &quot;to feel a bit French&quot;. Similarly, ''no estar católico'' does not mean, &quot;to no longer be Catholic&quot;, but is a colloquial expression meaning &quot;to feel under the weather&quot;.<br /> <br /> It is often stated that the difference between the two verbs corresponds to &quot;permanent&quot; versus &quot;temporary&quot;, but it is more accurate to describe the distinction as one of &quot;essential nature&quot; versus &quot;state or condition&quot;. The &quot;essential nature&quot; of things does sometimes change, and this is reflected in the language. For example, someone who had been depressed for a prolonged period, and then had a life changing experience like a new career or long-term relationship, might say ''ahora yo soy feliz'', meaning, &quot;now I am happy&quot;.<br /> <br /> ===Specific constructions requiring ''ser''===<br /> A special use of ''ser'', which expresses neither a nature nor a state but an action, is the formation of the [[passive voice]]:<br /> :''Ellos han sido asesinados'' = &quot;They have been murdered&quot;<br /> :''Tú serás juzgada'' = &quot;You will be judged&quot;<br /> <br /> ===Specific constructions requiring ''estar''===<br /> <br /> ====Past participles====<br /> <br /> ''Estar'' is usually used with adjectives that derive from past participles of verbs since the use of ''ser'' would sound like a verb in the passive voice. Such adjectives in any case generally refer to states:<br /> :''La frontera está cerrada'' = &quot;The border is closed&quot;<br /> :''Estoy casado'' = &quot;I am married&quot; (''Soy casado'' is also possible; &quot;I am single&quot;, &quot;I am widowed&quot;, etc. can use ''ser'' or ''estar'' as well)<br /> <br /> A special example of this tendency is what happens with words indicating prohibition and suchlike. If an adjective not deriving from a verb were used, then the meaning would definitely require ''ser''. To say the same thing with a past participle, ''estar'' (or ''quedar'') is required, in order to differentiate it from the use of ''ser'' with a past participle implying an action expressed in the passive voice:<br /> :''Es ilegal fumar en este vuelo'' = &quot;It is illegal to smoke on this flight&quot; (straightforward case of ''ser'')<br /> :''Está prohibido fumar en este vuelo'' = &quot;It is prohibited to smoke on this flight&quot; (''estar'' necessary to distinguish the sentence from the following one)<br /> :''Ha sido prohibido fumar en este vuelo'' = &quot;It has been prohibited (i.e. made against the rules) to smoke on this flight&quot; (This is an example of the passive voice. This use of ''ser'' in the perfect tense is similar to the use of ''estar'' in the present tense; the former expressing an event in the past, the latter expressing its current effect.)<br /> <br /> This fine nuance is not encountered in other Romance languages, which do not go to such lengths to distinguish between passives and similar-sounding phrases.<br /> <br /> ====Location====<br /> ''Estar'' is used to refer to physical location. In Spanish, location is regarded as a state, and therefore is indicated with ''estar'', even in those cases (e.g. ''Madrid está en España'' &quot;Madrid is in Spain&quot;) when one might think that it is something so permanent and fundamental that it could be logical to use ''ser''. The use of ''estar'' for location may be easier for English speakers to grasp if they recall that it is derived from Latin {{sm|stare}}, &quot;to stand.&quot;<br /> <br /> With immobile things, ''quedar'' is sometimes used instead of ''estar'', especially when there is a reference to a length of time, or a remaining distance, e.g.:<br /> :''¿A cuánto queda la playa?'' / ''¿A qué distancia queda la playa?'' = &quot;How far away is the beach?&quot;<br /> :''Aún queda lejos'' = &quot;There is still quite some way&quot; / &quot;It is still far&quot;<br /> :''El bar queda a cinco minutitos'' = &quot;The bar is five minutes away&quot;<br /> <br /> However, ''ser'' can sometimes occur with words such as ''aquí'', which can mislead learners into thinking that physical location can be expressed with ''ser''. In fact, the verb in this case identifies the place rather than expressing where it is. For example, one might say to a taxi driver the following phrases, to indicate that one has arrived:<br /> :''Está aquí'' = &quot;It is here&quot;<br /> :''Es aquí'' = &quot;It is here&quot;<br /> <br /> The difference becomes clear if ''aquí'' is changed to ''esta calle'':<br /> :''Está en esta calle'' = &quot;It is in this street&quot;<br /> :''Es esta calle'' = &quot;It is this street&quot;<br /> <br /> ''Es aquí'' and ''es esta calle'' express the idea that &quot;this is the place&quot;, a concept quite different from what is expressed by ''estar''.<br /> <br /> The only case in which true location is expressed by ''ser'' is when an event rather than a physical thing is referred to:<br /> :''¿Dónde es la fiesta?'' = &quot;Where is the party?&quot;<br /> :''¿Dónde está la discoteca?'' = &quot;Where is the nightclub?&quot;<br /> <br /> ===Words requiring ''ser''===<br /> ''Ser'' is always used when the complement is a noun or pronoun, regardless of whether the speaker intended to express a fundamental essence (though in practice speakers do tend to express this):<br /> :''Él es una persona sucia'' = &quot;He is a dirty person&quot;<br /> :''Ella es una persona abierta'' = &quot;She is an open person&quot;<br /> :''Yo soy la víctima'' = &quot;I am the victim&quot;<br /> <br /> However, it is not always easy to know what is a noun. For example, ''pez'' is a noun meaning &quot;fish&quot;, but ''estar pez'' is a colloquial expression meaning &quot;not to have a clue&quot; or &quot;to be at sea&quot; at a given activity.<br /> <br /> ===Words requiring ''estar''===<br /> <br /> ''Estar'' must be used when the complement is ''bien'' or ''mal'', no matter what meaning is intended.<br /> :''Este libro está muy bien'' = ''Este libro es muy bueno'' = &quot;This book is very good&quot; (nature)<br /> :''Estoy muy mal'' = ''Estoy muy malo'' = &quot;I am feeling terrible, ill&quot; (state)<br /> <br /> ===Total change of meaning with specific adjectives===<br /> Many adjectives change in meaning entirely depending on the verb used, sometimes meaning almost the opposite. In each case, the meaning which is more of a &quot;nature&quot; goes with ''ser'' and the meaning which is more of a &quot;state&quot; goes with ''estar''.<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !adjective<br /> ! align=left| with ''estar''<br /> ! align=left | with ''ser''<br /> |-<br /> ||aburrido || ''bored'' || ''boring''<br /> |-<br /> ||bueno || ''tasty, sexy'' || ''good''<br /> |-<br /> ||cachondo || ''aroused'' || ''sexy, funny person''<br /> |-<br /> ||cansado || ''tired'' || ''tiring/tiresome''<br /> |-<br /> ||listo || ''ready'' || ''clever, smart''<br /> |-<br /> ||rico || ''delicious'' || ''rich, wealthy''<br /> |-<br /> ||seguro || ''sure/certain'' || ''safe''<br /> |-<br /> ||vivo || ''alive'' || ''lively, bright''<br /> |-<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Happiness====<br /> Although &quot;sadness&quot; is expressed straightforwardly with ''estar triste'', &quot;happiness&quot; is a little trickier. The quality of being joyous, lively and happy is expressed with ''ser alegre''. This can describe people, music, colours, etc. ''Estar alegre'' expresses the state of being merry, which in practice may sometimes mean &quot;drunk&quot;, &quot;tipsy&quot;.<br /> <br /> A person who is fundamentally happy in life is said to ''ser feliz''; indeed ''la felicidad'' is that &quot;happiness&quot; for which humans strive. This happiness often turns out to be a transitory state, a person may nevertheless declare ''yo soy feliz'' as a statement of optimism that goes beyond the description of today's mood that is expressed by any phrase with ''estar''. As for such moods, they can be expressed with ''estar feliz''.<br /> <br /> When not a state but a change of state is referred to, the expression is ''quedar contento'' or ''alegrarse'': ''Ella quedó muy contenta cuando yo le dije que ella había ganado'' = &quot;she was very glad when I told her that she had won&quot;; ''Yo me alegro de que vosotros hayáis llegado'' = &quot;I am glad that you (plural) have come&quot;.<br /> <br /> In the excerpt from the ''Cantar de Mio Cid'' above, one can see that &quot;to be happy&quot; a thousand years ago was ''ser pagado'' (meaning &quot;to be paid&quot; in current Spanish).<br /> <br /> ==Portuguese==<br /> <br /> ===Portuguese copulas===<br /> &lt;!-- TO STATE THAT IN PORTUGUESE THE INFINITIVE OF &quot;SER&quot; COMES FROM LATIN &quot;ESSE&quot; IS A SERIOUS MISTAKE. CF, SAY, E.B. WILLIAMS (From Latin to Portuguese); J.P. MACHADO (Dicionário Etimológico da Língua Portuguesa); AND ALSO: http://pt.wiktionary.org/wiki/ser; http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portuguese_grammar#Verbs. I DO NOT KNOW HOW IT IS IN SPANISH, BUT IN PORTUGUESE, IT IS SOMETHING THAT ALL LINGUISTS AGREE UPON: sedere&gt;seer&gt;ser. Of course, there was a merge of the different forms of esse and sedere. EG: sou&lt;sum, somos&lt;sumus, but seja&lt;sedeam, sejamos&lt;sedeamus --&gt;<br /> The [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] copulas are ''ser'' and ''estar''. As in Spanish, ''estar'' derived from Latin {{sm|sto}} / {{sm|stare}}:<br /> :{{sm|stare}} → *''estare'' → ''estar''<br /> The copula ''ser'' developed both from {{sm|svm}} and {{sm|sedeo}}. Thus its inflectional paradigm is a combination of these two Latin verbs: most tenses derive from {{sm|svm}} and a few from {{sm|sedeo}}. E.g. derivation from {{sm|sedeo}}:&lt;ref&gt;E.B. Williams (''From Latin to Portuguese''); J.P. Machado (''Dicionário Etimológico da Língua Portuguesa'').&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> :{{sm|sedere}} → ''seer'' → ''ser'' (infinitive)<br /> :{{sm|sedeam}} → ''seja'' (1st person singular, present tense, subjunctive mood)<br /> E.g. derivation from {{sm|svm}}:<br /> :{{sm|svm}} → ''som'' → ''sou'' (1st pers. sing., present tense, indicative mood)<br /> :{{sm|eram}} → ''era'' (1st pers. sing., imperfect past tense, indicative mood)<br /> :{{sm|fvi}} → ''fui'' (1st pers. sing., preterite tense, indicative mood)<br /> <br /> ;Ser<br /> {| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;background-color: darkgray;&quot; style=&quot;font-size: 90%&quot;<br /> !bgcolor=&quot;gray&quot; colspan=&quot;7&quot;|Non-finite<br /> |-<br /> |'''(Impersonal) infinitive''' ||colspan=&quot;6&quot;| ser<br /> |-<br /> |'''Past participle''' ||colspan=&quot;6&quot;|sido<br /> |-<br /> |'''Gerund''' ||colspan=&quot;6&quot;| sendo<br /> |-<br /> !''Person''||''eu''||''tu''||''ele''||''nós''||''vós''||''{{lang|pt|eles}}''<br /> |-<br /> |'''Personal infinitive'''||ser||seres||ser||sermos||serdes||serem<br /> |-<br /> !bgcolor=&quot;gray&quot; colspan=&quot;7&quot;|Indicative<br /> |-<br /> |'''Present'''||sou||és||é||somos||sois||são<br /> |-<br /> |'''Preterite'''||fui||foste||foi||fomos||fostes||foram<br /> |-<br /> |'''Imperfect'''||era||eras||era||éramos||éreis||eram<br /> |-<br /> |'''Pluperfect'''†||fora||foras||fora||fôramos||fôreis||foram<br /> |-<br /> |'''Future'''||serei||serás||será||seremos||sereis||serão<br /> |-<br /> !bgcolor=&quot;gray&quot; colspan=&quot;7&quot;|Conditional<br /> |-<br /> |&amp;nbsp;||seria||serias||seria||seríamos||seríeis||seriam<br /> |-<br /> !bgcolor=&quot;gray&quot; colspan=&quot;7&quot;|Subjunctive<br /> |-<br /> |'''Present'''||seja||sejas||seja ||sejamos||sejais||sejam<br /> |-<br /> |'''Imperfect'''||fosse||fosses||fosse||fôssemos||fôsseis||fossem<br /> |-<br /> |'''Future'''||for||fores||for||formos||fordes||forem<br /> |-<br /> !bgcolor=&quot;gray&quot; colspan=&quot;7&quot;|Imperative<br /> |-<br /> |'''Present'''||&amp;nbsp;||sê||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||sede||&amp;nbsp;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ;Estar<br /> {| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;background-color: darkgray;&quot; style=&quot;font-size: 90%&quot;<br /> !bgcolor=&quot;gray&quot; colspan=&quot;7&quot;|Non-finite<br /> |-<br /> |'''(Impersonal) infinitive''' ||colspan=&quot;6&quot;| estar<br /> |-<br /> |'''Past participle''' ||colspan=&quot;6&quot;|estado<br /> |-<br /> |'''Gerund''' ||colspan=&quot;6&quot;| estando<br /> |-<br /> !''Person''||''eu''||''tu''||''ele''||''nós''||''vós''||''{{lang|pt|eles}}''<br /> |-<br /> |'''Personal infinitive'''||estar||estares||estar||estarmos||estardes||estarem<br /> |-<br /> !bgcolor=&quot;gray&quot; colspan=&quot;7&quot;|Indicative<br /> |-<br /> |'''Present'''||estou||estás||está||estamos||estais||estão<br /> |-<br /> |'''Preterite'''||estive||estiveste||esteve||estivemos||estivestes||estiveram<br /> |-<br /> |'''Imperfect'''||estava||estavas||estava||estávamos||estáveis||estavam<br /> |-<br /> |'''Pluperfect'''†||estivera||estiveras||estivera||estivéramos||estivéreis||estiveram<br /> |-<br /> |'''Future'''||estarei||estarás||estará||estaremos||estareis||estarão<br /> |-<br /> !bgcolor=&quot;gray&quot; colspan=&quot;7&quot;|Conditional<br /> |-<br /> |&amp;nbsp;||estaria||estarias||estaria||estaríamos||estaríeis||estariam<br /> |-<br /> !bgcolor=&quot;gray&quot; colspan=&quot;7&quot;|Subjunctive<br /> |-<br /> |'''Present'''||esteja||estejas||esteja||estejamos||estejais||estejam<br /> |-<br /> |'''Imperfect'''||estivesse||estivesses||estivesse||estivéssemos||estivésseis||estivessem<br /> |-<br /> |'''Future'''||estiver||estiveres||estiver||estivermos||estiverdes||estiverem<br /> |-<br /> !bgcolor=&quot;gray&quot; colspan=&quot;7&quot;|Imperative<br /> |-<br /> |'''Present'''||&amp;nbsp;||está||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||estai||&amp;nbsp;<br /> |}<br /> &lt;small&gt;† Mostly literary.&lt;/small&gt;<br /> <br /> &lt;small&gt;†† Some authors regard the conditional as a tense of the indicative mood.&lt;/small&gt;<br /> <br /> === Usage ===<br /> <br /> The distinction between the two verbs is very similar to that of Catalan. Compared to Spanish, ''estar'' is a little less used. The main difference between Spanish and Portuguese lies in the interpretation of the concept of state versus essence and in the generalisations in some constructions. There is perhaps a little more of a concept of permanent versus temporary, rather than essence versus state. For example, unlike Spanish, Portuguese does not require ''estar'' with past participles; in this case, it follows the general rule regarding state/essence.<br /> :''A cadeira é'' [''feita''] ''de madeira'' = &quot;The chair is made of wood&quot;.<br /> The word ''feita'', &quot;made&quot;, is usually omitted.<br /> :''Eu sou casado'' = &quot;I am married&quot;.<br /> &lt;!-- GIVE SOME PORTUGUESE EXAMPLES SIMILAR TO THE SPANISH ONES --&gt;<br /> <br /> The same applies to sentences expressing interdictions:<br /> : ''É proibido fumar neste voo'' &quot;Smoking is forbidden on this flight&quot;.<br /> <br /> However, there are some nuances in these verbs in the passive voice. In this case, the use of ''ser'' or ''estar'' depends on the tense of the verb. E.g.: to say that somebody is not allowed to smoke, only ''estar'' can be used in the present tense:<br /> : ''Está proibido de fumar'' [''pelo pai''] = &quot;He has been forbidden from smoking [by his father]&quot;; literally &quot;He is forbidden to smoke [by the father]&quot;.<br /> In past tenses, both ''ser'' and ''estar'' can be used, conveying a different meaning:<br /> : ''Foi proibido de fumar'' = &quot;He was forbidden from smoking&quot; [action].<br /> : ''Estava proibido de fumar'' = &quot;He was forbidden from smoking&quot; [result].<br /> <br /> Portuguese counts location as permanent and fundamental, and accordingly uses ''ser'', or the more specific secondary copula ''ficar'' (to stay), from Latin {{sm|figo}}, &quot;to place/set&quot;:<br /> :''Lisboa fica em Portugal'' &quot;Lisbon is [located] in Portugal&quot;.<br /> :''Onde é/fica o apartamento dela?'' &quot;Where is her flat/apartment?&quot;<br /> but:<br /> :''A cidade está (situada) a 10 quilômetros da capital.'' &quot;The city is (situated) 10 km from the capital.&quot;<br /> <br /> ====Nuance====<br /> <br /> :''Como és?'' = &quot;What are you like?&quot; (i.e. &quot;Describe yourself&quot; – characteristics).<br /> :''Como estás?'' = &quot;How are you?&quot; (i.e. &quot;How are you doing?&quot; – state).<br /> <br /> :''Ele é triste'' = &quot;He is sad&quot; (i.e. gloomy – characteristic).<br /> :''(Ele) está triste'' = &quot;He is [feeling] sad&quot; (i.e. feeling down – state).<br /> <br /> :''Ela é aberta'' = &quot;She is open&quot; (i.e. &quot;She is an open-minded sort of person&quot; – characteristic; this sentence can also have a pejorative meaning).<br /> :''Ela está aberta'' = &quot;It is open&quot; (probably referring to a door or window – state).<br /> <br /> :''É sujo'' = &quot;It is dirty&quot; (i.e. &quot;It is a dirty place/thing&quot; – characteristic).<br /> :''Está sujo'' = &quot;It is dirty&quot; (i.e. &quot;The place is/looks dirty [now]&quot; – state).<br /> <br /> With adjectives referring to beauty and the like, ''ser'' means &quot;to be&quot;, and ''estar'' means &quot;to look&quot;.<br /> :''Que linda ela é!'' = &quot;She is so beautiful!&quot; (characteristic).<br /> :''Que linda ela está!'' = &quot;She looks so beautiful!&quot; (state).<br /> <br /> As in Spanish, the differentiation between &quot;nature&quot; and &quot;state&quot; makes sense when talking about the states of life and death: ''Está vivo'' (He is alive); ''Está morto'' (He is dead).