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History of Northumberland

2025-06-16T00:10:09Z

2A00:23C7:C8BC:C501:507C:445E:62F7:256D: /* Norman Conquest */

{{Short description|History of English county}}
{{Use British English|date=September 2013}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2024}}
{{More citations needed|date=August 2009}}
[[File:EnglandNorthumberland.png|thumb|right|[[Northumberland]], as its boundaries are today, shown here within [[England]]]]

[[Northumberland]], [[England]]'s [[north]]ernmost [[county]], is a land where [[Roman Empire|Roman]] occupiers once guarded a walled frontier, Anglian invaders fought with Celtic natives, and Norman lords built castles to suppress rebellion and defend a contested border with Scotland. The present-day county is a vestige of an independent kingdom that once stretched from [[Edinburgh]] to the [[Humber]], hence its name, meaning literally 'north of the Humber'.<ref>englandsnortheast.co.uk/PlaceNameMeaningsKtoO</ref> Reflecting its tumultuous past, Northumberland has more [[castle]]s than any other county in England,<ref>Long, B. (1967). ''Castles of Northumberland''. Newcastle, UK: Harold Hill.</ref> and the greatest number of recognised battle sites. Once an economically important region that supplied much of the coal that powered the [[Industrial Revolution|industrial revolution]], Northumberland is now a primarily rural county with a small and gradually shrinking population.<ref>Dowson, J. (2009) Northumberland's Economy 2009. Northumberland Information Network http://www.northumberlandinfonet.org.uk/EconomicAssessment/documents/NorthumberlandsEconomy2009ExecutiveSummary.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110812071919/http://www.northumberlandinfonet.org.uk/EconomicAssessment/documents/NorthumberlandsEconomy2009ExecutiveSummary.pdf |date=12 August 2011 }}</ref>

==Prehistory==
[[File:WestHorton Aron D Mazel Wik.PNG|thumb|280px|Rock art near [[West Horton]]]]
As attested by many instances of [[rock art]], the [[Northumberland]] region has a rich prehistory. Archeologists have studied a [[Mesolithic]] structure at [[Howick house|Howick]], which dates to 7500 BC and was identified as Britain's oldest house until it lost this title in 2010 when the discovery of the even older [[Star Carr house]] in North Yorkshire was announced, which dates to 8770 BC. They have also found tools, ornaments, building structures and cairns dating to the [[Bronze Age|bronze]] and [[Iron Age|iron]] ages, when the area was occupied by [[Celtic Britons|Brythonic]] [[Celt]]ic peoples who had migrated from continental Europe, most likely the [[Votadini]] whose territory stretched from Edinburgh and the Firth of Forth to Northumberland. It is not clear where the boundary between the Votadini and the other large tribe, the [[Brigantes]], was, although it probably frequently shifted as a result of wars and as smaller tribes and communities changed allegiances. Unlike neighbouring tribes, Votadini farms were surrounded by large walls, banks and ditches and the people made offerings of fine metal objects, but never wore massive armlets. There are also at least three very large hillforts in their territory ([[Yeavering Bell]], [[Eildon Hill]] and [[Traprain Law]], the latter two now in Scotland), each was located on the top of a prominent hill or mountain. The hillforts may have been used for over a thousand years by this time as places of refuge and as places for meetings for political and religious ceremonies.<ref>"Ancient Tribes of Britain." BBC. 2013. Online: http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/british_prehistory/iron_01.shtml#nine</ref> [[Duddo Five Stones]] in North Northumberland and [[the Goatstones]] near [[Hadrian's Wall]] are [[stone circle]]s dating from the Bronze Age.<ref>{{NHLE|num=1008566 |desc=The Goatstones stone circle, 280m south west of Ravensheugh Crags|access-date=30 April 2016}}</ref>

==Roman occupation==
[[File:ShepherdMapRomanBritain410.PNG|thumb|left|280px|A section of Shepherd's (1923) map of Roman Britain]]
When [[Gnaeus Julius Agricola]] was appointed [[Roman governors of Britain|Roman governor of Britain]] in 78 AD, most of northern Britain was still controlled by native British tribes. During his governorship Agricola extended Roman control north of Eboracum ([[York]]) and into what is now Scotland. Roman settlements, garrisons and roads were established throughout the Northumberland region.

The northern frontier of the Roman occupation fluctuated between [[Pons Aelius]] (now [[Newcastle upon Tyne|Newcastle]]) and the [[River Forth|Forth]]. [[Hadrian's Wall]] was completed by about 130 AD, to define and defend the northern boundary of [[Roman Britain]]. By 142, the Romans had completed the [[Antonine Wall]], a more northerly defensive border lying between the [[Firth of Forth|Forth]] and [[Firth of Clyde|Clyde]]. However, by 164 they abandoned the Antonine Wall to consolidate defences at Hadrian's Wall.

Two important Roman roads in the region were the [[Stanegate]] and [[Dere Street]], the latter extending through the [[Cheviot Hills]] to locations well north of the [[River Tweed|Tweed]]. Located at the intersection of these two roads, [[Coria (Corbridge)|Coria]] ([[Corbridge]]), a Roman supply-base, was the most northerly large town in the [[Roman Empire]]. The Roman forts of [[Vercovicium]] (Housesteads) on Hadrian's Wall, and [[Vindolanda]] (Chesterholm) built to guard the [[Stanegate]], had extensive civil settlements surrounding them.

The Celtic peoples living in the region between the Tyne and the Forth were known to the Romans as the [[Votadini]]. When not under direct Roman rule, they functioned as a friendly [[Roman client kingdoms in Britain|client kingdom]], a somewhat porous buffer against the more warlike Picts to the north.

The gradual Roman withdrawal from Britain in the 5th century led to a poorly documented age of conflict and chaos as different peoples contested territories in northern Britain.

=== Archaeology ===
Nearly 2000-year-old [[Roman Empire|Roman]] boxing gloves were uncovered at [[Vindolanda]] in 2017 by the Vidolanda Trust experts led by Dr [[Andrew Birley]]. According to the Guardian, being similar in style and function to the full-hand modern boxing gloves, these two gloves found at Vindolanda look like leather bands date back to 120 AD. It is suggested that based on their difference from gladiator gloves warriors using this type of gloves had no purpose to kill each other. These gloves were probably used in a sport for promoting fighting skills. The gloves are currently displayed at Vindolanda's museum.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2018/feb/19/rare-roman-boxing-gloves-found-hadrians-wall|title=Rare Roman boxing gloves found near Hadrian's Wall|last=Alberge|first=Dalya|date=2018-02-19|work=The Guardian|location=London|access-date=2019-08-20|issn=0261-3077}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/found-boxing-gloves-from-2000-years-ago|title=Found: A Pair of Boxing Gloves From 2,000 Years Ago|last=Traverso|first=Vittoria|date=2018-02-20|website=Atlas Obscura|access-date=2019-08-20}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.newsweek.com/ancient-roman-boxing-gloves-discovered-northern-england-vindolanda-813641|title=2,000-year-old Roman boxing gloves were discovered in England|last=EST|first=Sydney Pereira on 2/20/18 at 3:04 PM|date=2018-02-20|website=Newsweek|access-date=2019-08-20}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.sci-news.com/archaeology/vindolanda-boxing-gloves-05853.html|title=1,900-Year-Old Boxing 'Gloves' Unearthed at Vindolanda {{!}} Archaeology {{!}} Sci-News.com|website=Breaking Science News {{!}} Sci-News.com|access-date=2019-08-20}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bjpenn.com/mma-news/photo-beautifully-persevered-ancient-roman-boxing-gloves-unearthed-uk-1/|title=PHOTO {{!}} Beautifully preserved Ancient Roman boxing gloves unearthed in UK {{!}} BJPenn.com|last=Taylor|first=Tom|date=2018-02-20|website={{!}} BJPenn.com|access-date=2019-08-20}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.coventrytelegraph.net/news/history/roman-boxing-gloves-14312805|title="Astonishing" Roman boxing gloves found near Hadrian's Wall|last=Gibbons|first=Duncan|date=2018-02-20|website=coventrytelegraph|access-date=2019-08-20}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.unexplained-mysteries.com/news/315842/pair-of-ancient-roman-boxing-gloves-unearthed|title=Pair of ancient Roman boxing gloves unearthed – Unexplained Mysteries|website=unexplained-mysteries.com|access-date=2019-08-20}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.chroniclelive.co.uk/news/north-east-news/knock-out-find-roman-boxing-14311448|title=Knock out as Roman boxing gloves are discovered in North East|last=Henderson|first=Tony|date=2018-02-20|website=nechronicle|access-date=2019-08-20}}</ref>

==Anglian Kingdoms of Deira, Bernicia and Northumbria==
[[File:Meister des Book of Lindisfarne 001.jpg|thumb|280px|An illustration from the [[Lindisfarne Gospels]]]]
{{Main|Northumbria}}
Conquests by [[Angles (tribe)|Anglian]] invaders led to the establishment of the kingdoms of [[Deira (kingdom)|Deira]] and [[Bernicia]]. The first Anglian settlement was effected in 547 by [[Ida of Bernicia|Ida]], who, accompanied by his six sons, pushed through the narrow strip of territory between the Cheviots and the sea, and set up a fortress at [[Bamburgh Castle|Bamburgh]], which became the royal seat of the Bernician kings. About the end of the 6th century Bernicia was first united with the rival kingdom of Deira under the rule of [[Æthelfrith]] of Northumbria, and the district between the Humber and the Forth became known as the kingdom of [[Northumbria]].{{sfn|Chisholm|1911|p=791}}

After Æthelfrith was killed in battle around 616, [[Edwin of Northumbria|Edwin of Deira]] became king of Northumbria. Æthelfrith's son [[Oswald of Northumbria|Oswald]] fled northwest to the [[Gaels|Gaelic]] kingdom of [[Dál Riata]] where he was converted to Christianity by the monks of [[Iona]]. Meanwhile, [[Paulinus of York|Paulinus]], the first [[bishop of York]], converted King Edwin to Roman Christianity and began an extensive program of conversion and baptism. By his time the kingdom must have reached the west coast, as Edwin is said to have conquered the islands of [[Anglesey]] and [[Isle of Man|Man]]. Under Edwin the Northumbrian kingdom became the chief power in [[Britain in the Middle Ages|Britain]]. However, when [[Cadwallon ap Cadfan]] defeated Edwin at [[Battle of Hatfield Chase|Hatfield Chase]] in 633, Northumbria was divided into the former kingdoms of Bernicia and Deira and Christianity suffered a temporary decline.

In 634, Oswald defeated Cadwallon ap Cadfan at the [[Battle of Heavenfield]], resulting in the re-unification of Northumbria. Oswald re-established Christianity in the kingdom and assigned a [[Diocese|bishopric]] at [[Hexham]], where [[Wilfrid]] erected a famous early English church. Reunification was followed by a period of Northumbrian expansion into Pictish territory and growing dominance over the Celtic kingdoms of Dál Riata and [[Kingdom of Strathclyde|Strathclyde]] to the west. Northumbrian encroachments were abruptly curtailed in 685, when [[Ecgfrith of Northumbria|Ecgfrith]] suffered complete defeat by a Pictish force at the [[Battle of Dun Nechtain|Battle of Nechtansmere]].

===Monastic culture===
When [[Aidan of Lindisfarne|Saint Aidan]] came at the request of Oswald to preach to the Northumbrians he chose the island of [[Lindisfarne]] as the site of his church and monastery, and made it the head of the [[diocese]] which he founded in 635. For some years the [[Episcopal see|see]] continued in peace, numbering among its bishops [[Cuthbert of Lindisfarne|Saint Cuthbert]], but in 793 [[Vikings]] landed on the island and burnt the settlement, killing many of the monks. The survivors, however, rebuilt the church and continued to live there until 883, when, through fear of a second invasion of the Danes, they fled inland, taking with them the body of Cuthbert and other holy relics.

Against this background, the monasteries of Northumbria developed some remarkably influential cultural products. [[Cædmon]], a monk at [[Whitby Abbey]], authored one of the earliest surviving examples of [[Old English]] poetry some time before 680. The [[Lindisfarne Gospels]], an early example of [[insular art]], is attributed to Eadfrith, the bishop of Lindisfarne from 698 to 721. Stenton (1971, p. 191) describes the book as follows.
<blockquote>
In mere script it is no more than an admirable example of a noble style, and the figure drawing of its illustrations, though probably based on classical models, has more than a touch of ''naïveté''. Its unique importance is due to the beauty and astonishing intricacy of its decoration. The nature of its ornament connects it very closely with a group of Irish manuscripts of which the ''[[Book of Kells]]'' is the most famous.
</blockquote>

[[Bede]]'s writing, at the Northumbrian monasteries at [[Wearmouth-Jarrow|Wearmouth]] and [[Jarrow]], gained him a reputation as the most learned scholar of his age. His work is notable for both its breadth (encompassing history, theology, science and literature) and quality, exemplified by the rigorous use of citation. Bede's most famous work is ''[[Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum|Ecclesiastical History of the English People]]'', which is regarded as a highly influential early model of historical scholarship.

==Earldom of Northumbria==
{{Main|Earl of Northumbria}}
The kingdom of Northumbria ceased to exist in 927, when it was incorporated into England as an earldom by [[Athelstan of England|Athelstan]], the first king of a united [[Kingdom of England|England]]{{Citation needed|reason=There is ample evidence to suggest that Northumberland and Durham were outside of the English Kingdom until the Norman invasion.|date=May 2023}}.. In 937, Athelstan's victory over a combined Norse-Celtic force in the [[battle of Brunanburh]] secured England's control of its northern territory.

The Scottish king [[Indulf of Scotland|Indulf]] captured [[Edinburgh]] in 954, which thenceforth remained in possession of the Scots. His successors made repeated attempts to extend their territory southwards. [[Malcolm II]] was finally successful, when, in 1018, he annihilated the Northumbrian army at [[Carham]] on the Tweed, and Eadulf the earl of Northumbria ceded all his territory to the north of that river as the price of peace. Henceforth [[Lothian]], consisting of the former region of Northumbria between the Forth and the Tweed, remained in possession of the Scottish kings.

The term Northumberland was first recorded in its contracted modern sense in 1065 in an entry in the ''[[Anglo-Saxon Chronicle]]'' relating to a rebellion against [[Tostig Godwinson]].{{sfn|Chisholm|1911|p=791}}

==Norman Conquest==
[[File:Hulne Priory, geograph.jpg|right|280px|thumb|[[Hulne Priory]], west of [[Alnwick]].]]
The vigorous resistance of Northumbria to [[William the Conqueror]] was punished by ruthless [[Harrying of the North|harrying]], mostly south of the [[River Tees]].{{sfn|Chisholm|1911|p=791}} As recounted by the ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'':

<blockquote>
A.D. 1068. This year King William gave Earl Robert the earldom
over Northumberland; but the landsmen attacked him in the town of
Durham, and slew him, and nine hundred men with him. Soon
afterwards Edgar Etheling came with all the Northumbrians to
York; and the townsmen made a treaty with him: but King William
came from the South unawares on them with a large army, and put
them to flight, and slew on the spot those who could not escape;
which were many hundred men; and plundered the town. St. Peter's
minster he made a profanation, and all other places also he
despoiled and trampled upon; and the ethelling went back again to
Scotland.
</blockquote>

The [[Normans]] rebuilt the Anglian monasteries of Lindisfarne, Hexham and Tynemouth, and founded Norman abbeys at [[Newminster Abbey|Newminster]] (1139), [[Alnwick]] (1147), [[Brinkburn Priory|Brinkburn]] (1180), [[Hulne Priory|Hulne]], and [[Blanchland]]. Castles were built at [[History of Newcastle upon Tyne|Newcastle]] (1080), [[Alnwick Castle|Alnwick]] (1096), [[Bamburgh Castle|Bamburgh]] (1131), [[Harbottle]] (1157), [[Prudhoe]] (1172), [[Warkworth Castle|Warkworth]] (1205), [[Chillingham Castle|Chillingham]], [[Ford, Northumberland|Ford]] (1287), [[Dunstanburgh Castle|Dunstanburgh]] (1313), [[Morpeth, Northumberland|Morpeth]], [[Langley Castle|Langley]] (1350), [[Wark on Tweed Castle|Wark on Tweed]] and [[Norham Castle|Norham]] (1121), the latter an [[enclave]] of the palatine bishops of [[Durham, England|Durham]].

Northumberland county is not mentioned in the [[Domesday Book]] of 1086, but the account of the issues of the county, as rendered by Odard the sheriff, is entered in the Great Roll of the [[Exchequer]] for 1131.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911|p=791}}

In 1237, Scotland renounced claims to Northumberland county in the [[Treaty of York]].

During the reign of [[Edward I of England|Edward I]] (1272–1307), the county of Northumberland was the district between the [[River Tees|Tees]] and the [[River Tweed|Tweed]], and had within it several scattered [[Liberty (division)|liberties]] subject to other powers: [[County Palatine of Durham|Durham]], [[Sadberge (wapentake)|Sadberge]], [[Bedlingtonshire]], and [[Norhamshire]] belonging to the [[bishop of Durham]]; [[Hexhamshire]] to the [[archbishop of York]]; [[Tynedale]] to the [[king of Scotland]]; Emildon to the [[earl of Lancaster]]; and [[Redesdale]] to [[Gilbert de Umfraville, Earl of Angus]]. These franchises were exempt from the ordinary jurisdiction of the shire. Over time, some were incorporated within the county: Tynedale in 1495; Hexhamshire in 1572; and Norhamshire, Islandshire and Bedlingtonshire by the [[Counties (Detached Parts) Act 1844]].{{sfn|Chisholm|1911|pp=791–792}}

* [[Council of the North]]

The [[county court]] for Northumberland was held at different times at Newcastle, Alnwick and Morpeth, until by statute of 1549 it was ordered that the court should thenceforth be held in the town and castle of Alnwick. Under the same statute the [[High Sheriff of Northumberland|sheriffs of Northumberland]], who had been in the habit of appropriating the issues of the county to their private use, were required thereafter to deliver in their accounts to the [[Exchequer]] in the same manner as the sheriffs of other counties.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911|p=792}}

==Border wars, reivers and rebels==
[[File:Dunstanburgh Castle2.jpg|thumb|right|280px|[[Dunstanburgh Castle]] (built c. 1320) was garrisoned by the Lancastrians in 1462.]]
From the Norman Conquest until the union of England and Scotland under [[James VI and I|James I and VI]], Northumberland was the scene of perpetual inroads and devastations by the Scots. [[Norham]], [[Alnwick]] and [[Wark on Tweed|Wark]] were captured by [[David I of Scotland]] in the wars of [[Stephen of England|Stephen]]'s reign.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911|p=792}} In 1174, during his invasion of Northumbria, [[William I of Scotland]], also known as William the Lion, was captured by a party of about four hundred mounted knights, led by [[Ranulf de Glanvill]].{{Citation needed|date=August 2023}} This incident became known as the [[Battle of Alnwick (1174)|Battle of Alnwick]]. In 1295, [[Robert de Ros (Athol)|Robert de Ros]] and the earls of Athol and Menteith ravaged [[Redesdale]], [[Coquetdale]] and [[Tynedale]]. In 1314 the county was ravaged by [[Robert I of Scotland|king Robert Bruce]]. And so dire was the Scottish threat in 1382, that by special enactment the earl of Northumberland was ordered to remain on his estates to protect the border. In 1388, [[Henry Hotspur Percy|Henry Percy]] was taken prisoner and 1500 of his men slain at the [[battle of Otterburn]], immortalised in the [[ballad of Chevy Chase]].{{sfn|Chisholm|1911|p=792}}

Alnwick, Bamburgh and [[Dunstanburgh Castle|Dunstanburgh]] were garrisoned for the Lancastrian cause in 1462, but after the Yorkist victories of [[Battle of Hexham|Hexham]] and [[Battle of Hedgeley Moor|Hedgley Moor]] in 1464, Alnwick and Dunstanburgh surrendered, and Bamburgh was taken by storm.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911|p=792}}

In September 1513, King [[James IV of Scotland]] was killed at the [[Battle of Flodden]] on [[Branxton, Northumberland|Branxton]] Moor.

Roman Catholic support in Northumberland for [[Mary, Queen of Scots]], led to the [[Rising of the North]] in 1569.

*[[Harbottle]]
*[[Border Reivers]]
*[[Peel tower]]

==Union and Civil War==
After uniting the English and Scottish thrones, [[James VI and I]] sharply curbed the lawlessness of the border reivers and brought relative peace to the region. There were [[Church of Scotland]] congregations in Northumberland in the 17th and 18th centuries.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Scott |first1=Hew |title=Fasti ecclesiae scoticanae; the succession of ministers in the Church of Scotland from the reformation |date=1928 |publisher=Oliver and Boyd |location=Edinburgh |pages=[https://archive.org/details/fastiecclesiaesc07scot/page/504 504]-521 |volume=7 |url=https://archive.org/details/fastiecclesiaesc07scot |access-date=8 July 2019}}</ref>

During the [[English Civil War|Civil War]] of the 17th century, Newcastle was garrisoned for the king by the [[earl of Newcastle]], but in 1644 it was captured by the Scots under the [[earl of Leven]], and in 1646 [[Charles I of England|Charles I]] was led there a captive under the charge of [[David Leslie (Scottish general)|David Leslie]].{{sfn|Chisholm|1911|p=792}}

Many of the chief Northumberland families were ruined in the [[Jacobitism|Jacobite]] rebellion of 1715.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911|p=792}}

==Industrialisation==
The mineral resources of the area appear to have been exploited to some extent from remote times. It is certain that coal was used by the Romans in Northumberland, and some coal ornaments found at Angerton have been attributed to the 7th century. In a 13th-century grant to [[Newminster Abbey]] a road for the conveyance of sea coal from the shore about [[Blyth, Northumberland|Blyth]] is mentioned, and the Blyth coal field was worked throughout the 14th and 15th centuries. The coal trade on the Tyne did not exist to any extent before the 13th century, but from that period it developed rapidly, and Newcastle acquired the monopoly of the river shipping and coal trade. Lead was exported from Newcastle in the 12th century, probably from Hexhamshire, the lead mines of which were very prosperous throughout the 16th and 17th centuries. In a charter from [[Richard I of England|Richard I]] to [[Hugh de Puiset]] creating him earl of Northumberland, mines of silver and iron are mentioned. A [[Salt pan (evaporation)|salt pan]] is mentioned at Warkworth in the 12th century; in the 13th century the salt industry flourished at the mouth of the [[River Blyth, Northumberland|river Blyth]], and in the 15th century formed the principal occupation of the inhabitants of North and South Shields. In the reign of [[Elizabeth I]], glass factories were set up at Newcastle by foreign refugees, and the industry spread rapidly along the Tyne. [[Tanning (leather)|Tanning]], both of leather and of nets, was largely practised in the 13th century, and the [[salmon]] fisheries in the Tyne were famous in the reign of [[Henry I of England|Henry I]].{{sfn|Chisholm|1911|p=792}}

*[[John Smeaton]] designed the [[Coldstream Bridge]] and a bridge at [[Hexham]].
*[[Stephenson's Rocket|Stephenson's ''Rocket'']]
* Invention of the [[steam turbine]] by [[Charles Algernon Parsons]]

==See also==
* [[Northumbria]]
* [[Northumbria's golden age]]
* [[Earl of Northumberland]]
* [[History of England]]
* [[Kingdom of England]]
* [[Timeline of Northumbria and Northumberland]]

==References==
{{reflist}}
* {{EB1911|wstitle=Northumberland|volume=19|pages=790–793}}
* Stenton, F. M. (1971). ''Anglo-Saxon England''. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
* Trevelyan, G. M. (1959). ''A shortened history of England''. New York City: Pelican.
* Waters, I. (1999). Northumberland: England's Border Country. ''Contemporary Review, 275''(1605), 203–210.

==Further reading==
* {{cite book |author=[[Samuel Tymms]] |location=London |publisher=J.B. Nichols and Son |year=1837 |series=The Family Topographer: Being a Compendious Account of the ... Counties of England |oclc=2127940 |volume=6 |title=Northern Circuit |chapter=Northumberland |chapter-url= https://archive.org/stream/familytopograph00tymmgoog#page/n135/mode/2up }}

==External links==
* [http://rockartuk.fotopic.net/g1117.html Northumbrian Rock Art on the British Rock Art Collection]{{Dead link|date=January 2020 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20051121014127/http://museums.ncl.ac.uk/wallnet/brig/brig1.htm Brigantium]
* [https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/timelines/wales/gododdin.shtml The Gododdin (BBC)]
* [http://www.bamburghresearchproject.co.uk/history-of-bamburgh.htm History of Bamburgh]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20050628074128/http://rockart.ncl.ac.uk/ Northumberland Rock Art]
* [http://www.nspipes.co.uk/nsp/ww3hist.htm History of the Northumbrian Smallpipes]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20051210174940/http://sunsite.berkeley.edu/OMACL/Anglo/part5.html Anglo-Saxon Chronicle 1052–1069]
* [http://www.keystothepast.info Keys To The Past – archaeological website covering Northumberland and County Durham]
* [https://www.bbc.co.uk/tyne/content/articles/2005/07/04/coast05walks_stage5_walk.shtml Glassworks on the Tyne]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070928071132/http://www.hadrianswallphotos.com/index.php/gallery/list/0/Northumberland Photographs of Northumberland]
* {{citation |work=Historical Directories |publisher=[[University of Leicester]] |location=UK |title=Northumberland |url=http://www.historicaldirectories.org/hd/findbylocation.asp }}

{{Northumberland}}
{{History of England|bar=yes}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:History of Northumberland}}
[[Category:History of Northumberland| ]]
[[Category:History of England by county|Northumberland]]

Housesteads Roman Fort

2025-06-16T00:07:15Z

2A00:23C7:C8BC:C501:507C:445E:62F7:256D: /* History */Added comma

{{Short description|Roman fort in Northumberland, England}}
{{Coord|55.013|-2.331|display=title}}
{{Use British English|date=February 2023}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2024}}
{{Infobox castrum
| image = File:Housesteads Roman Fort aerial.jpg
| name = Housesteads Roman Fort
| caption=
| alt_names =Vercovicium, Borcovicium
| built_during_reign_of =
| founded =
| abandoned = c. 400 AD
| attested_by = Notitia Dignitatum
| previous_fortification =
| type =
| robust_struct_material = Stone
| robust_struct_built_during_reign_of =
| robust_struct_built = c. 124 AD
| legions = [[Legio II Augusta]]
| cohorts = Cohors I Tungrorum
| alae =
| classis =
| events =
| province = [[Britannia]]
| coordinates =
| altitude_m =
| altitude_ref =
| map = United Kingdom Northumberland
| map_alt = 
| map_caption =
| map_size = 
| map_relief = 
| place_name =
| location_town = Hexham
| location_county = Northumberland
| location_state =
| location_country = England
| ref:UK:OSNG = NY789687
| ref:RO:LMI =
| ref:RO:RAN =
| ref:UNESCO =
| website = [http://www.english-heritage.org.uk/publications/housesteads-roman-fort/ Housesteads Roman Fort]
| notes =
}}
[[File:8 Vercovicium.png|thumb|300px|Vercovicium (1964 OS map)]]
[[File:Plan Castel Housestaeds 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica.png|thumb|Plan of fort]]

'''Housesteads Roman Fort''' was an [[auxilia]]ry [[castra|fort]] on [[Hadrian's Wall]],<ref>J.G. Crow, ''Housesteads Roman Fort'', London: English Heritage (1989)</ref> at Housesteads, Northumberland, England. It is dramatically positioned on the end of the {{convert|1|mi|km|adj=on}}-long crag of the [[Whin Sill]] over which the Wall runs, overlooking sparsely populated hills. It was called the "grandest station" on the Wall and is one of the best-preserved and extensively displayed forts.<ref> Alan Rushworth (15 February 2014). Housesteads Roman Fort - the Grandest Station. English Heritage Publishing. p. ix. ISBN 9781848021655.</ref> It was occupied for almost 300 years. It was located {{convert|5.3|mi|km}} west from [[Brocolitia|Carrawburgh]] fort, {{convert|6|mi|km}} east of [[Great Chesters]] fort and about {{convert|2|mi|km|adj=on}} north east of the existing fort at [[Vindolanda]] on the [[Stanegate]] road.