<br /> Notice the important difference between ''ser morto'' (to be killed) and ''estar morto'' (to be dead):<br /> :''Ele foi morto'' [''por um ladrão''] = &quot;He was killed [by a burglar]&quot;.<br /> <br /> ''Louco'' (mad) can be used with ''ser'' or ''estar'', giving different connotations:<br /> <br /> :''És louco!'' = &quot;You are mad!&quot; (characteristic).<br /> :''Estás louco!'' = &quot;You have gone mad!&quot;/ &quot;You are acting crazy&quot; (state).<br /> <br /> ''Ser'' is used with adjectives expressing:<br /> * fundamental belief: ''Não sou católico'' &quot;I am not a Catholic&quot;;<br /> * nationality: ''És português'' &quot;You are Portuguese&quot;;<br /> * gender: ''É um homem'' &quot;He is a man&quot;;<br /> * intelligence: ''Somos espertos'' &quot;We are clever&quot;, etc.<br /> <br /> ''Estar católico'' is used with the same sense as in Spanish:<br /> <br /> :''Eu não estou muito católico'' = &quot;I am not feeling very well&quot; (perhaps mean-spirited or ill or drunk).<br /> :''O tempo hoje não está muito católico'' = &quot;The weather is not very reliable today&quot;.<br /> <br /> Apart from this exception, due to its different meanings, ''estar'' cannot be used for nationality, gender, or intelligence, but one can say ''Estou abrasileirado'' (I have acquired Brazilian ways – state) or ''Estás americanizado'' (You have been Americanised – state).<br /> The same applies for the difference between ''É um homem'' &quot;He is a man&quot; and ''Está um homem'', meaning, &quot;He has grown up to be a man&quot;.<br /> <br /> ''Ficar'', apart from its use as &quot;to stay&quot;, and the use mentioned above as a copula translated as &quot;to be located&quot;, is extensively used for a change of state (sometimes quite sudden), being translated as &quot;to get&quot; or &quot;to become&quot;:<br /> : ''Fiquei rico'' = &quot;I got rich.&quot;<br /> : ''Ficou triste'' = &quot;He became sad.&quot;<br /> <br /> ==Catalan==<br /> <br /> ===Catalan copulas===<br /> The [[Catalan language|Catalan]] copulas developed as follows:<br /> :{{sm|esse}} → ''éssere'' → ''ésser'' → ''esser'' → ''ser''<br /> :{{sm|stare}} → *''estare'' → ''estar''<br /> :{{sm|sedēre}} → ''seure''<br /> <br /> The last three forms of the first verb survive in modern Catalan. ''Ésser'' is considered the most standard, followed by ''ser'' and, distantly, ''esser''. The verb ''seure'' remains as a distinct verb and is not considered a copula.<br /> <br /> ;{{lang|ca|(És)ser}}<br /> {| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;background-color: darkgray;&quot; style=&quot;font-size: 90%&quot;<br /> !bgcolor=&quot;gray&quot; colspan=&quot;7&quot;|Non-finite<br /> |-<br /> |'''Infinitive''' ||colspan=&quot;6&quot;| ser / ésser<br /> |-<br /> |'''Past participle''' ||colspan=&quot;6&quot;| estat / sigut / sét<br /> |-<br /> |'''Gerund''' ||colspan=&quot;6&quot;| sent / essent<br /> |-<br /> !''Person''||''jo''||''tu''||''ell''||''nosaltres''||''vosaltres''||''ells''<br /> |-<br /> !bgcolor=&quot;gray&quot; colspan=&quot;7&quot;|Indicative<br /> |-<br /> |'''Present'''||sóc||ets||és||som||sou||són<br /> |-<br /> |'''Preterite'''||fui||fores||fou||fórem||fóreu||foren<br /> |-<br /> |'''Imperfect'''||era||eres||era||érem||éreu||eren<br /> |-<br /> |'''Future'''||seré||seràs||serà||serem||sereu||seran<br /> |-<br /> !bgcolor=&quot;gray&quot; colspan=&quot;7&quot;|Conditional<br /> |-<br /> |&amp;nbsp;||seria / fóra||series / fores||seria / fóra||seríem / fórem||seríeu / fóreu||serien / foren<br /> |-<br /> !bgcolor=&quot;gray&quot; colspan=&quot;7&quot;|Subjunctive<br /> |-<br /> |'''Present'''||sigui / siga||siguis / sigues||sigui / siga||siguem||sigueu||siguin / siguen<br /> |-<br /> |'''Imperfect'''||fos||fossis||fos||fóssim / fóssem||fóssiu / fósseu||fossin / fossen<br /> |-<br /> !bgcolor=&quot;gray&quot; colspan=&quot;7&quot;|Imperative<br /> |-<br /> |&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||sigues||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||sigueu / sigau||&amp;nbsp;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ;Estar<br /> {| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;background-color: darkgray;&quot; style=&quot;font-size: 90%&quot;<br /> !bgcolor=&quot;gray&quot; colspan=&quot;7&quot;|Non-finite<br /> |-<br /> |'''Infinitive''' ||colspan=&quot;6&quot;| estar<br /> |-<br /> |'''Past participle''' ||colspan=&quot;6&quot;| estat<br /> |-<br /> |'''Gerund''' ||colspan=&quot;6&quot;| estant<br /> |-<br /> !''Person''||''jo''||''tu''||''ell''||''nosaltres''||''vosaltres''||''ells''<br /> |-<br /> !bgcolor=&quot;gray&quot; colspan=&quot;7&quot;|Indicative<br /> |-<br /> |'''Present'''||estic||estàs||està||estem &lt;br/&gt; / estam||esteu &lt;br/&gt; / estau||estan<br /> |-<br /> |'''Preterite'''||estiguí||estigueres||estigué||estiguérem||estiguéreu||estigueren<br /> |-<br /> |'''Imperfect'''||estava||estaves||estava||estàvem||estàveu||estaven<br /> |-<br /> |'''Future'''||estaré||estaràs||estarà||estarem||estareu||estaran<br /> |-<br /> !bgcolor=&quot;gray&quot; colspan=&quot;7&quot;|Conditional<br /> |-<br /> |&amp;nbsp;||estaria||estaries||estaria||estaríem||estaríeu||estarien<br /> |-<br /> !bgcolor=&quot;gray&quot; colspan=&quot;7&quot;|Subjunctive<br /> |-<br /> |'''Present'''||estigui / estiga||estiguis / estigues||estigui / estiga||estiguem||estigueu||estiguin &lt;br/&gt; / estiguen<br /> |-<br /> |'''Imperfect'''||estigués||estiguessis||estigués||estiguéssim / estiguéssem||estiguéssiu / estiguésseu||estiguessin / estiguessen<br /> |-<br /> !bgcolor=&quot;gray&quot; colspan=&quot;7&quot;|Imperative<br /> |-<br /> |&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||estigues||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||estigueu &lt;br/&gt; / estigau||&amp;nbsp;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Usage===<br /> <br /> In Catalan, ''ésser'' and ''estar'' work in a way intermediate between those of Italian and Portuguese. A complete description of its rules of usage is as follows:<br /> <br /> * When referring to inanimate objects, ''ser'' is used to tell about either permanent conditions inherent to the object (for example ''és vermell'', &quot;it is red&quot;), unfinished qualities, or non-permanent conditions when there is no implication that there has been or there will be a change in state (for example, ''la sopa és calenta'', &quot;the soup is hot.&quot;) ''Ser'' is used to talk about a quality of an inanimate object in a given moment (without paying attention to other moments) or exactly the opposite: a quality of an inanimate object which is expected to be true in all moments of the existence of said object. Most uses of past participles as adjectives fall into this category when referring to inanimate objects.<br /> * When referring to inanimate objects, ''estar'' is used to tell about non-permanent conditions when there is an implication of a finished change of state, an implication of a state in a known point of an evolution, or a temporal condition which is expected to change. In some way, ''estar'' introduces an adverbial sense to adjectives (for example, ''la sopa està calenta'', &quot;the soup is hot&quot;, as in &quot;it has come to be hot.&quot;) Thus, both using ''ser'' and ''estar'' is correct in many contexts, but there is a difference in nuance.<br /> * When referring to animate objects, ''ser'' is only used to tell about permanent conditions (for example ''és boig'', &quot;he is insane&quot;; ''és mort'', &quot;he is dead.&quot;) Things traditionally thought of as permanent conditions also fall under this category, most notably ''ser casat/da'', &quot;to be married&quot;, and related terms. ''Ser'' is also used with the past participle of some [[unaccusative verb]]s such as ''néixer'', which in medieval and dialectal Catalan made their compound tenses with ''ser''.<br /> * When referring to animate objects, ''estar'' is only used to tell about non-permanent conditions (for example ''estàs molt guapa'', &quot;you look good&quot; as in &quot;better than usual.&quot;)<br /> * With fixed prepositional locutions, ''estar'' is most often used (for example, ''està en perill'', &quot;he/she/it is in danger&quot;; ''està a punt'', &quot;he/she/it is ready.&quot;)<br /> * When referring to location, ''ser'' is used when no time context is given (for example, ''els llibres són als prestatges'', &quot;the books are on the shelves.&quot;)<br /> * When referring to location, ''estar'' is used when there is a sense of permanence (for example ''estic a Barcelona'', &quot;I live in Barcelona&quot;) or of a concrete time lapse (for example ''hi vam estar dues hores'', &quot;we were there for two hours.&quot;) In this case, pronominal particles might be added to the verb to emphasise the sentence (for example, ''ens hi vam estar dues hores.'')<br /> * ''Estar'' is always used with modal adverbs (for example ''estic bé'', &quot;I am all right&quot;).<br /> * ''Estar'' is used to form the present continuous form ''estar'' + gerund, although some linguists think this is not a genuinely Catalan form, even though it is found on Medieval literature, for example that of Ausiàs March. Another undoubtedly genuine but perhaps too literary form is ''ser a'' + infinitive{{Citation needed|date=June 2007}}.<br /> * ''Estat'' is used as the past participle of not only ''estar'' but also ''èsser/ser'' by many speakers, and this is considered the universal form. However, many other speakers use a traditional regular past participle of ''èsser/ser'': ''sigut'', which is also accepted as standard in Central Catalan, although many linguists and speakers see it as colloquial. Another accepted form is ''sét'', unlike the Valencian form ''segut'', which causes confusion with the past participle of the verb ''seure'', &quot;to sit.&quot;<br /> <br /> This can be summed up in five simple rules:<br /> <br /> # ''Ser'' is always used to apply adjectives to inanimate objects except if there is a cause or a time lapse given for the condition of the adjective.<br /> # ''Estar'' is always used to apply adjectives to animate objects if it is not a permanent state or characteristic of such animate object. However, there are some things that nowadays can be changed but before could not (or were not expected to), which work like permanent characteristics (for example, nationality, beliefs, sex, looks, being married, degree of intelligence and degree of sanity.) Of course, even those can be expressed with ''estar'' if the animate object is acting as if they were his characteristics but they are not, or if the characteristics are more emphasised than usual. For example, ''és molt socialista'', &quot;she/he's a convinced socialist&quot; vs. ''estàs molt socialista!'', &quot;you are being very socialist!&quot;; ''és molt maca'', &quot;she is very beautiful&quot; vs. ''està molt maca'', &quot;she looks very beautiful&quot;, as in &quot;better than usual&quot;; ''és mort'', &quot;he is dead&quot; vs. ''està com mort'', &quot;he is acting as if he were dead.&quot;<br /> # ''Ser'' is always used for locations except if there is a time lapse given or if the location actually means that someone works or lives in the indicated place.<br /> # ''Estar'' is always used with modal adverbs and equivalents like fixed prepositional locutions.<br /> # ''Estar'' is always used to express a point of an evolution or scale (for example, ''els termòmetres estan a 20 graus'', &quot;thermometers are at 20 degrees.&quot;)<br /> <br /> &quot;Animate objects&quot; refers mainly to people, animals, and whatever is thought to be sentient (for example, a child playing with a doll will probably treat it as an animate object).<br /> <br /> ==Italian==<br /> <br /> ===Italian copulas===<br /> The [[Italian language|Italian]] copulas did not undergo the same development as in other languages, having preserved the [[Vulgar Latin]] forms ''essere'' and ''stare''.<br /> <br /> ;Essere<br /> {| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;background-color: darkgray;&quot; style=&quot;font-size: 90%&quot;<br /> !bgcolor=&quot;gray&quot; colspan=&quot;7&quot;|Non-finite<br /> |-<br /> |'''Infinitive''' ||colspan=&quot;6&quot;| essere<br /> |-<br /> |'''Past participle''' ||colspan=&quot;6&quot;|essuto (archaic) / stato (''from'' stare)<br /> |-<br /> |'''Gerund''' ||colspan=&quot;6&quot;| essendo<br /> |-<br /> !''Person''||''io''||''tu''||''egli''||''noi''||''voi''||''essi''<br /> |-<br /> !bgcolor=&quot;gray&quot; colspan=&quot;7&quot;|Indicative<br /> |-<br /> |'''Present'''||sono||sei||è||siamo||siete||sono<br /> |-<br /> |'''Past historic'''||fui||fosti||fu||fummo||foste||furono<br /> |-<br /> |'''Imperfect'''||ero||eri||era||eravamo||eravate||erano<br /> |-<br /> |'''Future'''||sarò||sarai||sarà||saremo||sarete||saranno<br /> |-<br /> !bgcolor=&quot;gray&quot; colspan=&quot;7&quot;|Conditional<br /> |-<br /> |&amp;nbsp;||sarei||saresti||sarebbe||saremmo||sareste||sarebbero<br /> |-<br /> !bgcolor=&quot;gray&quot; colspan=&quot;7&quot;|Subjunctive<br /> |-<br /> |'''Present'''||sia||sia||sia ||siamo||siate||siano<br /> |-<br /> |'''Imperfect'''||fossi||fossi||fosse||fossimo||foste||fossero<br /> |-<br /> !bgcolor=&quot;gray&quot; colspan=&quot;7&quot;|Imperative<br /> |-<br /> |&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||sii||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||siate||&amp;nbsp;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ;Stare<br /> {| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;background-color: darkgray;&quot; style=&quot;font-size: 90%&quot;<br /> !bgcolor=&quot;gray&quot; colspan=&quot;7&quot;|Non-finite<br /> |-<br /> |'''Infinitive''' ||colspan=&quot;6&quot;| stare<br /> |-<br /> |'''Past participle''' ||colspan=&quot;6&quot;|stato<br /> |-<br /> |'''Gerund''' ||colspan=&quot;6&quot;| stando<br /> |-<br /> !''Person''||''io''||''tu''||''egli''||''noi''||''voi''||''essi''<br /> |-<br /> !bgcolor=&quot;gray&quot; colspan=&quot;7&quot;|Indicative<br /> |-<br /> |'''Present'''||sto||stai||sta||stiamo||state||stanno<br /> |-<br /> |'''Past historic'''||stetti||stesti||stette||stemmo||steste||stettero<br /> |-<br /> |'''Imperfect'''||stavo||stavi||stava||stavamo||stavate||stavano<br /> |-<br /> |'''Future'''||starò||starai||starà||staremo||starete||staranno<br /> |-<br /> !bgcolor=&quot;gray&quot; colspan=&quot;7&quot;|Conditional<br /> |-<br /> |&amp;nbsp;||starei||staresti||starebbe||staremmo||stareste||starebbero<br /> |-<br /> !bgcolor=&quot;gray&quot; colspan=&quot;7&quot;|Subjunctive<br /> |-<br /> |'''Present'''||stia||stia||stia ||stiamo||stiate||stiano<br /> |-<br /> |'''Imperfect'''||stessi||stessi||stesse||stessimo||steste||stessero<br /> |-<br /> !bgcolor=&quot;gray&quot; colspan=&quot;7&quot;|Imperative<br /> |-<br /> |&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||sta||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||state||&amp;nbsp;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> === Usage ===<br /> <br /> ''Essere'' is the main copula. ''Stare'' refers to state rather than essence, but more narrowly than in Spanish. ''Essere'' is used for almost all cases in which English uses &quot;to be&quot;. It therefore makes sense to concentrate on the few uses of ''stare''.<br /> *''Stare'' means &quot;to be&quot;, &quot;to be feeling&quot;, or &quot;to appear&quot; with ''bene'', ''male'', ''meglio'', ''come?'', etc.: ''Come stai?'' &quot;How are you?&quot;, ''Sto bene'' &quot;I am well.&quot;<br /> *''Stare'' is used to form continuous forms of tenses: ''sto aspettando'' &quot;I am waiting&quot;, ''Stavo parlando con...'' &quot;I was speaking with...&quot;<br /> *''Stare'''s past participle ''stato'' has replaced that of ''essere'', and so ''stato'' is used for &quot;been&quot; in all senses.<br /> *''Starci'' (lit. ''To stay in it'') means &quot;to fit&quot; or &quot;to assent to a proposal.&quot;<br /> *''Stare'' can be an alternative to ''restare'' &quot;to stay.&quot;<br /> *''Stare'' is occasionally &quot;to be located.&quot; This is very common in the south of Italy for both transient and durable location, but only for durable location in the North. &quot;Sta a Napoli&quot; means &quot;He/she is in Naples&quot; in the South but &quot;He/she lives in Naples&quot; in the North.<br /> <br /> Like the Spanish ''quedar'', Italian uses ''rimanere'', from Latin {{sm|remaneo}} (both meaning &quot;to remain&quot;), in the sense of &quot;to be as a result&quot;; e.g. ''È rimasta incinta'' = &quot;she became pregnant (as a result)&quot;.<br /> <br /> ==Sicilian==<br /> <br /> ===Sicilian copulas===<br /> The [[Sicilian language|Sicilian]] copulas developed as follows:<br /> :{{sm|esse}} → ''èssere'' → ''(es)sere'' → ''siri''<br /> :{{sm|stare}} → ''stare'' → ''stari''<br /> <br /> ;Siri<br /> {| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;background-color: darkgray;&quot; style=&quot;font-size: 90%&quot;<br /> !bgcolor=&quot;gray&quot; colspan=&quot;7&quot;|Non-finite<br /> |-<br /> |'''Infinitive''' ||colspan=&quot;6&quot;| siri<br /> |-<br /> |'''Past participle''' ||colspan=&quot;6&quot;|statu<br /> |-<br /> |'''Gerund''' ||colspan=&quot;6&quot;| sennu<br /> |-<br /> !''Person''||''eu''||''tu''||''iddhu''||''nuiàvutri''||''vuiàvutri''||''iddhi''<br /> |-<br /> !bgcolor=&quot;gray&quot; colspan=&quot;7&quot;|Indicative<br /> |-<br /> |'''Present'''||sugnu||sì||esti||simu||siti||sù<br /> |-<br /> |'''Preterite'''||fui||fusti||fu||fumu||fùstivu||furu<br /> |-<br /> |'''Imperfect'''||era||eri||era||èramu||èravu||èranu<br /> |-<br /> !bgcolor=&quot;gray&quot; colspan=&quot;7&quot;|Conditional<br /> |-<br /> |&amp;nbsp;||fora||fori||fora||fòramu||fòravu||fòranu<br /> |-<br /> !bgcolor=&quot;gray&quot; colspan=&quot;7&quot;|Subjunctive<br /> |-<br /> |'''Present/Imperfect'''||fussi||fussi||fussi||fùssimu||fùssivu||fùssiru<br /> |-<br /> !bgcolor=&quot;gray&quot; colspan=&quot;7&quot;|Imperative<br /> |-<br /> |&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||sì||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||siti||&amp;nbsp;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ;Stari<br /> {| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;background-color: darkgray;&quot; style=&quot;font-size: 90%&quot;<br /> !bgcolor=&quot;gray&quot; colspan=&quot;7&quot;|Non-finite<br /> |-<br /> |'''Infinitive''' ||colspan=&quot;6&quot;| stari<br /> |-<br /> |'''Past participle''' ||colspan=&quot;6&quot;|statu<br /> |-<br /> |'''Gerund''' ||colspan=&quot;6&quot;| stannu<br /> |-<br /> !''Person''||''eu''||''tu''||''iddhu''||''nuiàvutri''||''vuiàvutri''||''iddhi''<br /> |-<br /> !bgcolor=&quot;gray&quot; colspan=&quot;7&quot;|Indicative<br /> |-<br /> |'''Present'''||{{lang|scn|staiu}}||stai||sta||stamu||stati||stannu<br /> |-<br /> |'''Preterite'''||stesi||stasti||stesi||stèsimu||stàsivu||stèsiru<br /> |-<br /> |'''Imperfect'''||stava||stavi||stava||stàvamu||stàstivu||stàvanu<br /> |-<br /> !bgcolor=&quot;gray&quot; colspan=&quot;7&quot;|Subjunctive<br /> |-<br /> |'''Present/Imperfect'''||stassi||stassi||stassi||stàssimu||stàssivu||stàssiru<br /> |-<br /> !bgcolor=&quot;gray&quot; colspan=&quot;7&quot;|Imperative<br /> |-<br /> |&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||stai||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||stati||&amp;nbsp;<br /> |}<br /> ;Notes<br /> <br /> #The simple future is no longer in use.<br /> #The conditional tense of ''stari'' has also fallen into disuse.<br /> <br /> === Usage ===<br /> <br /> In Sicilian, the meanings and usages of these two copulas are not as broad as in the other languages. ''Siri'' is the dominant copula, even more so than in the other Romance languages and is used for almost all cases in which English uses “to be”. ''Stari'' has been relegated to only a few common uses:<br /> <br /> *''Stari'' is used in combination with the gerund to form the progressive aspect: {{lang|scn|staiu parrannu}} = &quot;I am speaking&quot;.<br /> *''Stari''’s past participle, ''statu'', replaced that of ''siri'' and thus ''statu'' is used for “been” in all senses.<br /> *''Stari'' has also replaced all other words meaning, &quot;to reside&quot;: {{lang|scn|staiu nnê Stati Uniti}} = &quot;I live in the United States&quot;.<br /> *''Stari'', in combination with ''addritta'', is also used to mean, “to stand up”.<br /> *''Stari'' in combination with the preposition ''pi'' can comport two meanings,<br /> ** 1) when followed by a verb it means “about to” or “ready to”: {{lang|scn|staiu pi jiri}} = &quot;I am about to go&quot;, &quot;I am leaving&quot;; and<br /> ** 2) in reference to an abbreviation, it means, “to stand for”: ''«USA» sta pi Stati Uniti di Mèrica'' = &quot;'USA' stands for United States of America.&quot;<br /> *''Stari-cci'', most likely an Italianism, is sometimes used to mean, “to fit”: {{lang|scn|stu vistutu mi sta?}} = &quot;does this suit fit me [well]?&quot; (cf. Italian ''non ci sto'' 'I don't fit in here/there').<br /> <br /> ''Siri'' is no longer in use as an auxiliary verb. ''Aviri'' has completely replaced it in all verbs.<br /> <br /> ==Occitan==<br /> [[Occitan language|Occitan]] has just one copula, estre; which is also written èsser, ester, estar in diverse dialects.{{dubious|reason=Occitan is in a dialect continuum with Catalan, which has two copulas. Does the isogloss coincide precisely with the Occitan-Catalan division? I highly doubt that.|date=August 2015}}<br /> <br /> ;Estre&lt;ref&gt;[http://membres.multimania.fr/occitancatala/conjugacionsoccitanes.htm#esser Sinòpsis de les conjugacions occitanes]&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> {| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;background-color: darkgray;&quot; style=&quot;font-size: 90%&quot;<br /> !bgcolor=&quot;gray&quot; colspan=&quot;7&quot;|Non-finite<br /> |-<br /> |'''Infinitive''' ||colspan=&quot;6&quot;| estre, èsser<br /> |-<br /> |'''Past participle''' ||colspan=&quot;6&quot;|estat, estada, -s<br /> |-<br /> |'''Gerund''' ||colspan=&quot;6&quot;| essent<br /> |-<br /> !''Person''||''ièu''||''tu''||''el''||''nos''||''vos''||''els''<br /> |-<br /> !bgcolor=&quot;gray&quot; colspan=&quot;7&quot;|Indicative<br /> |-<br /> |'''Present'''||soi||sès||es||sèm||sètz||son<br /> |-<br /> |'''Preterite'''||foguèri||foguères||foguèt||foguèrem||foguèretz||foguèron<br /> |-<br /> |'''Imperfect'''||èri||èras||èra||èram||èratz||èran<br /> |-<br /> |'''Future'''||serai||seràs||serà||serem||seretz||seràn<br /> |-<br /> |'''Conditional'''||seriá||seriás||seriá||seriam||seriatz||serián<br /> |-<br /> !bgcolor=&quot;gray&quot; colspan=&quot;7&quot;|Subjunctive<br /> |-<br /> |'''Present'''||siá||siás||siá||siam||siatz||sián<br /> |-<br /> |'''Imperfect'''||foguèsse ||foguèsses ||foguèsse ||foguèssem||foguèssetz||foguèsson<br /> |-<br /> |'''Future'''†||&amp;nbsp; ||&amp;nbsp; ||&amp;nbsp; ||&amp;nbsp; ||&amp;nbsp; ||&amp;nbsp; <br /> |-<br /> !bgcolor=&quot;gray&quot; colspan=&quot;7&quot;|Imperative<br /> |-<br /> |&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp; ||siá!||&amp;nbsp;||siam! ||siatz! ||&amp;nbsp;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ==French==<br /> <br /> Modern [[French language|French]] has only one copula. Old French, however, had ''estre'' ({{sm|esse}} → ''essere'' → *''essre'' → ''estre'') and ''ester'' ({{sm|stare}} → *''estare'' → ''estar'' → ''ester''). The latter meant to ‘stand’, ‘stay’ or ‘stop’, and might have been used as a copula in a similar way to other Romance languages. With phonetic evolution, the forms of each verb tended to be confused with one another, with the result that ''estre'' finally absorbed ''ester''; around the same time, most words beginning with ''est-'' changed to ''ét-'' or ''êt-''. The modern form of the verb is ''être''.<br /> <br /> The only clear traces of ''ester'' (or ''éter'' if we bear in mind the loss of the ''s'') in the modern copula are the past participle and the imperfect. Instead of the *''étu'' one would expect, we find ''été'' – just what we would expect from ''ester''/''éter''. The same tendency to use past participles derived from {{sm|statvm}} (the supine of {{sm|sto}}) to replace the past participles of the main copula is also seen in Italian and Catalan. The Old French imperfect was ''iere'' (from Latin {{sm|eram}}); this was replaced in Middle French by the imperfect of ''ester'', which was ''estois'' (from Vulgar Latin *''estaba'', Latin {{sm|stābam}}).<br /> <br /> The present participle and all imperfect forms of ''être'' are regular and correspond to what one would expect for a verb with the stem ''êt-''; however, they could also be considered as deriving from ''éter'' since the forms coincide.<br /> <br /> All other forms of ''être'' are from {{sm|svm}} rather than {{sm|sto}}.<br /> <br /> ''Ester'' also survives in the infinitive in the [[set phrase]]s ''ester en justice'' and ''{{lang|fr|ester en jugement}}'', which translate the Latin term {{sm|stare in ivdicio}} meaning &quot;to appear in court&quot;, &quot;to stand before the court&quot;. ''Ester en justice'' has come to mean, &quot;to act in a lawsuit&quot;, i.e. to appear in court as a party. This is a highly [[defective verb]] and mostly exists in the infinitive, although present and past participle are infrequently used as well.<br /> <br /> ;Être<br /> {| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;background-color: darkgray;&quot; style=&quot;font-size: 90%&quot;<br /> !bgcolor=&quot;gray&quot; colspan=&quot;7&quot;|Non-finite<br /> |-<br /> |'''Infinitive''' ||colspan=&quot;6&quot;| être<br /> |-<br /> |'''Past participle''' ||colspan=&quot;6&quot;|été<br /> |-<br /> |'''Gerund''' ||colspan=&quot;6&quot;| étant<br /> |-<br /> !''Person''||''je''||''tu''||''il''||''nous''||''vous''||''ils''<br /> |-<br /> !bgcolor=&quot;gray&quot; colspan=&quot;7&quot;|Indicative<br /> |-<br /> |'''Present'''||suis||es||est||sommes||êtes||sont<br /> |-<br /> |'''Past historic'''†||fus||fus||fut||fûmes||fûtes||furent<br /> |-<br /> |'''Imperfect'''||étais||étais||était||étions||étiez||étaient<br /> |-<br /> |'''Future'''||serai||seras||sera||serons||serez||seront<br /> |-<br /> !bgcolor=&quot;gray&quot; colspan=&quot;7&quot;|Conditional<br /> |-<br /> |&amp;nbsp;||serais||serais||serait||serions||seriez||seraient<br /> |-<br /> !bgcolor=&quot;gray&quot; colspan=&quot;7&quot;|Subjunctive<br /> |-<br /> |'''Present'''||sois||sois||soit ||soyons||soyez||soient<br /> |-<br /> |'''Imperfect'''†||fusse||fusses||fût||fussions||fussiez||fussent<br /> |-<br /> !bgcolor=&quot;gray&quot; colspan=&quot;7&quot;|Imperative<br /> |-<br /> |&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||sois||&amp;nbsp;||soyons||soyez||&amp;nbsp;<br /> |}<br /> &lt;small&gt;† [[Passé simple#Local variations and modern usage|Literary.]]&lt;/small&gt;<br /> <br /> == Romansh ==<br /> <br /> [[Romansh language|Romansh]] has just one copula, ''esser''. ''Star'' means, &quot;to reside&quot;.<br /> <br /> ;Esser<br /> {| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;background-color: darkgray;&quot; style=&quot;font-size: 90%&quot;<br /> !bgcolor=&quot;gray&quot; colspan=&quot;7&quot;|Non-finite<br /> |-<br /> |'''Infinitive''' ||colspan=&quot;6&quot;| esser<br /> |-<br /> |'''Past participle''' ||colspan=&quot;6&quot;| stà<br /> |-<br /> |'''Gerund''' ||colspan=&quot;6&quot;| essend / siond<br /> |-<br /> !''Person''||''jau''||''ti''||''el''||''nus''||''vus''||''els''<br /> |-<br /> !bgcolor=&quot;gray&quot; colspan=&quot;7&quot;|Indicative<br /> |-<br /> |'''Present'''||sun||es||è||essan||essas||èn<br /> |-<br /> |'''Imperfect'''||era||eras||era||eran||eras||eran<br /> |-<br /> !bgcolor=&quot;gray&quot; colspan=&quot;7&quot;|Conditional<br /> |-<br /> |&amp;nbsp;||fiss||fissas||fiss||fissan||fissas||fissan<br /> |-<br /> !bgcolor=&quot;gray&quot; colspan=&quot;7&quot;|Subjunctive<br /> |-<br /> |'''Present'''||saja||sajas||saja||sajan||sajas||sajan<br /> |-<br /> !bgcolor=&quot;gray&quot; colspan=&quot;7&quot;|Imperative<br /> |-<br /> |&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||saja||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||sajas||&amp;nbsp;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ==Romanian==<br /> ''A fi, fire'' is the copula in [[Romanian language|Romanian]]. These infinitive forms evolved from the passive verb {{sm|fieri}}, &quot;to become&quot;, &quot;to be made&quot;:<br /> <br /> :{{sm|fieri}} → ''fiere'' → ''fire'' → *''fir'' → ''fi'' (''fire'')<br /> <br /> In Latin {{sm|fieri}} was used [[suppletion|suppletively]]&lt;!-- fieri and facere continue different PIE roots: fieri &lt; *bʰuH-, facere &lt; *dʰeH- --&gt; as the [[passive voice]] of {{sm|facere}} &quot;to do&quot;, &quot;to make&quot;. However, in the Vulgar Latin dialects spoken in modern-day Romania, its evolved form ''fiere'' replaced ''essere'', maybe due to the similarity between the stems ''fi-'' of {{sm|fieri}} and ''fu-'' of {{sm|esse}} (which is not coincidental, as both stems descend from the Proto-Indo-European verb ''*bʰuH-'').<br /> <br /> Other forms of the verb ''a fi'' are derived from {{sm|esse}}: ''sunt, ești, {{lang|la|e(ste)}}, suntem, sunteți, sunt'' in the present tense and ''eram, erai, era, eram, erați, erau'' in the imperfect.<br /> <br /> ''A sta'' (stare) ({{sm|stare}} → ''sta'') means &quot;to stay&quot; or even &quot;to stand&quot;, &quot;to stand still&quot; or &quot;to dwell/reside&quot; e.g. ''a sta in picioare'', as in Italian ''stare in piedi'' or ''unde stai?'' – &quot;where do you live/reside?&quot;<br /> <br /> ;A fi<br /> {| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;background-color: darkgray;&quot; style=&quot;font-size: 90%&quot;<br /> !bgcolor=&quot;gray&quot; colspan=&quot;7&quot;|Non-finite<br /> |-<br /> |'''Infinitive''' ||colspan=&quot;6&quot;| a fi, fire<br /> |-<br /> |'''Past participle''' ||colspan=&quot;6&quot;| fost<br /> |-<br /> |'''Gerund''' ||colspan=&quot;6&quot;| fiind<br /> |-<br /> !''Person''||''eu''||''tu''||''el''||''noi''||''voi''||''ei''<br /> |-<br /> !bgcolor=&quot;gray&quot; colspan=&quot;7&quot;|Indicative<br /> |-<br /> |'''Present'''||sunt||ești||e(ste)||suntem||sunteți||sunt<br /> |-<br /> |'''Preterite'''||fusei / fui||fuseși / fuși||fuse / fu||fuserăm / furăm||fuserăți / furăți||fuseră / fură<br /> |-<br /> |'''Imperfect'''||eram||erai||era||eram||erați||erau<br /> |-<br /> |'''Pluperfect'''||fusesem||fuseseși||fusese||fuseserăm||fuseserăți||fuseseră<br /> |-<br /> !bgcolor=&quot;gray&quot; colspan=&quot;7&quot;|Subjunctive<br /> |-<br /> |'''Present'''||să fiu||să fii||să fie||să fim||să fiți||să fie<br /> |-<br /> !bgcolor=&quot;gray&quot; colspan=&quot;7&quot;|Imperative<br /> |-<br /> |&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||fii||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||fiți||&amp;nbsp;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ==Sources of the Romance copula==<br /> <br /> === {{sm|svm}} ===<br /> <br /> {| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;background-color: darkgray;&quot; style=&quot;font-size: 90%&quot;<br /> !bgcolor=&quot;gray&quot; colspan=&quot;7&quot;|Non-finite<br /> |-<br /> |'''Present Infinitive''' ||colspan=&quot;2&quot;| {{sm|esse}} ||colspan=&quot;2&quot;| '''Perfect Infinitive''' ||colspan=&quot;3&quot;| {{sm|fvisse}}<br /> |-<br /> |'''Future participle''' ||colspan=&quot;2&quot;| {{sm|fvtvrvs}} ||colspan=&quot;2&quot;| '''Future Infinitive''' ||colspan=&quot;3&quot;| {{sm|fore}} ({{sm|fvtvrvm esse}})<br /> |-<br /> !''Person''||''ego''||''tu''||''-''†||''nos''||''vos''||''-''†<br /> |-<br /> !bgcolor=&quot;gray&quot; colspan=&quot;7&quot;|Indicative<br /> |-<br /> |'''Present'''||{{sm|svm}}||{{sm|es}}||{{sm|est}}||{{sm|svmvs}}||{{sm|estis}}||{{sm|svnt}}<br /> |-<br /> |'''Perfect'''||{{sm|fvi}}||{{sm|fvisti}}||{{sm|fvit}}||{{sm|fvimvs}}||{{sm|fvistis}}||{{sm|fvervnt}}<br /> |-<br /> |'''Imperfect'''||{{sm|eram}}||{{sm|eras}}||{{sm|erat}}||{{sm|eramvs}}||{{sm|eratis}}||{{sm|erant}}<br /> |-<br /> |'''Pluperfect'''||{{sm|fveram}}||{{sm|fveras}}||{{sm|fverat}}||{{sm|fveramvs}}||{{sm|fveratis}}||{{sm|fverant}}<br /> |-<br /> |'''Future'''||{{sm|ero}}||{{sm|eris}}||{{sm|erit}}||{{sm|erimvs}}||{{sm|eritis}}||{{sm|ervnt}}<br /> |-<br /> |'''Future Perfect'''||{{sm|fvero}}||{{sm|fveris}}||{{sm|fverit}}||{{sm|fverimvs}}||{{sm|fveritis}}||{{sm|fverint}}<br /> |-<br /> !bgcolor=&quot;gray&quot; colspan=&quot;7&quot;|Subjunctive<br /> |-<br /> |'''Present'''||{{sm|sim}}||{{sm|sis}}||{{sm|sit}}||{{sm|simvs}}||{{sm|sitis}}||{{sm|sint}}<br /> |-<br /> |'''Perfect'''||{{sm|fverim}}||{{sm|fveris}}||{{sm|fverit}}||{{sm|fverimvs}}||{{sm|fveritis}}||{{sm|fverint}}<br /> |-<br /> |'''Imperfect'''||{{sm|essem}}||{{sm|esses}}||{{sm|esset}}||{{sm|essemvs}}||{{sm|essetis}}||{{sm|essent}}<br /> |-<br /> |'''Pluperfect'''||{{sm|fvissem}}||{{sm|fvisses}}||{{sm|fvisset}}||{{sm|fvissemvs}}||{{sm|fvissetis}}||{{sm|fvissent}}<br /> |-<br /> !bgcolor=&quot;gray&quot; colspan=&quot;7&quot;|Imperative<br /> |-<br /> |&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||{{sm|es}}||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||{{sm|este}}||&amp;nbsp;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> === {{sm|sto}} ===<br /> {| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;background-color: darkgray;&quot; style=&quot;font-size: 90%&quot;<br /> !bgcolor=&quot;gray&quot; colspan=&quot;7&quot;|Non-finite<br /> |-<br /> |'''Present Infinitive''' ||colspan=&quot;2&quot;| {{sm|stare}} ||colspan=&quot;2&quot;| '''Perfect Infinitive''' ||colspan=&quot;3&quot;| {{sm|stetisse}}<br /> |-<br /> |'''Present participle''' ||colspan=&quot;2&quot;| {{sm|stans}} ||colspan=&quot;2&quot;| '''Future participle''' ||colspan=&quot;3&quot;| {{sm|statvrvs}}<br /> |-<br /> |'''Gerund''' ||colspan=&quot;2&quot;| {{sm|standvm}} ||colspan=&quot;2&quot;| '''Supine''' ||colspan=&quot;3&quot;| {{sm|statv(m)}}<br /> |-<br /> !''Person''||''ego''||''tu''||''-''†||''nos''||''vos''||''-''†<br /> |-<br /> !bgcolor=&quot;gray&quot; colspan=&quot;7&quot;|Indicative<br /> |-<br /> |'''Present'''||{{sm|sto}}||{{sm|stas}}||{{sm|stat}}||{{sm|stamvs}}||{{sm|statis}}||{{sm|stant}}<br /> |-<br /> |'''Perfect'''||{{sm|steti}}||{{sm|stetisti}}||{{sm|stetit}}||{{sm|stetimvs}}||{{sm|stetistis}}||{{sm|stetervnt}}<br /> |-<br /> |'''Imperfect'''||{{sm|stabam}}||{{sm|stabas}}||{{sm|stabat}}||{{sm|stabamvs}}||{{sm|stabatis}}||{{sm|stabant}}<br /> |-<br /> |'''Pluperfect'''||{{sm|steteram}}||{{sm|steteras}}||{{sm|steterat}}||{{sm|steteramvs}}||{{sm|steteratis}}||{{sm|steterant}}<br /> |-<br /> |'''Future'''||{{sm|stabo}}||{{sm|stabis}}||{{sm|stabit}}||{{sm|stabimvs}}||{{sm|stabitis}}||{{sm|stabvnt}}<br /> |-<br /> |'''Future Perfect'''||{{sm|stetero}}||{{sm|steteris}}||{{sm|steterit}}||{{sm|steterimvs}}||{{sm|steteritis}}||{{sm|steterint}}<br /> |-<br /> !bgcolor=&quot;gray&quot; colspan=&quot;7&quot;|Subjunctive<br /> |-<br /> |'''Present'''||{{sm|stem}}||{{sm|stes}}||{{sm|stet}}||{{sm|stemvs}}||{{sm|stetis}}||{{sm|stent}}<br /> |-<br /> |'''Perfect'''||{{sm|steterim}}||{{sm|steteris}}||{{sm|steterit}}||{{sm|steterimvs}}||{{sm|steteritis}}||{{sm|steterint}}<br /> |-<br /> |'''Imperfect'''||{{sm|starem}}||{{sm|stares}}||{{sm|staret}}||{{sm|staremvs}}||{{sm|staretis}}||{{sm|starent}}<br /> |-<br /> |'''Pluperfect'''||{{sm|stetissem}}||{{sm|stetisses}}||{{sm|stetisset}}||{{sm|stetissemvs}}||{{sm|stetissetis}}||{{sm|stetissent }}<br /> |-<br /> !bgcolor=&quot;gray&quot; colspan=&quot;7&quot;|Imperative<br /> |-<br /> |&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||{{sm|sta}}||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||{{sm|state}}||&amp;nbsp;<br /> |}<br /> &lt;small&gt;† [[Demonstrative]]s used when necessary.