The site is now owned by the [[National Trust]] and is currently in the care of [[English Heritage]]. Finds from the fort can be seen in the site museum, in the museum at [[Cilurnum|Chesters]], and in the [[Great North Museum: Hancock]] in [[Newcastle upon Tyne]].

==Name==
The name of the fort has been given as Vercovicium, Borcovicus,<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EQZ0kAqQuIUC&pg=PA15|page=15|title=The English Castle|author=A. Hamilton Thompson|publisher=Courier Corporation|date= 10 Apr 2013 |isbn=9780486164342}}</ref> Borcovicium,<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ssCJrneSj0YC&pg=PA43|page=43|title=A History of Fortification from 3000 BC to AD 1700|author=Sidney Toy|publisher=Casemate Publishers|date= 2005|isbn=9781844153589}} (1st ed. 1955; 2nd ed. 1966)</ref> and Velurtion.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uLQyAQAAMAAJ&q=Velurtion+Housesteads|title=The History of Northumberland|author=Cadwallader John Bates|publisher=Sandhill Press|date= 1996|isbn=9780946098422}}</ref> An inscription found at Housesteads with the letters VER, is believed to be short for Ver(covicianorum), the letters ver being interchangeable with bor in later Latin.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xxw9BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA285|page=285|title=Housesteads Roman Fort - the Grandest Station|author=Alan Rushworth|publisher=English Heritage Publishing|date= 15 Feb 2014|isbn=9781848021655}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Handbook to the Roman Wall|url=https://archive.org/details/handbooktoroman00brucgoog|page=111|author=John Collingwood Bruce|publisher= Hindson & A. Reid|date= 1966}}</ref>

The 18th-century farmhouse of Housesteads provides the modern name.{{cn|date=December 2024}}

==History==
[[File:Granary at Housesteads Roman Fort.jpg|thumb|The northern granary looking east. The pillars supported a raised floor to keep food dry and free from vermin<ref>James Crow (2004), ''Housesteads. A Fort And Garrison on Hadrian's Wall'', Stroud: Tempus, p. 56</ref>]]
[[File:Housesteads latrines.jpg|thumb|The [[latrines]], hygienically placed at the lowest corner of the fort, supplied by a water tank at rear with original lead sealing between its slabs.<ref>J. G. Crow (1989), ''Housesteads Roman Fort'', English Heritage, p.8.</ref>]]

[[Hadrian's Wall]] was begun in AD 122 and included no forts but smaller milecastles but before it was finished there was a change of plan to include forts. [[Milecastle 36#Turret 36b|Turret 36B]] on the site was therefore demolished to make way for the fort built in stone around AD 124 with its northern wall overlying the original Broad Wall foundation.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Housesteads (Vercovicivm) Roman Fort|url=https://www.roman-britain.co.uk/places/housesteads-roman-fort/#17-the-garrison-units-at-housesteads|publisher=Roman-Britain.co.uk}}</ref> The fort was repaired and rebuilt several times. A major rebuilding in the late 3rd/early 4th century included interval towers on the walls, a huge ''[[horreum]]'' (warehouse) and new barracks.

A substantial civil settlement ([[Vicus (Rome)|vicus]]) existed to the south, outside the fort, and some of the stone foundations can still be seen, including the so-called "Murder House", where two skeletons were found beneath an apparently newly-laid floor when excavated.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Norton |first1=Mary E. |title=Roman Britain Today |journal=The Classical Outlook |date=1970 |volume=47 |issue=9 |pages=98–101 |jstor=43936348 |issn=0009-8361}}</ref> The vicus was abandoned in about 270 before the rebuilding of the fort.

It is unusual for Britain in that it had no running water supply and was dependent upon rainwater collection, for which purpose there is a series of large stone-lined cisterns around the periphery of the defences. It also has one of the best-preserved stone [[latrine]]s in [[Roman Britain]].

==Garrison==

In the 2nd century AD, the garrison consisted of an unknown double-sized auxiliary infantry [[Cohort (military unit)|cohort]] and a detachment of [[legionaries]] from ''[[Legio II Augusta]]''.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Housesteads (Vercovicivm) Roman Fort|url=https://www.roman-britain.co.uk/places/housesteads-roman-fort/#17-the-garrison-units-at-housesteads|publisher=Roman-Britain.co.uk}}</ref> From 205/208<ref>RIB 1631b</ref> it comprised ''Cohors I Tungrorum'' (nominally 1000 strong) augmented by the ''numerus Hnaudifridi'' and the ''[[Cuneus Frisionum]]'', a Frisian cavalry unit, ''cuneus'' referring to a wedge formation. The Tungrians were still there in the 4th century, according to the ''[[Notitia Dignitatum]]''. By 409 AD the Romans had withdrawn.<ref>Thomas Brown (2006) ''Celtic Roots'', Trafford Publishing {{ISBN|1-55212-585-8}}</ref>

==Housesteads farm==
Housesteads is a former farm whose ruins remain built up against the south gate of the Roman fort. The farm was purchased by the amateur historian [[John Clayton (town clerk)|John Clayton]] in 1838, to add to his collection of Roman Wall farms. The Roman site was cleared of later buildings by Clayton, and the present farmhouse built about 1860. John Maurice Clayton attempted to auction the fort in 1929. It did not reach its reserve and was donated to the [[National Trust]] in 1930. The farm was later owned by the Trevelyans who gave the land for the site museum.{{cn|date=November 2024}}

==See also==
* [[History of Northumberland]]

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

;Sources
* Crow, J. ''Housesteads Roman Fort and its Environs'', Univ. of Newcastle 1994
* Crow, J. ''Housesteads'', London: Batsford (1995) (second edition, Stroud: Tempus 2004)

==Further reading==
* {{cite book | last=Birley | first=Eric | title=Housesteads Roman Fort | year=1952 | publisher=English Heritage | location=London}}
* Dodds, Glen Lyndon, (2002) ''Historic Sites of Northumberland & Newcastle upon Tyne'' pp 96–103
* {{cite web | last=Hickey | first=Julia | title=Carlisle and the Border Reivers | work = TimeTravel-Britain.com | url=http://www.timetravel-britain.com/06/Oct/reivers.shtml | access-date = 8 February 2006}}
* Gibson papers, [[Northumberland Record Office]] (NRO)
* [[John Hodgson (antiquary)|John Hodgson]], ''History of Northumberland'' vol III part II page 288
* Rivet, A. L. F. ''The Place-Names of Roman Britain'', London: Batsford (1979)

==External links==
{{commons category}}
* [https://www.nationaltrust.org.uk/hadrians-wall-and-housesteads-fort Hadrian's Wall and Housesteads Fort – National Trust]
* [https://www.english-heritage.org.uk/visit/places/housesteads-roman-fort-hadrians-wall/ History and visitor information: English Heritage]

{{Hadrian's Wall forts}}
{{Roman visitor sites in the UK}}
{{Locations of Bastle houses in the United Kingdom}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Roman fortifications in England]]
[[Category:Roman sites in Northumberland]]
[[Category:Forts of Hadrian's Wall]]
[[Category:History of Northumberland]]
[[Category:Former populated places in Northumberland]]
[[Category:National Trust properties in Northumberland]]
[[Category:Museums in Northumberland]]
[[Category:Museums of ancient Rome in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Archaeological museums in England]]

John Clayton (town clerk)

2025-06-15T23:50:00Z

2A00:23C7:C8BC:C501:507C:445E:62F7:256D: /* Early life and career */Added county

{{Short description|English antiquarian and town clerk (1792–1890)}}
{{EngvarB|date=August 2014}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2014}}
[[File:John Clayton (1792-1890).png|thumb|John Clayton]]
'''John Clayton''' (10 June 1792 – 14 July 1890) was an [[antiquarian]] and [[town clerk]] of [[Newcastle upon Tyne]], England, during the nineteenth century. He worked with the builder [[Richard Grainger]] and architect [[John Dobson (architect)|John Dobson]] to redevelop the centre of the city in a [[neoclassical architecture|neoclassical]] style ([[Grainger Town]]), and Clayton Street in Newcastle is named after him. He did much to preserve the remains of [[Hadrian's Wall]].

==Early life and career==

He was the son of Nathaniel Clayton, Town Clerk of Newcastle upon Tyne from 1785 to 1822, and his wife Dorothy Atkinson, daughter of George and [[Bridget Atkinson]] of [[Temple Sowerby]].<ref>{{cite ODNB|id=92290|first=Frances|last=McIntosh|title=Clayton, John (1792–1890)}}</ref> He went to [[Kirkoswald, Cumbria|Kirkoswald]] School in [[Westmorland]], and received a classical education at [[Uppingham School]] in [[Rutland]]. He began work in the firm of solicitors that had been established by his father Nathaniel in the [[Bigg Market]] in Newcastle in 1778, and which became Clayton & Dunn, and qualified as an attorney in 1815. John became Under-Sheriff in 1816 before succeeding his father as Town Clerk in 1822, remaining in post until 1867. He never married, but shared the family's townhouse in Fenkle Street, Newcastle, with his unmarried brother and legal partner, Matthew.

As well as his work in the city, Clayton was an [[antiquarian]]. Four years after his birth in 1792, his father purchased the [[Chesters (Humshaugh)|Chesters Estate]], through which [[Hadrian's Wall]] runs, and which contained the site of Chesters fort. Landscaping a parkland setting for his home, The Chesters, Nathaniel Clayton levelled out and grassed over much of the Roman fort. While doing so he collected antiquities. From an early age John Clayton took a serious interest not only in the fort of Chesters and its immediate surroundings, but also in Roman remains in the nearby countryside.

From 1834 Clayton began buying land to preserve the Wall, now a [[World Heritage Site]], which was subject to the removal of stones for reuse. He had some restoration work carried out on parts of the Wall. He helped preserve that central stretch of Hadrian's Wall that includes [[Cilurnum|Chesters (Cilurnum)]]. [[Housesteads]] and [[Vindolanda]], and carried out some of the first archaeological excavations on the Wall. His first published work, in 1843, was his excavation of the commanding officer's bath-house at Chesters. He was involved in excavations most years for the next half-century, both at Chesters and elsewhere along Hadrian's Wall, namely Cawfields ([[Milecastle 42]]), Castle Nick ([[Milecastle 39]]) and Housesteads Crags ([[Milecastle 37]]), Housesteads and [[Carvoran]]. His archaeological work continued into his later years, and he was in his early nineties when he uncovered the spectacular sculptures of the temple to Mars Thincsus at Housesteads.

Clayton established Chesters as an archaeological site open to visitors. A small garden pavilion on the estate was used to display his archaeological collection, as well as other casual finds and purchased acquisitions, at Chesters. Following his death in 1890, his nephew Nathaniel commissioned and had built a permanent museum, completed in 1896, to house the Clayton Collection. Ownership of the collection was transferred to the newly formed Trustees of the Clayton Collection in 1930 under a [[Trust instrument|deed of trust]] and it is now curated by [[English Heritage]].<ref>{{cite web |title=About The Clayton Roman Trust |url=http://www.claytonromantrust.online/about_clayton_trust.html |website=www.claytonromantrust.online |access-date=12 April 2019}}</ref><ref>http://www.english-heritage.org.uk/server/show/nav.13166 English Heritage – Chesters Roman Fort</ref>

==Grainger's plan for Newcastle==
In 1834 the builder Richard Grainger presented a comprehensive development plan to the Town Council for the land covered by the Anderson Place estate. John Dobson had already submitted a similar plan to the council ten years previously and been rejected. Grainger moved his legal business to the solicitor's firm run by Clayton, the town clerk. The Council then adopted his scheme within two months, and it transformed the centre of Newcastle. One of the three principal streets built under Grainger's scheme was named Clayton Street.

An anonymous quotation made about Clayton at the time gives an indication of how some people regarded him:<ref>{{cite book |last1=Anonymous |title=The Corporation Annual; or, Recollections (not random) of the first reformed town council, of the Borough of Newcastle Upon Tyne |date=1838 |publisher=W. Boag |location=Newcastle}}</ref>

<blockquote>Has all the craft and subtlety of the devil. Great talents, indefatigable industry, immense wealth, and wonderful tact and facility in conducting business, give him an influence in society rarely possessed by an individual. Was unanimously re-elected Town Clerk because the Clique had not a man equal to supply his place. Can do things with impunity that would damn an ordinary man. A good voice, speaks well, and never wastes a word. Has a careworn, but sly countenance and spare person — limps in his gait from an accident — and loves the ladies.</blockquote>

==Grainger’s financial difficulties==
In 1839 Grainger paid £114,100 for the Elswick estate to west of Newcastle, intending to build a railway terminus there surrounded by factories and houses. The expense of buying the estate almost bankrupted Grainger and by 1841 his creditors were demanding payment. He was saved from bankruptcy by John Clayton, who worked at persuading Grainger's creditors to accept gradual repayment.<ref name="Dodds">{{cite book |author=Lyall Wilkes |author-link=Lyall Wilkes |author2=Gordon Dodds |author2-link=Gordon Dodds |year=1964 |title=Tyneside Classical, the Newcastle of Grainger, Dobson and Clayton |publisher=John Murray }}</ref> Clayton had difficulty in persuading Grainger to restrict his expenditure, as correspondence between them shows. He even intervened in a family dispute between Grainger and his son Thomas and persuaded them to compromise.

On Grainger's death in 1861, he left debts of £128,582 and his personal estate amounted to only £16,913. Grainger's debts included £30,000 owed to Clayton. A letter to Grainger's executors shows that Clayton agreed to forego the £30,000 owed to him as well as the interest arrears on the debt.

Clayton died on 14 July 1890 aged 98. The gross value of his estate was £728,846.

==References==
{{Reflist}}
*J. S, Johnson, MA, DPhil, FSA, (2001), Principal Inspector of Ancient Monuments, ''Chesters Roman Fort (English Heritage Guidebook)'', London: English Heritage.

==External links==
*[[:File:Clayton painting.jpg|The Romans Cause a Wall to be Built]], by William Bell Scott (1857). Scott's painting, set at [[Housesteads Roman Fort]], commemorated John Clayton's efforts to save Hadrian's Wall by giving the central figure, the centurion, Clayton's likeness.

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Clayton, John}}
[[Category:People from Newcastle upon Tyne]]
[[Category:Local government officers in England]]
[[Category:19th-century English antiquarians]]
[[Category:People educated at Uppingham School]]
[[Category:City and town clerks]]
[[Category:1792 births]]
[[Category:1890 deaths]]
[[Category:Scholars of Hadrian's Wall]]

Faverdale

2025-06-15T23:48:21Z

2A00:23C7:C8BC:C501:507C:445E:62F7:256D: /* Faverdale Wagon Works */Improved wording

{{Use British English|date=June 2016}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2016}}
{{Infobox UK place
|official_name = Faverdale
|country = England
|region = North East England
| unitary_england= [[Borough of Darlington|Darlington]]
| lieutenancy_england= [[County Durham]]
|constituency_westminster=
|population = 2,985
|population_ref = (2011.ward)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.neighbourhood.statistics.gov.uk/dissemination/LeadKeyFigures.do?a=7&b=13690042&c=DL2+2XU&d=14&e=62&g=6486253&i=1001x1003x1032x1004&m=0&r=0&s=1437757113668&enc=1|title=Darlington ward population 2011|access-date=24 July 2015}}</ref>
|post_town = DARLINGTON
|postcode_area = DL
|postcode_district = DL3
|dial_code =
|os_grid_reference = NZ276166
|coordinates = {{coord|54.544|-1.574|display=inline,title}}
|static_image_name =
|static_image_alt = 
|static_image_caption =
}}

'''Faverdale''' is a suburb of [[Darlington]] in County Durham, England. It is situated in the north west of Darlington, north of [[Cockerton]]. The area was rural until the 20th century, a large wagon works was established in the 1920s, with housing development starting at the same time. The wagon works closed in the 1960s and further industrial and commercial development took place expanding from the [[brownfield land|brownfield site]]. As of 2012 the area has a mixture of industrial, residential and rural land use.

==Geography==
The modern suburb is bounded by the former [[Stockton and Darlington Railway]] (now part of the [[Tees Valley Line]], also known as the Bishop Auckland branch line) to the east, and by the defunct [[Darlington and Barnard Castle Railway]] (later known as 'Darlington & Tebay branch') to the south. The [[A1(M)]] road marks the extreme western fringe of the area. The area is between {{convert|50|and|85|m|ft|abbr=on}} above sea level.<ref name="m1">Ordnance Survey, 1:25000, c.2000; 1:10000, 1991</ref>

As of 2012 the area contain a mixture of housing (southwest), industrial estates (southeast), and farmland (north).<ref name="m1"/> Faverdale is also a ward of [[Darlington Borough Council]].<ref>{{citation| url = http://www.darlington.gov.uk/dar_public/documents/_Resources/Resources/InformationAndInsight/WardMaps/fd.pdf| title = Faverdale Ward| publisher = Darlington Borough Council| year = 2011| access-date = 18 April 2012}}</ref>

{{anchor|Whessoe (deserted village)}}

==History==
There is evidence for prehistoric, [[Iron Age]] and medieval activity at Faverdale.<ref>{{citation| url = http://www.keystothepast.info/durhamcc/K2P.nsf/K2PDetail?readform&PRN=D6792| title = Local History : Faverdale (County Durham)| publisher = Durham County Council and Northumberland County Council| work = www.keystothepast.info| url-status = dead| archive-url = https://archive.today/20120804023607/http://www.keystothepast.info/durhamcc/K2P.nsf/K2PDetail?readform&PRN=D6792| archive-date = 4 August 2012| df = dmy-all}}</ref> In the early 2000s evidence of occupation in the early [[Roman Britain|Romano-British period]] was discovered – a complex of Roman-style buildings, including a two-room building heated by a [[hypocaust]] and with painted wall plaster. The complex probably included a residential villa in an area that has now been completely ploughed out. The settlement was the site of an enterprise manufacturing [[Mortarium|mortaria]] and probably other coarse wares; the mortaria are stamped with the name ANAVS and most known examples are from the fort at [[Coria (Corbridge)|Coria]] near [[Hadrian's Wall]]. The pottery enterprise may have started as early as the decade 110-120, shortly before the construction of the Wall itself. Evidence of textile working, smithing, and bronze working was also found.<ref>Jennifer Proctor. Faverdale, Darlington: Excavations at a Major Settlement in the Northern Frontier Zone. of Roman Britain. Pre-Construct Archaeology Monograph 15. Pre-Construct Archaeology Ltd, London, 2012. ISBN 978 0 9563054 6 6</ref><ref>{{citation| url = http://content.durham.gov.uk/PDFRepository/Faverdale_order_form2.pdf| title = Faverdale, Darlington : Excavations at a major settlement in the northern frontier zone of Roman Britain (Jennifer Proctor)| publisher = Durham County Council}}{{dead link|date=December 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref name="a1">{{citation| url = http://homepage.ntlworld.com/colin42/faverdale.htm| title = Darlington Faverdale The Excavation| work = homepage.ntlworld.com| access-date = 18 April 2012| url-status = dead| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070714125517/http://homepage.ntlworld.com/colin42/faverdale.htm| archive-date = 14 July 2007| df = dmy-all}}</ref><ref name="argos"/><ref>{{citation| url =http://www.keystothepast.info/durhamcc/K2P.nsf/K2PDetail?readform&PRN=D9756| title =Darlington, Faverdale East Business Park; Post Excavation Report (Darlington)| work =www.keystothepast.info| publisher =Durham County Council and Northumberland County Council}}{{dead link|date=December 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> ANAVS himself is likely to have been an immigrant, not a native of the area.<ref>The social and economic impact of Hadrian's Wall on the Frontier Zone in Britain p 139. James Bruhn, Nick Hodgson. Britannia 53 (2022) 125-157. doi:10.1017/S00681113X22000241</ref> The importation of [[Samian ware|Samian]] pottery to the site peaked 135-150, and the hypocaust was out of use by the end of the century.<ref>The social and economic impact of Hadrian's Wall on the Frontier Zone in Britain p 135. James Bruhn, Nick Hodgson. Britannia 53 (2022) 125-157. doi:10.1017/S00681113X22000241</ref>

The '''''deserted medieval village of Whessoe''''' was located on the northern fringe of the modern ward of Faverdale, between High Faverdale and Whessoe Grange farms; earthwork remains as well as medieval building remnants existed until demolition/bulldozing in the 1950s.<ref name="m1"/><ref>{{citation| url = http://www.darlington.gov.uk/PublicMinutes/Planning%20Applications%20Committee/February%2023%202011/Item%204.pdf| title = DARLINGTON BOROUGH COUNCIL PLANNING APPLICATIONS COMMITTEE : Whessoe Grange Farm Burtree Lane : Hybrid application for erection of data centre with associated access, landscaping and ancillary buildings |date =23 February 2011| publisher = Darlington Borough Council|at = Archaeology}}</ref><ref>{{citation| url = http://www.keystothepast.info/durhamcc/K2P.nsf/K2PDetail?readform&PRN=D1529| archive-url = https://archive.today/20120904180735/http://www.keystothepast.info/durhamcc/K2P.nsf/K2PDetail?readform&PRN=D1529| url-status = dead| archive-date = 2012-09-04| title = Whessoe; deserted Medieval village. (Whessoe)| work = www.keystothepast.info| publisher = Durham County Council and Northumberland County Council}}</ref>

Up to the mid twentieth century the area was completely rural; there were dwellings at ''Faverdale House'' (or Hall, plus farms at Middle and High Faverdale),{{#tag:ref|The Hall dates to the 18th century, and was rebuilt in the 1897, it is enveloped by the Faverdale Industrial estate (2001).<ref name="hallwagon"/>|group="note"}} ''Cockerton Grange'', and ''Rise Carr''.<ref>Ordnance Survey, 1858; 1898-9; 1923-4; 1938–48</ref> Up to 1915 it was part of the Cockerton civil parish, after which it became part of Darlington.<ref>{{citation| url = http://www.visionofbritain.org.uk/relationships.jsp?u_id=10132484&c_id=10001043| archive-url = https://archive.today/20121224204237/http://www.visionofbritain.org.uk/relationships.jsp?u_id=10132484&c_id=10001043| url-status = dead| archive-date = 2012-12-24| title = Cockerton Tn/CP through time| work = www.visionofbritain.org.uk}}, see also boundary map</ref>

The area began to be developed industrially in the interwar period. The Faverdale Wagon Works was established in the 1920, to produce freight wagons for the [[North Eastern Railway (UK)|NER]], the first housing estate in Faverdale was built to the west of the works beyond Faverdale Road (Westgate Crescent).<ref>Ordnance Survey, 1:2500, 1939</ref> A chemical works (Darlington Chemical & Insulating Co Ltd) was established in the south west of Faverdale, next to the Barnard Castle railway line, and south and west of the wagon works and housing.{{#tag:ref|Darlington Chemical & Insulating Co Ltd, also known as ''Darchem'', manufactured inorganic insulating materials,<ref>{{citation| url =https://books.google.com/books?id=h_DHaa4QTkUC&pg=PA751| title = Improved magnesia insulation| journal = New Scientist| date =23 March 1961| volume =9| number =227| issn=0262-4079|publisher=Reed Business Information}}</ref> manufacture resulted in contamination of land, including [[asbestos]]. The land was re-claimed for housing/park land in the 2000s.<ref name="asb">Sources:
*{{citation| url = http://www.darlingtonchampions.org.uk/case_studies/West_park.htm| title = West Park Levy| work = www.darlingtonchampions.org.uk| publisher = County Durham Foundation| url-status = dead| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20081202230913/http://www.darlingtonchampions.org.uk/case_studies/West_park.htm| archive-date = 2 December 2008| df = dmy-all}}
*{{citation| url =http://www.darlington.gov.uk/PublicMinutes/Planning%20Applications%20Committee/June%2027%202007/0100020RM8%20Former%20Darlington%20Chemical%20West%20Park.pdf| date =27 June 2007| title =DARLINGTON BOROUGH COUNCIL PLANNING APPLICATIONS COMMITTEE : FAVERDALE Former Darlington Chemical & Insulating Co Ltd (West Park), West Auckland Road, Darlington| publisher =Darlington Borough Council}}
*{{citation| url = http://www.darlington.gov.uk/Living/Planning%20and%20Building%20Control/Planning%20Services/Projects%20and%20Schemes/WestPark.htm| title = West Park| publisher = Darlington Borough Council}}</ref>|group="note"}}

The Faverdale Wagon Works closed in 1962 as a result of the Beeching cuts. The wagon works site was later redeveloped for other industrial uses (''Faverdale Industrial Estate''). Housing development west of Faverdale road also expanded during the late 20th century.<ref>Ordnance Survey, 1:10000; 1985, 1991</ref> In the first decade of the 21st century the former Darlington Chemical site and adjacent farmland was redeveloped, creating a {{convert|49|acre|km2|abbr=on}} municipal estate "[[West Park, Darlington|West Park]]", including housing, parkland, a hospital ([[West Park Hospital]]), and a school.<ref name="asb"/><ref>{{citation| url = http://www.homesandcommunities.co.uk/darlington-west-park| title = Darlington West Park| publisher = Homes and Communities Agency (HCA)| work = www.homesandcommunities.co.uk| url-status = dead| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20111230152147/http://www.homesandcommunities.co.uk/darlington-west-park| archive-date = 30 December 2011| df = dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{citation| url =http://www.thenorthernecho.co.uk/news/local/darlington/8833574.print/| title = Trust buys back hospital|date = 4 February 2011|author= Barry Nelson| work = www.thenortherecho.co.uk}}</ref><ref>{{citation| url = http://www.busseyarmstrong.co.uk/pdfs/westpark-issue4.pdf| title = Art the heart of a new community – westpark| issue = 4| date = Summer 2005| publisher = Bussey & Armstrong| url-status = dead| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070508063327/http://www.busseyarmstrong.co.uk/pdfs/westpark-issue4.pdf| archive-date = 8 May 2007| df = dmy-all}}</ref>