&lt;/small&gt;<br /> <br /> For information on the morphological evolution of the Romance copula, see [[Romance verbs]].<br /> <br /> ==See also==<br /> *[[Verb]]<br /> **[[Copula (linguistics)|Copula]]<br /> ***[[Indo-European copula]]<br /> **{{Section link|Basque verbs|Izan ('be')|Egon}}<br /> **[[Grammatical conjugation]]<br /> *[[Latin]]<br /> **[[Latin grammar]]<br /> **[[Latin declension]]<br /> **[[Latin conjugation]]<br /> **[[Vulgar Latin]]<br /> *[[Romance languages]]<br /> **[[Catalan language]]<br /> ***[[Catalan grammar]]<br /> ***[[Conjugation of auxiliary Catalan verbs]]<br /> ***[[Conjugation of regular Catalan verbs]]<br /> **[[French language]]<br /> ***[[French grammar]]<br /> ***[[French verbs]]<br /> ***[[French conjugation]]<br /> **[[Italian language]]<br /> ***[[Italian grammar]]<br /> ***[[Italian verbs]]<br /> **[[Portuguese language]]<br /> ***[[Portuguese grammar]]<br /> ***[[Portuguese verb conjugation|Portuguese conjugation]]<br /> **[[Romanian language]]<br /> ***[[Romanian grammar]]<br /> ***[[Romanian verbs]]<br /> **[[Romansh language]]<br /> **[[Sicilian language]]<br /> **[[Spanish language]]<br /> ***[[Spanish grammar]]<br /> ***[[Spanish conjugation]]<br /> ***[[Spanish irregular verbs]]<br /> ***[[Spanish verbs]]<br /> *[[Romance verbs]]<br /> *Romance-based [[Creole language]]s<br /> **[[French-based creole languages]]<br /> ***{{section link|Haitian Creole language|Copulas}}<br /> ****{{section link|Copula (linguistics)|Haitian Creole}}<br /> **[[Portuguese Creole]]<br /> ***[[Cape Verdean Creole]]<br /> **[[Spanish-based creole languages]]<br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> <br /> ===Notes===<br /> {{Reflist}}<br /> <br /> ===Bibliography===<br /> * Williams, E.B. ''From Latin to Portuguese''<br /> * Machado, J.P. ''Dicionário Etimológico da Língua Portuguesa''<br /> <br /> ==Further reading==<br /> <br /> ;[[Portable Document Format|PDF]] documents, mainly on the Spanish copula:<br /> &lt;!--*[http://cerebro.psych.cornell.edu/emcl/longabs/ms.pdf ''Ser'' and ''Estar'' from a Cognitive Perspective: Method and Analysis]--&gt;<br /> *[https://web.archive.org/web/20041018094241/https://cofc.edu/chrestomathy/vol3/egan.pdf The Acquisition of the Verbs ''Ser'' and ''Estar'' in Undergraduate Students (in the US)]<br /> *[http://128.197.86.186/posters/schmitt.pdf Acquisition of copulas ''ser'' and ''estar'' in Spanish: learning lexico-semantics, syntax and discourse]<br /> *[http://bloch.ling.yale.edu:16080/~digs8/digs8%20abstracts/Batllori&amp;Roca%20abstract.pdf Grammaticalization of ''ser'' and ''estar'' in Romance languages]<br /> <br /> {{Romance languages}}<br /> <br /> {{DEFAULTSORT:Romance Copula}}<br /> [[Category:Indo-European linguistics]]<br /> [[Category:Romance languages]]<br /> <br /> [[de:Strukturverben (spanisch)#Die Kopulaverben estar und ser|Strukturverben_(spanisch)]]</div>

45.187.103.2 http://debianws.lexgopc.com/wiki143/index.php?title=Personal_pronouns_in_Portuguese&diff=415767 2025-05-20T20:23:36Z

<p>45.187.103.2: /* Basic forms */</p> <hr /> <div>{{Short description|none}} &lt;!-- This short description is INTENTIONALLY &quot;none&quot; - please see WP:SDNONE before you consider changing it! --&gt;<br /> {{for|other types of Portuguese pronouns|Portuguese grammar}}<br /> {{more citations needed|date=March 2018}}<br /> <br /> The '''Portuguese personal pronouns and possessives''' display a higher degree of [[inflection]] than other parts of speech. Personal pronouns have distinct forms according to whether they stand for a subject ([[nominative case|nominative]]), a direct object ([[accusative case|accusative]]), an indirect object ([[dative case|dative]]), or a [[reflexive pronoun|reflexive]] object. Several pronouns further have special forms used after [[preposition]]s.<br /> <br /> The [[possessive pronoun]]s are the same as the [[possessive adjective]]s, but each is inflected to express the [[grammatical person]] of the possessor and the [[grammatical gender]] of the possessed.<br /> <br /> Pronoun use displays considerable variation with [[Register (sociolinguistics)|register]] and [[dialect]], with particularly pronounced differences between the most colloquial varieties of European Portuguese and [[Brazilian Portuguese]].<br /> <br /> ==Subject, object, and complement==<br /> <br /> ===Basic forms===<br /> The personal pronouns of Portuguese have three basic forms: [[subject pronoun|subject]], [[object pronoun|object]] (object of a verb), and [[prepositional pronoun|prepositional]] (object of a preposition).<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center&quot;<br /> |-<br /> ! number<br /> ! person<br /> ! subject<br /> ! object of verb<br /> ! object of preposition<br /> |- style=&quot;background-color: #f0f0f0;&quot;<br /> | rowspan=&quot;3&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; style=&quot;background-color: #fafafa;&quot; | singular<br /> | 1st || eu || me || mim<br /> |- style=&quot;background-color: #fafafa;&quot;<br /> | 2nd || tu || te || ti<br /> |- style=&quot;background-color: #f0f0f0;&quot;<br /> | 3rd || ele, ela, você || o, a&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;; lhe&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;; se&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;|| ele, ela; si&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;<br /> |- style=&quot;background-color: #fafafa;&quot;<br /> | rowspan=&quot;3&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; | plural<br /> | 1st || nós || nos || nós<br /> |- style=&quot;background-color: #f0f0f0;&quot;<br /> | 2nd || vós || vos || vós<br /> |- style=&quot;background-color: #fafafa;&quot;<br /> | 3rd || eles, elas, vocês || os, as&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;; lhes&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;; se&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;|| eles, elas; si&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> :&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; [[direct object]] (masculine and feminine)<br /> :&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; [[indirect object]]<br /> :&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; [[reflexive pronoun|reflexive]] or [[reciprocal pronoun|reciprocal]], direct or indirect object<br /> <br /> ===Subject pronouns===<br /> <br /> ====Forms of address====<br /> Like most European languages, Portuguese has different words for &quot;you&quot;, according to the degree of formality that the speaker wishes to show towards the addressee ([[T-V distinction]]). In very broad terms, ''tu'', ''você'' (both meaning singular &quot;you&quot;) and ''vocês'' (plural &quot;you&quot;) are used in informal situations, while in formal contexts ''o [[senhor]]'', ''a senhora'', ''os senhores'' and ''as senhoras'' (masculine singular, feminine singular, masculine plural, and feminine plural &quot;you&quot;, respectively) are preferred. However, there is considerable regional variation in the use of these terms, and more specific [[form of address|forms of address]] are sometimes employed.<br /> <br /> Generally speaking, ''tu'' is the familiar form of address used with family, friends, and minors. ''Você'' indicates distance without deference, and tends to be used between people who are, roughly, social equals. ''O senhor'' / ''a senhora'' (literally &quot;the sir / the madam&quot;) are the most ceremonious forms of address. English speakers may find the latter construction akin to the parliamentary convention of referring to fellow legislators in the third person (as &quot;my colleague&quot;, &quot;the gentleman&quot;, &quot;the member&quot;, etc.), although the level of formality conveyed by ''o senhor'' is not as great. In fact, variants of ''o senhor'' and ''a senhora'' with more nuanced meanings such as titles as ''o professor'' (&quot;the professor&quot;), ''o doutor'' (&quot;the doctor&quot;), ''o colega'' (&quot;the colleague&quot;) and ''o pai'' (&quot;the father&quot;) are also employed as personal pronouns. In the plural, there are two main levels of politeness, the informal ''vocês'' or ''vós'' and the formal ''os senhores'' / ''as senhoras''.<br /> <br /> This threefold scheme is, however, complicated by regional and social variation. For example, in many communities of Brazilian Portuguese speakers, the traditional ''tu''/''você'' distinction has been lost, and the previously formal ''você'' tends to replace the familiar ''tu'' in most cases (the distinction remains, however, in most parts of the country). On the other hand, in [[Portugal]] it is common to use a person's own name as a pronoun more or less equivalent to ''você'', e.g., ''o José'', ''o senhor Silva'', which is rare in [[Brazil]] (though it is found in parts of the Northeast region, for example). The explicit use of &quot;você&quot; may be discouraged in Portugal because it may sound too informal for many situations.<br /> In [[Mozambique]], however, the use of the imperative neutralizes the forms of the 2nd person singular (tu) and (você/senhor). Thus, forms of the imperative with features [+ informal] associated with the pronoun [- informal] (você/senhor) are observable. Also if find shapes with features [+ formal] associated with the pronoun [- formal] (tu)<br /> <br /> When addressing older people or hierarchical superiors, modern BP speakers often replace ''você''/''tu'' and ''vocês'' with the expressions ''o(s) senhor(es)'' and ''a(s) senhora(s)'', which also require third-person verb forms and third-person reflexive/possessive pronouns (or, for the possessive, the expressions ''de vocês'', ''do senhor'', etc.). The expressions ''o(s) senhor(es)'' and ''a(s) senhora(s)'' are also used in formal contexts in modern EP, in addition to a large number of similar pronominalized nouns that vary according to the person who is being addressed, e.g. ''a menina'', ''o pai'', ''a mãe'', ''o engenheiro'', ''o doutor'', etc.<br /> <br /> Historically, ''você'' derives from ''vossa mercê'' (&quot;your mercy&quot; or &quot;your grace&quot;) via the intermediate forms ''vossemecê'' and ''vosmecê''.<br /> <br /> ====''Nós'' vs. ''a gente''====<br /> A common colloquial alternative to the first-person-plural pronoun ''nós'' &quot;we&quot; is the noun phrase ''a gente'' (literally meaning &quot;the people&quot;), which formally takes verbs and possessives of the third person singular (or the expression &quot;da gente&quot;). Although avoided in the most formal [[Register (sociolinguistics)|registers]], it is not considered incorrect, unless it is accompanied by verbs conjugated in the first person plural, as in ''&quot;*A gente moramos na cidade&quot;'', instead of the [[Standard language|normative]] ''&quot;A gente mora na cidade&quot;'' &quot;We live in the city&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{citation|last=Lopes<br /> |first=Célia Regina dos Santos<br /> |year=1998<br /> |title=''Nós'' e ''a gente'' no português falado culto do Brasil<br /> |journal=D.E.L.T.A. (Documentação de Estudos em Lingüística Teórica e Aplicada)<br /> |volume=14<br /> |issue=2<br /> |pages=405–422}}&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ====''Vós''====<br /> In nearly all Portuguese dialects and registers, the second-person plural subject pronoun ''vós'' is usually replaced by ''vocês'' and in many cases it is no longer in use, as is the case with its corresponding verb forms. Currently, ''vós'' (with its verb forms) is frequently employed only in the following contexts:<br /> * In some dialects of northern Portugal (i.e., in the colloquial spoken language).<br /> * In some forms of address (e.g. Vossa Senhoria, Vossa Santidade...)<br /> * In religious texts and services.<br /> * In old texts.<br /> * In formal registers being used as a singular second-person pronoun, for [[archaism]].<br /> * In [[historical fiction]].<br /> <br /> For this reason, many associate the pronoun with solemnity or formality, not knowing that ''vós'' is used for plural in the same context as ''tu'' is used for singular.<br /> <br /> Instead, the word ''vocês'' is used, or equivalent forms of address which take verbs and possessives of the third-person plural. In European Portuguese, however, object ''vos'' as well as ''convosco'' (but ''not'' prepositional ''vós'') and ''vosso'' have survived, even in formal situations; see the &quot;Forms of address&quot; section, above, and also the notes on colloquial usage, at the bottom of the page.<br /> <br /> ===Object pronouns===<br /> <br /> ====Proclisis, enclisis, and mesoclisis====<br /> As in other Romance languages, object pronouns are [[clitic]]s, which must come next to a verb, and are pronounced together with it as a unit. They may appear before the verb (proclisis, ''lhe dizer''), after the verb, linked to it with a hyphen (enclisis, ''dizer-lhe''), or, more rarely, within the verb, between its [[word stem|stem]] and its [[desinence]] (mesoclisis, ''dir-lhe-ei'').<br /> <br /> Enclisis and mesoclisis may entail some [[History of the Portuguese language#Historical sound changes|historically]] motivated changes of verb endings and/or pronouns, e.g. ''cantar'' + ''o'' (originally ''*lo'', from Latin ''illum'') = ''cantá-lo'' &quot;to sing it&quot;. The direct and indirect object pronouns can be contracted, as in ''dar'' + ''lhe'' + ''os'' = ''dar-lhos'' &quot;to give them to him&quot;; cf. Spanish ''dar'' + ''le'' + ''los'' = ''dárselos''.<br /> <br /> :''comprá-lo-ei'' = ''comprarei'' (Late Latin ''comparāre habeō'', two words) + ''o'' &quot;I will buy it&quot;.<br /> :''dar-to-ia'' = ''daria'' (''dare habēbam'') + ''te'' + ''o'' &quot;I would give it to you&quot;.<br /> :''dar-lho-ia'' = ''daria'' + ''lhe'' + ''o'' &quot;I would give it to him&quot;.<br /> <br /> When a verb conjugated in the 1st person plural, ending in ''-s'', is followed by the enclitic pronoun ''nos'' or ''vos'', the ''s'' is dropped: ''Vamo-nos'' [''vamos'' + ''nos''] ''embora amanhã'' (&quot;We are leaving tomorrow&quot;), ''Respeitemo-nos'' [''respeitemos'' + ''nos''] ''mutuamente'' (&quot;Let's respect each other&quot;), ''Vemo-vos'' [''vemos'' + ''vos''] (&quot;We see you&quot;), etc.<br /> <br /> ====Allomorphs====<br /> Third person direct object clitic pronouns have several forms, depending on their position with relation to the verb and on the verb's ending. If the pronoun is enclitic and the verb ends with a consonant, or if the pronoun is mesoclitic and the root of the verb ends with a consonant, then that consonant is [[elision|elided]], and an ''l'' is added to the beginning of the pronoun. If the pronoun is enclitic and the verb ends with a nasal diphthong (spelled ''-ão'', ''-am'', ''-em'', ''-ém'', ''-êm'', ''-õe'', or ''-õem''), an ''n'' is added to the beginning of the pronoun. The same happens after other clitic pronouns, and after the adverbial particle ''eis''.<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center&quot;<br /> |-<br /> ! default<br /> ! after a consonant (-r, -s, -z)<br /> ! after a nasal diphthong (-m)<br /> |- style=&quot;background-color: #f0f0f0;&quot;<br /> | o || lo || no<br /> |- style=&quot;background-color: #fafafa;&quot;<br /> | a || la || na<br /> |- style=&quot;background-color: #f0f0f0;&quot;<br /> | os || los || nos<br /> |- style=&quot;background-color: #fafafa;&quot;<br /> | as || las || nas<br /> |}<br /> <br /> The third person forms ''o'', ''a'', ''os'', and ''as'' may present the variants ''lo'', ''la'', ''los'', ''las'', ''no'', ''na'', ''nos'', and ''nas'':<br /> * The variants ''lo'', ''la'', ''los'', and ''las'' are used after verbal forms ending with a consonant, which is elided. Examples: ''seduz'' + ''a'' = ''sedu-la'', ''faz'' + ''o'' = ''fá-lo'', ''diz'' + ''o'' = ''di-lo'', ''destróis'' + ''os'' = ''destrói-los'' (different from ''destrói-os'', in which the verb is conjugated in the imperative mood), ''comes'' + ''a'' = ''come-la'' (different from ''come-a'' = ''come'' + ''a''), ''apanha-las'' (''apanhas'' + ''as''), ''amá-lo'' (''amar'' +''o''), ''fazê-lo'' (''fazer'' + ''o''), ''partire-lo'' (''partires'' +''o''), ''tem-la'' (''tens'' + ''a''—the ''n'' changes to ''m''). Exceptionally, ''quer'' + ''o'' gives ''quere-o'', rather than *''qué-lo'' (''qué-lo'' is still permitted, but uncommon).<br /> ** This also occurs when the pronoun is in mesoclitic position: ''matá-lo-ás'' (''matarás'' + ''o''), ''fá-lo-ias'' (''farias'' + ''o''), ''feri-lo-ias'' (''feririas'' + ''o''), ''comê-lo-ias'' (''comerias'' + ''o'').<br /> * The variants ''no'', ''na'', ''nos'' and ''nas'' are used after a verbal form ending with a nasal diphthong. Examples: ''põe-no'' (''põe'' + ''o''), ''tem-na'' (''tem'' + ''a''), ''comeram-nos'' (ambiguous, can mean ''comeram'' + ''os'' &quot;they ate them&quot;, or ''comeram'' + ''nos'' &quot;they ate us&quot;).<br /> * The pronouns ''o'', etc. present the same forms as above when they follow other clitic pronouns, such as ''nos'' and ''vos'', or the adverbial particle ''eis''. Examples: ''ei-lo aqui'' (''eis'' + ''o''), ''deram-no-lo'' (''deram'' + ''nos'' + ''o''), &quot;''Não vo-lo'' [''vos + o''] ''quero dar a entender''.&quot;<br /> <br /> ====Contractions between clitic pronouns====<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center&quot;<br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | indirect object<br /> ! colspan=&quot;4&quot; | direct object<br /> |-<br /> | o<br /> | a<br /> | os<br /> | as<br /> |- style=&quot;background-color: #f0f0f0;&quot;<br /> | me || mo || ma || mos<br /> | mas<br /> |- style=&quot;background-color: #fafafa;&quot;<br /> | te || to || ta || tos<br /> | tas<br /> |- style=&quot;background-color: #f0f0f0;&quot;<br /> | lhe, lhes || lho || lha || lhos<br /> | lhas<br /> |- style=&quot;background-color: #fafafa;&quot;<br /> | nos || no-lo || no-la || no-los<br /> | no-las<br /> |- style=&quot;background-color: #f0f0f0;&quot;<br /> | vos || vo-lo || vo-la || vo-los<br /> | vo-las<br /> |- style=&quot;background-color: #fafafa;&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> The contraction for ''lhes'' + ''o'' is ''lho'', not *''lhe-lo'' or *''lhos''. This occurs because ''lhe'' used to be employed indistinctly for the singular and the plural and, while the agglutinated form suffered no alteration, ''lhe'' evolved into ''lhes'' for the plural number.{{citation needed|date=February 2014}}&lt;!-- It doesn't need to mean anything, but Latin had both ''illi'' and ''illis'', nicely evolvable into both ''lhe'' and ''lhes'' respectively, and replacing a plural form with the corresponding singular one by analogy is unusual for a Romance language (except for French). --&gt;<br /> <br /> These contracted forms are rarely encountered in modern Brazilian usage.<br /> <br /> ====Syntax====<br /> Apart from the pronouns that act as subjects of a sentence, and from the stressed object pronouns which are employed after prepositions, Portuguese has several [[clitic]] object pronouns used with nonprepositional verbs, or as indirect objects. These can appear before the verb as separate words, as in ''ela me ama'' (&quot;she loves me&quot;), or appended to the verb after the tense/person inflection, as in ''ele amou-a'' (&quot;he loved her&quot;) or ''ele deu-lhe o livro'' (&quot;he gave her/him the book&quot;). Note that Portuguese spelling rules (like those of French) require a hyphen between the verb and the enclitic pronoun.<br /> <br /> In [[West Iberian languages|West Iberian-Romance]], the position of [[clitic]] object pronouns with respect to the verbs which govern them was flexible, but all Romance languages have since adopted a more strict [[syntax]]. The usual pattern is for clitics to precede the verb; e.g. Sp. ''Yo te amo'', Fr. ''Je t'aime'' &quot;I love you&quot;; Fr. ''Tu m'avais dit'' &quot;You had told me&quot; (proclisis). The opposite order occurs only with the imperative: Sp. ''Dime'', Fr. ''Dis-moi'' &quot;Tell me&quot; (enclisis). Spoken [[Brazilian Portuguese]] has taken more or less the same route, except that clitics usually appear between the auxiliary verb and the main verb in compound tenses, and proclisis is even more generalized: ''Eu te amo'' &quot;I love you&quot;, but ''Me diz'' &quot;Tell me&quot;, and ''Você tinha me dito'' &quot;You had told me&quot;.<br /> <br /> In European Portuguese, by contrast, enclisis is the default position for clitic pronouns in simple affirmative clauses: ''Eu amo-te'' &quot;I love you&quot;, ''Diz-me'' &quot;Tell me&quot;. In compound tenses, the clitic normally follows the auxiliary verb, ''Você tinha-me dito'' &quot;You had told me&quot; (like in Brazilian Portuguese, but conventionally spelled with a hyphen), though other positions are sometimes possible: ''Você vai dizer-me'' &quot;You are going to tell me&quot; (Spanish allows this syntax as well, for example ''Vas a decirme''), ''Você não me vai dizer'' &quot;You are not going to tell me&quot;. Still, in formal Portuguese the clitic pronouns always follow the verb in the infinitive. The Brazilian proclisis is usually ''correct'' in European Portuguese (often found in medieval literature), though nowadays uncommon and emphatic. Only sentences that begin with a clitic pronoun, such as ''Te amo'' or ''Me diz'', are considered unacceptable in European Portuguese.<br /> <br /> With verbs in the future indicative tense or the conditional tense, enclitic pronouns are not placed after the verb, but rather incorporated into it: ''eu canto-te uma balada'' &quot;I sing you a ballad&quot; becomes ''eu cantar-te-ei uma balada'' &quot;I will sing you a ballad&quot; in the future, and ''eu cantar-te-ia uma balada'' &quot;I would sing you a ballad&quot; in the conditional (mesoclisis).<br /> <br /> This is because these verb forms were originally compounds of the infinitive and ''haver'': ''cantarei'' = ''cantar hei'', ''cantarás'' = ''cantar hás''. In spoken Brazilian Portuguese, where proclisis is nearly universal, mesoclisis never occurs. Although the mesoclisis is often cited as a distinctive feature of Portuguese, it is becoming rare in spoken European Portuguese, since there is a growing tendency to replace the future indicative and the conditional with other tenses.<br /> <br /> Although enclisis (or mesoclisis) is the default position for clitic pronouns in European Portuguese, there are several instances in which proclisis will be used due to certain elements or words that &quot;attract&quot; the pronoun to appear before, rather than after, the verb. For example, a simple affirmative sentence or command will be enclitic (mesoclitic in the future or conditional). However, the following elements attract the pronoun and cause proclisis even in European Portuguese: (1) negative words, (2) interrogative words, (3) conjunctions/dependent clauses, (4) certain common adverbs such as ''ainda'', ''já'', ''sempre'', etc., and (5) indefinite pronouns such as ''todos''. Since proclisis is already the normal default position for clitic pronouns in [[Brazilian Portuguese]], this marking between enclisis and proclisis does not exist.<br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |+ Clitic placement in Portuguese<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> ! European Portuguese<br /> ! Formal Brazilian Portuguese<br /> ! Colloquial Brazilian Portuguese<br /> ! Nonstandard Brazilian Portuguese<br /> ! English<br /> |-<br /> ! Simple affirmative sentence<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;| ''Ele viu-'''nos''' hoje.''<br /> | ''Ele viu '''a gente''' hoje.''/''Ele '''nos''' viu hoje.''<br /> | ''Ele viu '''nós''' hoje.''/''Ele hoje viu '''nós'''.''<br /> | He saw '''us''' today.<br /> |-<br /> ! Affirmative future tense<br /> | ''Ele aprendê-'''lo'''-á na escola.''<br /> | ''Ele irá aprendê-'''lo''' na escola.''<br /> | ''Ele '''o''' aprenderá na escola.''<br /> | '''''Isso aí''' ele vai aprender na escola.''/''Ele vai aprender '''isso aí''' na escola.''<br /> | He will learn '''it''' in school.<br /> |-<br /> ! Affirmative conditional tense<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;| ''Ele dar-'''me'''-ia o livro.''<br /> | ''Ele '''me''' daria o livro.''/''Ele iria '''me''' dar o livro.''<br /> | ''Ele iria dar o livro pra '''mim'''/'''eu'''.''<br /> | He would give '''me''' the book.<br /> |-<br /> ! Affirmative imperative<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;| ''Diga-'''me''' o que aconteceu.''<br /> | '''''Me''' fala/fale/diz/diga o que aconteceu.''<br /> | ''Fala/diz pra '''mim''' o que aconteceu.''<br /> | Tell '''me''' what happened.<br /> |-<br /> ! (1) Negative sentences<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;| ''Não '''a''' vi hoje.''<br /> | ''Não vi '''ela''' hoje.''<br /> | I did not see '''her''' today.<br /> |-<br /> ! (2) Interrogative sentences<br /> | colspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;| ''Onde é que ele '''os''' comprou? (ex. os sapatos)''<br /> | ''Onde é que ele comprou '''eles'''? (ex. os sapatos)''<br /> | Where did he buy '''them''' (ex. ''those shoes'')?<br /> |-<br /> ! (3) Conjunctions/dependent clauses<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;| ''Quero que '''me''' digas a verdade.''<br /> | ''Quero que tu/você '''me''' digas/diga a verdade.''<br /> | ''Quero que tu fale/diga a verdade p'ra '''mim'''/'''eu'''.''<br /> | I want you to tell '''me''' the truth.<br /> |-<br /> ! (4) Adverbs<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;| ''Ele sempre '''nos''' vê na igreja.''<br /> | ''Ele sempre vê '''a gente''' na igreja.''/''Ele sempre '''nos''' vê na igreja.''<br /> | ''Ele vê '''nós''' na igreja sempre.''/''Ele sempre vê '''nós''' na igreja.''<br /> | He always sees '''us''' at church.<br /> |-<br /> ! (5) Indefinite pronouns<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;| ''Todos '''me''' dizem a verdade.''<br /> | ''Todo mundo '''me''' fala/diz a verdade.''<br /> | ''Todo mundo fala/diz a verdade p'ra '''mim'''/'''eu'''.''<br /> | Everyone tells '''me''' the truth.<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Prepositional pronouns===<br /> <br /> ====Governance====<br /> The personal pronouns labelled &quot;object of preposition&quot; above are always employed after a [[preposition]], and most prepositions [[government (linguistics)|govern]] those pronouns, but a few of them require subject pronouns. For example, prepositions denoting exception, such as ''afora'', ''fora'', ''excepto'', ''menos'', ''salvo'', and ''tirante''. In those cases, the subject pronouns ''eu'', ''tu'', ''ele'', ''ela'', ''eles'' and ''elas'' are used. Examples: ''Todos foram ao cinema excepto eu'', ''Ele referiu toda a gente excepto ele mesmo'' (not *''Ele referiu toda a gente excepto si''), but ''Ele referiu-se a toda a gente excepto a si'', ''Falaste a todos menos a mim'', ''Falaste com todos menos comigo'' (not *''com eu'').<br /> <br /> ====Contractions with the prepositions ''de'' and ''em''====<br /> The following 3rd person pronouns contract with the prepositions ''de'' &quot;of/from&quot; and ''em'' &quot;in/on/at&quot;.<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center&quot;<br /> |-<br /> ! pronoun<br /> ! contracted with ''de''<br /> ! contracted with ''em''<br /> |- style=&quot;background-color: #f0f0f0;&quot;<br /> | ele || dele || nele<br /> |- style=&quot;background-color: #fafafa;&quot;<br /> | ela || dela || nela<br /> |- style=&quot;background-color: #f0f0f0;&quot;<br /> | eles || deles || neles<br /> |- style=&quot;background-color: #fafafa;&quot;<br /> | elas || delas || nelas<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Contractions with the preposition ''com''====<br /> The following prepositional pronouns contract with the preposition ''com'' &quot;with&quot; (circumstantial complement).<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center&quot;<br /> |-<br /> ! pronoun<br /> ! contracted form<br /> |- style=&quot;background-color: #f0f0f0;&quot;<br /> | mim || comigo<br /> |- style=&quot;background-color: #fafafa;&quot;<br /> | ti || contigo<br /> |- style=&quot;background-color: #f0f0f0;&quot;<br /> | si || consigo<br /> |- style=&quot;background-color: #fafafa;&quot;<br /> | nós || co(n)nosco<br /> |- style=&quot;background-color: #f0f0f0;&quot;<br /> | vós || convosco<br /> |- style=&quot;background-color: #fafafa;&quot;<br /> | si || consigo<br /> |}<br /> <br /> The form ''connosco'' is used in European Portuguese, while ''conosco'' is used in Brazilian Portuguese.<br /> <br /> These contractions are derived from the [[Latin language|Latin]] practice of suffixing the preposition ''cum'' &quot;with&quot; to the end of the [[ablative]] form of personal pronouns, as in ''mecum'' or ''tecum''. In [[Vulgar Latin]], enclitic ''cum'' (later shifted to ''-go'') became fossilized and was reanalysed as part of the pronoun itself. Then, a second ''cum'' began to be used before those words, and finally ''cum mecum'', ''cum tecum'', etc. contracted, producing ''comigo'', ''contigo'', and so on.<br /> <br /> ===Reflexive pronouns===<br /> Reflexive pronouns are used when one wants to express the action is exercised upon the same person that exercises it or refers to such person. Examples:<br /> *EP: ''Eu vi-'''me''' ao espelho.'' BP: ''Eu '''me''' vi no espelho.''<br /> *''Não '''te''' levas muito a sério.''<br /> *EP: ''De repente, vimo-nos perdidos na floresta.'' BP: ''De repente, nos vimos perdidos na floresta.''<br /> In the third person, the reflexive pronoun has a form of its own, ''se'', or ''si'' if preceded by a preposition. Examples:<br /> *EP: ''Hoje ele levantou-'''se''' cedo.'' BP: ''Hoje ele '''se''' levantou cedo.''<br /> *EP: ''Eles lavam-'''se''' sempre muito bem.'' BP: ''Eles '''se''' lavam sempre muito bem.''<br /> *''O gato sabe cuidar bem de '''si'''.''<br /> *''Os ladrões levaram '''consigo''' tudo o que puderam.'' (see above for compounds with ''com'')<br /> The reflexive pronoun forms, when used in the plural (''me'' and ''te'' are therefore excluded), may indicate reciprocity. In those cases, they do not have reflexive character – for instance, ''as pessoas cumprimentaram-se'' does not mean that each person complimented him-/herself, rather they complimented each other. In some situations, this may create ambiguity; therefore, if one means &quot;they love each other&quot;, one might want to say ''eles amam-se '''mutuamente''''' or ''eles amam-se '''um ao outro''''' (although ''eles amam-se'' will probably be interpreted this way anyhow); if one means &quot;each one of them loves him-/herself&quot;, one should say ''eles amam-se a si '''mesmos''''' ou ''eles amam-se a si '''próprios'''''.<br /> <br /> Sometimes, especially in the spoken Portuguese, ''ele mesmo'', ''ela mesma'', ''com ele mesmo'', ''com eles mesmos'', etc. may be used instead of ''si'' and ''consigo''. Example: &quot;Eles têm de ter confiança '''neles''' ''[''em ''+'' eles'']'' '''mesmos'''&quot; or ''Eles têm de ter confiança em si (mesmos)''.<br /> <br /> ==Possessive pronouns and adjectives==<br /> The forms of the possessives depends on the [[grammatical gender|gender]] and [[grammatical number|number]] of the possessed object or being.<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center&quot;<br /> |-<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | possessor<br /> ! colspan=&quot;4&quot; | possessum<br /> |-<br /> ! masc. sing.<br /> ! fem. sing.<br /> ! masc. plur.<br /> ! fem. plur.<br /> |- style=&quot;background-color: #f0f0f0;&quot;<br /> | eu || meu || minha || meus<br /> | minhas<br /> |- style=&quot;background-color: #fafafa;&quot;<br /> | tu || teu || tua || teus<br /> | tuas<br /> |- style=&quot;background-color: #f0f0f0;&quot;<br /> | ele, ela, você || seu || sua || seus<br /> | suas<br /> |- style=&quot;background-color: #fafafa;&quot;<br /> | nós || nosso || nossa || nossos<br /> | nossas<br /> |- style=&quot;background-color: #f0f0f0;&quot;<br /> | vós || vosso || vossa || vossos<br /> | vossas<br /> |- style=&quot;background-color: #fafafa;&quot;<br /> | eles, elas, vocês || seu || sua || seus<br /> | suas<br /> |}<br /> <br /> The [[possessive pronoun]]s are identical to [[possessive adjective]]s, except that they must be preceded by the [[definite article]] (''o meu'', ''a minha'', ''os meus'', ''as minhas'', etc.) For the possessive adjectives, the article is optional, and its use varies with dialect and degree of formality.<br /> <br /> ===Clearing ambiguity in the 3rd person===<br /> Due to the use of ''seu(s)'', ''sua(s)'' as 2nd-person possessive pronouns, ''dele(s)'' and ''dela(s)'' are normally used as 3rd-person possessive markers in lieu of ''seu(s)''/''sua(s)'' to eliminate ambiguity, e.g. ''Onde está o seu carro'' (&quot;Where is your car?&quot;) vs. ''Onde está o carro dele?'' (&quot;Where is his car?&quot;). ''Seu''/''Sua'' used as 3rd-person possessive pronouns are still frequent, especially when referring to the subject of the clause or when the gender is unknown and ambiguity can be solved in context, e.g. ''O Candidato Geraldo Alckmin apresentou ontem a sua proposta para aumentar a geração de empregos no Brasil'' (&quot;The candidate Geraldo Alckmin presented yesterday his proposal to increase job creation in Brazil&quot;).<br /> <br /> ==Colloquial usage==<br /> <br /> ===In European Portuguese===<br /> In European Portuguese, ''si'' and ''consigo'' can also be used to refer to the person to whom the message is directed in the formal treatment by ''o senhor'', etc. or in the treatment by ''você''. They are employed in the same circumstances ''ti'' and ''contigo'' would be used in the treatment by ''tu''. Actually, in those circumstances ''você'' and ''com você'' is uncommonly used and considered incorrect.<br /> <br /> Examples:<br /> <br /> *''Se você não se importar, eu vou '''consigo'''.'' &quot;I'll go '''with you''', if you don't mind.&quot; (''Se você não se importar, eu vou '''com você''''' would sound strange in some regions and is generally considered a wrong construction.)<br /> *''Quando estava a passar pela Praça do Chile, lembrei-me de '''si'''''. &quot;When I was going through the Praça do Chile (the Chile park), it reminded me of '''you'''.&quot;<br /> <br /> Thus, in modern '''colloquial European Portuguese''', the classical paradigm above is modified to (differences emphasized):<br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-----<br /> ! Subject<br /> ! Register<br /> ! Object of verb<br /> ! Object of preposition<br /> ! Reflexive<br /> ! Possessive<br /> |-----<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;2&quot;| você &lt;br /&gt; ''&quot;you&quot;,&lt;br /&gt; sing.'' || classical<br /> | rowspan=&quot;2&quot;| o, a; lhe, você || você, &lt;br /&gt; com você||rowspan=&quot;4&quot;| se, si, &lt;br /&gt; consigo ||rowspan=&quot;2&quot;| seu, sua, &lt;br /&gt; seus, suas; &lt;br /&gt; de você<br /> |-----<br /> ! colloquial<br /> | ''si'', &lt;br /&gt; ''consigo''<br /> |---<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | vocês &lt;br /&gt; ''&quot;you&quot;, &lt;br /&gt; plur.'' || classical<br /> | os, as; lhes; vocês || vocês, &lt;br /&gt; com vocês || seu, sua, &lt;br /&gt; seus, suas; &lt;br /&gt; de vocês<br /> |-----<br /> ! colloquial<br /> | ''vos'' || vocês, &lt;br /&gt; ''convosco'' || ''vosso'', ''vossa'', &lt;br /&gt; ''vossos'', ''vossas''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ''Se'', ''si'', and ''consigo'' are used in standard written BP exclusively as reflexive pronouns, e.g. ''Os manifestantes trouxeram consigo paus e pedras para se defenderem da violência policial'' (&quot;Protesters brought (wood) sticks and stones with them to protect themselves against police brutality&quot;), or ''Os políticos discutiam entre si o que fazer diante da decisão do Supremo Tribunal'' (&quot;Politicians discussed among themselves what to do in face of the Supreme Court decision&quot;). In colloquial language, those reflexive forms may be replaced however by subject pronouns (e.g. ''Discutam entre vocês em que data preferem fazer o exame'' vs standard ''Discutam entre si em que data preferem fazer o exame'', Eng. &quot;Discuss among yourselves when you prefer to take the exam&quot;). Note also that in both standard and colloquial BP, it is considered ''wrong'' to use ''se'', ''si'', ''consigo'' in non-reflexive contexts. Therefore, unlike in modern colloquial EP, ''para si'' for example cannot ordinarily replace ''para você'', nor can ''consigo'' ordinarily replace ''com você''.