In 2004 [[Argos (retailer)|Argos]] began development of a large {{convert|730000|sqft|m2|abbr=on}} distribution centre the Faverdale industrial estate. The building was officially opened by Prime Minister [[Tony Blair]] in December 2005.<ref name="argos">{{citation| url =http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/wear/3899567.stm| title = Relics unearthed at retail site| work = BBC News|date = 16 July 2004}}</ref>
<ref>Sources:
*{{citation| url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/3662135.stm| title = Retailer brings town jobs boost| work = BBC News| date = 27 April 2004}}
*{{citation| url = http://www.logisticsmanager.com/Articles/4503/Prime+Minister+opens+Argos+Darlington+warehouse.html| title = Prime Minister opens Argos Darlington warehouse| date = 1 December 2005| work = www.logisticsmanager.com}}{{Dead link|date=August 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

===Future===
An additional commercial development, a {{convert|60|acre|km2|abbr=on}} industrial and logistics park, "Faverdale 58", proposed by [[St. Modwen Properties]] in 2008, is at a planning stage; the site is located west of the Bishop Auckland branch line, with potential rail access.<ref>Sources:
*{{citation| url = http://www.thenorthernecho.co.uk/business/2282855.50m_industrial_park_will_create_1_500_jobs/| title = £50m industrial park will create 1,500 jobs| date = 20 May 2008| author = Deborah Johnson| work = www.thenorthernecho.co.uk}}
*{{citation| url = http://www.faverdale58.co.uk/faverdale58_web/| title = Faverdale 68| work = www.faverdale58.co.uk| publisher = St. Modwen| access-date = 18 April 2012| url-status = dead| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130506125754/http://www.faverdale58.co.uk/faverdale58_web/| archive-date = 6 May 2013| df = dmy-all}}
*{{citation| url = http://www.faverdale58.co.uk/faverdale58_web/pdfs/Faverdale58_brochure.pdf| title = FAVERDALE 58 :60 ACRE INDUSTRIAL WAREHOUSE & DISTRIBUTION PARK :DARLINGTON| work = www.faverdale58.co.uk| access-date = 18 April 2012| publisher = St. Modwen}}{{dead link|date=December 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
*{{citation| url =http://www.darlington.gov.uk/dar_public/documents/_Place/PolicyRegeneration/PlanningPolicy/CoreStrategy/DPD/CD037.pdf| at =7. "The Site", p.30; Fig. 7.1 "Location Plan", p.31| date =January 2011| title =Faverdale 58, Darlington – Promotional Report}}</ref> The development was on hold in 2011 due to economic downturn.<ref>Sources:
*{{citation| url =http://www.nebusiness.co.uk/business-news/latest-business-news/2011/02/09/propertyfirm-backin-black-51140-28140581/| title = Propertyfirm backin black| author = Jez Davison|date = 9 February 2011| work = www.nebusiness.co.uk}}
*{{citation| url =http://www.nebusiness.co.uk/business-news/latest-business-news/2011/07/06/rental-growth-fuels-st-modwen-properties-profits-51140-29003536/| title = Rental growth fuels St Modwen Properties profits| author = Jez Davison| date = 6 July 2011| work = www.nebusiness.co.uk}}</ref>
{{anchor|Faverdale Wagon Works}}

==Faverdale Wagon Works==
In 1920 the [[Cleveland Bridge & Engineering Company]] began constructing a wagon works, the 'Faverdale Wagon Works', for the [[North Eastern Railway (UK)|NER]]. The first wagon was manufactured in 1923.<ref name="hallwagon">{{citation| url = http://www.thenorthernecho.co.uk/archive/2001/09/19/The+North+East+Archive/7098339.Curious_fortunes_of_a_favourite_hunters__hall/| title = Curious fortunes of a favourite hunters' hall| work = www.thenorthernecho.co.uk| date = 19 September 2001}}</ref> 200 houses were also constructed at the same time for the workers.<ref>{{citation| url =https://books.google.com/books?id=SMQhAQAAMAAJ|journal = The Builder| volume = 122| year = 1922| page = 346, also p.94| title = N.E. Railway Housing Scheme at Darlington}}</ref> The centenary of the Stockton and Darlington Railway was celebrated at the Faverdale works in 1925.<ref>{{citation| url =https://books.google.com/books?id=QsUOAAAAQAAJ| title = Rail 150: The Stockton & Darlington Railway and What Followed |editor-link=Jack Simmons (historian) |editor=Jack Simmons |publisher = Eyre Methuen| year= 1975|pages = 15–16 |last=Hoole |first=Ken |author-link=Ken Hoole | chapter = 1. The Stockton & Darlington Railway| chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=QsUOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA16| isbn = 9780413323101 }}</ref>

Initially the Faverdale wagon works manufactured wooden-bodied, wooden-framed wagons; steel-framed wagons began production in the 1930s. At its peak in the 1950s the Faverdale Wagon Works employed 550 people, the factory was a pioneer of mass production techniques for wagon building.<ref>{{citation| url = http://www.darlington.gov.uk/Leisure/headofsteam/collections/collectionspolicy.htm| title = Darlington Railway Centre & Museum Collecting & Disposals Policy 2006 – 2011| at = 5.8 "Goods Wagons"}}</ref> A report of 1959 recommended the ceasing of manufacturing at the site, with it being retained for repair work, however after centralisation of control of rolling stock works in 1962, the 1963 ' Workshops Plan' recommended closure in 1963. The works closed 29 June 1963 with 366 jobs lost.<ref name="hallwagon"/><ref>{{citation| title = British Railways Engineering 1948–80| first1 = John|last1 = Johnson| first2= Robert A.|last2= Long| editor-first = Roland C.|editor-last= Bond| year =1981|pages = 520–535}}</ref> The site was sold to Darlington Corporation in 1963 for £125,000.<ref>{{citation| journal = The Railway Gazette| title = Faverdale Wagon Works sold to Darlington Corporation| page = 28| year = 1963| volume =118}}</ref>

==Notes==
{{Reflist|group="note"}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Faverdale}}
*{{cite web| url = http://ww2.durham.gov.uk/dre/pgDre.aspx?&SEARCH=By+Keyword&TERM=Railway+engineering&ID=DRE6968&PIC=Y| title = Faverdale, Wagon Works, aerial view| publisher = Durham County Council| url-status = dead| archive-url = https://archive.today/20121223194024/http://ww2.durham.gov.uk/dre/pgDre.aspx?&SEARCH=By+Keyword&TERM=Railway+engineering&ID=DRE6968&PIC=Y| archive-date = 23 December 2012| df = dmy-all}}

{{Darlington}}

{{authority control}}

[[Category:Villages in County Durham]]
[[Category:Suburbs of Darlington]]

Gerda Christian

2025-06-15T20:17:34Z

2A00:23C7:C8BC:C501:507C:445E:62F7:256D: /* Portrayal in the media */Removed link

{{Short description|One of Adolf Hitler's secretaries}}

{{Infobox person
|name = Gerda Christian
|image = Gerda Christian.jpg
|image_size =
|caption =
|birth_name = Gerda Daranowski
|birth_date = {{birth date|1913|12|13|df=y}}
|birth_place = [[Berlin]], [[German Empire]]
|death_date = {{death date and age|1997|4|14|1913|12|13|df=y}}
|death_place = [[Düsseldorf]], [[Federal Republic of Germany]]
|other_names = Gerda Daranowski (maiden name)
|known_for = [[Adolf Hitler]]'s personal secretary before and during the [[Second World War]]
|alma_mater =
|education =
|spouse = {{marriage|[[Eckhard Christian]]|1943|1946|end=div}}
|signature = Gerda Christian signature.png
}}

'''Gerda Christian''' (née '''Daranowski'''; 13 December 1913 – 14 April 1997), nicknamed Dara, was one of [[Adolf Hitler]]'s private secretaries before and during [[World War II]].

==Biography==
Gerda Daranowski worked for [[Elizabeth Arden]] before beginning to work for Hitler.<ref>John Toland (1976), ''Adolf Hitler'', p. 733, Bantam Doubleday Dell Publishing Group, Inc.</ref> In 1937 Hitler's other secretaries, [[Johanna Wolf]] and [[Christa Schroeder]], complained about having too much work. They asked for assistance but Hitler reportedly hesitated: he did not wish to see a new face in his inner sanctum. He finally relented and hired Daranowski.

===World War II===
Daranowski had been engaged to Hitler's driver [[Erich Kempka]] and later married [[Luftwaffe]] officer [[Eckhard Christian]] on 2 February 1943.{{sfn|Hamilton|1984|p=141}} After her marriage she took a break from her employment for Hitler and her work was taken over by [[Traudl Junge]].

In mid-1943 Gerda Christian returned to Hitler's staff as one of his private secretaries.{{sfn|Joachimsthaler|1999|p=293}} Eckhard Christian was promoted to ''[[Generalmajor]]'' and Chief of the Luftwaffe Command Staff at Hitler's request on 1 September 1944.{{sfn|Joachimsthaler|1999|p=299}} In April 1945 he was stationed in Berlin at the ''[[Führerbunker]]'' HQ. He left the bunker complex on 22 April 1945 to become Chief of the liaison staff of the Luftwaffe to [[OKW]] Command Staff North.{{sfn|Joachimsthaler|1999|p=299}} Gerda and Traudl Junge both volunteered to remain with Hitler in the ''Führerbunker''.{{sfn|Hamilton|1984|p=141}} While in the bunker complex the women also looked after the [[Goebbels children]].{{sfn|O'Donnell|1978|p=134}}

During Hitler's last days in Berlin he would regularly eat lunch with Junge and Christian.{{sfn|Joachimsthaler|1999|pp=131, 169, 170}} After the war Junge recalled Christian asking Hitler if he would leave Berlin. He firmly rejected the notion.{{sfn|Joachimsthaler|1999|pp=169, 170}} Christian recalled that Hitler made it clear in conversation that his body must not fall into the hands of the Soviets. He would shoot himself and wanted to be cremated "without a trace".{{sfn|Joachimsthaler|1999|p=170}} [[Eva Braun]] said she would take cyanide poison.{{sfn|Joachimsthaler|1999|p=170}} At one of these mealtime conversations Hitler gave Christian a cyanide ampoule for use.{{sfn|Joachimsthaler|1999|p=170}}

In the early afternoon of 30 April 1945 Hitler and Braun said farewell to members of the ''Führerbunker'' staff and fellow occupants, including Bormann, [[Joseph Goebbels]] and his family, the secretaries and several military officers.{{sfn|Beevor|2002|p=358}} After the farewells Christian returned to the secretary quarters located in part of the large cellars under the Reich Chancellery. Later she returned to the ''Führerbunker'' and learned from the chief valet, [[Heinz Linge]], that Hitler was dead and his corpse had been carried upstairs and out into the Chancellery garden where the cremation was still in progress.{{sfn|Joachimsthaler|1999|p=176}} She walked into Hitler's study and saw a bloodstain "about the size of a hand" on the rug next to the sofa.{{sfn|Joachimsthaler|1999|p=176}}

After Hitler's death Christian tried to escape from [[Berlin]] on 1 May 1945. She was part of a group led by SS-''[[Brigadeführer]]'' [[Wilhelm Mohnke]], which included secretaries [[Else Krüger]] and Traudl Junge. Members of the group were taken prisoner by the [[Soviets]] on the morning of 2 May while hiding in a cellar off the Schönhauser Allee.{{sfn|O'Donnell|1978|pp=271, 274, 291}} However, Christian would be among those who escaped, only to later be captured by American forces in March 1946.{{sfn|Joachimsthaler|1999|p=293}}

===Post-war===
In 1946 Christian divorced her husband because he had not remained with her in the ''Führerbunker'' until the death of Hitler.{{sfn|Hamilton|1984|p=141}} She moved to [[Düsseldorf]], where she worked at the Hotel Eden.{{sfn|Hamilton|1984|p=141}} She was a friend of [[Werner Naumann]], a former state secretary in the Third Reich's propaganda ministry. In 1953 Naumann was arrested by the British Army and accused of being the leader of a neo-Nazi group, although he was never convicted. Christian died of cancer in [[Düsseldorf]] in 1997, aged 83.<ref name="NYT">{{cite web | title=Gerda Christian, 83, Secretary for Hitler | website=The New York Times | date=17 July 1997 | url=https://www.nytimes.com/1997/07/17/world/gerda-christian-83-secretary-for-hitler.html | access-date=3 February 2023}}</ref>

==Portrayal in the media==
Christian has been portrayed by the following actresses in film and television productions.
* [[Sheila Gish]] in the 1973 British-Italian film ''[[Hitler: The Last Ten Days]]''.<ref name="imdb4">{{cite web | url = https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0070184/ | title = Hitler: The Last Ten Days (1973) | access-date = May 8, 2008 | publisher = [[IMDb.com]] }}</ref>
* Mitzi Rogers in the 1973 British television production ''[[The Death of Adolf Hitler (ITV Sunday Night Theatre)|The Death of Adolf Hitler]]''.<ref name="imdb3">{{cite web | url = https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0283307/ | title = The Death of Adolf Hitler (1973) (TV) | access-date = May 8, 2008 | publisher = [[IMDb.com]] }}</ref>
* [[Birgit Minichmayr]] in the 2004 German film [[Downfall (2004 film)|''Downfall'' (''Der Untergang'')]].<ref name="imdb2">{{cite web | url = https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0363163/ | title = Untergang, Der (2004) | access-date = May 8, 2008 | publisher = [[IMDb.com]] }}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Sources==
* {{cite book | title = Berlin – The Downfall 1945 | last = Beevor | first = Antony | year = 2002 | publisher = Viking-Penguin Books | isbn = 978-0-670-03041-5 }}
* {{cite book | last = Hamilton | first = Charles | title = Leaders & Personalities of the Third Reich, Vol. 1 | year = 1984 | publisher = R. James Bender Publishing | isbn = 0-912138-27-0 }}
* {{cite book | last = Joachimsthaler | first = Anton|author-link=Anton Joachimsthaler | others = Trans. Helmut Bögler | title = The Last Days of Hitler: The Legends, the Evidence, the Truth | year = 1999 | orig-year = 1995 | publisher = Brockhampton Press | location = London | isbn = 978-1-86019-902-8 }}
* {{cite book | last = O'Donnell | first = James Preston | author-link = James P. O'Donnell | year = 1978 | title = [[The Bunker (book)|The Bunker: The History of the Reich Chancellery Group]] | publisher = Houghton Mifflin | location = Boston | isbn = 978-0-395-25719-7 }}

{{Final occupants of the Führerbunker}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Christian, Gerda}}
[[Category:1913 births]]
[[Category:1997 deaths]]
[[Category:Secretaries to Adolf Hitler]]
[[Category:People from Berlin]]
[[Category:Deaths from cancer in Germany]]

William Adams (oculist)

2025-06-15T20:07:10Z

2A00:23C7:C8BC:C501:507C:445E:62F7:256D: Added location

{{other people|William Adams}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2025}}
{{Use British English|date=October 2016}}
[[File:William Rawson nee Adams 1783-1827, by English school of the 19th century.jpg|thumb|William Rawson (born Adams)]]
'''Sir William Adams''' (1783–1827), also known as '''Sir William Rawson''' after 1825, was an English surgeon.

He was born at [[Morwenstow]] in [[Cornwall]], youngest son of Henry Adams. He was well known as an [[Ophthalmology|ophthalmic]] [[surgeon]] and was founder of [[Exeter]]'s West of England Eye [[Hospital|Infirmary]].<ref>G. L. Cantrell. ''West of England Eye Infirmary, Exeter, 1808–1992'' (published Exeter, 1992)</ref> [[John Nash (architect)|John Nash]] had built the [[Ophthalmology|Ophthalmic]] Hospital for him on [[Albany Street]], [[London]]. For several years Adams gave his services free to soldiers whose eyesight had been affected in the military campaigns in [[Egypt]]. The hospital was closed in 1822.<ref name=ondb>W. P. Courtney, revised by J. M. Tiffany. '[https://doi.org/10.1093/ref:odnb/23200 Adams [later Rawson<nowiki>]</nowiki>, Sir William'], in ''The Oxford Dictionary of National Biography'' (2004)</ref>

As a young man, he worked for John Hill, a surgeon in [[Barnstaple]], who sent him to London to obtain his professional qualifications. William Adams was a pupil of [[John Cunningham Saunders]]. He became a Member of the [[Royal College of Surgeons of England]] in 1807. In 1811 he helped restore some sight to the famous blind organist [[John Purkis]] after a series of operations in London and Exeter.<ref>Andrew Freeman. 'Organs and Organists of St. Olave's, Tooley Street, Southwark', in ''The Musical Times'', Vol. 62, No. 942 (August 1921), p. 574</ref> He published the book ''Practical observations on Ectropium'' in 1814.<ref>William Adams. ''[https://wellcomecollection.org/works/v2fgxrkd Practical observations on Ectropium or eversion of the eyelids with a description of the new operation for the cure of that disease]'' (1814)</ref>

Adams was one of the central figures in the controversy which raged between 1806 and 1820 over the treatment of Egyptian [[ophthalmia]], with his critics refusing to accept that his treatment for the condition produced any benefits whatsoever, and subjecting him to a campaign of vilification. He had a valuable political supporter in the future [[Prime Minister of Great Britain|Prime Minister]], [[Henry Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston|Lord Palmerston]], who persuaded [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|Parliament]] to award him £4000.<ref>Jasper Ridley. ''Lord Palmerston'' (Constable and Co. 1970) pp. 59–60 for the ophthalmia controversy and Palmerston's support for Rawson</ref> He was [[knighted]] and became a personal oculist to [[the Prince Regent]] and other members of the [[British royal family]]. Adams was a gifted man with unbounded energy, but his vanity and passion for publicity, at a time when very few doctors publicized their work, made him numerous enemies.<ref name=ondb/>

Adams assumed his wife's family name in accordance with her mother's wishes, and was known as Sir William Rawson after 1825. He married Jane Eliza Rawson (died 1844), fourth daughter of Colonel George Rawson of Belmont House, [[County Wicklow]], MP for [[Armagh Borough (Parliament of Ireland constituency)|Armagh]], and Mary Bowes Benson, and had five children, including the senior government official Sir [[Rawson William Rawson]], and Mary, who married firstly the Irish [[barrister]] [[John Goddard Richards]] of [[Ardamine Estate]], [[County Wexford]], and secondly the English judge John Billingsley Parry.<ref name=ondb/>

[[File:Hotel Barcelona, Exeter - geograph.org.uk - 365924.jpg|thumb|Hotel Barcelona (formerly the West of England Eye Infirmary) in [[Exeter]]]]

==Arms==
{{Infobox COA wide
|escutcheon = Quarterly 1st & 4th per fess Sable and Azure a quadrangular castle with four turrets Argent and in base two bars wavy of the last and (for distinction) a canton Ermine (Rawson) 2nd & 3rd Per fess Azure and Sable on a pale between two mullets in chief Argent a mullet between two crescents of the second (Adams).
|crest = 1st issuant out of clouds Proper a cubit arm vested Gules the hand in glove Azure holding an anchor fesswise the flukes towards dexter Or the arms charged (for distinction) with a rose Argent (Rawson) 2nd on a mount Vert an eagle standing reverse way and reguardant wings expanded Proper beak and legs Or holding in the mouth a mullet Sable the sinister claw resting on a crescent reversed Gold (Adams).
|motto = Arx Et Anchora Mihi Deus<ref>{{cite web|url=https://heraldryonline.wordpress.com/2023/08/22/royal-licence-sir-william-adams-1825/ |publisher=Stephen Plowman – Heraldry Online |accessdate=7 January 2024 |title= Royal Licence: Sir William Adams 1825 }}</ref>
|notes = Licensed on 11 April 1825 by Sir [[George Nayler]] ([[Garter King of Arms|Garter]]) and [[Ralph Bigland]] ([[Clarenceux King of Arms|Clarenceux]]).}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}
{{Portal|Cornwall}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Adams, William}}
[[Category:English surgeons]]
[[Category:1783 births]]
[[Category:1827 deaths]]
[[Category:People from Morwenstow]]
[[Category:British ophthalmologists]]

Voyager program

2025-06-15T19:58:28Z

2A00:23C7:C8BC:C501:507C:445E:62F7:256D: /* Pale Blue Dot */Enlarged image

{{Short description|Ongoing NASA interstellar program}}
{{Use American English|date=January 2014}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2019}}

[[File:Voyager probes with the outer worlds.jpg|thumb|250px|A poster of the planets and moons visited during the Voyager program.]]

The '''Voyager program''' is an American scientific program that employs two [[interstellar probe]]s, ''[[Voyager 1]]'' and ''[[Voyager 2]]''. They were launched in 1977 to take advantage of a favorable planetary alignment to explore the two gas giants [[Jupiter]] and [[Saturn]] and potentially also the ice giants, Uranus and Neptune—to [[Flyby (spaceflight)|fly near them]] while collecting data for transmission back to Earth. After ''Voyager 1'' successfully completed its flyby of Saturn and its moon [[Titan (moon)|Titan]], it was decided to send ''Voyager 2'' on flybys of [[Uranus]] and [[Neptune]].<ref name="The Fantastic Voyage of Voyager">{{cite web|title=The Fantastic Voyage of Voyager|url=https://www.theattic.space/home-page-blogs/2020/1/9/the-astonishing-voyage-of-voyager|website=The Attic|date=9 January 2020|access-date=3 March 2020|archive-date=13 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200413080737/https://www.theattic.space/home-page-blogs/2020/1/9/the-astonishing-voyage-of-voyager|url-status=live}}</ref>

After the planetary flybys were complete, decisions were made to keep the probes in operation to explore [[Outer space|interstellar space]] and the outer regions of the Solar System. On 25 August 2012, data from ''Voyager 1'' indicated that it had entered interstellar space.<ref name="JPL.NASA" /> On 5 November 2019, data from ''Voyager 2'' indicated that it also had entered interstellar space.<ref name="NASA-20181210" /> On 4 November 2019, scientists reported that on 5 November 2018, the ''Voyager 2'' probe had officially reached the [[interstellar medium]] (ISM), a region of [[outer space]] beyond the influence of the [[solar wind]], as did ''Voyager 1'' in 2012.<ref name="EA-20191104">{{cite news |author=University of Iowa |title=Voyager 2 reaches interstellar space – Iowa-led instrument detects plasma density jump, confirming spacecraft has entered the realm of the stars |url=https://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2019-11/uoi-v2r103119.php |date=4 November 2019 |work=[[EurekAlert!]] |access-date=4 November 2019 |author-link=University of Iowa |archive-date=13 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200413080722/https://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2019-11/uoi-v2r103119.php |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="NYT-20191104">{{cite news |last=Chang |first=Kenneth |title=Voyager 2's Discoveries From Interstellar Space – In its journey beyond the boundary of the solar wind's bubble, the probe observed some notable differences from its twin, Voyager 1. |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/11/04/science/voyager-2-interstellar-solar-wind.html |date=4 November 2019 |work=[[The New York Times]] |access-date=5 November 2019 |archive-date=13 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200413080724/https://www.nytimes.com/2019/11/04/science/voyager-2-interstellar-solar-wind.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="NASA-Solar-System">{{cite web |url=https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/voyager-1/in-depth/ |title=Solar System Exploration |publisher=JPL-NASA |access-date=19 February 2021 |archive-date=18 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190418200450/https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/voyager-1/in-depth/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In August 2018, NASA confirmed, based on results by the ''[[New Horizons]]'' spacecraft, the existence of a "[[Heliosphere#Hydrogen wall|hydrogen wall]]" at the outer edges of the Solar System that was first detected in 1992 by the two Voyager spacecraft.<ref name="GRL-20180807">{{cite journal |author=Gladstone, G. Randall|display-authors=etal |title=The Lyman-α Sky Background as Observed by New Horizons
|date=7 August 2018 |journal=[[Geophysical Research Letters]] |volume=45 |issue=16 |pages=8022–8028 |doi=10.1029/2018GL078808 |arxiv=1808.00400 |bibcode=2018GeoRL..45.8022G |s2cid=119395450 }}</ref><ref name="LS-20180809">{{cite web |last=Letzter |first=Rafi |title=NASA Spotted a Vast, Glowing 'Hydrogen Wall' at the Edge of Our Solar System |url=https://www.livescience.com/63297-hydrogen-wall-glowing-interstellar-space.html |date=9 August 2018 |work=[[Live Science]] |access-date=10 August 2018 |archive-date=13 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200413080736/https://www.livescience.com/63297-hydrogen-wall-glowing-interstellar-space.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/frequently-asked-questions/fact-sheet/|title=Voyager – Fact Sheet|website=voyager.jpl.nasa.gov|access-date=17 May 2018|archive-date=13 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200413080739/https://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/frequently-asked-questions/fact-sheet/|url-status=live}}</ref>

{{As of|2024|post=,}} the Voyagers are still in operation beyond the outer boundary of the [[heliosphere]] in [[interstellar space]]. ''Voyager 1'' is moving with a velocity of {{convert|61,198|km/h|sp=us}}, or 17 km/s, (10.5 miles/second) relative to the Sun, and is {{convert|24,475,900,000|km|sp=us}} from the Sun<ref name="JPL.Voyager1">{{cite web |url=https://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/mission/status/#where_are_they_now |title=Voyager Mission Status |publisher=JPL |access-date=10 February 2022 |archive-date=1 January 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180101025244/https://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/mission/status/#where_are_they_now |url-status=live }}</ref> reaching a distance of {{Convert|162|AU|e9km e9mi|sigfig=3|abbr=unit|lk=on}} from Earth as of May 25, 2024.<ref name="voyager">{{cite web |url=https://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/mission/status/ |title=Voyager – Mission Status |work=[[Jet Propulsion Laboratory]] |publisher=[[National Aeronautics and Space Administration]] |access-date=April 24, 2021 |archive-date=1 January 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180101025244/https://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/mission/status/ |url-status=live }}</ref> {{as of|2024}}, ''Voyager 2'' is moving with a velocity of {{convert|55,347|km/h|sp=us}}, or 15 km/s, relative to the Sun, and is {{convert|20,439,100,000|km|sp=us}} from the Sun<ref name="JPL.Voyager2">{{cite web|url=https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/voyager-2/in-depth/|title=In Depth – Voyager 2|publisher=JPL|access-date=10 February 2022|archive-date=20 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170420085656/https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/voyager2/indepth|url-status=live}}</ref> reaching a distance of {{Convert|136.627|AU|e9km e9mi|sigfig=3|abbr=unit|lk=on}} from Earth as of May 25, 2024.<ref name="voyager" />

The two Voyagers are the only human-made objects to date that have passed into interstellar space — a record they will hold until at least the 2040s — and ''Voyager 1'' is the farthest human-made object from Earth.<ref name=":0" />

==History==
{{Further|Grand Tour program}}

=== Mariner Jupiter-Saturn ===
{{also|Grand Tour program#Mariner Jupiter-Saturn}}
[[File:Voyager Path.svg|right|thumb|The trajectories that enabled the Voyager spacecraft to visit the outer planets and achieve velocity to escape the Solar System]]
[[File:Voyager 2 velocity vs distance from sun.svg|thumb|Plot of ''Voyager 2''{{'}}s heliocentric velocity against its distance from the Sun, illustrating the use of gravity assist to accelerate the spacecraft by Jupiter, Saturn and Uranus. To observe [[Triton (moon)|Triton]], ''Voyager 2'' passed over Neptune's north pole, resulting in an acceleration out of the plane of the ecliptic and reduced its velocity away from the Sun.<ref>{{cite web |author=Dave Doody |url=http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/basics/bsf4-1.php |title=Basics of Space Flight Section I. The Environment of Space |publisher=.jpl.nasa.gov |date=15 September 2004 |access-date=29 December 2017 |archive-date=17 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150817051745/http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/basics/bsf4-1.php |url-status=live }}</ref>]]