<br /> <br /> ===In Brazilian Portuguese===<br /> {{See also|Brazilian Portuguese}}<br /> For '''modern Brazilian Portuguese''', one could propose the following chart (departures from the norm are in italics):<br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-----<br /> ! Subject<br /> ! Register<br /> ! Object<br /> ! Possessive<br /> ! Verb<br /> |-----<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;2&quot;| tu &lt;br /&gt; ''&quot;you&quot;, &lt;br /&gt; sing. fam.'' || classical<br /> | te, ti, contigo || teu, tua, teus, tuas || és (2nd pers. sing.)<br /> |-----<br /> ! colloquial<br /> | te, ti, ''tu'', contigo; &lt;br /&gt; ''você, você'' (after a verb), ''com você'' || teu, tua, teus, tuas;&lt;br /&gt;''seu, sua, seus, suas''&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web | url-access=limited |archive-url = https://ghostarchive.org/iarchive/facebook/2124925017818530/2218129721831392 |archive-date = 2022-04-30| url = https://www.facebook.com/VamosRirPage/photos/a.2124934164484282/2218129721831392/?type=3&amp;theater |title = VAMOS RIR? on Facebook |website=[[Facebook]]}}{{cbignore}}{{User-generated source|certain=yes|date=March 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt; || rowspan=&quot;5&quot;| ''é'' (3rd pers. sing.)<br /> |-----<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | você &lt;br /&gt; ''&quot;you&quot;, &lt;br /&gt; sing.'' || classical<br /> | o, a; lhe; &lt;br /&gt; você, com você; &lt;br /&gt; si, consigo || seu, sua, seus, suas; &lt;br /&gt; de você<br /> |-----<br /> ! colloquial<br /> | ''você'' (after a verb); &lt;br /&gt; você, com você; &lt;br /&gt; si, consigo; &lt;br /&gt; ''te, ti, tu, contigo'' || seu, sua, seus, suas; &lt;br /&gt; de você; &lt;br /&gt; ''teu'', ''tua'', ''teus'', ''tuas''<br /> |-----<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | ele, ela &lt;br /&gt; ''&quot;he&quot;, &quot;she&quot;'' || classical<br /> | o, a; lhe; &lt;br /&gt; si, consigo ||rowspan=&quot;2&quot;| seu, sua, seus, suas; &lt;br /&gt; dele, dela<br /> |-----<br /> ! colloquial<br /> | ''ele'', ''ela'' (after a verb); &lt;br /&gt; si, consigo<br /> |-----<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | nós &lt;br /&gt; ''&quot;we&quot;, &quot;us&quot;''|| classical<br /> | nos; conosco || nosso, nossa, nossos, nossas || somos (1st pers. plur.)<br /> |-----<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | colloquial<br /> | nos; conosco; &lt;br /&gt; ''a gente'' (after a verb), ''com a gente, com nós'' || nosso, nossa, nossos, nossas; &lt;br /&gt; ''da gente'' || somos (1st pers. plur.), ''é'' (3rd pers.)&lt;ref&gt;Strongly associated as a ''favelado'' (low-income class) accent. Highly proscribed: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=V_vVuveziIQ&amp;feature=share, https://me.me/i/noise-pobre-pocotobr-maise-cadanchurrasco-bom-que-nois-faz-curtem-884852&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> |-----<br /> ! a gente &lt;br /&gt; ''&quot;we&quot;, &quot;us&quot;''<br /> | a gente (after a verb), ''nos'';&lt;br /&gt;com a gente, ''conosco'', ''com nós'' || da gente,&lt;br /&gt;''nosso, nossa, nossos, nossas'' || é, (3rd pers. sing.)&lt;br /&gt;''somos'' (1st pers. plur.)<br /> |-----<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | vocês &lt;br /&gt; ''&quot;you&quot;, &lt;br /&gt; plur.'' || classical<br /> | os, as; lhes, vocês; &lt;br /&gt; si, consigo ||rowspan=&quot;2&quot;| seu, sua, seus, suas; &lt;br /&gt; de vocês || rowspan=&quot;4&quot;| são (3rd pers. plur.)<br /> |-----<br /> ! colloquial<br /> | vocês (after a verb); &lt;br /&gt; si, consigo<br /> |-----<br /> ! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | eles, elas &lt;br /&gt; ''&quot;they&quot;, &lt;br /&gt; masc. and fem.'' || classical<br /> | os, as; lhes; &lt;br /&gt; si, consigo ||rowspan=&quot;2&quot;| seu, sua, seus, suas; &lt;br /&gt; deles, delas<br /> |-----<br /> ! colloquial<br /> | ''eles'', ''elas'' (after a verb); &lt;br /&gt; si, consigo<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====''Tu'' vs. ''você''====<br /> Although the 3rd person pronoun ''você'' tended to replace the classical 2nd-person pronoun ''tu'' in several Brazilian dialects and, especially, in the media communication, the use of ''tu'' is still frequent in several Brazilian Portuguese dialects. Most of the dialects that retain ''tu'' also use accordingly ''te'' (accusative pronoun), ''ti'' (dative postprepositional pronoun), ''contigo'', and the possessive ''teu, tua, teus, and tuas''. The use of ''tu'' is dominant in the South ([[Rio Grande do Sul]], [[Santa Catarina (state)|Santa Catarina]] and parts of [[Paraná (state)|Paraná]]) and Northeast (with the exception of most of [[Bahia]] and some other areas, mostly in the coast), and it is also very frequent in the Northern region and [[Rio de Janeiro]].<br /> <br /> However, even in some of the regions where ''você'' is the prevailing pronoun, the object pronoun ''te'' and ''ti'' and the possessive pronoun ''teu''/''tua'' are quite common, although not in most of [[State of São Paulo|São Paulo]], Brazil's most populous state. In fact, in the [[city of São Paulo]] the pronoun ''tu'' is almost nonexistent.<br /> <br /> That distinction, object and possessive pronouns pattern likewise, is still maintained in the South and in the area around the city of Santos (in [[São Paulo|State of São Paulo]]) and in the Northeast. In Rio Grande do Sul and Santa Catarina, for instance, ''você'' is rarely used in spoken language—in most occasions, ''o senhor''/''a senhora'' is employed whenever ''tu'' may sound too informal.<br /> <br /> In most of the Northeast, ''você'' is frequently used only in semi-formal and formal conversations, mostly with people whom one does not know well or when a more polite or serious style is required. As for [[Rio de Janeiro]] and the North of Brazil, both ''tu'' and ''você'' (and associated object and possessive pronouns) are used with no clear distinction in their use.<br /> <br /> However, when one talks to older people or people of higher status (a boss, for example), most Brazilians prefer to use ''o senhor'' and ''a senhora''.<br /> <br /> In standard Portuguese (both in Brazil and in Portugal), ''você'' and ''vocês'' are always accompanied by 3rd-person verb forms (e.g. ''você é'', ''vocês são''), whereas ''tu'' requires 2nd-person verb forms (e.g. ''tu és''). However, in ''tuteante'' BP dialects like [[gaúcho]], ''tu'' is almost always accompanied by 3rd-person verb forms, e.g. ''tu é'', ''tu bebeu'' vs. standard ''tu és'', ''tu bebeste''. That particular usage is considered ungrammatical by most Brazilian speakers whose dialects do not include ''tu'' (e.g. ''paulistanos'').<br /> <br /> The ''você'' (subj.) / ''te'' (obj.) combination, e.g. ''Você sabe que eu te amo'', is a well-known peculiarity of modern General Brazilian Portuguese and is similar in nature to the ''vocês'' (subj.) / ''vos'' (obj.) / ''vosso'' (poss.) combination found in modern colloquial [[European Portuguese]]. Both combinations would be condemned, though, by prescriptive school grammars based on the classical language.<br /> <br /> When Brazilians use ''tu'', it is mostly accompanied by the 3rd-person verb conjugation: ''Tu vai ao banco?'' — &quot;Will you go to the bank?&quot; (''Tu vai'' is wrong according to the standard grammar, yet is still used by many Brazilians). The pronoun ''tu'' accompanied by the second-person verb can still be found in [[Maranhão]], [[Piauí]], [[Pernambuco]] (mostly in more formal speech) and [[Santa Catarina (state)|Santa Catarina]], for instance, and in a few cities in [[Rio Grande do Sul]] near the border with [[Uruguay]], with a slightly different pronunciation in some conjugations (''tu vieste'' — &quot;you came&quot; — is pronounced as if it were ''tu viesse''), which also is present in Santa Catarina and Pernambuco (especially in [[Recife]], where it is by far the predominant way to pronounce the past tense particle ''-ste'').<br /> <br /> ===== 2nd person singular conjugation in Brazilian Portuguese =====<br /> The table for 2nd person singular conjugation in Brazilian Portuguese is presented below:&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite thesis |last=Loregian |first=Loremi |title=Concordância verbal com o pronome tu na fala do sul do Brasil |date=1996 |degree=Master's |publisher=Federal University of Santa Catarina |url=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/30390059.pdf |language=Portuguese |trans-title=Verbal agreement with the pronoun tu in the speech of southern Brazil}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite thesis |last=Maia |first=Viviane dos Santos |title=&quot;Tu vai para onde? ... Você vai para onde?&quot;: manifestações da segunda pessoa na fala carioca |date=2012 |degree=Master's |publisher=Federal University of Rio de Janeiro |url=https://edisciplinas.usp.br/pluginfile.php/389530/mod_resource/content/1/Tu%20no%20Rio%20de%20Janeiro.pdf |language=Portuguese}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite thesis |last=Dias |first=Edilene Patrícia |title=O uso do tu no português brasiliense falado |date=2007 |degree=Master's |publisher=University of Brasília |language=Portuguese |trans-title=The use of tu in spoken Brasilian Portuguese |hdl=10482/3255 |hdl-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> !<br /> !você<br /> &lt;small&gt;(standard)&lt;/small&gt;<br /> !você<br /> &lt;small&gt;(colloquial)&lt;/small&gt;<br /> !tu<br /> &lt;small&gt;(standard)&lt;/small&gt;<br /> !tu<br /> &lt;small&gt;(colloquial)&lt;/small&gt;<br /> !tu<br /> &lt;small&gt;(Sulista colloquial)&lt;/small&gt;<br /> |- <br /> |'''Present&lt;br /&gt;indicative'''<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |fala<br /> | style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |falas<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |fala<br /> |- <br /> |'''Past&lt;br /&gt;indicative'''<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |falou<br /> | style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |falaste<br /> | style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |falou<br /> | style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |falaste, &lt;br /&gt;falasse, &lt;br /&gt;falou<br /> |- <br /> |'''Imperfect&lt;br /&gt;subjunctive'''<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |falasse<br /> | style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |falasses<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |falasse<br /> |- <br /> |'''Imperative&lt;br /&gt;positive'''<br /> | style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |fale<br /> | style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |fala, &lt;br /&gt;fale<br /> | style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |fala<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |fala, &lt;br /&gt;fale<br /> |-<br /> |'''Imperative&lt;br /&gt;negative'''<br /> | style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |não fale<br /> | style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |não fale, &lt;br /&gt;não fala<br /> | style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |não fales<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |não fale, &lt;br /&gt;não fala<br /> |-<br /> | '''Reflexive'''<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | se parece<br /> | style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | te pareces<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | se parece, &lt;br /&gt;te parece<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====''O(s)'' and ''a(s)''====<br /> In Brazil, the weak clitic pronouns ''-o(s)'' and ''-a(s)'' are used ''almost exclusively'' in writing or in formal speech (e.g. TV newscasts). In colloquial speech, ''ele(s)'' and ''ela(s)'' replace the clitics as direct objects (e.g. ''Vi eles na praia ontem'' versus ''Vi-os na praia ontem''; in English, &quot;I saw them on the beach yesterday&quot;). The standard written variants ''-lo(s)'' and ''-la(s)'' (used after an infinitive ending in ''r'') are more frequent though in the speech of polite speakers, but seem to be losing ground as well. Note, however, that ''ele(s)'' or ''ela(s)'' are '''never''' used as direct objects in formal writing, such as newspaper articles, academic papers, or legal documents. The use of ''-lo'', ''-la'', etc. replacing &quot;você&quot; as direct object is restricted mostly to the written language (in particular, movie subtitles) although it occurs frequently in a few fixed expressions like ''Prazer em conhecê-lo'' (&quot;Pleased to meet you&quot;) or ''Posso ajudá-lo?'' (&quot;May I help you?&quot;).<br /> <br /> ====''Lhe(s)''====<br /> The use of ''lhe'' and ''lhes'' as indirect object forms of ''você'' and ''vocês'' (&quot;[to] you&quot;, plural and singular) is currently rare in General BP, where ''lhe'' is often replaced as noted above by ''te'' or, alternatively, by ''para você''. On the other hand, ''lheísmo'', i.e. the use of ''lhe'' not only as an indirect object (e.g. ''Eu lhe dou meu endereço'', &quot;I will give you my address&quot;), but also as a ''direct object'' (e.g. ''Eu lhe vi na praia ontem'', Eng. &quot;I saw you at the beach yesterday&quot;) is frequent in Northeastern Brazilian dialects, especially in [[Bahia]].<br /> <br /> In standard written BP, it is common to use ''lhe(s)'' as indirect object forms of ''ele(s)/ela(s)'' (&quot;[to] him / her / it / them&quot;), e.g. ''O presidente pediu que lhe dessem notícias da crise na Bolívia''. In the colloquial language, 'lhe' in that context is frequently replaced by ''para ele'', etc., although educated speakers might use ''lhe'' in speech as well.<br /> <br /> ====Replacement of object pronouns with subject pronouns====<br /> In nonstandard BP, especially in regional dialects like [[caipira]], object pronouns may be avoided altogether, even in the first person. For example: ''Ele levou nós no baile'' (standard BP ''Ele nos levou ao baile'') or ''Ela viu eu na escola'' (standard BP ''Ela me viu na escola''). These examples, although common in rural areas and in working-class speech, would sound ungrammatical to most urban middle-class BP speakers in formal situations.<br /> <br /> ==See also==<br /> * [[Portuguese verb conjugation]]<br /> * [[Portuguese language]]<br /> * [[Portuguese grammar]]<br /> * [[Brazilian Portuguese]]<br /> * [[Gender neutrality in Portuguese]]<br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> {{reflist}}<br /> * [http://www.orbilat.com/Languages/Portuguese/Grammar/Portuguese-Pronouns.html Portuguese pronouns at Orbis Latinus]<br /> * [http://www.orbilat.com/Languages/Portuguese/Grammar/Portuguese-Determiners.html#Possessive_Adjectives Portuguese adjectives at Orbis Latinus]<br /> * [https://web.archive.org/web/20061016063728/http://accurapid.com/journal/13port.htm &quot;What is the word for 'you' in Portuguese?&quot;, by Danilo Nogueira]<br /> <br /> ==External links==<br /> * [https://web.archive.org/web/20061219130416/http://www.sonia-portuguese.com/text/pronouns.htm Portuguese pronouns]<br /> <br /> {{DEFAULTSORT:Portuguese Personal Pronouns}}<br /> [[Category:Portuguese grammar|Personal pronouns, Portuguese]]<br /> [[Category:Pronouns by language]]<br /> {{Language pronouns}}</div>

45.187.103.2 http://debianws.lexgopc.com/wiki143/index.php?title=Samba_(Brazilian_dance)&diff=270890 2025-04-16T06:11:00Z