{{Blockquote
|text=Voyager did things no one predicted, found scenes no one expected, and promises to outlive its inventors. Like a great painting or an abiding institution, it has acquired an existence of its own, a destiny beyond the grasp of its handlers.
|author=[[Stephen J. Pyne]]<ref name="The Fantastic Voyage of Voyager"/>
}}
The two Voyager space probes were originally conceived as part of the [[Planetary Grand Tour]] planned during the late 1960s and early 70s that aimed to explore [[Jupiter]], [[Saturn]], Saturn's moon [[Titan (moon)|Titan]], [[Uranus]], [[Neptune]], and [[Pluto]]. The mission originated from the [[Grand Tour program]], conceptualized by [[Gary Flandro]], an [[aerospace engineer]] at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, in 1964, which leveraged a rare [[Syzygy (astronomy)|planetary alignment]] occurring once every 175 years.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Flandro |first=Gary |title=Fast Reconnaissance Missions to the Outer Solar System Using Energy Derived from the Gravitational Field of Jupiter |journal=Astronautica Acta |volume=12 |pages=329–337 |date=1966 |url=http://www.gravityassist.com/IAF3-2/Ref.%203-143.pdf |access-date=1 June 2024 |archive-date=30 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190330015134/http://www.gravityassist.com/IAF3-2/Ref.%203-143.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/science/planetary.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131127192310/http://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/science/planetary.html|archive-date=27 November 2013|url-status=dead|title=Planetary Voyage|date=30 October 2013|publisher=USA.gov|access-date=15 October 2013}}</ref> This alignment allowed a craft to reach all [[outer planets]] using [[gravitational assist]]s. The mission was to send several pairs of probes and gained momentum in 1966 when it was endorsed by [[NASA]]'s [[Jet Propulsion Laboratory]]. However, in December 1971, the Grand Tour mission was canceled when funding was redirected to the [[Space Shuttle program]].<ref name="GTN">{{cite book
|last = Butrica
|first = Andrew J.
|title = From Engineering Science to Big Science: The NACA and NASA Collier Trophy Research Project Winners
|chapter = Voyager: The Grand Tour of Big Science
|editor1-last = Mack
|editor1-first = Pamela E.
|url = https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4219/Chapter11.html
|access-date = August 25, 2014
|location = Washington, D.C.
|publisher = NASA
|date = 1998
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140823084758/http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4219/Chapter11.html
|archive-date = August 23, 2014
|url-status = live
|isbn = 978-1-4102-2531-3
}}</ref>

In 1972, a scaled-down (four planets, two identical spacecraft) mission was proposed, utilizing a spacecraft derived from the [[Mariner program|Mariner]] series, initially intended to be [[Mariner 11]] and [[Mariner 12]]. The [[gravity-assist]] technique, successfully demonstrated by [[Mariner 10]], would be used to achieve significant velocity changes by maneuvering through an intermediate planet's [[gravitational field]] to minimize time towards Saturn.<ref name="HMSmurmeier1974">{{cite web |last1=Smurmeier |first1=H. M. |title=The Mariner Jupiter/Saturn 1977 Mission" (1974) |url=https://commons.erau.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2830&context=space-congress-proceedings |website=[[Embry–Riddle Aeronautical University]] |access-date=May 16, 2024 |date=April 1, 1974 |archive-date=20 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230420101913/https://commons.erau.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2830&context=space-congress-proceedings |url-status=live }}</ref> The spacecrafts were then moved into a separate program named '''Mariner Jupiter-Saturn''' (also '''Mariner Jupiter-Saturn-Uranus''',<ref>{{cite web |title=The Voyagers: An unprecedented on-going mission of exploration |url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2011/08/voyagers-unprecedented-on-going-mission-exploration/ |website=[[NASASpaceFlight.com]] |publisher=Jeff Goldader, Chris Gebhardt |access-date=May 17, 2024 |date=August 7, 2011 |archive-date=17 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240517013934/https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2011/08/voyagers-unprecedented-on-going-mission-exploration/ |url-status=live }}</ref> '''MJS''', or '''MJSU'''), part of the [[Mariner program]], later renamed because it was thought that the design of the two space probes had progressed sufficiently beyond that of the Mariner family to merit a separate name.<ref>[https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4219/Chapter11.html '' Chapter 11 "Voyager: The Grand Tour of Big Science"''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200229064831/https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4219/Chapter11.html |date=29 February 2020 }} (sec. 268.), by Andrew,J. Butrica, found in ''From Engineering Science To Big Science'' {{ISBN|978-0-16-049640-0}} edited by Pamela E. Mack, NASA, 1998</ref>

=== Voyager probes ===
[[File:Voyager Probe.stl|thumb|left|304x304px|Interactive 3D model of the Voyager spacecraft .]]

On March 4, 1977, [[NASA]] announced a competition to rename the mission, believing the existing name was not appropriate as the mission had differed significantly from previous [[Mariner program|Mariner]] missions. ''Voyager'' was chosen as the new name, referencing an earlier suggestion by [[Bill Pickering (rocket scientist)|William Pickering]], who had proposed the name ''Navigator''. Due to the name change occurring close to launch, the probes were still occasionally referred to as Mariner 11 and Mariner 12, or even Voyager 11 and Voyager 12.<ref name="GTN" />

Two mission trajectories were established: JST aimed at Jupiter, Saturn, and enhancing a [[Titan (moon)|Titan]] flyby, while JSX served as a contingency plan. JST focused on a Titan flyby, while JSX provided a flexible mission plan. If JST succeeded, JSX could proceed with the Grand Tour, but in case of failure, JSX could be redirected for a separate Titan flyby, forfeiting the Grand Tour opportunity.<ref name="HMSmurmeier1974" /> The second probe, now [[Voyager 2]], followed the JSX trajectory, granting it the option to continue on to Uranus and Neptune. Upon [[Voyager 1]] completing its main objectives at Saturn, Voyager 2 received a mission extension, enabling it to proceed to Uranus and Neptune. This allowed Voyager 2 to diverge from the originally planned JST trajectory.<ref name="GTN" />

The probes would be launched in August or September 1977, with their main objective being to compare the characteristics of Jupiter and Saturn, such as their [[atmospheres]], [[magnetic field]]s, particle environments, [[ring system]]s, and [[moons]]. They would fly by planets and moons in either a JST or JSX trajectory. After completing their flybys, the probes would communicate with Earth, relaying vital data using their [[magnetometer]]s, [[spectrometer]]s, and other instruments to detect [[Interstellar medium|interstellar]], [[solar radiation|solar]], and [[cosmic radiation]]. Their radioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTGs) would limit the maximum communication time with the probes to roughly a [[decade]]. Following their primary missions, the probes would continue to drift into interstellar space.<ref name="HMSmurmeier1974" />

''[[Voyager 2]]'' was the first to be launched. Its trajectory was designed to allow flybys of Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. ''Voyager 1'' was launched after ''Voyager 2'', but along a shorter and faster trajectory that was designed to provide an optimal flyby of Saturn's moon [[Titan (moon)|Titan]],<ref name="Swift1997">{{cite book|author=David W. Swift|title=Voyager Tales: Personal Views of the Grand Tour|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E-NGFqfq1LsC&pg=PA69|date=1 January 1997|publisher=AIAA|isbn=978-1-56347-252-7|page=69}}</ref> which was known to be quite large and to possess a dense atmosphere. This encounter sent ''Voyager 1'' out of the plane of the ecliptic, ending its planetary science mission.<ref>{{cite web|title=Voyager FAQ|url=http://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/faq.html|website=Jet Propulsion Laboratory|access-date=1 January 2015|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721050617/http://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/faq.html|archive-date=21 July 2011}}</ref> Had ''Voyager 1'' been unable to perform the Titan flyby, the trajectory of ''Voyager 2'' could have been altered to explore Titan, forgoing any visit to Uranus and Neptune.<ref name="Bell2015">{{cite book|author=Jim Bell|title=The Interstellar Age: Inside the Forty-Year Voyager Mission|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KXPoAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT94|date=24 February 2015|publisher=Penguin Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-698-18615-6|page=94|access-date=9 February 2016|archive-date=24 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240724092318/https://books.google.com/books?id=KXPoAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT94#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref> ''Voyager 1'' was not launched on a trajectory that would have allowed it to continue to Uranus and Neptune, but could have continued from Saturn to Pluto without exploring Titan.<ref name="Stern">{{cite web  |url=http://pluto.jhuapl.edu/News-Center/PI-Perspectives.php?page=piPerspective_06_23_2014 | title=The PI's Perspective: What If Voyager Had Explored Pluto? | access-date=29 August 2020 |date=23 June 2014 |author=[[Alan Stern]] |website=New Horizons: NASA's Mission to Pluto and the Kuiper Belt }}</ref>

During the 1990s, ''Voyager 1'' overtook the slower deep-space probes [[Pioneer 10]] and [[Pioneer 11]] to become the most distant human-made object from Earth, a record that it will keep for the foreseeable future. The ''[[New Horizons]]'' probe, which had a higher launch velocity than ''Voyager 1'', is travelling more slowly due to the extra speed ''Voyager 1'' gained from its flybys of Jupiter and Saturn. ''Voyager 1'' and Pioneer 10 are the most widely separated human-made objects anywhere since they are travelling in roughly opposite directions from the [[Solar System]].

In December 2004, ''Voyager 1'' crossed the [[termination shock]], where the solar wind is slowed to subsonic speed, and entered the [[heliosheath]], where the solar wind is compressed and made turbulent due to interactions with the [[interstellar medium]]. On 10 December 2007, ''Voyager 2'' also reached the termination shock, about {{convert|1|e9mi|e9km|abbr=off|order=flip}} closer to the Sun than from where ''Voyager 1'' first crossed it, indicating that the Solar System is [[Asymmetry|asymmetrical]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/voyager/voyager-20071210.html|title=NASA - Voyager 2 Proves Solar System Is Squashed|website=www.nasa.gov|access-date=6 February 2020|archive-date=13 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200413080741/https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/voyager/voyager-20071210.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>

In 2010 ''Voyager 1'' reported that the outward velocity of the solar wind had dropped to zero, and scientists predicted it was nearing [[interstellar space]].<ref>{{cite news
|author = Brown, Dwayne
|author2 = Cook, Jia-Rui
|author3 = Buckley, M.
|title = Nearing Interstellar Space, NASA Probe Sees Solar Wind Decline
|publisher = Applied Physics Lab, Johns Hopkins University
|date = 14 December 2010
|url = http://www.jhuapl.edu/newscenter/pressreleases/2010/101214.asp
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20101215061146/http://www.jhuapl.edu/newscenter/pressreleases/2010/101214.asp
|archive-date = 15 December 2010
|url-status = dead
|df = dmy-all
}}</ref> In 2011, data from the Voyagers determined that the heliosheath is not smooth, but filled with giant [[magnetic]] bubbles, theorized to form when the [[magnetic field]] of the Sun becomes warped at the edge of the Solar System.<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/06/10/nasa-voyager-bubbles-solar-system-heliosphere_n_874733.html?icid=maing-grid7%7Cmain5%7Cdl1%7Csec3_lnk3%7C69958 | work=Huffington Post | first=Catharine | last=Smith | title=WATCH: NASA Discovers 'Bubbles' At Solar System's Edge | date=10 June 2011 | access-date=11 June 2011 | archive-date=13 April 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200413080729/https://www.huffpost.com/entry/nasa-voyager-bubbles-solar-system-heliosphere_n_874733?icid=maing-grid7%7Cmain5%7Cdl1%7Csec3_lnk3%7C69958 | url-status=live }}</ref>

In June 2012, Scientists at NASA reported that ''[[Voyager 1]]'' was very close to entering interstellar space, indicated by a sharp rise in [[cosmic ray|high-energy particles]] from outside the Solar System.<ref name="BBC-20120615">{{cite news |last=Amos |first=Jonathan |title=Particles point way for Nasa's Voyager |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-18458478 |date=15 June 2012 |work=BBC News |access-date=15 June 2012 |archive-date=15 June 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120615183422/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-18458478 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Ferris-201205">{{cite magazine |last=Ferris |first=Timothy |title=Timothy Ferris on Voyagers' Never-Ending Journey |url=http://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/Timothy-Ferris-on-Voyagers-Never-Ending-Journey.html |date=May 2012 |magazine=[[Smithsonian (magazine)|Smithsonian Magazine]] |access-date=15 June 2012 |archive-date=4 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131104221550/http://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/Timothy-Ferris-on-Voyagers-Never-Ending-Journey.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> In September 2013, NASA announced that ''Voyager 1'' had crossed the [[Heliopause (astronomy)|heliopause]] on 25 August 2012, making it the first spacecraft to enter interstellar space.<ref name="NASA-20130912">{{cite web |last1=Cook |first1=Jia-Rui C. |last2=Agle |first2=D. C. |last3=Brown |first3=Dwayne |title=NASA Spacecraft Embarks on Historic Journey into Interstellar Space |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/voyager/voyager20130912.html |work=[[NASA]] |date=12 September 2013 |access-date=12 September 2013 |archive-date=11 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200611233345/https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/voyager/voyager20130912.html |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="agu">{{cite web|title=Voyager 1 has entered a new region of space, sudden changes in cosmic rays indicate|url=http://www.agu.org/news/press/pr_archives/2013/2013-11.shtml|access-date=20 March 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130322025117/http://www.agu.org/news/press/pr_archives/2013/2013-11.shtml|archive-date=22 March 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="NASA">{{cite web|title=Report: NASA Voyager Status Update on Voyager 1 Location|url=http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?release=2013-117&cid=release_2013-107&msource=2013107|publisher=NASA|access-date=20 March 2013|archive-date=13 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200413080743/http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?release=2013-117&cid=release_2013-107&msource=2013107|url-status=dead}}</ref>

In December 2018, NASA announced that ''Voyager 2'' had crossed the heliopause on 5 November 2018, making it the second spacecraft to enter interstellar space.<ref name="NASA-20181210"/>

{{As of|2017}} ''Voyager 1'' and ''Voyager 2'' continue to monitor conditions in the outer expanses of the Solar System.<ref name="NYT-20170905">{{cite news |last=Krauss |first=Lawrence M. |author-link=Lawrence M. Krauss |title=Pondering Voyagers' Interstellar Journeys, and Our Own |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/09/05/opinion/pondering-voyagers-interstellar-journeys-and-our-own.html |date=5 September 2017 |work=[[The New York Times]] |access-date=5 September 2017 |archive-date=13 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200413080730/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/09/05/opinion/pondering-voyagers-interstellar-journeys-and-our-own.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The Voyager spacecraft are expected to be able to operate science instruments through 2020, when limited power will require instruments to be deactivated one by one. Sometime around 2025, there will no longer be sufficient power to operate any science instruments.

In July 2019, a revised power management plan was implemented to better manage the two probes' dwindling power supply.<ref name="NASA-20190712">{{cite news |last=Cofield |first=Calla |title=A New Plan for Keeping NASA's Oldest Explorers Going |url=https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?feature=7446 |date=8 July 2019 |work=[[NASA]] |access-date=12 July 2019 |archive-date=13 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200413080726/https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?feature=7446 |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Spacecraft design==
[[File:Voyager Program - spacecraft diagram.png|thumb|upright=1.3|alt=A space probe with squat cylindrical body topped by a large parabolic radio antenna dish pointing left, a three-element radioisotope thermoelectric generator on a boom extending down, and scientific instruments on a boom extending up. A disk is fixed to the body facing front left. A long triaxial boom extends down left and two radio antennas extend down left and down right.|Voyager spacecraft diagram]]

The Voyager spacecraft each weighed {{convert|815|kg|lb|abbr=off}} at launch, but after fuel usage are now about {{convert|733|kg|lb|abbr=off}}.<ref name="FAQ"/> Of this weight, each spacecraft carries {{convert|105|kg|lb|abbr=off}} of scientific instruments.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Haynes|first=Robert|title=How We Get Pictures from Space, Revised Edition|url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/search.jsp?R=19880001821|journal=NASA Facts|date=January 1987|publisher=NTRS|access-date=7 July 2017|archive-date=30 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230730174044/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/search.jsp?R=19880001821|url-status=live}}</ref> The identical Voyager spacecraft use three-axis-stabilized [[guidance system]]s that use [[gyroscopic]] and [[accelerometer]] inputs to their [[Spacecraft attitude control|attitude control]] computers to point their [[high-gain antenna]]s towards [[the Earth]] and their scientific instruments towards their targets, sometimes with the help of a movable instrument platform for the smaller instruments and the [[video camera tube|electronic photography]] system.

The diagram shows the high-gain antenna (HGA) with a {{convert|3.7|m|ft|abbr=on}} diameter dish attached to the hollow [[decagon]]al [[electronics]] container. There is also a spherical tank that contains the [[hydrazine]] [[monopropellant]] fuel.

The [[Voyager Golden Record]] is attached to one of the bus sides. The angled square panel to the right is the optical calibration target and excess heat radiator. The three [[radioisotope thermoelectric generators]] (RTGs) are mounted end-to-end on the lower boom.

The scan platform comprises: the Infrared Interferometer Spectrometer (IRIS) (largest camera at top right); the Ultraviolet Spectrometer (UVS) just above the IRIS; the two Imaging Science Subsystem (ISS) [[Vidicon#Vidicon|vidicon cameras]] to the left of the UVS; and the Photopolarimeter System (PPS) under the ISS.

Only five investigation teams are still supported, though data is collected for two additional instruments.<ref>[http://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/spacecraft/index.html ''Voyager - Spacecraft''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070324035810/http://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/spacecraft/index.html |date=24 March 2007 }} Nasa website</ref>
The Flight Data Subsystem (FDS) and a single eight-track [[Magnetic tape|digital tape recorder]] (DTR) provide the data handling functions.

The FDS configures each instrument and controls instrument operations. It also collects engineering and science data and formats the data for [[Data transmission|transmission]]. The DTR is used to record high-rate [[Plasma (physics)|Plasma]] Wave Subsystem (PWS) data, which is played back every six months.

The Imaging Science Subsystem made up of a wide-angle and a narrow-angle camera is a modified version of the slow scan vidicon camera designs that were used in the earlier Mariner flights. The Imaging Science Subsystem consists of two television-type cameras, each with eight filters in a commandable filter wheel mounted in front of the vidicons. One has a low resolution {{convert|200|mm|in|abbr=on}} [[focal length]] wide-angle lens with an [[aperture]] of f/3 (the wide-angle camera), while the other uses a higher resolution {{cvt|1500|mm}} narrow-angle f/8.5 lens (the narrow-angle camera).

Three spacecraft were built, ''Voyager 1'' (VGR 77-1), ''Voyager 2'' (VGR 77-3), and test spare model (VGR 77-2).{{sfn|Pyne|2010|p=39}}<ref name=":0">{{cite journal | last = Folger | first = Tim | url = https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/record-breaking-voyager-spacecraft-begin-to-power-down/ | title = Record-Breaking Voyager Spacecraft Begin to Power Down | journal = Scientific American | date = July 2022 | access-date = 12 April 2024 | archive-date = 23 June 2022 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220623222423/https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/record-breaking-voyager-spacecraft-begin-to-power-down/ | url-status = live }}</ref>

=== Scientific instruments ===
{| class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw" 
|+ {{nowrap|List of scientific instruments}}
|-
! scope="col" style="width:135px;"| Instrument name
! scope="col" style="width:50px;"| Abbreviation

! Description
|-
| {{center|Imaging Science System }}
| {{center|ISS}}
 




| Used a two-camera system (narrow-angle/wide-angle) to provide imagery of Jupiter, Saturn and other objects along the trajectory.
{| class="wikitable collapsible"
|-
! colspan="2" | Filters
|-
|
{| style="text-align:center; width:320px;"
! colspan="4" scope="col" |Narrow-angle camera<ref name="NACam3">{{cite web |title=Voyager 1 Narrow Angle Camera Description |url=https://pds-rings.seti.org/voyager/iss/inst_cat_na1.html#filters |access-date=January 17, 2011 |publisher=NASA |archive-date=11 August 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110811232250/http://pds-rings.seti.org/voyager/iss/inst_cat_na1.html#filters |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
! scope="col" style="background:#e5e5e5; width:60px;" |Name
! scope="col" style="background:#e5e5e5;" |Wavelength
! scope="col" style="background:#e5e5e5;" |Spectrum
! scope="col" style="background:#e5e5e5;" |Sensitivity
|-
|0 – Clear
|280–640 nm
|[[File:Voyager - Filters - Clear.png|center|50x50px]]
| style="background:#fff;" |
|-
| style="text-align:center; height:25px;" |4 – Clear
|280–640 nm
|[[File:Voyager - Filters - Clear.png|center|50x50px]]
| style="background:#fff;" |
|-
|7 – [[Ultraviolet|UV]]
|280–370 nm
|[[File:Voyager - Filters - UV.png|center|50x50px]]
| style="background:#1d0036;" |
|-
|1 – Violet
|350–450 nm
|[[File:Voyager - Filters - Violet.png|center|50x50px]]
| style="background:#8300b5;" |
|-
|2 – Blue
|430–530 nm
|[[File:Voyager - Filters - Blue.png|center|50x50px]]
| style="background:#00d5ff;" |
|-
|5 – Green
|530–640 nm
|[[File:Voyager - Filters - Green.png|center|50x50px]]
| style="background:#ffef00;" |
|-
| style="text-align:center; height:25px;" |6 – Green
|530–640 nm
|[[File:Voyager - Filters - Green.png|center|50x50px]]
| style="background:#ffef00;" |
|-
|3 – Orange
|590–640 nm
|[[File:Voyager - Filters - Orange.png|center|50x50px]]
| style="background:#ff8900;" |
|}
|
{| style="text-align:center; width:320px;"
! colspan="4" scope="col" |Wide-angle camera<ref name="WACam3">{{cite web |title=Voyager 1 Wide Angle Camera Description |url=https://pds-rings.seti.org/voyager/iss/inst_cat_wa1.html#filters |access-date=January 17, 2011 |publisher=NASA |archive-date=7 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211107025433/https://pds-rings.seti.org/voyager/iss/inst_cat_wa1.html#filters |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
! scope="col" style="background:#e5e5e5; width:60px;" |Name
! scope="col" style="background:#e5e5e5;" |Wavelength
! scope="col" style="background:#e5e5e5;" |Spectrum
! scope="col" style="background:#e5e5e5;" |Sensitivity
|-
|2 – Clear
|280–640 nm
|[[File:Voyager - Filters - Clear.png|center|50x50px]]
| style="background:#fff;" |
|-
|3 – Violet
|350–450 nm
|[[File:Voyager - Filters - Violet.png|center|50x50px]]
| style="background:#8300b5;" |
|-
|1 – Blue
|430–530 nm
|[[File:Voyager - Filters - Blue.png|center|50x50px]]
| style="background:#00d5ff;" |
|-
|6 – [[Methane|CH4]]-U
|536–546 nm
|[[File:Voyager - Filters - CH4U.png|center|50x50px]]
| style="background:#81ff00;" |
|-
|5 – Green
|530–640 nm
|[[File:Voyager - Filters - Green.png|center|50x50px]]
| style="background:#ffef00;" |
|-
|4 – [[Sodium|Na]]-D
|588–590 nm
|[[File:Voyager - Filters - NaD.png|center|50x50px]]
| style="background:#ffe200;" |
|-
|7 – Orange
|590–640 nm
|[[File:Voyager - Filters - Orange.png|center|50x50px]]
| style="background:#ff8900;" |
|-
|0 – [[Methane|CH4]]-JST
|614–624 nm
|[[File:Voyager - Filters - CH4JST.png|center|50x50px]]
| style="background:#ff7b00;" |
|}
|}
* '''Principal investigator:''' [[Bradford A. Smith]] / University of Arizona
* '''Data:''' PDS/PDI data catalog, PDS/PRN data catalog
|-
| {{center|Radio Science System }}
| {{center|RSS}}
 




| Used the telecommunications system of the Voyager spacecraft to determine the physical properties of planets and satellites (ionospheres, atmospheres, masses, gravity fields, densities) and the amount and size distribution of material in the Saturn rings and the ring dimensions.
* '''Principal investigator:''' G. Tyler / Stanford University
* '''Data:''' PDS/PPI data catalog , PDS/PRN data catalog '''('''VG_2803''')''', NSSDC data archive
|-
| {{center|[[Infrared interferometer spectrometer and radiometer]] }}
| {{center|IRIS}}
 




| Investigated both global and local energy balance and atmospheric composition. Vertical temperature profiles were also obtained from the planets and satellites, as well as the composition, thermal properties, and size of particles in [[Saturn's rings]].
* '''Principal investigator:''' Rudolf Hanel / NASA Goddard Space Flight Center
* '''Data:''' PDS/PRN data catalog, PDS/PRN expanded data catalog '''('''VGIRIS_0001, VGIRIS_002''')''', NSSDC Jupiter data archive
|-
| {{center|Ultraviolet [[Spectrometer]] }}
| {{center|UVS}}
 




| Designed to measure atmospheric properties, and to measure radiation.
* '''Principal investigator:''' A. Broadfoot / University of Southern California
* '''Data:''' PDS/PRN data catalog
|-
| {{center|Triaxial Fluxgate [[Magnetometer]] }} [[File:Deployed magnetometer boom of one of NASA's Voyager PIA21738.jpg|center|140px]]
| {{center|MAG}}
 




| Designed to investigate the magnetic fields of Jupiter and Saturn, the solar-wind interaction with the magnetospheres of these planets, and the interplanetary magnetic field out to the solar wind boundary with the interstellar magnetic field and beyond, if crossed.
* '''Principal investigator:''' [[Norman F. Ness]] / NASA Goddard Space Flight Center
* '''Data:''' PDS/PPI data catalog , NSSDC data archive
|-
| {{center|[[Plasma (physics)|Plasma]] [[Spectrometer]] }} [[File:PIA22922~orig.jpg|center|140px]]
| {{center|PLS}}
 




| Investigated the macroscopic properties of the [[Plasma (physics)|plasma]] ions and measures electrons in the energy range from 5 eV to 1 keV.
* '''Principal investigator:''' John Richardson / MIT
* '''Data:''' PDS/PPI data catalog , NSSDC data archive
|-
| {{center|Low Energy [[Charged Particle]] Instrument }} [[File:Voyager Low Energy Charged Particle Instrument.jpg|center|140px]]
| {{center|LECP}}
 




| Measures the differential in energy fluxes and angular distributions of ions, electrons and the differential in energy ion composition.
* '''Principal investigator:''' [[Stamatios Krimigis]] / JHU/APL / University of Maryland
* '''Data:''' UMD data plotting, PDS/PPI data catalog , NSSDC data archive
|-
| {{center|[[Cosmic Ray System]] }}
| {{center|CRS}}
 




| Determines the origin and acceleration process, life history, and dynamic contribution of interstellar cosmic rays, the nucleosynthesis of elements in cosmic-ray sources, the behavior of cosmic rays in the interplanetary medium, and the trapped planetary energetic-particle environment.
* '''Principal investigator:''' [[Edward C. Stone|Edward Stone]] / Caltech / NASA Goddard Space Flight Center
* '''Data:''' PDS/PPI data catalog , NSSDC data archive
|-
| {{center|Planetary [[Radio Astronomy]] Investigation }}
| {{center|PRA}}
 




| Used a sweep-frequency radio receiver to study the radio-emission signals from Jupiter and Saturn.
* '''Principal investigator:''' James Warwick / University of Colorado
* '''Data:''' PDS/PPI data catalog, NSSDC data archive
|-
| {{center|[[Polarimeter|Photopolarimeter]] System }}
| {{center|PPS}}
 





| Used a 6-inch f/1.4 Dahl-Kirkham-type Cassegrain telescope with an analyzer wheel containing five analyzers of 0,60,120,45 and 135 degrees and filter wheel with eight spectral bands covering 2350 to 7500A to gather information on surface texture and composition of Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune and information on atmospheric scattering properties and density for these planets.
* '''Data:''' PDS/PRN data catalog and PDS Atmospheric Node
|-
| {{center|[[Plasma Wave Subsystem]] }}
| {{center|PWS}}
 




| Provides continuous, sheath-independent measurements of the electron-density profiles at Jupiter and Saturn as well as basic information on local wave-particle interaction, useful in studying the magnetospheres.
* '''Principal investigator:''' [[Donald Gurnett]] / University of Iowa
* '''Data:''' PDS/PPI data catalog
|}

<gallery mode=packed heights=200>
File:Voyager instruments boom.jpg|A view of some of Voyager's instruments from below. Left: the cameras, ultraviolet and infrared spectrometers (far left), plasma detector (black box lower right), particle and radiation detectors (far right). On the boom, center and right, are plasma, particle, and cosmic ray detectors.
File:Voyager’s 13-meter-long magnetometer boom.jpg|Voyager's fully extended 13-meter-long magnetometer boom
</gallery>

=== Computers and data processing ===
There are three different computer types on the Voyager spacecraft, two of each kind, sometimes used for redundancy. They are proprietary, custom-built computers built from [[CMOS]] and [[Transistor–transistor logic|TTL]] medium-scale CMOS integrated circuits and discrete components, mostly from the [[7400-series integrated circuits|7400 series]] of [[Texas Instruments]].<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.eejournal.com/article/voyagers-1-and-2-take-embedded-computers-into-interstellar-space/ | title=Voyagers 1 and 2 Take Embedded Computers into Interstellar Space | date=25 July 2022 | access-date=5 August 2023 | archive-date=5 August 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230805033258/https://www.eejournal.com/article/voyagers-1-and-2-take-embedded-computers-into-interstellar-space/ | url-status=live }}</ref> Total number of words among the six computers is about 32K. Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 have identical computer systems.<ref name="FAQ">{{cite web |url=http://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/faq.html |title=Voyager Frequently Asked Questions |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721050617/http://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/faq.html |archive-date=21 July 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://pds-rings.seti.org/voyager/spacecraft/vg1host.html |title=Voyager 1 Instrument Host Information |publisher=seti.org |access-date=10 August 2019 |archive-date=24 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240724092319/https://pds-rings.seti.org/voyager/spacecraft/vg1host.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

The Computer Command System (CCS), the central controller of the spacecraft, has two 18-bit word, interrupt-type processors with 4096 words each of non-volatile [[plated-wire memory]]. During most of the Voyager mission the two CCS computers on each spacecraft were used non-redundantly to increase the command and processing capability of the spacecraft. The CCS is nearly identical to the system flown on the Viking spacecraft.<ref name="Tomayko">{{cite book
|first = James E.
|last = Tomayko
|editor-last1 = Kent
|editor-first1 = Allen
|editor-last2 = Williams
|editor-first2 = James G.
|chapter = Distributed Computing On Board Voyager and Galileo (chapter 6)
|url = https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19880069935
|title = Computers in Spaceflight: The NASA Experience
|series = Encyclopedia of Computer Science and Technology
|chapter-url = https://history.nasa.gov/computers/Ch6-2.html
|publisher = NASA
|date = 1987-08-03
|isbn = 978-0-8247-2268-5
|volume = 18. Supplement 3
|via = NASA History
|access-date = 26 July 2022
|archive-date = 18 October 2023
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20231018062947/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19880069935
|url-status = live
}}</ref>

The Flight Data System (FDS) is two 16-bit word machines with modular memories and 8198 words each.

The Attitude and Articulation Control System (AACS) is two 18-bit word machines with 4096 words each.

Unlike the other on-board instruments, the operation of the cameras for [[visible light]] is not autonomous, but rather it is controlled by an imaging parameter table contained in one of the on-board [[digital computer]]s, the Flight Data Subsystem (FDS). More recent space probes, since about 1990, usually have completely [[automaton|autonomous]] cameras.

The computer command subsystem (CCS) controls the cameras. The CCS contains fixed [[computer program]]s such as command decoding, fault detection, and correction routines, antenna-pointing routines, and spacecraft sequencing routines. This computer is an improved version of the one that was used in the [[Viking program|''Viking'' orbiter]].<ref name="Tomayko"/> The hardware in both custom-built CCS subsystems in the Voyagers is identical. There is only a minor software modification for one of them that has a scientific subsystem that the other lacks.

According to Guinness Book of Records, CCS holds record of "longest period of continual operation for a computer". It has been running continuously since 20 August 1977.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Longest period of continual operation for a computer |url=https://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/635980-longest-period-of-continual-operation-for-a-computer |access-date=2023-04-28 |website=Guinness World Records |date=20 August 1977 |language=en-gb |archive-date=28 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230428123751/https://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/635980-longest-period-of-continual-operation-for-a-computer |url-status=live }}</ref>

The Attitude and Articulation Control Subsystem (AACS) controls the spacecraft orientation (its attitude). It keeps the high-gain antenna pointing towards the Earth, controls attitude changes, and points the scan platform. The custom-built AACS systems on both craft are identical.

It has been erroneously reported<ref>{{cite web |last=Johnson |first=Herb |date=November 2014 |url=http://www.retrotechnology.com/memship/1802_spacecraft.html |access-date=27 July 2015 |title=COSMAC 1802 History in Space |archive-date=15 July 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150715200158/http://www.retrotechnology.com/memship/1802_spacecraft.html |url-status=live }}</ref> on the [[Internet]] that the Voyager space probes were controlled by a version of the [[RCA 1802]] (RCA CDP1802 "COSMAC" [[microprocessor]]), but such claims are not supported by the primary design documents. The CDP1802 microprocessor was used later in the [[Galileo (spacecraft)|''Galileo'' space probe]], which was designed and built years later. The digital control electronics of the Voyagers were not based on a microprocessor integrated-circuit chip.

===Communications===
The [[uplink]] communications are executed via [[S-band]] [[microwave communications]]. The [[downlink]] communications are carried out by an [[X-band]] [[microwave]] transmitter on board the spacecraft, with an S-band transmitter as a back-up. All long-range communications to and from the two Voyagers have been carried out using their {{convert|3.7|m|ft|adj=on|sp=us}} high-gain antennas. The high-gain antenna has a beamwidth of 0.5° for X-band, and 2.3° for S-band.<ref name=Ludwig2002/>{{rp|17}} (The low-gain antenna has a 7 dB gain and 60° beamwidth.)<ref name=Ludwig2002/>{{rp|17}}

Because of the [[inverse-square law]] in [[radio communications]], the digital data rates used in the downlinks from the Voyagers have been continually decreasing the farther that they get from the Earth. For example, the data rate used from Jupiter was about 115,000 bits per second. That was halved at the distance of Saturn, and it has gone down continually since then.<ref name=Ludwig2002>{{cite web|last1=Ludwig|first1=Roger|last2=Taylor|first2=Jim|publisher=NASA|date=March 2002|url=http://descanso.jpl.nasa.gov/DPSummary/Descanso4--Voyager_new.pdf|access-date=26 March 2016|title=Voyager Telecommunications|archive-date=18 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210318092548/http://descanso.jpl.nasa.gov/DPSummary/Descanso4--Voyager_new.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> Some measures were taken on the ground along the way to reduce the effects of the inverse-square law. In between 1982 and 1985, the diameters of the three main [[parabolic dish antenna]]s of the [[Deep Space Network]] were increased from {{convert|64|to|70|m|abbr=on}}<ref name=Ludwig2002/>{{rp|34}} dramatically increasing their areas for gathering weak microwave signals.

Whilst the craft were between Saturn and Uranus the onboard software was upgraded to do a degree of image compression and to use a more efficient [[Reed–Solomon error correction#Space transmission|Reed-Solomon error-correcting encoding]].<ref name=Ludwig2002/>{{rp|33}}

Then between 1986 and 1989, new techniques were brought into play to combine the signals from multiple antennas on the ground into one, more powerful signal, in a kind of an [[Antenna array (electromagnetic)|antenna array]].<ref name=Ludwig2002/>{{rp|34}} This was done at [[Goldstone, California]], [[Canberra Deep Space Communication Complex|Canberra (Australia)]], and [[Madrid Deep Space Communication Complex|Madrid (Spain)]] using the additional dish antennas available there. Also, in Australia, the [[Parkes Radio Telescope]] was brought into the array in time for the fly-by of Neptune in 1989. In the United States, the [[Very Large Array]] in [[New Mexico]] was brought into temporary use along with the antennas of the Deep Space Network at Goldstone.<ref name=Ludwig2002/>{{rp|34}} Using this new technology of antenna arrays helped to compensate for the immense radio distance from Neptune to the Earth.

===Power===
[[File:MHW-RTGs.gif|right|thumb|[[Radioisotope thermoelectric generator|RTGs]] for the Voyager program|238x238px]]
[[electric power|Electrical power]] is supplied by three [[MHW-RTG]] [[radioisotope thermoelectric generator]]s (RTGs). They are powered by [[plutonium-238]] (distinct from the [[Plutonium-239|Pu-239]] isotope used in nuclear weapons) and provided approximately 470 [[Watt|W]] at 30 [[volt]]s [[direct current|DC]] when the spacecraft was launched. Plutonium-238 decays with a [[half-life]] of 87.74 years,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://lanl.gov/source/orgs/nmt/nmtdo/AQarchive/97summer/Pu_238.html|title=The Actinide Research Quarterly: Summer 1997|website=lanl.gov|access-date=6 February 2020|archive-date=8 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220308131514/https://lanl.gov/source/orgs/nmt/nmtdo/AQarchive/97summer/Pu_238.html|url-status=live}}</ref> so RTGs using Pu-238 will lose a factor of 1−0.5(1/87.74) = 0.79% of their power output per year.

In 2011, 34 years after launch, the thermal power generated by such an RTG would be reduced to (1/2)(34/87.74) ≈ 76% of its initial power. The RTG [[thermocouple]]s, which convert thermal power into electricity, also degrade over time reducing available electric power below this calculated level.

By 7 October 2011 the power generated by ''Voyager 1'' and ''Voyager 2'' had dropped to 267.9 W and 269.2 W respectively, about 57% of the power at launch. The level of power output was better than pre-launch predictions based on a conservative thermocouple degradation model. As the electrical power decreases, spacecraft loads must be turned off, eliminating some capabilities. There may be insufficient power for communications by 2032.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Segal|first1=Michael|title=Beyond Voyager|url=http://nautil.us/issue/51/limits/beyond-voyager|access-date=2 September 2017|work=[[Nautilus (science magazine)|Nautilus]]|date=1 September 2017|archive-date=2 September 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170902052932/http://nautil.us/issue/51/limits/beyond-voyager|url-status=dead}}</ref>
{{Clear}}

== Voyager Interstellar Mission ==
[[File:PIA22835-VoyagerProgram&Heliosphere-Chart-20181210.png|thumb|center|600px|<div class="center">''[[Voyager 1]]'' crossed the heliopause, or the edge of the [[heliosphere]], in August 2012. ''[[Voyager 2]]'' crossed the [[heliosheath]] in November 2018.<ref name="NASA-20181210">{{cite news |last1=Brown |first1=Dwayne |last2=Fox |first2=Karen |last3=Cofield |first3=Calia |last4=Potter |first4=Sean |title=Release 18-115 – NASA's Voyager 2 Probe Enters Interstellar Space |url=https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-s-voyager-2-probe-enters-interstellar-space |date=10 December 2018 |work=[[NASA]] |access-date=10 December 2018 |archive-date=27 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230627023807/https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-s-voyager-2-probe-enters-interstellar-space/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="NASA-20181005">{{cite news |last1=Cofield |first1=Calia |last2=Cook |first2=Jia-Rui |last3=Fox |first3=Karen |title=NASA Voyager 2 Could Be Nearing Interstellar Space |url=https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?feature=7252 |date=5 October 2018 |work=[[NASA]] |access-date=6 October 2018 |archive-date=5 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181005173131/https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?feature=7252 |url-status=live }}</ref></div>]]
The Voyager primary mission was completed in 1989, with the close flyby of Neptune by ''Voyager 2''. The Voyager Interstellar Mission (VIM) is a mission extension, which began when the two spacecraft had already been in flight for over 12 years.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/mission/interstellar.html |title=Interstellar Mission |publisher=NASA |access-date=30 May 2008 |archive-date=15 October 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091015172229/http://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/mission/interstellar.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The Heliophysics Division of the NASA Science Mission Directorate conducted a Heliophysics Senior Review in 2008. The panel found that the VIM "is a mission that is absolutely imperative to continue" and that VIM "funding near the optimal level and increased DSN ([[NASA Deep Space Network|Deep Space Network]]) support is warranted."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.igpp.ucla.edu/public/THEMIS/SCI/Pubs/Proposals%20and%20Reports/Senior%20Review%202008%20Report%20Final.pdf |title=Senior Review 2008 of the Mission Operations and Data Analysis Program for the Heliophysics Operating Missions |page=7 |publisher=NASA |access-date=30 May 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080626213548/http://www.igpp.ucla.edu/public/THEMIS/SCI/Pubs/Proposals%20and%20Reports/Senior%20Review%202008%20Report%20Final.pdf |archive-date=26 June 2008 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

The main objective of the VIM was to extend the exploration of the Solar System beyond the outer planets to the [[heliosphere|heliopause]] (the farthest extent at which the Sun's radiation predominates over interstellar winds) and if possible even beyond. Voyager 1 crossed the heliopause boundary in 2012, followed by Voyager 2 in 2018. Passing through the heliopause boundary has allowed both spacecraft to make measurements of the interstellar fields, particles and waves unaffected by the [[solar wind]]. Two significant findings so far have been the discovery of a region of magnetic bubbles<ref>{{cite web | url=https://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/10790 | title=GMS: Voyager Satellites Find Magnetic Bubbles at Edge of Solar System | date=9 June 2011 | access-date=11 August 2022 | archive-date=5 December 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221205112656/https://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/10790 | url-status=live }}</ref> and no indication of an expected shift in the Solar magnetic field.<ref>{{cite journal | url=https://physicstoday.scitation.org/do/10.1063/pt.6.3.20190215a/full/ | doi=10.1063/pt.6.3.20190215a | title=The confounding magnetic readings of Voyager 1 | journal=Physics Today | year=2019 | last1=Grant | first1=Andrew | issue=2 | page=30645 | bibcode=2019PhT..2019b0645G | s2cid=242207067 | access-date=11 August 2022 | archive-date=15 August 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220815164724/https://physicstoday.scitation.org/do/10.1063/PT.6.3.20190215a/full/ | url-status=live | url-access=subscription }}</ref>

The entire ''Voyager 2'' scan platform, including all of the platform instruments, was switched off in 1998. All platform instruments on ''Voyager 1'', except for the ultraviolet spectrometer (UVS)<ref>{{cite web | title=Ultraviolet Spectrometer | work=Voyager: The Interstellar Mission | publisher=NASA JPL | url=http://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/spacecraft/instruments_uvs.html | access-date=11 June 2006 | archive-date=5 March 2006 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060305105235/http://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/spacecraft/instruments_uvs.html | url-status=live }}</ref> have also been switched off.

The ''Voyager 1'' scan platform was scheduled to go off-line in late 2000 but has been left on to investigate UV emission from the upwind direction.
UVS data are still captured but scans are no longer possible.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/Proposal-2010/VGRSR.pdf|title=The Voyager Interstellar Mission Proposal to Senior Review 2010 of the Mission Operations and Data Analysis Program for the Heliophysics Operating Missions|page=24 |author=E. C. Stone |author2=J. D. Richardson |author3=E. B. Massey |publisher=NASA |access-date=20 November 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161223041419/http://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/Proposal-2010/VGRSR.pdf|archive-date=23 December 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Gyro operations ended in 2016 for ''Voyager 2'' and in 2017 for ''Voyager 1''. Gyro operations are used to rotate the probe 360 degrees six times per year to measure the magnetic field of the spacecraft, which is then subtracted from the magnetometer science data.

On 14 November 2023, Voyager 1 stopped sending all telemetry and data, though the signal was still present. After months of experiments, made considerably more difficult by the 45 hour round trip time, the cause was traced to a bad memory chip. New software was written to avoid the bad memory block, and engineering data resumed on 20 April 2024.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/nasas-voyager-1-resumes-sending-engineering-updates-to-earth/ |title=NASA’s Voyager 1 Resumes Sending Engineering Updates to Earth}}</ref> Science data from two instruments resumed in May 2024,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://science.nasa.gov/blogs/voyager/2024/05/22/voyager-1-resumes-sending-science-data-from-two-instruments/ |title=Voyager 1 Resumes Sending Science Data from Two Instruments}}</ref> and full recovery (of all science instruments that were still powered up) was in June 2024.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/voyager-1-returning-science-data-from-all-four-instruments/ |title=Voyager 1 Returning Science Data From All Four Instruments}}</ref> For more details of this intricate operation, see [[Voyager 1]].

The two spacecraft continue to operate, with some loss in subsystem redundancy but retain the capability to return scientific data from a full complement of Voyager Interstellar Mission (VIM) science instruments.

Both spacecraft also have adequate electrical power and attitude control propellant to continue operating and collecting science data through at least 2026.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/nasas-voyager-will-do-more-science-with-new-power-strategy/ |title=NASA’s Voyager Will Do More Science With New Power Strategy}}</ref> Though additional science instruments may need to be turned off, the spacecraft are expected to be able to communicate until 2036, in the absence of additional failures.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://science.nasa.gov/mission/voyager/frequently-asked-questions/ |title=Frequently Asked Questions}}</ref>

=== Mission details ===
[[File:Transitional regions.jpg|thumb|right|350x350px|This diagram about the heliosphere was released on 28 June 2013 and incorporates results from the Voyager spacecraft.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/news/transitional_regions.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130708092850/http://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/news/transitional_regions.html|url-status=dead|title=NASA – Transitional Regions at the Heliosphere's Outer Limits|archive-date=8 July 2013}}</ref>]]
By the start of VIM, ''Voyager 1'' was at a distance of 40 [[Astronomical unit|AU]] from the Earth, while ''Voyager 2'' was at 31 AU. VIM is in three phases: termination shock, heliosheath exploration, and interstellar exploration phase. The spacecraft began VIM in an environment controlled by the Sun's magnetic field, with the plasma particles being dominated by those contained in the expanding supersonic solar wind. This is the characteristic environment of the termination shock phase. At some distance from the Sun, the supersonic solar wind will be held back from further expansion by the interstellar wind. The first feature encountered by a spacecraft as a result of this interaction – between interstellar wind and solar wind – was the termination shock, where the solar wind slows to subsonic speed, and large changes in plasma flow direction and magnetic field orientation occur. ''Voyager 1'' completed the phase of termination shock in December 2004 at a distance of 94 AU, while ''Voyager 2'' completed it in August 2007 at a distance of 84 AU. After entering into the heliosheath, the spacecraft were in an area that is dominated by the Sun's magnetic field and solar wind particles. After passing through the heliosheath, the two Voyagers began the phase of interstellar exploration. The outer boundary of the heliosheath is called the heliopause. This is the region where the Sun's influence begins to decrease and interstellar space can be detected.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/mission/interstellar.html|title=Voyager – The Interstellar Mission|last=JPL.NASA.GOV|website=voyager.jpl.nasa.gov|access-date=2016-05-27|archive-date=15 October 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091015172229/http://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/mission/interstellar.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

''Voyager 1'' is escaping the Solar System at the speed of 3.6 AU per year 35° north of the [[ecliptic]] in the general direction of the [[solar apex]] in [[Hercules (constellation)|Hercules]], while ''Voyager 2''{{'}}s speed is about 3.3 AU per year, heading 48° south of the ecliptic. The Voyager spacecraft will eventually go on to the stars. In about [[Timeline of the far future#Spacecraft and space exploration|40,000 years]], ''Voyager 1'' will be within 1.6 [[Light-year|light years]] (ly) of AC+79 3888, also known as [[Gliese 445]], which is approaching the Sun. In 40,000 years ''Voyager 2'' will be within 1.7 ly of [[Ross 248]] (another star which is approaching the Sun), and in [[Timeline of the far future#Spacecreaft and space exploration|296,000 years]] it will pass within 4.6 ly of [[Sirius]], which is the brightest star in the night-sky.<ref name="JPL.NASA">{{cite web |author=Jpl.Nasa.Gov |url=http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/interstellarvoyager/ |title=Voyager Enters Interstellar Space – NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory |publisher=Jpl.nasa.gov |access-date=14 September 2013 |archive-date=13 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200413080732/https://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/mission/interstellar-mission// |url-status=live }}</ref> The spacecraft are not expected to collide with a star for 1 sextillion (1020) years.<ref name=lavender>{{Cite journal|title = Future stellar flybys of the Voyager and Pioneer spacecraft|journal = Research Notes of the American Astronomical Society|volume= 3|pages = 59|number=4|doi=10.3847/2515-5172/ab158e|date = 3 April 2019|author = Coryn A.L. Bailer-Jones, Davide Farnocchia|arxiv = 1912.03503|bibcode = 2019RNAAS...3...59B|s2cid = 134524048 | doi-access=free }}</ref>

In October 2020, astronomers reported a significant unexpected increase in density in the [[Outer space|space]] beyond the [[Solar System]], as detected by the Voyager [[space probe]]s. According to the researchers, this implies that "the density gradient is a large-scale feature of the [[Interstellar medium#Structures|VLISM]] (very local [[interstellar medium]]) in the general direction of the [[Heliosphere#Edge structure|heliospheric nose]]".<ref name="SA-20201019">{{cite news |last=Starr |first=Michelle |title=Voyager Spacecraft Detect an Increase in The Density of Space Outside The Solar System |url=https://www.sciencealert.com/for-some-reason-the-density-of-space-is-higher-just-outside-the-solar-system |date=19 October 2020 |work=[[ScienceAlert]] |access-date=19 October 2020 |archive-date=19 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201019133221/https://www.sciencealert.com/for-some-reason-the-density-of-space-is-higher-just-outside-the-solar-system |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="AJL-20200825">{{cite journal |last1=Kurth |first1=W.S. |last2=Gurnett |first2=D.A. |title=Observations of a Radial Density Gradient in the Very Local Interstellar Medium by Voyager 2 |date=25 August 2020 |journal=[[The Astrophysical Journal Letters]] |volume=900 |number=1 |pages=L1 |doi=10.3847/2041-8213/abae58 |bibcode=2020ApJ...900L...1K |s2cid=225312823 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

==Voyager Golden Record==
{{Main|Voyager Golden Record}}
[[File:Voyager Golden Record fx.png|thumb|116x116px|The cover of the [[Voyager Golden Record]]]]
Both spacecraft carry a {{convert|12|in|cm|adj=on}} golden phonograph record that contains pictures and sounds of Earth, symbolic directions on the cover for playing the record, and data detailing the location of Earth.<ref name="NYT-20170905" /><ref name="Ferris-201205" /> The record is intended as a combination [[time capsule]] and an interstellar message to any civilization, alien or far-future human, that may recover either of the Voyagers. The contents of this record were selected by a committee that included [[Timothy Ferris]] and was chaired by [[Carl Sagan]].<ref name="Ferris-201205" />

== ''Pale Blue Dot'' ==
{{Main|Pale Blue Dot}}
[[File:Pale Blue Dot.png|thumb|upright=1.1|right|Seen from {{convert|6|e9km|e9mi|abbr=off|sp=us}}, Earth appears as a "[[pale blue dot]]" (the blueish-white speck approximately halfway down the light band to the right).]]
''Pale Blue Dot'' is a photograph of [[Earth]] taken on February 14, 1990, by the ''[[Voyager 1]]'' [[space probe]] from a distance of approximately {{Nowrap|6 billion}} kilometers ({{nowrap|3.7 billion}} miles, 40.5 [[Astronomical unit|AU]]), as part of that day's [[Family Portrait (Voyager)|''Family Portrait'']] series of images of the [[Solar System]].<ref name="NASA-20200212">{{cite news |author=Staff |title=Pale Blue Dot Revisited |url=https://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog/PIA23645 |date=12 February 2020 |work=[[NASA]] |access-date=12 February 2020 |archive-date=12 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200212230826/https://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog/PIA23645 |url-status=live }}</ref>
The Voyager program's discoveries during the primary phase of its mission, including new close-up color photos of the major planets, were regularly documented by print and electronic media outlets. Among the best-known of these is an image of the Earth as a ''[[Pale Blue Dot]]'', taken in 1990 by ''Voyager 1'', and popularized by Carl Sagan,<ref>{{Cite book|title=Pale Blue Dot|last=Sagan|first=Carl|author-link=Carl Sagan|publisher=[[Random House]] USA Inc|year=1997|isbn=978-0-345-37659-6|location=United States|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/palebluedot00carl|page=[https://archive.org/details/palebluedot00carl/page/6 6]-[https://archive.org/details/palebluedot00carl/page/7 7]}}</ref>

{{Blockquote|Consider again that dot. That's here. That's home. That's us....The Earth is a very small stage in a vast cosmic arena.... To my mind, there is perhaps no better demonstration of the folly of human conceits than this distant image of our tiny world. To me, it underscores our responsibility to deal more kindly and compassionately with one another and to preserve and cherish that pale blue dot, the only home we've ever known.}}

==See also==
{{Div col}}
* ''[[Family Portrait (Voyager)|Family Portrait]]''
* ''[[The Farthest]]'', a 2017 documentary on the program.
* ''[[Interstellar Express]]'', a pair of [[China National Space Administration|Chinese]] probes inspired in part by the Voyagers.
* [[Interstellar probe]]
* [[Pioneer program]]
* [[Planetary Grand Tour]]
* [[Timeline of Solar System exploration]]
{{Div col end}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

== Further reading ==
* {{cite book | last=Swift | first=David W. | title=Voyager Tales | publisher=American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics | publication-place=Reston, Va | date=1997 | isbn=978-1-56347-252-7}}
* {{cite book | last=Gallentine | first=Jay | title=Ambassadors from Earth: Pioneering Explorations with Unmanned Spacecraft | publisher=U of Nebraska Press | publication-place=Lincoln | date=2009 | isbn=978-0-8032-2220-5}}
* {{cite book | last=Pyne | first=Stephen J. | title=Voyager: Exploration, Space, and the Third Great Age of Discovery | publisher=Penguin Books | date=2010 | isbn=978-0-14-311959-3}}
* {{cite book|first=Jim |last=Bell |author-link=James F. Bell III |title=The Interstellar Age: Inside the Forty-Year Voyager Mission |date=2015|publisher=Penguin Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-698-18615-6}}