<p>45.187.103.2: </p> <hr /> <div>{{Short description|Dance of Afro-Brazilian origin}}<br /> {{about|Brazilian dance|music genre|Samba}}<br /> {{Multiple issues|<br /> {{More citations needed|date=April 2008}}<br /> {{essay-like|date=October 2018}}<br /> {{More footnotes needed|date=October 2018}}}}<br /> {{Infobox dance<br /> | name = Samba<br /> | image = Samba de Roda do Recôncavo - Bahia - 3909 005.jpg<br /> | alt = <br /> | caption = Samba de roda dancers, 2004<br /> | etymology = <br /> | genre = [[Samba]]<br /> | signature = <br /> | instruments = {{hlist|[[Bateria|Samba drums]]|[[atabaque]]|[[Tanta (drum)|tanta]]|[[Hand-repique|repique-de-mao]]|[[pandeiro]]}}<br /> | inventor = <br /> | year = <br /> | origin = [[Afro-Brazilian]], [[Bahia]].<br /> }}<br /> '''Samba''' is a lively dance of Afro-Brazilian origin in 2/4 (2 by 4) [[time signature|time]] danced to [[samba music]].<br /> <br /> The term &quot;samba&quot; originally referred to any of several Latin duet dances with origins from the Congo and Angola. Today samba is the most prevalent dance form in Brazil, and reaches the height of its importance during the festival of Carnaval.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Cox|first=James L.|date=April 2000|title=Kariamu Weish Asante, African Dance: An Artistic, Historical and Philosophical InquiryAfrican Dance: An Artistic, Historical and Philosophical Inquiry254 pp., with illustrations Kariamu Welsh Asante (ed.) African World Press, Inc: Trenton, New Jersey, 1996 $16.95, £11.99 (p/b) (Distributed in Europe by Turnaround)|journal=Dance Research|volume=18|issue=1|pages=108–111|doi=10.3366/1291016|issn=0264-2875|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; There is actually a set of dances, rather than a single dance, that define the Samba dancing scene in Brazil; however, no one dance can be claimed with certainty as the &quot;original&quot; Samba style. Besides Brazilian Samba, a major style of Samba is [[ballroom Samba]], which differs significantly.<br /> <br /> == Etymology ==<br /> There are many theories about the origin of the word &quot;samba&quot;.<br /> <br /> One of the first references to &quot;samba&quot; was in [[Pernambuco]] magazine's ''O Carapuceiro'', in February 1838. Father Miguel Lopes Gama of Sacramento wrote an article arguing against what he called &quot;the samba d'almocreve&quot;, which was a type of dance drama popular with black people of that time.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=McCann|first=B.|date=2007-12-01|title=Blues and Samba: Another Side of Bossa Nova History|journal=Luso-Brazilian Review|volume=44|issue=2|pages=21–49|doi=10.1353/lbr.2008.0005|s2cid=145569698|issn=0024-7413}}&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> According to Hiram Araújo da Costa, over the centuries, the festival of dances of slaves in Bahia were called samba.&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; Samba de Roda was the main form of circle dance, provenient from the [[Candomblé]] Afro-Brazilian Tradition.<br /> <br /> During the mid-19th century, the word referred to several types of music made by [[Slavery in Brazil|enslaved Africans.]]&lt;ref name=&quot;:02&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Galinsky|first=Philip|date=1996|title=Co-option, Cultural Resistance, and Afro-Brazilian Identity: A History of the &quot;Pagode&quot; Samba Movement in Rio de Janeiro|journal=Latin American Music Review / Registe de Música Latinoamericana|volume=17|issue=2|pages=120–149|doi=10.2307/780347|issn=0163-0350|jstor=780347}}&lt;/ref&gt; Samba further developed specific characteristics in each [[Brazilian state]], not only due to the diversity of tribes of African immigrants, but also because of the distinctive cultures each region embodied. Some of these popular dances were known as [[Candomblé]], Catêrêtê, Caxambú, Choradinho, Côco-inchádo, Cocumbí, [[Corta Jaca (dance)|Córta-jáca]], Cururú, Furrundú.<br /> <br /> == Styles ==<br /> <br /> ===Samba no pé===<br /> ''Samba no pé'' (literally, &quot;samba in the foot&quot;) is a solo dance that is commonly danced impromptu when samba music is played. The basic movement involves a straight body and a bending of one knee at a time. The feet move very slightly - only a few inches at a time. The rhythm is 2/4, with 3 steps per measure. It can be thought of as a step-ball-change. It can be described calling it and-a-one, and-a-two, then back to one. The basic movement is the same to either side, where one foot moves to the outside lifting up just before the first beat (i.e. the right leg moves slightly to the right) and leg is kept as straight as a pole. The other foot moves slightly towards the front, and closer to the first foot. The second leg bends lightly at the knee so that the left side of the hip lowers and the right side appears to move higher. The weight is shifted to this inside foot briefly for the next &quot;and-a&quot;, then shifted back to the outside foot on the &quot;two&quot;, and the same series of actions is repeated towards the other side.<br /> <br /> The dance simply follows the beat of the music and can go from average pace to very fast. Men dance with the whole foot on the ground while women, often wearing heels, dance just on the balls of the foot. Professionals may change the steps slightly, taking 4 steps per measure instead of 3, and often add various arm movements depending on the mood of the music.<br /> <br /> There are also regional forms of the dance in Brazil where the essential steps are the same, but because of a change in the accent of the music people will dance similar movements to the slightly changed accents. For instance, in [[Bahia]] the girls tend to dance tilting their legs towards the outside instead of keeping their knees close to each other as in Rio de Janeiro.<br /> <br /> This is the type of Samba one sees in the [[Brazilian Carnival]] parades and in other Samba [[carnival]]s over the world. This is also one of the most common type of samba dancing in Brazil.<br /> <br /> ===Samba de Gafieira===<br /> {{Main|Samba de Gafieira}}<br /> <br /> Samba de Gafieira is a partner dance considerably different from the [[Ballroom Samba]]. It appeared in the 1940s and it gets its name from the ''gafieira'', popular urban nightclubs of Rio de Janeiro at that time.<br /> <br /> The dance derived from the [[Maxixe (dance)|Maxixe]] and followed the arrival of the [[Choro]] (another samba musical style). It left most of the Maxixe's [[Polka]] elements behind but maintained the entwined leg movements of the [[Argentine tango]], although adopting a more relaxed posture than the latter. Many see this form of Samba as a combination of [[Waltz]] and [[Tango (dance)|Tango]]. Several Brazilian [[dance studios]] use elements and techniques from these two dances to teach Samba de Gafieira steps and dance routines.<br /> <br /> ===Samba Pagode===<br /> Samba Pagode is a Samba partner dance that resembles the Samba de Gafieira but tends to be more intimate. The literal meaning of the Portuguese word &quot;pagode&quot; translates to &quot;fun&quot; or &quot;merrymaking&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;:02&quot;/&gt; The word is also utilized to refer to an informal gathering of samba dancers along with their accompanying music.<br /> [[File:Rua_27.jpeg|alt=The three instruments typically used in Samba Pagode performances|thumb|The three instruments typically used in Samba Pagode performances.]]<br /> A key feature of Samba Pagode is its rhythmic texture created with a variety of beats. It became a dance style after the appearance of the [[Pagode]] style of music, which originated in the Brazilian city of [[São Paulo]]. The pagode style utilizes three specific percussion instruments: the tanta, the [[Hand-repique|repique-de-mao]], and the [[pandeiro]].&lt;ref name=&quot;:02&quot; /&gt; All three instruments are played by hand, which lends to creating a softer, more intimate sound than the batucada Samba performed by many Samba schools in Brazil.&lt;ref name=&quot;:02&quot; /&gt; Pagode-like events have dated back to the late 19th and early 20th centuries, with the emergence of urban Samba in Rio de Janeiro.<br /> <br /> ===Samba Axé===<br /> Samba Axé is a solo dance that started in 1992 during the Brazilian Carnival season in [[Bahia]] when the [[Axé]] rhythm replaced the [[Lambada]]. For years it became the major type of dance for the North east of Brazil during the holiday months. The dance is completely choreographed and the movements tend to mimic the lyrics. It is very energetic and mixes elements of Samba no pé and aerobics and because of the lyrics, which are made for entertainment, the dance generally has some sort of ludic element.<br /> <br /> Several Axé music groups such as &quot;[[É o Tchan]]&quot; have as part of their marketing strategy to always release a choreography together with every one of their songs; therefore, Samba Axé is an ever-changing genre with no set of steps, routines or basic step.<br /> <br /> ===Samba-reggae===<br /> Samba-reggae is a mix of reggae beats created by [[Bateria|Samba drums]]. It is found in popular songs by the artist [[Daniela Mercury]], who introduced the rhythm to the world with songs like &quot;Sol da Liberdade&quot; &quot;O Reggae E O Mar&quot; and &quot;Perola Negra&quot;. Samba Reggae is a popular samba style in Bahia, with many followers in various parts of Brazil.<br /> <br /> Samba-reggae has birthed a style of African-influenced dance which has been obtained from the styles of Afro-Brazilian and candomble dance. Within social settings, samba-reggae dances are often performed in a follow-the-leader manner, with a small number of advanced dancers initiating steps in a line in front of the crowd, and then the whole crowd subsequently following along.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|url=http://www.axechicago.com/performances/|title=Performances|work=Axé Capoeira Chicago|access-date=2018-11-27}}&lt;/ref&gt; The percussionists of samba-reggae often dance while playing their drums as well. The third- and fourth drummers, known as ''surdos'' perform short choreographies, utilizing mallets to emphasize sharp arm movements. The ''fundos'' (the first and second surdos at the lead) often take center stage to showcase elaborate, deft mallet lifts and throws, and also toss their drums high overhead.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Béhague|first=Gerard|date=2006|title=Rap, Reggae, Rock, or Samba: The Local and the Global in Brazilian Popular Music (1985-95)|journal=Latin American Music Review / Revista de Música Latinoamericana|volume=27|issue=1|pages=79–90|doi=10.1353/lat.2006.0021|jstor=4121698|s2cid=191430137}}&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> ===Samba-rock===<br /> [[Samba rock|Samba-rock]] is a playful form of the samba that originates from [[São Paulo]]. It is a form of Latin nightclub dance.<br /> <br /> One of Samba-rock's first dance instructors, Mestre Ataliba, describes the essence of the dance style. &quot;Dance wise, samba rock is about relaxation and concentration, all at once... It blends the African '[[Ginga (capoeira)|ginga]]' (body flow from [[Capoeira]]), which is present at the feet and the hips, and the European reference of the [[Ballroom dance|ballroom]] etiquette. We can dance it to the sound of [[Rita Pavone]], [[Pagode|samba pagode]], [[reggae]], [[Rhythm and blues|R&amp;B]]. It really embraces every music culture&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite news|url=http://www.vinylmeplease.com/magazine/tracing-evolution-samba-rock-s%C3%A3o-paulo/|title=Tracing The Evolution Of Samba-Rock In São Paulo|date=2018-09-11|work=Vinyl Me Please|access-date=2018-11-27}}&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> === Samba de roda ===<br /> [[File:Samba de roda (6244051631).jpg|thumb|right|300px|Samba de roda]]<br /> <br /> (&quot;Samba of [[roda (formation)|roda]]&quot;) is a traditional Afro-Brazilian dance performed originally as informal fun after a [[Candomblé]] ceremony, using the same percussion instruments used during the religious ceremony. The typical drum is the [[atabaque]]; drummers improvise variations and elaborations on common patterns, accompanied typically by singing and clapping as well as dancing.<br /> <br /> The Samba de Roda is a celebratory event incorporating music, choreography and poetry.<br /> <br /> The term &quot;Samba&quot; encompassed many different rhythms, tunes, drumming and dances of various periods and areas of the Brazilian territory. It appeared in the state of [[Bahia]], more specifically in the region of Recôncavo in Brazil, during the 17th century.<br /> <br /> Because all drumming and dance was generalized by Portuguese colonizers as &quot;samba&quot;, it is difficult to attribute it to one distinct heritage. However, the most universally recognized cultural origin of Samba is Lundu, a rhythm that was brought to Brazil by the Bantu slaves from Africa. Lundu reveals, in a way, the amalgamation of black (slaves) and white (Portuguese) and indigenous cultures. When the African slaves where imported, it was named the &quot;semba&quot; and with the introduction of the Arabic Pandeiro (tambourine), brought into the Roda by the Portuguese, the &quot;Samba&quot; was molded into the form of dance it is now.<br /> <br /> In the indigenous language, &quot;samba&quot; means roda de dança, or a circle to dance since the indigenous peoples danced in celebration on many occasions, such as the celebration of popular Catholic festivals, Amerindian or Afro-Brazilian religious ceremonies, but was also practiced at random.<br /> <br /> All participants, including beginners, are invited to join the dance and observe as well as imitate. Usually, only the women dance after each other and they are surrounded by others dancing in a circle and clapping their hands. The choreography is often spontaneous and is based on movements of the feet, legs and hips. One of the most typical moves is the ''[[umbigada]]'' which is clear Bantu influence, where the dancer invites her successor into the circle's center.<br /> <br /> The factor that frequently draws the attention of most people to the rhythm is the unusually-accented (syncopated) beat. The absent beat is the strongest characteristic of Samba prompting the listener to dance to fill the gap with her/his body movements. This syncopated rhythm is also an indication of Black resistance against cultural assimilation. The Samba of Roda in particular was considered an expression of freedom and identity of the underprivileged and became a means of liberation.<br /> <br /> The Samba de Roda has significantly waned during the twentieth century due to economic decline and increased poverty in the region. The effects of mass media and competition from popular modern music have also devalued this tradition among the younger generation. Finally, the weakening of the Samba de Roda was heightened through the aging of practitioners and demise of those who made the musical instruments.<br /> <br /> ==See also==<br /> *[[Carioca (dance)]]<br /> *[[Samba school]]<br /> <br /> ==References==<br /> {{reflist}}<br /> <br /> ==External links==<br /> *[https://web.archive.org/web/20091101115615/http://www.brazilcarnival.com.br/samba_schools/begining-of-samba-brazil-music-origins-of Origins &amp; History of Samba] {{in lang|en}}<br /> *[http://langecole.com/cultural_center/article/12-Brazilian-Music-and-Dance---SAMBA Brazilian Music and Dance - SAMBA] {{in lang|en}}<br /> <br /> {{commons category|Samba}}<br /> {{Samba}}<br /> {{Dance}}<br /> <br /> [[Category:Brazilian dances]]<br /> [[Category:Samba]]</div>

45.187.103.2 http://debianws.lexgopc.com/wiki143/index.php?title=History_of_the_Dutch_language&diff=2767434 2025-01-17T01:52:19Z

<p>45.187.103.2: </p> <hr /> <div>{{Short description|none}}<br /> {{redirect|History of Dutch|the history of the Dutch people|Dutch people|the history of the Dutch culture|Dutch culture (disambiguation){{!}}Dutch culture}}<br /> {{Use dmy dates|date=September 2021}}<br /> [[Dutch language|Dutch]] is a [[West Germanic languages|West Germanic language]], that originated from the [[Old Frankish]] dialects.<br /> <br /> Among the words with which Dutch has enriched the English vocabulary are: ''brandy, coleslaw, cookie, cruiser, dock, easel, freight, landscape, spook, stoop, and yacht''. Dutch is noteworthy as the language of an outstanding [[Dutch-language literature|literature]],{{Citation needed|date=July 2018}} but it also became important as the tongue of an enterprising people,{{Peacock inline|date=May 2021}} who, though comparatively few in number, made their mark on the [[world]] community through trade and empire. Dutch is also among some of the [[List of languages by first written accounts|earliest recorded languages]] of [[Europe]]. Countries that have Dutch as an official language are the [[Netherlands]], [[Belgium]], [[Suriname]], [[Sint Maarten]], [[Curaçao]] and [[Aruba]].<br /> <br /> == Relation to the Germanic languages group ==<br /> <br /> [[Image:GERMANICEXPANSION.GIF|200px|thumb|Map of the [[Pre-Roman Iron Age]] culture(s) associated with Proto-Germanic, ca 500 BC–50 BC. The area south of Scandinavia is the [[Jastorf culture]].]]<br /> Within the [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European language tree]], Dutch is grouped within the [[Germanic languages]], which means it shares a common ancestor with languages such as English, German, and Scandinavian languages.<br /> <br /> This common, but not direct, ancestor ([[proto-language]]) of all contemporary Germanic languages is called ''[[Proto-Germanic]]'', commonly assumed to have originated in approximately the mid-1st millennium BC in [[Pre-Roman Iron Age|Iron Age northern Europe]].&lt;ref name=EB&gt;{{cite encyclopedia |year=1993 |title=Languages of the World: Germanic languages |encyclopedia=The New Encyclopædia Britannica |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc |location=Chicago, IL, United States |isbn=0-85229-571-5 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/newencyclopaedia07ency }} This long-standing, well-known article on the languages can be found in almost any edition of ''Britannica''.&lt;/ref&gt; All Germanic languages are united by subjection to the sound shifts of [[Grimm's law]] and [[Verner's law]] which originated Proto-Germanic. These two laws define the basic differentiating features of Germanic languages that separate them from other Indo-European languages.<br /> <br /> There are no known documents in Proto-Germanic, which was unwritten, and virtually all our knowledge of this early language has been obtained by application of the [[comparative method]]. All modern Germanic languages (such as English, German, Dutch, etc.) gradually split off from Proto-Germanic, beginning around the [[Early Middle Ages]]. As the earliest surviving Germanic writing, there are a few inscriptions in a [[runic script]] from [[Scandinavia]] dated to c. 200. It obviously represents [[Proto-Norse language|Proto-Norse]] spoken in Scandinavia after it had split as a local dialect from common Proto-Germanic.<br /> <br /> ==West Germanic==<br /> {{main|West Germanic languages}}<br /> From the time of their earliest attestation, the Germanic dialects were divided into three groups, [[West Germanic languages|West]], [[East Germanic languages|East]], and [[North Germanic languages|North]] Germanic. Their exact relation is difficult to determine from the sparse evidence of runic inscriptions, and they remained mutually intelligible to some degree throughout the [[Migration Period]]. This means some individual dialects are difficult to classify. The Western group would have formed as a dialect of [[Proto-Germanic]] in the late [[Jastorf culture]] (ca. 1st century BC).<br /> <br /> During the [[Early Middle Ages]], the West Germanic languages were separated by the insular development of [[Old English]] (Anglo-Saxon) and related [[Old Frisian]], the [[High German consonant shift]], and the relatively conservative (in respect to common West Germanic) ancestors of [[Low German|Low Saxon]] and [[Old Dutch]].<br /> <br /> ==Frankish language==<br /> {{main|Old Frankish}}<br /> The Frankish language, also Old Frankish was the language of the Franks. Classified as a West Germanic language, it was spoken in areas covering modern France, Germany, and the Low Countries in Merovingian times, preceding the 6th/7th century. The Franks first established themselves in the Netherlands and Flanders before they started to fight their way down south and east. The language had a significant impact on Old French. It evolved into [[Old Low Franconian]] in the north and it was replaced by French in the south, Old Frankish is reconstructed from loanwords in Old French, and from [[Diets]] (Old Dutch).<br /> <br /> The singular direct attestation from Old Frankish is the [[Bergakker inscription]], that was found in 1996 near the Dutch town of [[Bergakker]], near [[Tiel]]. It is a 5th-century Elder Futhark inscription on a metal mount for a sword scabbard.<br /> <br /> The inscription can be read as<br /> <br /> :'''ha?VþV??s : ann : kVsjam :'''<br /> :''': logVns :'''<br /> <br /> where V is a non-standard rune, apparently a vowel (variously read as e or u, or as &quot;any vowel&quot;).<br /> <br /> Several readings have been presented in literature. Quak (2000) for example, reads &quot;Ha(þu)þ[e]was ann k(u)sjam log(u)ns&quot;, interpreting it as &quot;[property] of Haþuþewaz. I bestow upon the choosers of the swords&quot;.<br /> <br /> == Old Dutch ==<br /> {{main|Old Dutch}}<br /> [[Image:OldDutcharea.png|thumb|300px|right|Area in which Old Dutch was spoken.]]<br /> [[Old Dutch]] is the language ancestral to the Low Franconian languages, including Dutch itself. It was spoken between the 6th and 11th centuries, continuing the earlier Old Frankish language. It did not participate in the High German Consonant Shift. In this period a perfect [[dialect continuum]] remained between Franconian and Saxon areas, as well as between Low Franconian and Middle or High Franconian. Old Dutch is considered a separate language mainly because it gave rise to the much later Dutch standard language, for contingent political and economic reasons.<br /> <br /> The present Dutch [[standard language]] is derived from [[Old Dutch]] dialects spoken in the [[Low Countries]] that were first recorded in the [[Salic law]], a [[Franks|Frank]]ish document written around 510. From this document originated the oldest sentence that has been identified as Dutch: &quot;Maltho thi afrio lito&quot; as sentence used to free a serf. Other old segments of Dutch are ''&quot;Visc flot aftar themo uuatare&quot;'' (&quot;A fish was swimming in the water&quot;) and ''&quot;Gelobistu in got alamehtigan fadaer&quot;'' (&quot;Do you believe in God the almighty father&quot;). The latter fragment was written around 900.<br /> <br /> Arguably the most famous text containing what is traditionally taken to be Old Dutch is: &quot;''[[Hebban olla vogala]] nestas hagunnan, hinase hic enda tu, wat unbidan we nu''&quot; (&quot;All birds have started making nests, except me and you, what are we waiting for&quot;), dating around the year 1100, written by a Flemish [[monk]] in a [[convent]] in [[Rochester, Kent|Rochester]], [[England]].<br /> <br /> The oldest known single word is ''wad'', attested in the toponym ''vadam'' (modern [[Wadenoijen]]), meaning a [[ford (crossing)|ford]] (where one [[:wikt:wade#Etymology 1|wades]]), in [[Histories (Tacitus)|Tacitus's ''Histories'']].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book |first=Nicoline |last=Van der Sijs |year=2001 |url=http://www.dbnl.org/tekst/sijs002chro01_01/sijs002chro01_01_0010.htm |title=Chronologisch woordenboek. De ouderdom en herkomst van onze woorden en betekenissen |page=100 |publisher=L.J. Veen |isbn=9020420453}}&lt;/ref&gt;<br /> <br /> [[Image:Vogala.png|frame|centre|The ''Hebban olla vogala'' fragment]]<br /> <br /> ==Middle Dutch==<br /> {{main|Middle Dutch}}<br /> [[Image:DUTCHDIALECTSMAP.svg|350px|right]]<br /> Linguistically speaking, '''Middle Dutch''' is a collective name for closely related dialects which were spoken and written between about 1150 and 1550 in the present-day [[Dutch language|Dutch]]-speaking region. There was at that time as yet no overarching [[standard language]], but they were all probably mutually intelligible.<br /> <br /> In historic literature ''Diets'' and Middle Dutch (''Middelnederlands'') are used interchangeably to describe the ancestor of Modern Dutch. Although almost from the beginning, several Middle Dutch variations emerged, the similarities between the different regional languages were likely much stronger than their differences, especially for written languages and various literary works of that time.<br /> <br /> Within Middle Dutch five large groups can be distinguished:<br /> <br /> #[[Flemish dialects|Flemish]], (sometimes subdivided into [[West Flemish|West]] and [[East Flemish]]), was spoken in the modern region of [[West Flanders|West]] and [[East Flanders]];<br /> #[[Brabantian dialect|Brabantian]] was the language of the area covered by the modern [[Netherlands|Dutch]] province of [[North Brabant]] and the [[Belgium|Belgian]] provinces of [[Walloon Brabant]], [[Flemish Brabant]] and [[Antwerp (province)|Antwerp]] as well as the [[Brussels]] capital region;<br /> #[[Hollandic]] was mainly used in the present provinces of [[North Holland|North]] and [[South Holland]] and parts of [[Utrecht (province)|Utrecht]];<br /> #[[Limburgish]], spoken by the people in the district of modern [[Limburg (Netherlands)|Limburg]], [[Limburg (Belgium)|Belgian Limburg]] and in the neighbouring regions of Germany ([[North Rhine-Westphalia]]);<br /> # [[Dutch Low Saxon|Low Saxon]], spoken in the area of the modern provinces of [[Gelderland]], [[Overijssel]], [[Drenthe]] and parts of [[Groningen (province)|Groningen]].<br /> <br /> The last two of the Middle Dutch dialects mentioned above could also be considered part of, respectively, [[Middle High German]] and [[Middle Low German]], on purely linguistical grounds. The Dutch state border would later intersect these dialect areas and as a result regions west of it would use the Dutch standard language, the reason why they are subsumed under Middle Dutch.<br /> <br /> ==Standardization and Modern Dutch==<br /> {{main|Dutch language}}<br /> A process of [[standard language|standardization]] started in the [[Middle Ages]], especially under the influence of the [[Duchy of Burgundy|Burgundian]] Ducal Court in Dijon (Brussels after 1477). The dialects of Flanders and Brabant were the most influential around this time. The process of standardization became much stronger in the 16th century, mainly based on the urban [[Brabantic]] dialect of [[Antwerp]]. In 1585 [[Fall of Antwerp|Antwerp fell]] to the Spanish army: many fled to Holland, influencing the urban dialects of that province. [[Brabantian dialect|Brabantian]], as compared to other main Dutch dialects, had a big influence on the development of Standard Dutch. This was because Brabant was the dominant region in the Netherlands when standardization of the Dutch language started in the 16th century. The first major formation of standard Dutch also took place in [[Antwerp]], where a Brabantian dialect is spoken. The default language being developed around this time had therefore mainly Brabantian influences. The 16th-century Brabantian dialect is rather close to colloquial [[Dutch language|Dutch]]. The standard Dutch language has mainly developed from Brabantian and later some [[Hollandic dialect|Hollandish]] dialects from post 16th century. The [[Standard Dutch]] language has evolved little since the 16th century.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://taal.phileon.nl/brabants.php|title = Taal in Nederland .:. Brabants}}&lt;/ref&gt; In 1637 a further important step was made towards a unified language, when the first major Dutch [[Bible translation]], the [[Statenvertaling]], was published that people from all over the [[Republic of the Seven United Provinces of the Netherlands|United Provinces]] could understand. It used elements from various dialects, but the spoken form was mostly based on the urban dialects from the province of [[Holland]]. A linguistic saying therefore is that ''&quot;The Dutch language was born in [[County of Flanders|Flanders]], grew up in [[Duchy of Brabant|Brabant]] and reached maturity in [[Holland]].&quot;'' At the same time a process of standardisation took place in the areas in which High German was spoken. Ultimately, all regions east of the political border of the Netherlands would adopt a single German ''Hochsprache'', breaking the dialect continuum around the 19th century and onward.<br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Book of Genesis|Genesis]] 1:1–3<br /> |-<br /> ! Dutch from 1637<br /> ! Contemporary Dutch<br /> |-<br /> | ''Inden beginne schiep Godt den Hemel, ende de Aerde.''<br /> | ''In het begin schiep God de hemel en de aarde''<br /> |-<br /> | ''De Aerde nu was woest ende ledich, ende duysternisse was op den afgront: ende de Geest Godts sweefde op de Wateren.''<br /> | ''De aarde nu was woest en leeg, en duisternis was op de afgrond, en de Geest van God zweefde over de wateren.''<br /> |-<br /> | ''Ende Godt seyde: Daer zy Licht: ende daer wert Licht.''<br /> | ''En God zei: Laat er licht zijn! En er was licht.''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ==Development of Germanic sounds==<br /> <br /> [[Linguistics|Linguistically]] speaking, Dutch has evolved little since the late 16th century; differences in speech are considered to be negligible, especially when comparing the older form with modern regional accents. [[Grammar]] has been somewhat simplified, but a great deal of the grammar lost in contemporary [[Dutch language|Dutch]] is preserved in many much-used [[Expression (language)|expressions]] dating back to or before that time.<br /> <br /> ===Vowels===<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> ! Proto-Germanic<br /> ! Old Dutch<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Middle Dutch<br /> ! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Modern Dutch<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; |<br /> | Closed Syllable<br /> | Open Syllable<br /> | Closed Syllable<br /> | Open Syllable<br /> |-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |a<br /> | a<br /> | ɑ<br /> | ɑː<br /> | ɑ<br /> | aː<br /> |-<br /> | ɛ (i-umlaut)<br /> | rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | ɛ<br /> | rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | ɛː<br /> | rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | ɛ<br /> | rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | eː<br /> |-<br /> | e<br /> | e<br /> |-<br /> | i<br /> | i<br /> | ɪ<br /> | eː<br /> | ɪ<br /> |-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | u<br /> | u, o <br /> | ɔ<br /> | ɔː<br /> | ɔ<br /> | oː<br /> |-<br /> | y, ø (i-umlaut)<br /> | ʏ<br /> | øː<br /> | ʏ<br /> | øː<br /> |-<br /> | ɛː<br /> | aː<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | aː<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | aː<br /> |-<br /> | iː<br /> | iː<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | iː<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ɛi &amp; iː (before r)<br /> |- #begin edit here<br /> | eː<br /> | {{nat|ie}}<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | iə <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | i<br /> |-<br /> | eu<br /> | io<br /> |-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | iu<br /> | rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | iu<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | yː <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | œy &amp; yː (before r)<br /> |-<br /> | uː<br /> | yː<br /> |- #end edit<br /> |-<br /> | oː<br /> | uo<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | uə<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | u<br /> |-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | ai<br /> | eː<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | eː <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | eː <br /> |-<br /> | ei̯ (i-umlaut/irregular)<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ɛi <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ɛi<br /> |-<br /> | au<br /> | oː<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | oː<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | oː<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Specific sound changes====<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> ! Proto-Germanic<br /> ! Old Dutch<br /> ! Middle Dutch<br /> ! Modern Dutch<br /> |-<br /> | -ɛ:- (before hiatus)<br /> | -a:- <br /> | -ai̯:- <br /> | -ai̯:- <br /> |-<br /> | -o:w- / -o:- (before hiatus)<br /> | -uo:i- / -uo:w-<br /> | -u:i̯- / -ɑu̯-<br /> | -ui̯- / -ɑu̯-<br /> |-<br /> | -u:- (before hiatus)<br /> | -u:-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;5&quot; | -yu̯- / -ɑu̯-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;5&quot; | -yu̯- / -ɑu̯-<br /> |-<br /> | -i:w- <br /> | -i:w-<br /> |-<br /> | -ɛːw-<br /> | -ɛːw-<br /> |-<br /> | -iww- <br /> | -iww-<br /> |-<br /> | -eww- <br /> | -eww-<br /> |-<br /> | -aww- <br /> | -aww-<br /> | -o:i̯- / -ɑu-<br /> | -oi̯- / -ɑu-<br /> |-<br /> | -iuw- <br /> | -iuw-<br /> | -iu̯-<br /> | -iu̯-<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ===Consonants===<br /> <br /> {|class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;<br /> |-<br /> ! Proto Germanic<br /> ! colspan=&quot;4&quot; | Old Dutch<br /> ! colspan=&quot;4&quot; | Middle &amp; Modern Dutch<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;1&quot; |<br /> | Initial<br /> | Between vowels<br /> | Geminated<br /> | Word final<br /> | Initial<br /> | Between vowels<br /> | Geminated*<br /> | Word final<br /> |-<br /> | k<br /> | k-<br /> | -k-<br /> | -kk-<br /> | -k<br /> | k-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | -k-<br /> | -k<br /> |-<br /> | g ~ ɣ<br /> | ɣ- <br /> | -ɣ-<br /> | -gg-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;2&quot;| -x<br /> | ɣ-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot;| -ɣ-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;2&quot;| -x<br /> |-<br /> | h ~ x<br /> | h-<br /> | -∅- (h syncope)<br /> | -xx-<br /> | h-<br /> | -∅- <br /> | -x-<br /> |-<br /> | p<br /> | p-<br /> | -p-<br /> | -pp-<br /> | -p<br /> | p-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | -p-<br /> | -p<br /> |-<br /> | b ~ β<br /> | b-<br /> | -v-<br /> | -bb-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;2&quot;| -f <br /> | b- <br /> | rowspan=&quot;2&quot;| -v- <br /> | -b-, -p* (final)<br /> | rowspan=&quot;2&quot;| -f<br /> |-<br /> | f<br /> | f-<br /> | -f-<br /> | -ff-<br /> | v-<br /> | -f-<br /> |-<br /> | t<br /> | t-<br /> | -t-<br /> | -tt-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | -t<br /> | t-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; | -t-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | -t<br /> |-<br /> | d ~ ð<br /> | d-<br /> | -d-<br /> | -dd-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | d-<br /> | rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | -d-, -∅-* (d syncope)<br /> | -d-<br /> |-<br /> | þ<br /> | þ- (&gt; ð)<br /> | -þ-<br /> | -þþ- <br /> | -þ<br /> | -s- / -t-<br /> |-<br /> | s<br /> | s-<br /> | -s-<br /> | -ss-<br /> | -s<br /> | z-<br /> | -z-<br /> | -s-<br /> | -s<br /> |-<br /> | -z(-)<br /> | –<br /> | -r-<br /> | -*<br /> | -Ø*<br /> | –<br /> | -r-<br /> | –<br /> | -r<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ====Specific sound changes====<br /> <br /> {|class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;<br /> |-<br /> ! Proto Germanic<br /> ! Old Dutch<br /> ! Modern Dutch <br /> |-<br /> | ald/uld – alt/ult<br /> | ald/uld/old – alt/ult/olt<br /> | ɑu̯d – ɑu̯t<br /> |-<br /> | -egi-/-ehi-<br /> | -egi-/-ehi-<br /> | -ɛi-<br /> |-<br /> | ft<br /> | ft<br /> | xt<br /> |-<br /> | xs<br /> | xs / ss<br /> | s<br /> |-<br /> | mb<br /> | mb / mm<br /> | m<br /> |-<br /> | ŋg<br /> | ŋg<br /> | ŋ<br /> |-<br /> | wr-<br /> | wr-<br /> | vr- (Still spelled wr-)<br /> |-<br /> | xl- / xr- / xw-<br /> | l- / r- / w-<br /> | l- / r- / w-<br /> |-<br /> |}<br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> {{reflist}}<br /> <br /> {{Language histories}}<br /> {{Germanic languages}}<br /> <br /> [[Category:History of the Dutch language| ]]</div>

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