==External links==
{{commons}}
'''NASA sites'''
* [http://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov NASA Voyager website]
* [http://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/mission/status/ Voyager Mission status (updated in real time)]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20170301102317/http://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/spacecraft/spacecraftlife.html Voyager Spacecraft Lifetime]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090328090432/http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/fact_sheets/voyager.pdf NASA Facts – Voyager Mission to the Outer Planets]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070703065122/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19840027171_1984027171.pdf Voyager 1 and 2 atlas of six Saturnian satellites, 1984]
* [http://descanso.jpl.nasa.gov/DPSummary/Descanso4--Voyager_new.pdf JPL Voyager Telecom Manual]
'''NASA instrument information pages:'''
* {{cite web |title=Voyager instrument overview |url=http://starbrite.jpl.nasa.gov/pds/viewHostProfile.jsp?INSTRUMENT_HOST_ID=VG2 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721050912/http://starbrite.jpl.nasa.gov/pds/viewHostProfile.jsp?INSTRUMENT_HOST_ID=VG2 |archive-date=21 July 2011 }}
* {{cite web |title=CRS – COSMIC RAY SUBSYSTEM |url=http://starbrite.jpl.nasa.gov/pds/viewInstrumentProfile.jsp?INSTRUMENT_ID=CRS&INSTRUMENT_HOST_ID=VG1 |access-date=11 November 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140803100339/http://starbrite.jpl.nasa.gov/pds/viewInstrumentProfile.jsp?INSTRUMENT_ID=CRS&INSTRUMENT_HOST_ID=VG1 |archive-date=3 August 2014 |url-status=dead }}
* {{cite web|title=ISS NA – IMAGING SCIENCE SUBSYSTEM – NARROW ANGLE|url=https://pds.nasa.gov/ds-view/pds/viewInstrumentProfile.jsp?INSTRUMENT_ID=ISSN&INSTRUMENT_HOST_ID=VG2|access-date=April 2, 2023|publisher=NASA}}
* {{cite web|title=ISS WA – IMAGING SCIENCE SUBSYSTEM – WIDE ANGLE|url=http://starbrite.jpl.nasa.gov/pds/viewInstrumentProfile.jsp?INSTRUMENT_ID=ISSW&INSTRUMENT_HOST_ID=VG2|access-date=29 October 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090718164117/http://starbrite.jpl.nasa.gov/pds/viewInstrumentProfile.jsp?INSTRUMENT_ID=ISSW&INSTRUMENT_HOST_ID=VG2|archive-date=18 July 2009|url-status=dead}}
* {{cite web |title=IRIS – INFRARED INTERFEROMETER SPECTROMETER AND RADIOMETER |url=http://starbrite.jpl.nasa.gov/pds/viewInstrumentProfile.jsp?INSTRUMENT_ID=IRIS&INSTRUMENT_HOST_ID=VG2 |access-date=29 October 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090718171718/http://starbrite.jpl.nasa.gov/pds/viewInstrumentProfile.jsp?INSTRUMENT_ID=IRIS&INSTRUMENT_HOST_ID=VG2 |archive-date=18 July 2009 |url-status=dead }}
* {{cite web |title=LECP – LOW ENERGY CHARGED PARTICLE |url=http://starbrite.jpl.nasa.gov/pds/viewInstrumentProfile.jsp?INSTRUMENT_ID=LECP&INSTRUMENT_HOST_ID=VG2 |access-date=29 October 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090718171216/http://starbrite.jpl.nasa.gov/pds/viewInstrumentProfile.jsp?INSTRUMENT_ID=LECP&INSTRUMENT_HOST_ID=VG2 |archive-date=18 July 2009 |url-status=dead }}
* {{cite web |title=MAG – TRIAXIAL FLUXGATE MAGNETOMETER |url=http://starbrite.jpl.nasa.gov/pds/viewInstrumentProfile.jsp?INSTRUMENT_ID=MAG&INSTRUMENT_HOST_ID=VG2 |access-date=29 October 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090718165706/http://starbrite.jpl.nasa.gov/pds/viewInstrumentProfile.jsp?INSTRUMENT_ID=MAG&INSTRUMENT_HOST_ID=VG2 |archive-date=18 July 2009 |url-status=dead }}
* {{cite web |title=PLS – PLASMA SCIENCE EXPERIMENT |url=http://starbrite.jpl.nasa.gov/pds/viewInstrumentProfile.jsp?INSTRUMENT_ID=PLS&INSTRUMENT_HOST_ID=VG2 |access-date=29 October 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090718171426/http://starbrite.jpl.nasa.gov/pds/viewInstrumentProfile.jsp?INSTRUMENT_ID=PLS&INSTRUMENT_HOST_ID=VG2 |archive-date=18 July 2009 |url-status=dead }}
* {{cite web |title=PPS – PHOTOPOLARIMETER SUBSYSTEM |url=http://starbrite.jpl.nasa.gov/pds/viewInstrumentProfile.jsp?INSTRUMENT_ID=PPS&INSTRUMENT_HOST_ID=VG2 |access-date=29 October 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090825210557/http://starbrite.jpl.nasa.gov/pds/viewInstrumentProfile.jsp?INSTRUMENT_ID=PPS&INSTRUMENT_HOST_ID=VG2 |archive-date=25 August 2009 |url-status=dead }}
* {{cite web |title=PRA – PLANETARY RADIO ASTRONOMY RECEIVER |url=http://starbrite.jpl.nasa.gov/pds/viewInstrumentProfile.jsp?INSTRUMENT_ID=PRA&INSTRUMENT_HOST_ID=VG2 |access-date=29 October 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090718171504/http://starbrite.jpl.nasa.gov/pds/viewInstrumentProfile.jsp?INSTRUMENT_ID=PRA&INSTRUMENT_HOST_ID=VG2 |archive-date=18 July 2009 |url-status=dead }}
* {{cite web |title=PWS – PLASMA WAVE RECEIVER |url=http://starbrite.jpl.nasa.gov/pds/viewInstrumentProfile.jsp?INSTRUMENT_ID=PWS&INSTRUMENT_HOST_ID=VG2 |access-date=29 October 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090718171350/http://starbrite.jpl.nasa.gov/pds/viewInstrumentProfile.jsp?INSTRUMENT_ID=PWS&INSTRUMENT_HOST_ID=VG2 |archive-date=18 July 2009 |url-status=dead }}
* {{cite web |title=RSS – RADIO SCIENCE SUBSYSTEM |url=http://starbrite.jpl.nasa.gov/pds/viewInstrumentProfile.jsp?INSTRUMENT_ID=RSS-VG1S&INSTRUMENT_HOST_ID=VG1 |access-date=11 November 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140803084200/http://starbrite.jpl.nasa.gov/pds/viewInstrumentProfile.jsp?INSTRUMENT_ID=RSS-VG1S&INSTRUMENT_HOST_ID=VG1 |archive-date=3 August 2014 |url-status=dead }}
* {{cite web |title=UVS – ULTRAVIOLET SPECTROMETER |url=http://starbrite.jpl.nasa.gov/pds/viewInstrumentProfile.jsp?INSTRUMENT_ID=UVS&INSTRUMENT_HOST_ID=VG1 |access-date=11 November 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140803093912/http://starbrite.jpl.nasa.gov/pds/viewInstrumentProfile.jsp?INSTRUMENT_ID=UVS&INSTRUMENT_HOST_ID=VG1 |archive-date=3 August 2014 |url-status=dead }}
'''Non-NASA sites'''
* [http://www.heavens-above.com/SolarEscape.aspx Spacecraft Escaping the Solar System] – current positions and diagrams
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070930185312/http://www.sciencefriday.com/pages/2007/Aug/hour1_082407.html NPR: Science Friday 8/24/07 Interviews for 30th anniversary of Voyager spacecraft]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20140331162615/http://www.stickings90.webspace.virginmedia.com/voyager.htm Illustrated technical paper] by [[Raymond Heacock|RL Heacock]], the project engineer
* {{cite web|last=Gray|first=Meghan|title=Voyager and Interstellar Space|url=http://www.deepskyvideos.com/videos/other/voyager.html|work=Deep Space Videos|publisher=[[Brady Haran]]}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20170521202818/http://www.pbs.org/the-farthest/home/ PBS featured documentary ''The Farthest-Voyager in Space'']
* [https://www.flickr.com/photos/kevinmgill/albums/72157651267194998 Voyager image album] by Kevin M. Gill

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{{NASA planetary exploration programs}}
{{Flagship Program}}
{{Jet Propulsion Laboratory}}
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[[Category:Voyager program| ]]
[[Category:Missions to Jupiter]]
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John Theophilus Desaguliers

2025-06-15T19:51:32Z

2A00:23C7:C8BC:C501:507C:445E:62F7:256D: /* Final years */Added link

{{Short description|British philosopher (1683–1744)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2020}}
{{Infobox scientist
| name = John Theophilus Desaguliers
| honorific_suffix = {{post-nominals|size=100%|FRS}}
| image = John Theophilus Desaguliers.jpg
| caption = John Theophilus Desaguliers (1683–1744)
| birth_date = {{birth date|df=y|1683|3|12}}
| birth_name = Jean Théophile Desaguliers
| birth_place = [[La Rochelle]], [[Kingdom of France]]
| death_date = {{death date and age|df=y|1744|2|29|1683|3|13}}
| death_place = [[Covent Garden]], [[London]], England
| alma_mater = [[Christ Church, Oxford]]
| known_for = Dissemination of Newtonian ideas, [[planetarium]], ventilation, [[hydraulics]], [[steam engine]]s
| awards = [[List of fellows of the Royal Society elected in 1714|FRS (1714)]] [[Copley Medal]] (1734, 1736, 1741)
| field = [[Natural philosophy]] [[Engineering]]
| work_institutions = [[University of Oxford]]
| academic_advisors = [[John Keill]]
| notable_students = [[Stephen Demainbray]] [[Willem 's Gravesande]] [[Stephen Gray (scientist)|Stephen Gray]]
}}
'''John Theophilus Desaguliers''' {{post-nominals|FRS}} (12 March 1683 – 29 February 1744) was a French-born British natural philosopher, clergyman, [[engineer]] and [[Freemasonry|freemason]] who was elected to the [[Royal Society of London|Royal Society]] in 1714 as experimental assistant to [[Sir Isaac Newton|Isaac Newton]]. He had studied at Oxford and later popularized Newtonian theories and their practical applications in public lectures. Desaguliers's most important patron was [[James Brydges, 1st Duke of Chandos]]. As a Freemason, Desaguliers was instrumental in the success of the [[Premier Grand Lodge of England|first Grand Lodge]] in London in the early 1720s and served as its third Grand Master.

==Biography==
===Early life and education===
Desaguliers was born in [[La Rochelle]], several months after his father Jean Desaguliers, a Protestant minister, had been exiled as a Huguenot by the French government. Jean Desaguliers was ordained as an Anglican by [[Henry Compton (bishop)|Bishop Henry Compton of London]],<ref>Ordination Records MS. 9535/3 folio 33. Guildhall Library, London</ref> and sent to Guernsey. Meanwhile, the baby was baptised Jean Théophile Desaguliers in the Protestant Temple in La Rochelle,<ref>Registers of l’Eglise reformée de La Rochelle. Archives municipals de La Rochelle, France</ref> and he and his mother then escaped to join Jean in Guernsey.

In 1692, the family moved to London where Jean Desaguliers later set up a French school in Islington. He died in 1699. His son, who now used the anglicised name John Theophilus, attended [[Bishop Vesey's Grammar School]] in Sutton Coldfield<ref>Desaguliers wrote in an autobiographical account that he was educated under "Wm Saunders A. M. at his school of Sutton Cofield". Saunders was master at Bishop Vesey’s Grammar School. See Bodleian Library, Oxford: Rawlinson MS J f3 fols 29–34.</ref> until 1705 when he entered [[Christ Church, Oxford]] and followed the usual classical curriculum and graduated BA in 1709.<ref name="grad" /> He also attended lectures by [[John Keill]], who used innovative demonstrations to illustrate difficult concepts of Newtonian natural philosophy. When Keill left Oxford in 1709 Desaguliers continued giving the lectures at Hart Hall, the forerunner of [[Hertford College, Oxford]]. He obtained a [[Master of Arts (Oxford, Cambridge, and Dublin)|master's degree]] there in 1712. In 1719, Oxford granted him the honorary degree of [[Doctor of Civil Law|Doctor of Civil Laws]], after which he was often referred to as Dr Desaguliers.<ref>{{Cite book |last=University of Oxford |url=http://archive.org/details/cu31924084672959 |title=Alumni oronienses : the members of the University of Oxford, 1500-1714: their parentage, birthplace, and year of birth, with a record of their degrees |date=1891 |publisher=Oxford and London, Parker and Co. |others=Cornell University Library}}</ref> His doctorate was incorporated by Cambridge University in 1726.<ref name="grad">{{cite web | url = http://search.ancestry.co.uk/cgi-bin/sse.dll?indiv=1&db=alumni6&gss=angs-d&new=1&rank=1&msT=1&gsln=desaguliers&gsln_x=1&MSAV=1&uidh=ee8&pcat=37&fh=0&h=21138&recoff=7&ml_rpos=1&hovR=1 | title = John Theophilus Desaguliers | website = Ancestry.co.uk | publisher = Venn, J. A., Alumni Cantabrigienses. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1922–1954. | access-date = 13 February 2017
}}</ref>

Desaguliers was ordained as a deacon in 1710, at [[Fulham Palace]], and as a priest in 1717, at [[Ely Place|Ely Palace]] in London.

===Lecturer and promoter of Newtonian experimental philosophy===
In 1712, Desaguliers moved back to London and advertised courses of public lectures in Experimental Philosophy.<ref>{{Citation | title = Advertisement for Course of Lectures | newspaper = Evening Post | location = London | date = 30 December 1712 }}</ref> He was not the first to do this, but became the most successful, offering to speak in English, French or Latin. By the time of his death, he had given over 140 courses of some 20 lectures each on mechanics, hydrostatics, pneumatics, optics and astronomy. He kept his lectures up to date, published notes for his auditors, and designed his own apparatus, including a renowned planetarium to demonstrate the [[Solar System]], and a machine to explain tidal motion. In 1717, Desaguliers lodged at [[Hampton Court Palace|Hampton Court]] and lectured in French to [[George I of Great Britain|King George I]] and his family.<ref>{{Citation | title = Report on Court Affairs | newspaper = Weekly Journal or British Gazetteer | location = London | date = 14 September 1717 }}</ref>

===Demonstrator at the Royal Society===
In 1714, [[Isaac Newton]], President of the Royal Society, invited Desaguliers to replace [[Francis Hauksbee]] (1660–1713) as demonstrator at the Society's weekly meetings; he was soon thereafter made a Fellow of the Royal Society.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://collections.royalsociety.org/DServe.exe?dsqIni=Dserve.ini&dsqApp=Archive&dsqCmd=Show.tcl&dsqDb=Persons&dsqPos=7&dsqSearch=%28%28text%29%3D%27desaguliers%27%29 |title=Fellows of the Royal Society: Sackler Archive |access-date=14 May 2014 |archive-date=8 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190708073537/https://collections.royalsociety.org/DServe.exe?dsqIni=Dserve.ini |url-status=dead }}</ref> Desaguliers promoted Newton's ideas and maintained the scientific nature of the meetings when [[Sir Hans Sloane|Hans Sloane]] took over the Presidency after Newton died in 1727. Desaguliers contributed over 60 articles to the [[Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society]]. He received the Society's prestigious [[Copley Medal]] in 1734, 1736 and 1741. The last award was for his summary of knowledge to date on the phenomenon of electricity. He had worked on this with [[Stephen Gray (scientist)|Stephen Gray]], who at one time lodged at the Desaguliers' home. Desaguliers's "Dissertation concerning Electricity" (1742), in which he coined the terms conductor and insulator, was awarded a gold medal by the Bordeaux Academy of Sciences.

===Patronage of the Duke of Chandos===
[[James Brydges, 1st Duke of Chandos]] appointed Desaguliers as his chaplain in 1716,<ref>D W, 'A Document Rescued from Oblivion. Accurate Autobiographical Details of the Career of Bro. the Rev. J. T. Desaguliers, Grand Master of England, 1719; Deputy Grand Master, 1722–23 and 1725', ''The Freemason'', 1925, 472–4; Bodleian Library, Rawlinson MS J f3 (fols 29–34), dated 8 July 1736.</ref> but probably as much for his scientific expertise as his ecclesiastic duties. He was also gifted [[Benefice#Church of England|the living]] of [[St Lawrence's Church, Whitchurch|St Lawrence Church]], Little Stanmore, which was close to the Duke's mansion called [[Cannons (house)|Cannons]], then under construction at nearby Edgware. The church was rebuilt in the baroque style in 1715. As the chapel at Cannons was not completed until 1720, the church was the location of first performances of the so-called ''[[Chandos Anthems]]'' by [[George Frideric Handel]] who was, in 1717/18, like Desaguliers, a member of the Duke's household.

The Cannons estate benefited from Desaguliers' scientific expertise which was applied to the elaborate water garden there. He was also technical adviser to an enterprise in which Chandos had invested, the [[York Buildings Company]], which used steam-power to extract water from the Thames. In 1718, Desaguliers dedicated to the Duke his translation of [[Edme Mariotte]]'s treatise on the motion of water.<ref>{{cite book |last1= Mariotte |first1= Edmé |last2= translated by J T Desaguliers | title = The Motion of Water and Other Fluids: Being a Treatise of Hydrostaticks | publisher = J Senex and W Taylor | date = 1718 | location = London }}</ref> It is perhaps no coincidence that in the summer of 1718 Handel composed his opera [[Acis and Galatea (Handel)|''Acis and Galatea'']] for performance at Cannons. In this work the hero Acis is turned into a fountain, and since, by tradition, the work was first performed outside on the terraces overlooking the garden, a connection with Desaguliers' new water works seems probable.

Desaguliers advised the Duke of Chandos on many projects and appears to have been distracted from his parochial duties by his other interests. The Duke once complained that there were unreasonable delays in burying the dead but this was attributed to the curate who was left in charge of the church.

===Engineering interests===
Desaguliers applied his knowledge to practical applications. As well as his interest in steam engines and hydraulic engineering (in 1721 he cured a problem in the Edinburgh city water supply<ref>Winant, E. H. and Kemp, E. L. ''Edinburgh’s First Water Supply: The Comiston Aquesduct, 1675–1721'', Civil Engineering, 120 (1997), pp 119–124</ref>) he developed expertise in ventilation. He devised a more efficient fireplace which was used in the House of Lords<ref>''House of Lords Journal'', 5 Geo I (1718), 38 and 43</ref> and also invented the blowing wheel which removed stale air from the House of Commons for many years.<ref>{{cite book |last= Ure |first= Andrew |title= The Mechanics' Magazine, Museum, Register, Journal, and Gazette, Volume 27 |publisher= W A Robertson |date= 1837 |location = London |pages= 21 |chapter= An Experimental Enquiry into the Modes of Warming and Ventilating Apartments }}</ref>
Desaguliers studied the movements made by the human body when working as a machine. He befriended the strong man, [[Thomas Topham]], and although there is no firm evidence that he used Topham as a body guard, Desaguliers recorded several of the feats that he performed.

Desaguliers was a parliamentary adviser to the board concerned with the first [[Westminster Bridge]].<ref>{{cite book |last1= Walker|first1= R. J. B. | title = Old Westminster Bridge: The Bridge of Fools | publisher = David & Charles | date = 1979 | location = Newton Abbot | isbn = 978-0715378373 }}</ref> This much-needed second crossing of the Thames was not completed until 1750, after his death, but construction work resulted in the demolition of Desaguliers's home in Channel Row.

Desaguliers also made significant contributions to the field of [[tribology]]. He was the first to recognise the possible role of [[adhesion]] in the [[friction]] process. For this contribution, he was named by [[Duncan Dowson]] as one of the 23 "Men of Tribology".<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dowson|first=Duncan|date=1977-10-01|title=Men of Tribology: Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519)|url=https://asmedigitalcollection.asme.org/tribology/article/99/4/382/429918/Men-of-Tribology-Leonardo-da-Vinci-1452-1519|journal=Journal of Lubrication Technology|language=en|volume=99|issue=4|pages=382–386|doi=10.1115/1.3453230|issn=0022-2305|doi-access=free|url-access=subscription}}</ref>

===Freemasonry===
Desaguliers was a member of the lodge which met at the Rummer & Grapes Tavern in Channel Row, Westminster, although that lodge later moved to the Horn Tavern in New Palace Yard.<ref>{{cite book |last= Berman |first= Ric |date= 2012 |title= ''The Foundations of Modern Freemasonry''. | location = Brighton and Eastbourne, UK. |publisher= Sussex Academic Press. |page= 58 |ISBN= 978-1-84519-506-9}}</ref> According to Rev. James Anderson, this lodge joined with three other lodges on 24 June 1717 to form what would become the [[Premier Grand Lodge of England]]. The new grand lodge grew rapidly as more lodges joined, and Desaguliers is remembered as being instrumental in its early success. He became the third Grand Master in 1719 and was later three times Deputy Grand Master. He helped [[James Anderson (Freemason)|James Anderson]] draw up the rules in the "Constitutions of the Freemasons", published in 1723, and he was active in the establishment of masonic charity. During a lecture trip to the Netherlands in 1731, Desaguliers initiated into Freemasonry [[Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor|Francis, Duke of Lorraine]] (1708–65) who later became [[Holy Roman Emperor]]. Desaguliers also presided when [[Frederick, Prince of Wales]] became a Freemason in 1731,<ref>{{cite book |last= Daynes |first= Gilbert W |editor-last= Songhurst |editor-first= W J |title= Ars Quatuor Coronatorum |publisher= W J Parrett, Ltd. | location = Margate |date= 1924 |pages= 109 |chapter= The Duke of Lorraine and English Freemasonry in 1731 }}</ref> and he additionally became a chaplain to the Prince.

===Family===
On 14 October 1712, John Theophilus Desaguliers married Joanna Pudsey,<ref name="Wagner">{{Citation |last=Wagner |first=Henry |title=Descendants of Jean Desaguliers |journal= The Genealogist |volume= 5 |year=1881 |pages= 117–119 }}</ref> daughter of William and Anne Pudsey of Kidlington, near Oxford. For most of their married life, the couple lived at Channel Row, Westminster where Desaguliers gave the majority of his lectures. When forced to leave due to work on Westminster Bridge, they separated and John Theophilus took lodgings at the Bedford Coffee House in Covent Garden and carried on his lectures there.<ref>{{Citation | title = Advertisement | newspaper = Daily Advertiser | location = London | date = 13 January 1743 }}</ref> The Desaguliers had four sons and three daughters,<ref name="Wagner" /> for most of whom they acquired aristocratic godparents, but only two children survived beyond infancy: John Theophilus jnr (1718–1751) graduated from Oxford, became a clergyman, and died childless, while [[Thomas Desaguliers|Thomas]] (1721–1780) had a distinguished military career in the [[Royal Artillery]], rising to the rank of General. He became chief firemaster at the Arsenal, Woolwich, and seems to have been the first to be employed by the English army to apply scientific principles to the production of cannon and the powers of gunnery, for which he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society. It was [[Thomas Desaguliers]] who in part designed and supervised the fireworks for the first performance of Handel's [[Music for the Royal Fireworks]] in Green Park.<ref>Board of Ordnance, ''A Description of the Machine for the Fireworks, with all its Ornaments, and a Detail of the Manner in which they are to be Exhibited in St James's Park, Thursday 27 April 1749'' (London: W. Bowyer, 1749)</ref> He later became an equerry to King George III.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.british-history.ac.uk/office-holders/vol11/pp912-956 | title = Index of officers: D | website = British History Online | publisher = Institute of Historical Research, University of London | access-date = 14 February 2017 | quote = Desaguliers, Thomas Equerry 16 December 1760 (LS 13/203, f. 13v). Vac. by 29 March 1778 (MOH WB 1, p. 60).}}</ref>

===Final years===
John Theophilus Desaguliers had long suffered from [[gout]].<ref>{{cite book |last1= Lobb |first1= Theophilus | title = A Treatise on Dissolvents of the Stone; and on Curing the Stone and Gout by Aliment |url= https://archive.org/details/b30512293_0002 | publisher = James Buckland | date = 1739 | location = London | pages = [https://archive.org/details/b30512293_0002/page/312 312]–334 }}</ref> He died at his lodgings in the Bedford Coffee House on 29 February 1744 and was buried on 6 March 1744 in a prestigious location within the [[Savoy Chapel]] in London.<ref>{{Citation | title = Announcement| newspaper = Daily Post | location = London | date = 7 March 1744 }}</ref> The chapel was probably chosen for its [[Huguenot]] associations and in memory of Desaguliers's origins. The press announcements of his death referred to him as 'a gentleman universally known and esteemed'. In his will<ref>{{cite archive |item = |item-url = |type = Will Registers |item-id = PROB 11/732 |date = 1744 |fonds = |file = |box= |collection = Prerogative Court of Canterbury and Related Probate Jurisdictions |collection-url = |repository = |institution = The National Archives |location = Kew |accession= }}</ref> Desaguliers left his estate to his elder son who organised the publication of the second edition of his "Course of Experimental Philosophy". Although never a wealthy man, he did not die in poverty as suggested by the oft-quoted but inaccurate lines of the poet [[James Cawthorn]]:


How poor neglected Desaguiliers fell! 
How he who taught two gracious kings to view 
All [[Robert Boyle|Boyle]] ennobled, and all [[Francis Bacon|Bacon]] knew, 
Died in a cell, without a friend to save, 
Without a guinea, and without a grave.

These are taken from a long poem entitled "The Vanity of Human Enjoyment" (1749) in which the poet attempted to draw attention to the general lack of funding for men of science and not Desaguliers in particular.

==Portraits==
There are two known engravings, by Peter Pelham and by James Tookey, taken from a lost portrait of Desaguliers painted in about 1725 by [[Hans Hysing]], and an engraving by R. Scaddon of a [[Thomas Frye]] painting, also apparently lost, which showed the subject as an old man in 1743. An engraving by [[Étienne-Jehandier Desrochers|Etienne-Jehandier Desrochers]] was almost certainly made in 1735 when Desaguliers was on his only visit to Paris. There is also an oil attributed to Jonathan Richardson.<ref>[https://artuk.org/discover/artworks/j-t-desaguliers-221266 Art UK]</ref>

==Publications==
Desaguliers wrote on many topics for the ''[[Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society]]'', produced several editions of notes for the auditors of his lectures and wrote occasional poetry. He translated technical works from French and Latin into English, often adding his own comments. His own Course of Experimental Philosophy was translated into Dutch and French.

===Some original works===
* ''A Sermon Preach’d before the King at Hampton Court'' (London, 1717)
* ''The Newtonian System of the World, the Best Model of Government: An Allegorical Poem'' (Westminster, 1728)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://archive.org/details/b30415615/page/n4|title=The Newtonian system of the world, the best model of government : An allegorical poem. With a plain and intelligible account of the system of the world, by way of annotations: With copper plates: To which is added, Cambria's complaint against the intercalary day in the leap-year|year=1728}}</ref>
* ''A Course of Experimental Philosophy'', 1st edition, Vol I (London, 1734) and Vol II (London 1744)
* ''A Dissertation Concerning Electricity'' (London, 1742)

===Some translations===
* Ozanam, Jacques, ''A Treatise of Fortification'', (Oxford, 1711)
* Ozanam, Jacques, ''A Treatise of Gnomonicks, or Dialling'', (Oxford, 1712)
* Gauger, Nicolas, ''Fires Improv’d: Being a New Method of Building Chimneys'', (London, 1st ed., 1715; 2nd ed., 1736)
* Mariotte, Edmé, ''The Motion of Water and other Fluids, being a Treatise on Hydrostaticks'', (London, 1718)
* 'sGravesande, Willem, ''Mathematical Elements of Natural Philosophy Confirmed by Experiment, or an Introduction to Sir Isaac Newton’s Philosophy'' (London, 1720)
* Pitcairn, Archibald, ''The Whole Works of Dr Archibald Pitcairn'' (treatise on physic translated from Latin in collaboration with George Sewell) (2nd ed., London, 1727).
* Vaucanson, Jacques, ''An Account of the Mechanism of an Automaton'', (London, 1742)

==See also==
*[[Electric charge]]
*[[Timeline of steam power#Development of a practical steam engine|Development of a practical steam engine]]
*[[Direct bonding]]
*[[Dynamometer]]
*[[Ventilation (architecture)]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
* Baker, C. H. Collins, and Baker, Muriel (1949) ''James Brydges First Duke of Chandos'' Oxford: Clarendon Press
* Berman, Ric (2012) ''Foundations of Modern Freemasonry: The Grand Architects: Political Change & the Scientific Enlightenment, 1714–1740'' (Sussex Academic Press), Chapter 2.
* [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/James-Campbell-12/publication/340455522_The_Significance_of_John_Theophilus_Desaguliers%27s_Course_of_Experimental_Philosophy_to_the_History_of_Hydraulics_and_what_it_reveals_about_the_First_Pump-driven_Fountains/links/5e8b08b3a6fdcca789f83b21/The-Significance-of-John-Theophilus-Desagulierss-Course-of-Experimental-Philosophy-to-the-History-of-Hydraulics-and-what-it-reveals-about-the-First-Pump-driven-Fountains.pdf Campbell, James W.P. (2020), "The Significance of John Theophilus Desaguliers's ''Course of Experimental Philosophy'' to the History of Hydraulics and what it reveals about the first Pump-Driven Fountains", pp.331–347 in James W.P. Campbell, Nina Baker, Karey Draper, Michale Driver, Michael Heaton, Yiting Pan, Natcha Ruamsanitwong and David Yeomans (eds.), ''Iron, Steel and Buildings: Studies in the History of Construction: The Proceedings of the Seventh Conference of the Construction History Society'', Cambridge: Construction History Society.] {{ISBN|978-0-9928751-6-9}}
* Carpenter, A. T., (2011), ''John Theophilus Desaguliers: A Natural Philosopher, Engineer and Freemason in Newtonian England'', (London: Continuum/Bloomsbury), {{ISBN|1-4411-2778-X}}; {{ISBN|978-1-4411-2778-5}}
* Mackey, Albert G. (1966), ''An Encyclopedia of Freemasonry'', reprint edition, (Chicago:, The Masonic History Company).
* Priestley, Joseph (1769), ''The History and Present State of Electricity: With Original Experiments'' (Google eBook), pp 61–67; [https://books.google.com/books?id=2hfWAAAAMAAJ&q=desaguliers accessed 12 May 2014]
* Stephens, H. M. (2004) Desaguliers, Thomas (1721–1780), rev. Jonathan Spain, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press; online edn, Jan 2014 [http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/7540, accessed 12 May 2014]

==External links==
{{Wikiquote}}
* [http://freemasonry.bcy.ca/biography/desaguliers_j/desaguliers_j.html Masonic biography]
* [http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/bpsoc/bjp/2000/00000091/00000002/art00009 ''British Journal of Psychology'']
* {{acad|id=DSGS726JT|name=Desaguliers, John Theophilus}}
{{s-start}}
{{s-npo|mason}}
{{succession box | title=[[Premier Grand Lodge of England|Grand Master of the Premier Grand Lodge of England]] | before=[[George Payne (Freemason)|George Payne]] | after=[[George Payne (Freemason)|George Payne]] | years=1719–1720}}
{{s-end}}
{{PGLE}}
{{Copley Medallists 1731–1750}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Desaguliers, John Theophilus}}
[[Category:1683 births]]
[[Category:1744 deaths]]
[[Category:People from La Rochelle]]
[[Category:Alumni of Christ Church, Oxford]]
[[Category:English chaplains]]
[[Category:18th-century British inventors]]
[[Category:English physicists]]
[[Category:English scientists]]
[[Category:French–English translators]]
[[Category:Fellows of Hertford College, Oxford]]
[[Category:Fellows of the Royal Society]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Copley Medal]]
[[Category:English male writers]]
[[Category:Grand masters of the Premier Grand Lodge of England]]
[[Category:Freemasons of the Premier Grand Lodge of England]]
[[Category:French emigrants to England]]
[[Category:People from the Bailiwick of Guernsey]]
[[Category:People from Islington (district)]]
[[Category:Tribologists]]

Black drop effect

2025-06-15T18:26:46Z

2A00:23C7:C8BC:C501:507C:445E:62F7:256D: /* 1832 Mercury transit */Improved link

{{Short description|Visual distortion of Venus when it transits the sun}}
{{distinguish|One-drop rule}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2022}}
[[File:Venustransit 2004-06-08 07-44.jpg|thumb|250px|Venus transits the face of the [[Sun]] on 8 June 2004. Here, the black drop effect is visible.]]
The '''black drop effect''' is an optical phenomenon visible during a [[transit of Venus]] and, to a lesser extent, a [[transit of Mercury]].

==Description==
Just after [[astronomical transit#Contacts|second contact]], and again just before [[astronomical transit#Contacts|third contact]] during the transit, a small black "teardrop" appears to connect [[Venus]]'s disc to the [[wikt:limb#Etymology 2|limb]] of the [[Sun]], making it impossible to time the exact moment of second or third contact accurately. This led to the failure of the attempts during the 18th-century transits of Venus to establish a truly precise value for the [[astronomical unit]].

The black drop effect was long thought to be due to Venus's thick atmosphere, and indeed it was held to be the first real evidence that Venus had an atmosphere. However, it is now thought by many to be an optical effect caused by the combination of the extreme darkening of the Sun's disk near its apparent edge and the intrinsic imperfection of the viewing apparatus.<ref name="aas">
{{cite conference
|title= Explanation of the Black-Drop Effect at Transits of Mercury and the Forthcoming Transit of Venus by Pasachoff/Schneider/Golub
|conference=American Astronomical Society Meeting 203
|journal=Bulletin of the American Astronomical Society
|volume=35
|page=1202
|publisher=AAS
|bibcode=2003AAS...203.0104P
|date=December 2003
}}</ref><ref name="economist">
{{cite magazine
|url=http://www.economist.com/science/displayStory.cfm?story_id=2705523
|title= Transits of Venus – Kiss of the goddess
|magazine= The Economist
|date=27 May 2004
|accessdate=2015-05-16
}}</ref>

Observing Mercury simultaneously during its transit in May 1832 with different instruments, the German astronomers [[Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel]] and [[Friedrich Wilhelm Argelander]] noticed a black drop effect (though the term had not been coined yet) with that instrument of less resolution.<ref>F. W. Bessel: ''Durchgang des Mercurs durch die Sonne.'' In: ''Astronomische Nachrichten.'' Band X (1832), No. 228, Sp. 185–196 ([http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1832AN.....10..185B digital]).</ref> With precise measurements, a black drop effect was observed from outside the Earth's atmosphere during the 1999 and 2003 [[transit of Mercury|transits of Mercury]], although [[Mercury (planet)|Mercury]] has no significant atmosphere.<ref>
{{cite arXiv
|last1= Schneider |first1=G.
|last2=Pasachoff |first2=J.M.
|last3=Golub |first3=L.
|eprint=astro-ph/0310379
|title=Space Studies of the Black-Drop Effect at a Mercury Transit
|year=2003
}} PrePrint or article in Icarus 168, 249–256. Retrieved 2015-05-16.</ref>

{{nat|In the 8 June 2004}} transit of Venus, many observers reported that they did not see the black drop effect, or at least that it was much less pronounced than had been reported in earlier centuries' transits.<ref name="Sky & Telescope">{{cite web |url=http://www.skyandtelescope.com/observing/highlights/The-Disappearing-Black-Drop-153838145.html |title=The Disappearing Black Drop |last=Shiga |first=David |publisher=F+W Meida, Inc. |magazine=Sky & Telescope |date=24 May 2012 |accessdate=2015-05-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120916205336/http://www.skyandtelescope.com/observing/highlights/The-Disappearing-Black-Drop-153838145.html |archive-date=16 September 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Larger telescopes, better optics, and [[limb darkening]] may have been factors.

==1832 Mercury transit==
The [[Shuckburgh telescope]] of the [[Royal Observatory, Greenwich]] in London was used for the 1832 [[transit of Mercury]].<ref name=":3" /> It was equipped with a [[Micrometer (device)|micrometer]] by Dollond and was used for a report of the events as seen through the small refractor.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/monthlynoticesr72socigoog|page=[https://archive.org/details/monthlynoticesr72socigoog/page/n132 103]|quote=Shuckburgh telescope eastern equatorial.|title=Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society|date=1831|publisher=Priestley and Weale|language=en}}</ref> By observing the transit in combination with timing it and taking measures, a diameter for the planet was taken.<ref name=":3" /> They also reported the peculiar effects that they compared to pressing a coin into the Sun.<ref name=":3" /> The observer remarked:

{{quote2|I afterwards observed, that immediately around the planet there was a dusky tinge, making it appear as if, in a small degree sunk below the sun's surface;"|''Royal Astronomical Society, Vol II, No. 13''<ref name=":3" /> }}

==Gallery==
<gallery>
File:Venus Black Drop effect.png|The black drop effect as depicted by [[Torbern Bergman]] in 1761.
File:Venus Drawing.jpg|The black drop effect as observed by Captain [[James Cook]] and [[Charles Green (astronomer)|Charles Green]] in 1771.
File:BlackDrop-Venus-Transit.jpg|The black drop effect in 2004, in moments of "bad" seeing (left) and "good" seeing (right).
</gallery>

==See also==
*[[Shadow blister effect]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Black drop effect}}
* [http://www.transitofvenus.nl/blackdrop.html The black drop effect]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20101218112451/http://www.transitofvenus.org/history/black-drop The "Black Drop" effect]—explanation at the [http://www.transitofvenus.org/ TransitOfVenus.org] website
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120916205336/http://www.skyandtelescope.com/observing/highlights/The-Disappearing-Black-Drop-153838145.html ''Sky and Telescope'': The Disappearing Black Drop]
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wylnvUor4Z0 Video Simulating Black Drop effect using your hand]

{{Portal bar|Astronomy|Stars|Spaceflight|Outer space|Solar System}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Black Drop Effect}}
[[Category:Astronomical transits]]
[[Category:Optical phenomena]]

Nathaniel Bliss

2025-06-15T18:22:04Z

2A00:23C7:C8BC:C501:507C:445E:62F7:256D: /* Observations */Added comma

{{Short description|English astronomer}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2016}}
{{Use British English|date=July 2016}}
{{Infobox scientist
| name = Nathaniel Bliss
| image = The Reverend Nathaniel Bliss.jpg
| image_size = 240px
| caption = Reverend Nathaniel Bliss
| birth_date = {{birth date|1700|11|28|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Bisley, Gloucestershire|Bisley]], [[Gloucestershire]], England
| death_date = {{death date and age|1764|09|02|1700|11|28|df=y}}
| death_place = [[Oxford]], [[Oxfordshire]], England
| resting_place = [[St Margaret's, Lee|St. Margaret's]], [[Lee, London|Lee, South London]]
| nationality = [[English people|English]]
| alma_mater =
| doctoral_advisor =
| doctoral_students =
| known_for =
| influences =
| influenced =
| signature =
| footnotes =
| honorific_prefix = The Reverend
| field = [[Astronomy]], [[mathematics]]
| work_institutions = [[Oxford University]]
| prizes =
}}

'''Nathaniel Bliss''' (28 November 1700 – 2 September 1764) was an [[England|English]] [[astronomer]] of the 18th century, serving as Britain's fourth [[Astronomer Royal]] between 1762 and 1764.

Bliss studied at [[Oxford University]] and later became the [[Savilian Professor of Geometry]]. He made important meridian observations of a [[comet]] and a [[solar eclipse]] visible from [[Greenwich]], and many of his observations proved useful in solving the [[History of longitude|longitude problem]], and were bought by the [[Board of Longitude]] after his death.

==Life==
Nathaniel Bliss was born in the [[Cotswolds]] village of [[Bisley, Gloucestershire|Bisley]] in [[Gloucestershire]]. His father, also named Nathaniel Bliss, was a [[Cloth merchant|clothier]]. Bliss studied at [[Pembroke College, Oxford]]. He graduated [[Bachelor of Arts|B.A.]] in 1720 and [[Master's degree|M.A.]] in 1723, and married shortly afterwards.{{sfn|Clerke|1886}}

In 1736, Bliss became rector of [[St Ebbe's Church, Oxford|St Ebbe's Church]] in [[Oxford]]. Supported by, among others; the [[George Parker, 2nd Earl of Macclesfield|2nd Earl of Macclesfield (George Parker)]], [[Savilian Professor of Astronomy]] [[James Bradley]] and by [[William Jones (mathematician)|William Jones]], Bliss succeeded [[Edmond Halley]] as [[Savilian Professor of Geometry]] at [[Oxford University]] in February 1742 – being elected a Fellow of the [[Royal Society]] in May the same year. As Savilian Professor he lectured courses in arithmetic, algebra, plane and spherical geometry, the use of logarithms and surveying instruments.

In 1762 he succeeded Bradley to become the fourth Astronomer Royal, but held the post for only two years before his unexpected death.
He died in Oxford, but was buried close to Edmond Halley in [[St Margaret's, Lee|St Margaret's]] churchyard in [[Lee, London|Lee]] in south-east [[London]]. As men of independent means, the first four Astronomers Royal including Bliss, were paid only a minimal salary. This situation changed when [[Nevil Maskelyne]] succeeded Bliss as Astronomer Royal upon his death – Maskelyne commanded a salary of £350 per annum, permitting him to make the post his main occupation. In 2000 the [[International Astronomical Union]] named a [[Bliss (crater)|crater on the Moon after Bliss]], in commemoration of his position as Astronomer Royal.

==Observations==
George Parker, the Earl of Macclesfield, had established an observatory at [[Shirburn Castle]] in [[Oxfordshire]]. Working for and with the Earl of Macclesfield, Bliss made [[Meridian (astronomy)|meridian]] observations of a comet approaching the Sun in 1744 at Shirburn Castle and at [[Royal Observatory, Greenwich|Greenwich]].<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://collections.rmg.co.uk/collections/objects/15557.html|title = The Reverend Nathaniel Bliss (1700-1764) - Royal Museums Greenwich}}</ref> Bliss worked alongside James Bradley at the [[Royal Observatory, Greenwich|Royal Observatory]] in Greenwich and in June 1761, owing to the poor health of Bradley, he undertook the observations for the [[transit of Venus]].

His assistant at the Royal Observatory was [[Charles Green (astronomer)|Charles Green]], and upon his death, Green continued Bliss' work until the appointment of the next Astronomer Royal. In April 1764 Bliss made observations of an [[Solar eclipse|annular (solar) eclipse]] visible from Greenwich. Many of the observations made by Bliss were considered potentially useful for solving the [[History of longitude|longitude problem]], important for cartography and ocean navigation, and were therefore bought by the [[Board of Longitude]] from his widow Elizabeth Bliss (née Hillman). His Greenwich observations were not published until 1805, when they were included as a supplement in an edition by [[Thomas Hornsby]] on the observations of Bradley.<ref>{{cite book
| first=Edward Walter | last=Maunder | year=1900
| title=The Royal observatory, Greenwich: A glance at its history and work
| publisher=The Religious tract society | page=[https://archive.org/details/royalobservator00maungoog/page/n88 85]
| url=https://archive.org/details/royalobservator00maungoog
| access-date=2010-02-28 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url = http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/Biographies/Bliss_Nathaniel.html|title = Nathaniel Bliss|work=[[MacTutor History of Mathematics archive]]}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}
;Attribution
{{Cite DNB|first=Agnes Mary|last=Clerke|wstitle=Bliss, Nathaniel |volume=5 |pages=220–221}}

== Further reading ==
* {{cite book | author = Maunder, E. W. | title = The Royal Observatory, Greenwich: A Glance at its History and Work | year = 1900 | publisher = The Religious Tract Society | location = London | url = https://archive.org/details/royalobservator00maungoog| page = [https://archive.org/details/royalobservator00maungoog/page/n85 82] | quote = Nathaniel Bliss astronomers. }}

==External links==
* [http://janus.lib.cam.ac.uk/db/node.xsp?id=EAD%2FGBR%2F0180%2FRGO%203 Online catalogue of Bliss' working papers (part of the Royal Greenwich Observatory Archives held at Cambridge University Library)]

{{Savilian Professors of Geometry}}
{{Astronomers Royal}}

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Bliss, Nathaniel}}
[[Category:1700 births]]
[[Category:1764 deaths]]
[[Category:18th-century English astronomers]]
[[Category:18th-century English mathematicians]]
[[Category:Alumni of Pembroke College, Oxford]]
[[Category:Astronomers Royal]]
[[Category:Fellows of the Royal Society]]
[[Category:People from Bisley, Gloucestershire]]
[[Category:Savilian Professors of Geometry]]
[[Category:18th-century English Anglican priests]]

Prime meridian

2025-06-15T18:19:42Z

2A00:23C7:C8BC:C501:507C:445E:62F7:256D: /* History */Improved caption

{{Short description|Line of longitude, at which longitude is defined to be 0°}}
{{Redirect|Prime Meridian|Earth's prime meridian, often called the Prime Meridian|IERS Reference Meridian|the historical meridian it is based on|Prime meridian (Greenwich)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2019}}
{{Location map-line|lon=0|caption=Modern [[IERS Reference Meridian]] on Earth}}
[[File:Equator and Prime Meridian.svg|thumb|300px|Countries that touch the [[Equator]] (red) and that touch the [[Prime Meridian]] (blue)]]

A '''prime meridian''' is an arbitrarily chosen [[meridian (geography)|meridian]] (a line of [[longitude]]) in a [[geographic coordinate system]] at which longitude is defined to be 0°. On a spheroid, a prime meridian and its anti-meridian (the [[180th meridian]] in a [[degree (angle)|360°-system]]) form a [[great ellipse]]. This divides the body (e.g. [[Earth]]) into [[hemispheres of Earth|two hemispheres]]: the [[Eastern Hemisphere]] and the [[Western Hemisphere]] (for an east-west notational system). For Earth's prime meridian, various conventions have been used or advocated in different regions throughout history.{{sfn|Norgate|Norgate|2006}} Earth's current [[international standard]] prime meridian is the [[IERS Reference Meridian]]. It is derived, but differs slightly, from the [[Prime meridian (Greenwich)|Greenwich Meridian]], the previous standard.<ref>{{cite web |title=What is the Prime Meridian and why is it in Greenwich? |url=https://www.rmg.co.uk/stories/topics/what-prime-meridian-why-it-greenwich |website=Royal Museums Greeenwich |access-date=13 December 2021 |quote=The IRM is the only meridian that may now be described as the prime meridian of the world, as it defines 0° longitude by international agreement. The IRM passes 102.5 metres (112 yards) to the east of the historic Prime Meridian of the World at the latitude of the Airy Transit Circle here. The entire Observatory and the historic Prime Meridian now lie to the west of the true prime meridian. |archive-date=13 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211213045150/https://www.rmg.co.uk/stories/topics/what-prime-meridian-why-it-greenwich |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[File:Atlas Cosmographicae (Mercator) 033.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|right|[[Gerardus Mercator]] in his ''[[Atlas Cosmographicae]]'' (1595) used a prime meridian somewhere close to [[25th meridian west|25°W]], passing just to the west of [[Santa Maria Island]] in the [[Azores]] in the [[Atlantic Ocean]]. His 180th meridian runs along the [[Strait of Anián]] (Bering Strait)]]

Longitudes for the Earth and [[Moon]] are measured from their prime meridian (at 0°) to 180° east and west. For all other [[Solar System]] bodies, longitude is measured from 0° (their prime meridian) to 360°. West longitudes are used if the rotation of the body is [[Retrograde and prograde motion|prograde]] (or 'direct', like Earth), meaning that its direction of rotation is the same as that of its orbit. East longitudes are used if the rotation is [[Retrograde and prograde motion|retrograde]].<ref name=cartographic>{{citation |last=Archimal |first=B. A. |title=Report of the IAU Working Group on Cartographic Coordinates and Rotational Elements: 2015 |url=https://astropedia.astrogeology.usgs.gov/download/Docs/WGCCRE/WGCCRE2015reprint.pdf |year=2015 |page=27 of 46 |quote=[W]est longitudes are used when the rotation is direct, and east longitudes are used when the rotation is retrograde. ... The Earth, Sun, and Moon do not traditionally conform to this definition. Their rotations are direct and longitudes run both east and west 180°, or positive to the east 360°. [footnotes omitted] |access-date=6 August 2019 |archive-date=6 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190806225003/https://astropedia.astrogeology.usgs.gov/download/Docs/WGCCRE/WGCCRE2015reprint.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

== History ==
{{See also|History of longitude}}

[[File:Ptolemy-World Vat Urb 82.jpg|right|thumb|upright=1.3|[[Ptolemy]]'s 1st projection, redrawn under [[Maximus Planudes]] around 1300, using a prime meridian through the [[Canary Islands]] west of Africa, at the left-hand edge of the map. (The obvious central line shown here is the junction of two sheets).]]

The notion of longitude for Greeks was developed by the [[Greeks|Greek]] [[Eratosthenes]] (c.{{nbsp}}276{{snd}}195{{nbsp}}BCE) in [[Alexandria]], and [[Hipparchus]] (c.{{nbsp}}190{{snd}}120{{nbsp}}BCE) in [[Rhodes]], and applied to a large number of cities by the [[geographer]] [[Strabo]] (64/63{{nbsp}}BCE{{snd}}c.{{nbsp}}24{{nbsp}}CE). [[Ptolemy]] (c.{{nbsp}}90{{snd}}168{{nbsp}}CE) was the first geographer to use a consistent meridian for a world map, in his ''[[Geography (Ptolemy)|Geographia]]''.

Ptolemy used as his basis the "[[Fortunate Isles]]", a group of islands in the [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]], which are usually associated with the [[Canary Islands]] (13°W to 18°W), although his maps correspond more closely to the [[Cape Verde|Cape Verde islands]] (22°W to 25°W). The main point is to be comfortably west of the western tip of [[Africa]] (17°30′W) as negative numbers were not yet in use. His prime meridian corresponds to 18°40′ west of [[Winchester]] (about 20°W) today.{{sfn|Norgate|Norgate|2006}} At that time the chief method of determining longitude was by using the reported times of [[lunar eclipse]]s in different countries.

One of the earliest known descriptions of ''standard time'' in India appeared in the 4th century CE [[Hindu astronomy|astronomical]] treatise [[Surya Siddhanta]]. Postulating a [[spherical Earth]], the book described the thousands years old customs of the [[Prime Meridian|prime meridian]], or zero longitude, as passing through ''[[Avanti (India)|Avanti]]'', the ancient name for the historic city of [[Ujjain]], and ''Rohitaka'', the ancient name for [[Rohtak]] ({{Coord|28|54|N|76|38|E|type:city|name=Rohitaka (Rohtak)}}), a city near the [[Kurukshetra]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Schmidt|first=Olaf H.|year=1944|title=The Computation of the Length of Daylight in Hindu Astronomy|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/330729|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220126062053/https://www.jstor.org/stable/330729|archive-date=26 January 2022|access-date=|journal=Isis|volume=35|issue=3|pages=205–211|publisher=The University of Chicago Press|doi=10.1086/358709|jstor=330729|s2cid=145178197|url-access=subscription}}</ref>{{Better source needed|reason=Cited work discusses latitude not longitude.|date=July 2021}}

[[File:Propaganda Map.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.4|[[William Griggs (inventor)|William Grigg]]'s facsimile of the 1529 [[Spanish Empire|Spanish]] [[Padron Real]], from the copy made by [[Diogo Ribeiro (cartographer)|Diogo Ribeiro]] and held by the [[Vatican Library]].]]
Ptolemy's ''Geographia'' was first printed with maps at [[Bologna]] in 1477, and many early globes in the 16th century followed his lead, but there was still a hope that a "natural" basis for a prime meridian existed. [[Christopher Columbus]] reported (1493) that the compass pointed due north somewhere in mid-Atlantic, and this fact was used in the important [[Treaty of Tordesillas]] of 1494, which settled the territorial dispute between [[Spain]] and [[Portugal]] over newly discovered lands. The Tordesillas line was eventually settled at 370 [[League (unit)|leagues]] (2,193 kilometers, 1,362 statute miles, or 1,184 nautical miles) west of [[Cape Verde]].{{efn| These figures use the ''legua náutica'' (nautical league) of four [[Roman mile]]s totalling {{convert|5.926|km|abbr=on}}, which was used by Spain during the 15th, 16th, and 17th centuries for navigation.<ref>{{cite journal |first=Roland |last=Chardon |title=The linear league in North America |journal=Annals of the Association of American Geographers |volume=70 |issue=2 |year=1980 |pages=129–153 [pp. 142, 144, 151] |jstor=2562946 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-8306.1980.tb01304.x}}</ref> In 1897 Henry Harrise noted that Jaime Ferrer, the expert consulted by King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella, stated that a league was four miles of six [[Stadion (unit of length)|stades]] each.<ref>{{cite book |first=Henry |last=Harrisse |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7I4cAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA85 |title=The Diplomatic History of America: Its first chapter 1452—1493—1494 |location= London |publisher=Stevens |date=1897|pages=85–97, 176–190 |isbn=9780697000071 |oclc=1101220811}}</ref> Modern scholars agree that the geographic stade was the Roman or Italian stade, not any of several other Greek stades, supporting these figures.<ref>{{cite journal |first=Donald |last=Engels |title=The length of Eratosthenes' stade |journal=[[American Journal of Philology]] |volume=106 |issue=3 |year=1985 |pages=298–311 |jstor=295030 |doi=10.2307/295030}}</ref> Harrise is in the minority when he uses the stade of {{convert|192.27|m|abbr=on}} marked within the stadium at [[Olympia, Greece]], resulting in a league (32 stades) of {{convert|6.153|km|abbr=on}}, 3.8% larger.}} This is shown in the copies of Spain's [[Padron Real]] made by [[Diogo Ribeiro (cartographer)|Diogo Ribeiro]] in 1527 and 1529. [[São Miguel Island]] (25°30′W) in the [[Azores]] was still used for the same reason as late as 1594 by [[Christopher Saxton]], although by then it had been shown that the zero [[magnetic declination]] line did not follow a line of longitude.{{sfn|Hooker|2006}}

[[File:Atlas Ortelius KB PPN369376781-006av-006br.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|1571 Africa map by [[Abraham Ortelius]], with [[Cape Verde]] marking its prime meridian.]]
[[File:CEM-36-Regno-della-China-2355.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|1682 map of East Asia by [[Giacomo Cantelli]], with Cape Verde originating its prime meridian; [[Japan]] is thus located around 180° E.]]
In 1541, [[Gerardus Mercator|Mercator]] produced his 41 cm terrestrial globe and drew his prime meridian precisely through [[Fuerteventura]] (14°1′W) in the Canaries. His later maps used the Azores, following the magnetic hypothesis, but by the time that [[Abraham Ortelius|Ortelius]] produced the first modern atlas in 1570, other islands such as Cape Verde were coming into use. In his atlas longitudes were counted from 0° to 360°, not 180°W to 180°E as is usual today. This practice was followed by navigators well into the 18th century.<ref>e.g. [[Jacob Roggeveen]] in 1722 reported the longitude of [[Easter Island]] as 268°45′ (starting from Fuerteventura) in the Extract from the Official log of Jacob Roggeveen reproduced in {{citation|title=The voyage of Don Felipe Gonzalez to Easter Island in 1770-1 |editor=Bolton Glanville Corney |date=1908 |page=3 |publisher=Hakluyt Society |url=https://archive.org/stream/voyagecaptaindo00unkngoog#page/n88/mode/2up |access-date=13 January 2013}}</ref> In 1634, [[Cardinal Richelieu]] used the westernmost island of the Canaries, [[El Hierro]], 19°55′ west of Paris, as the choice of meridian. The geographer [[Guillaume Delisle|Delisle]] decided to round this off to 20°, so that it simply became the meridian of Paris disguised.<ref>Speech by Pierre Janssen, director of the Paris observatory, at the first session of the [https://www.gutenberg.org/files/17759/17759-h/17759-h.htm#Page_73 Meridian Conference.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211218082731/https://www.gutenberg.org/files/17759/17759-h/17759-h.htm#Page_73 |date=18 December 2021 }}</ref>

In the early 18th century, the battle was on to improve the determination of longitude at sea, leading to the development of the [[marine chronometer]] by [[John Harrison]]. The development of accurate star charts, principally by the first British [[Astronomer Royal]], [[John Flamsteed]] between 1680 and 1719 and disseminated by his successor [[Edmund Halley]], enabled navigators to use the [[Lunar distance (navigation)|lunar method]] of determining longitude more accurately using the [[Octant (instrument)|octant]] developed by [[Thomas Godfrey (inventor)|Thomas Godfrey]] and [[John Hadley]].{{sfn|Sobel|Andrewes|1998|pp=110–115}}

In the 18th century most countries in [[Europe]] adapted their own ''prime'' meridian, usually through their capital, hence in [[France]] the [[Paris meridian]] was prime, in [[Kingdom of Prussia|Prussia]] it was the [[Berlin]] meridian, in [[Denmark]] the [[Copenhagen]] meridian, and in [[United Kingdom]] the [[Greenwich meridian]].

Between 1765 and 1811, [[Nevil Maskelyne]] published 49 issues of the [[The Nautical Almanac|''Nautical Almanac'']] based on the meridian of the [[Royal Observatory, Greenwich]]. "Maskelyne's tables not only made the lunar method practicable, they also made the [[Prime meridian (Greenwich)|Greenwich meridian]] the universal reference point. Even the French translations of the ''Nautical Almanac'' retained Maskelyne's calculations from Greenwich – in spite of the fact that every other table in the ''[[Connaissance des Temps]]'' considered the [[Paris meridian]] as the prime."{{sfn|Sobel|Andrewes|1998|pp=197–199}}

In 1884, at the [[International Meridian Conference]] in [[Washington, D.C.]], 22 countries voted to adopt the Greenwich meridian as the prime meridian of the world.<ref name="who decided">{{cite web |url=https://www.rmg.co.uk/stories/topics/what-prime-meridian-why-it-greenwich |title=What is the Prime Meridian - and why is it in Greenwich? {{!}} Who decided that the Prime Meridian should be in Greenwich? |publisher=Royal Museums Greenwich |date=n.d. |access-date=28 December 2021 |archive-date=5 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220105211313/https://www.rmg.co.uk/stories/topics/what-prime-meridian-why-it-greenwich |url-status=live }}</ref> The French argued for a neutral line, mentioning the Azores and the [[Bering Strait]], but eventually abstained and continued to use the [[Paris meridian]] until 1911.

The current international standard Prime Meridian is the [[IERS Reference Meridian]]. The [[International Hydrographic Organization]] adopted an early version of the IRM in 1983 for all nautical charts.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.iho.shom.fr/publicat/free/files/S-51_Ed4-EN.pdf |title= A manual on the technical aspects of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea – 1982 |access-date= 23 July 2008 |archive-date= 10 September 2008 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20080910223739/http://www.iho.shom.fr/publicat/free/files/S-51_Ed4-EN.pdf |url-status= live }} {{small|(4.89 MB)}} Section 2.4.4.</ref> It was adopted for air navigation by the [[International Civil Aviation Organization]] on 3 March 1989.<ref>[http://www.icao.int/pbn/docs/eurocontrolwgsman24.pdf WGS 84 Implementation Manual] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081003102629/http://www.icao.int/pbn/docs/eurocontrolwgsman24.pdf |date=3 October 2008 }} page i, 1998</ref>

==International prime meridian==
Since 1984, the international standard for the Earth's prime meridian is the IERS Reference Meridian. Between 1884 and 1984, the meridian of Greenwich was the world standard. These meridians are very close to each other.

===Prime meridian at Greenwich{{anchor|Greenwich}}===
[[File:Prime meridian.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|The line of the [[Prime meridian (Greenwich)|Greenwich meridian]] at the [[Royal Observatory, Greenwich]], England]]
{{Main|Prime meridian (Greenwich)}}
In October 1884 the Greenwich Meridian was selected by delegates (forty-one delegates representing twenty-five nations) to the [[International Meridian Conference]] held in [[Washington, D.C.]], [[United States]] to be the common zero of longitude and standard of time reckoning throughout the world.<ref name=imc>{{cite book|title=International Conference Held at Washington for the Purpose of Fixing a Prime Meridian and a Universal Day. October, 1884. Protocols of the proceedings|url=https://www.gutenberg.org/files/17759/17759-h/17759-h.htm|publisher=Project Gutenberg|access-date=30 November 2012|date=1884|archive-date=18 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211218082731/https://www.gutenberg.org/files/17759/17759-h/17759-h.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>{{efn|Voting took place on 13 October and the resolutions were adopted on 22 October 1884.<ref>{{harvnb|Howse|1997|pp=12, 137}}</ref> The modern prime meridian, the IERS Reference Meridian, is placed very near this meridian.<ref name="who decided" />}}

The position of the historic prime meridian, based at the [[Royal Observatory, Greenwich]], was established by [[George Biddell Airy|Sir George Airy]] in 1851. It was defined by the location of the [[Meridian circle#19th century|Airy Transit Circle]] ever since the first observation he took with it.<ref name="Greenwich Observatory p.10">{{cite book |title=Greenwich Observatory ... the story of Britain's oldest scientific institution, the Royal Observatory at Greenwich and Herstmonceux, 1675–1975 |volume=1 |first=Eric Gray |last=Forbes |page=10 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |date=1975 |isbn=9780850660937}}</ref> Prior to that, it was defined by a succession of earlier transit instruments, the first of which was acquired by the second [[Astronomer Royal]], [[Edmond Halley]] in 1721. It was set up in the extreme north-west corner of the Observatory between Flamsteed House and the Western Summer House. This spot, now subsumed into Flamsteed House, is roughly 43 metres (47 yards) to the west of the Airy Transit Circle, a distance equivalent to roughly 2 seconds of longitude.{{sfn|Dolan|2013a}} It was Airy's transit circle that was adopted in principle (with French delegates, who pressed for adoption of the [[Paris meridian]] abstaining) as the Prime Meridian of the world at the 1884 International Meridian Conference.<ref name="Time">{{cite book|
title=TIME from Earth Rotation to Atomic Physics
|last1=McCarthy
|first1=Dennis
|author-link1=Dennis McCarthy (scientist)
|last2=Seidelmann
|first2=P. Kenneth
|pages=244–5
|location=Weinheim
|publisher=Wiley-VCH
|date=2009}}</ref><ref name="RMG">{{cite web|url= http://www.rmg.co.uk/explore/astronomy-and-time/astronomy-facts/history/the-prime-meridian-at-greenwich|title= The Prime Meridian at Greenwich|author= ROG Learning Team|date= 23 August 2002|work= Royal Museums Greenwich|access-date= 14 June 2012|archive-date= 7 November 2015|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20151107023957/http://www.rmg.co.uk/explore/astronomy-and-time/astronomy-facts/history/the-prime-meridian-at-greenwich|url-status= live}}</ref>

All of these Greenwich meridians were located via an astronomic observation from the surface of the Earth, oriented via a [[plumb line]] along the direction of gravity at the surface. This astronomic Greenwich meridian was disseminated around the world, first via the [[lunar distance method]], then by chronometers carried on ships, then via telegraph lines carried by [[submarine communications cable]]s, then via radio time signals. One remote longitude ultimately based on the Greenwich meridian using these methods was that of the [[North American Datum#North American Datum of 1927|North American Datum 1927]] or NAD27, an ellipsoid whose surface best matches [[mean sea level]] under the [[United States]].

===IERS Reference Meridian===
{{Main|IERS Reference Meridian}}

Beginning in 1973 the [[International Time Bureau]] and later the [[International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service]] changed from reliance on optical instruments like the Airy Transit Circle to techniques such as [[Lunar Laser Ranging experiment|lunar laser ranging]], [[satellite laser ranging]], and [[very-long-baseline interferometry]]. The new techniques resulted in the IERS Reference Meridian, the plane of which passes through the centre of mass of the Earth. This differs from the plane established by the Airy transit, which is affected by [[vertical deflection]] (the local vertical is affected by influences such as nearby mountains). The change from relying on the local vertical to using a meridian based on the centre of the Earth caused the modern prime meridian to be [[Minute and second of arc#Symbols and abbreviations|5.3{{pprime}}]] east of the astronomic Greenwich prime meridian through the Airy Transit Circle. At the latitude of Greenwich, this amounts to 102 metres (112 yards).<ref>{{cite journal| title = Why the Greenwich meridian moved | first1 = Stephen | last1 = Malys | first2 = John H. | last2 = Seago | first3 = Nikolaos K. | last3 = Palvis | first4 = P. Kenneth | last4 = Seidelmann | first5 = George H. | last5 = Kaplan | journal = Journal of Geodesy | volume = 89 | issue = 12 | pages = 1263 | date = 1 August 2015 | doi = 10.1007/s00190-015-0844-y|bibcode = 2015JGeod..89.1263M | doi-access = free }}</ref> This was officially accepted by the [[Bureau International de l'Heure]] (BIH) in 1984 via its BTS84 (BIH Terrestrial System) that later became WGS84 (World Geodetic System 1984) and the various [[International Terrestrial Reference Frame]]s (ITRFs).

Due to the movement of Earth's [[Plate tectonics|tectonic plates]], the line of 0° longitude along the surface of the Earth has slowly moved toward the west from this shifted position by a few centimetres (inches); that is, towards the Airy Transit Circle (or the Airy Transit Circle has moved toward the east, depending on your point of view) since 1984 (or the 1960s). With the introduction of satellite technology, it became possible to create a more accurate and detailed global map. With these advances there also arose the necessity to define a reference meridian that, whilst being derived from the Airy Transit Circle, would also take into account the effects of plate movement and variations in the way that the Earth was spinning.{{sfn|Dolan|2013b}}
As a result, the [[IERS Reference Meridian]] was established and is commonly used to [[Denotation (semiotics)|denote]] the Earth's prime meridian (0° longitude) by the [[International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service]], which defines and maintains the link between longitude and time. Based on observations to satellites and celestial compact radio sources (quasars) from various coordinated stations around the globe, Airy's [[transit circle]] drifts northeast about 2.5 centimetres (1 inch) per year relative to this Earth-centred 0° longitude.

It is also the reference meridian of the [[Global Positioning System]] operated by the [[United States Department of Defense]], and of [[WGS84]] and its two formal versions, the ideal [[International Terrestrial Reference System]] (ITRS) and its realization, the [[International Terrestrial Reference Frame]] (ITRF).<ref name="GPS">{{Cite web|url=http://gpsinformation.net/main/greenwich.htm|title=Greenwich Meridan, Tracing its History|website=gpsinformation.net|access-date=29 November 2006|archive-date=19 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171219193541/http://www.gpsinformation.net/main/greenwich.htm|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="IRM">[http://www.gearthblog.com/images/images2006/primemeridian.jpg IRM on grounds of Royal Observatory from Google Earth] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161014021413/http://www.gearthblog.com/images/images2006/primemeridian.jpg |date=14 October 2016 }} Accessed 30 March 2012</ref>{{efn|The astronomic latitude of the Royal Observatory is 51°28{{prime}}38{{pprime}}N whereas its latitude on the European Terrestrial Reference Frame (1989) [[datum (geodesy)|datum]] is 51°28{{prime}}40.1247{{pprime}}N.}} A current convention on the Earth uses the line of longitude 180° opposite the IRM as the basis for the [[International Date Line]].

====List of places====
{{geoGroup}}
On Earth, starting at the [[North Pole]] and heading south to the [[South Pole]], the IERS Reference Meridian (as of 2016) passes through 8 countries, 4 seas, 3 oceans and 1 channel:

[[File:Meridian-International.svg|thumb|The prime meridian on a globe]]
[[File:Panneau du méridien de Greenwich à Parnay .jpg|thumb|The prime meridian sign in [[Parnay, Maine-et-Loire]], France.]]
[[File:Prime Meridian Line, Longitude 0.jpg|thumb|Prime meridian sign near [[Somanya]], Ghana.]]
{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders"
! scope="col" width="125" | Co-ordinates (approximate)
! scope="col" | Country, territory or sea
! scope="col" | Notes
|-
| style="background:#b0e0e6;" | {{Coord|90|0|N|0|0|E|type:waterbody|name=North Pole}}
! scope="row" style="background:#b0e0e6;" | [[North Pole]] and [[Arctic Ocean]]
| style="background:#b0e0e6;" |
|-
| style="background:#b0e0e6;" | {{Coord|85|46|N|0|0|E|type:waterbody|name=EEZ of Greenland (Denmark)}}
! scope="row" style="background:#b0e0e6;" | [[EEZ|Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ)]] of [[Greenland]] ([[Danish Realm|Denmark]])
| style="background:#b0e0e6;" |
|-
| style="background:#b0e0e6;" | {{Coord|81|39|N|0|0|E|type:waterbody|name=Greenland Sea}}
! scope="row" style="background:#b0e0e6;" | [[Greenland Sea]]
| style="background:#b0e0e6;" |
|-
| style="background:#b0e0e6;" | {{Coord|80|29|N|0|0|E|type:waterbody|name=EEZ of Svalbard (Norway)}}
! scope="row" style="background:#b0e0e6;" | [[EEZ]] of [[Svalbard]] ([[Norway]])
| style="background:#b0e0e6;" |
|-
| style="background:#b0e0e6;" | {{Coord|76|11|N|0|0|E|type:waterbody|name=International waters}}
! scope="row" style="background:#b0e0e6;" | [[International waters]]
| style="background:#b0e0e6;" |
|-
| style="background:#b0e0e6;" | {{Coord|73|44|N|0|0|E|type:waterbody|name=EEZ of Jan Mayen}}
! scope="row" style="background:#b0e0e6;" | [[EEZ]] of [[Jan Mayen]] ([[Norway]])
| style="background:#b0e0e6;" |
|-
| style="background:#b0e0e6;" | {{Coord|72|53|N|0|0|E|type:waterbody|name=Norwegian Sea}}
! scope="row" style="background:#b0e0e6;" | [[Norwegian Sea]]
| style="background:#b0e0e6;" |
|-
| style="background:#b0e0e6;" | {{Coord|69|7|N|0|0|E|type:waterbody|name=International waters}}
! scope="row" style="background:#b0e0e6;" | [[International waters]]
| style="background:#b0e0e6;" |
|-
| style="background:#b0e0e6;" | {{Coord|64|42|N|0|0|E|type:waterbody|name=EEZ of Norway}}
! scope="row" style="background:#b0e0e6;" | [[EEZ]] of [[Norway]]
| style="background:#b0e0e6;" |
|-
| style="background:#b0e0e6;" | {{Coord|63|29|N|0|0|E|type:waterbody|name=EEZ of Great Britain}}
! scope="row" style="background:#b0e0e6;" | [[EEZ]] of [[Great Britain]]
| style="background:#b0e0e6;" |
|-
| style="background:#b0e0e6;" | {{Coord|61|0|N|0|0|E|type:waterbody|name=North Sea}}
! scope="row" style="background:#b0e0e6;" | [[North Sea]]
| style="background:#b0e0e6;" |
|-
| {{Coord|53|46|N|0|0|E|type:country|name=United Kingdom}}
! scope="row" | {{UK}}
| From [[Tunstall, East Riding of Yorkshire|Tunstall in East Riding]] to [[Peacehaven]], passing through [[Greenwich]]
|-
| style="background:#b0e0e6;" | {{Coord|50|47|N|0|0|E|type:waterbody|name=English Channel}}
! scope="row" style="background:#b0e0e6;" | [[English Channel]]
| style="background:#b0e0e6;" | [[EEZ]] of Great Britain
|-
| style="background:#b0e0e6;" | {{Coord|50|14|N|0|0|E|type:waterbody|name=EEZ of France}}
! scope="row" style="background:#b0e0e6;" | [[English Channel]]
| style="background:#b0e0e6;" | [[EEZ]] of [[France]]
|-
| {{Coord|49|20|N|0|0|E|type:country|name=France}}
! scope="row" | {{FRA}}
| From [[Villers-sur-Mer]] to [[Gavarnie]]
|-
| {{Coord|42|41|N|0|0|E|type:country|name=Spain}}
! scope="row" | {{ESP}}
| From [[Cilindro de Marboré]] to [[Castellón de la Plana]]
|-
| style="background:#b0e0e6;" | {{Coord|39|56|N|0|0|E|type:waterbody|name=Mediterranean Sea}}
! scope="row" style="background:#b0e0e6;" | [[Mediterranean Sea]]
| style="background:#b0e0e6;" | [[Gulf of Valencia]]; [[EEZ]] of [[Spain]]
|-
| {{Coord|38|52|N|0|0|E|type:country|name=Spain}}
! scope="row" | {{ESP}}
| From [[El Verger]] to [[Calp]]
|-
| style="background:#b0e0e6;" | {{Coord|38|38|N|0|0|E|type:waterbody|name=Mediterranean Sea}}
! scope="row" style="background:#b0e0e6;" | [[Mediterranean Sea]]
| style="background:#b0e0e6;" | [[EEZ]] of [[Spain]]
|-
| style="background:#b0e0e6;" | {{Coord|37|1|N|0|0|E|type:waterbody|name=EEZ of Algeria}}
! scope="row" style="background:#b0e0e6;" | [[Mediterranean Sea]]
| style="background:#b0e0e6;" | [[EEZ]] of [[Algeria]]
|-
| {{Coord|35|50|N|0|0|E|type:country|name=Algeria}}
! scope="row" | {{DZA}}
|From [[Stidia]] to Algeria-Mali border near [[Bordj Badji Mokhtar]]
|-
| {{Coord|21|52|N|0|0|E|type:country|name=Mali}}
! scope="row" | {{MLI}}
| Passing through [[Gao]]
|-
| {{Coord|15|00|N|0|0|E|type:country|name=Burkina Faso}}
! scope="row" | {{BFA}}
| For about {{Convert|432|km|abbr=on}}, running through [[Cinkassé]].
|-
| {{Coord|11|7|N|0|0|E|type:country|name=Togo}}
! scope="row" | {{TOG}}
| For about {{Convert|3.4|km|abbr=on}}
|-
| {{Coord|11|6|N|0|0|E|type:country|name=Ghana}}
! scope="row" | {{GHA}}
| For about {{Convert|16|km|4=0|abbr=on}}
|-
| {{Coord|10|58|N|0|0|E|type:country|name=Togo}}
! scope="row" | {{TOG}}
| For about {{Convert|39|km|abbr=on}}
|-
| {{Coord|10|37|N|0|0|E|type:country|name=Ghana}}
! scope="row" | {{GHA}}
| From the Togo-Ghana border near [[Bunkpurugu]] to [[Tema]] Passing through [[Lake Volta]] at {{coord|7|46|N|0|0|E|type:waterbody_region:GH|name=Lake Volta}}
|-
| style="background:#b0e0e6;" | {{Coord|5|37|N|0|0|E|type:waterbody|name=EEZ of Ghana in Atlantic Ocean}}
! scope="row" style="background:#b0e0e6;" rowspan="5" | [[Atlantic Ocean]]
| style="background:#b0e0e6;" | [[EEZ]] of [[Ghana]]
|-
| style="background:#b0e0e6;" | {{Coord|1|58|N|0|0|E|type:waterbody|name=International waters}}
! scope="row" style="background:#b0e0e6;" | [[International waters]]
|-
| style="background:#b0e0e6;" | {{Coord|0|0|N|0|0|E|type:landmark|name=Equator}}
| scope="row" style="background:#b0e0e6;" | Passing through the [[Equator]] (see [[Null Island]])
|-
| style="background:#b0e0e6;" | {{Coord|51|43|S|0|0|E|type:waterbody|name=EEZ of Bouvet Island}}
! scope="row" style="background:#b0e0e6;" | [[EEZ]] of [[Bouvet Island]] ([[Norway]])
|-
| style="background:#b0e0e6;" | {{Coord|57|13|S|0|0|E|type:waterbody|name=International waters}}
! scope="row" style="background:#b0e0e6;" | [[International waters]]
|-
| style="background:#b0e0e6;" | {{Coord|60|0|S|0|0|E|type:waterbody|name=Southern Ocean}}
! scope="row" style="background:#b0e0e6;" | [[Southern Ocean]]
! scope="row" style="background:#b0e0e6;" | [[International waters]]
|-
| {{Coord|69|36|S|0|0|E|type:country|name=Antarctica}}
! scope="row" | [[Antarctica]]
| [[Queen Maud Land]], [[List of Antarctic territorial claims|claimed]] by {{NOR}}
|-
| {{Coord|90|0|S|0|0|E|type:city|name=Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station}}
! scope="row" | [[Antarctica]]
| [[Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station]], [[South Pole]]
|-
|}

==Prime meridian on other celestial bodies{{anchor|Planets}}==
{{See also|Longitude (planets)}}
{{Redirect-distinguish|Prime meridian (planets)|Central meridian (planets)}}

As on the Earth, prime meridians must be arbitrarily defined. Often a landmark such as a crater is used; other times a prime meridian is defined by reference to another celestial object, or by [[magnetic fields]].
The prime meridians of the following planetographic systems have been defined:

* Two different [[Solar coordinate systems#Heliographic|heliographic coordinate systems]] are used on the Sun. The first is the Carrington heliographic coordinate system. In this system, the prime meridian passes through the center of the solar disk as seen from the Earth on 9 November 1853, which is when the English astronomer [[Richard Christopher Carrington]] started his observations of [[sunspots]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1O80-Carringtonheligrphccrdnts.html|title=Carrington heliographic coordinates|access-date=27 July 2009|archive-date=28 June 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110628232407/http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1O80-Carringtonheligrphccrdnts.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The second is the [[Stonyhurst Observatory#Stonyhurst heliographic coordinates|Stonyhurst heliographic coordinates]] system, originated at [[Stonyhurst Observatory]] in [[Lancashire]], England.
* In 1975 the prime meridian of [[Mercury (planet)|Mercury]] was defined<ref>[[Merton E. Davies]], "Surface Coordinates and Cartography of Mercury," Journal of Geophysical Research, Vol. 80, No. 17, 10 June 1975</ref><ref>[[Merton E. Davies]], S. E. Dwornik, D. E. Gault, and R. G. Strom, NASA Atlas of Mercury, NASA Scientific and Technical Information Office, 1978.</ref> to be 20° east of the crater [[Hun Kal (crater)|Hun Kal]].<ref name="IAU09">{{Cite journal
| doi = 10.1007/s10569-010-9320-4
| title = Report of the IAU Working Group on Cartographic Coordinates and Rotational Elements: 2009
| url = http://astropedia.astrogeology.usgs.gov/alfresco/d/d/workspace/SpacesStore/28fd9e81-1964-44d6-a58b-fbbf61e64e15/WGCCRE2009reprint.pdf 
| journal = Celestial Mechanics and Dynamical Astronomy
| volume = 109
| issue = 2
| pages = 101–135
| year = 2010
| last1 = Archinal
| first1 = Brent A.
| last2 = A'Hearn
| first2 = Michael F.
| last3 = Bowell
| first3 = Edward G.
| last4 = Conrad
| first4 = Albert R.
| last5 = Consolmagno
| first5 = Guy J.
| display-authors = 5
| last6 = Courtin
| first6 = Régis
| last7 = Fukushima
| first7 = Toshio
| last8 = Hestroffer
| first8 = Daniel
| last9 = Hilton
| first9 = James L.
| last10 = Krasinsky
| first10 = George A.
| last11 = Neumann
| first11 = Gregory A.
| last12 = Oberst
| first12 = Jürgen
| last13 = Seidelmann
| first13 = P. Kenneth
| last14 = Stooke
| first14 = Philip J.
| last15 = Tholen
| first15 = David J.
| last16 = Thomas
| first16 = Paul C.
| last17 = Williams
| first17 = Iwan P.
| bibcode = 2011CeMDA.109..101A
| s2cid = 189842666
| access-date = 26 September 2018
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160304065344/http://astropedia.astrogeology.usgs.gov/alfresco/d/d/workspace/SpacesStore/28fd9e81-1964-44d6-a58b-fbbf61e64e15/WGCCRE2009reprint.pdf
| archive-date = 4 March 2016
| url-status = dead
| url-access = subscription
}}</ref> This meridian was chosen because it runs through the point on Mercury's equator where the average temperature is highest (due to the planet's rotation and orbit, the sun briefly [[Apparent retrograde motion|retrogrades]] at noon at this point during [[perihelion]], giving it more sunlight).<ref>Davies, M. E., "Surface Coordinates and Cartography of Mercury," Journal of Geophysical Research, Vol. 80, No. 17, June 10, 1975.</ref><ref name="ArchinalA’Hearn2010">{{cite journal |last1=Archinal |first1=Brent A. |display-authors=4 |last2=A'Hearn |first2=Michael F. |last3=Bowell |first3=Edward L. |last4=Conrad |first4=Albert R. |last5=Consolmagno |first5=Guy J. |last6=Courtin |first6=Régis |last7=Fukushima |first7=Toshio |last8=Hestroffer |first8=Daniel |last9=Hilton |first9=James L. |last10=Krasinsky |first10=George A. |last11=Neumann |first11=Gregory A. |last12=Oberst |first12=Jürgen |last13=Seidelmann |first13=P. Kenneth |last14=Stooke |first14=Philip J. |last15=Tholen |first15=David J. |last16=Thomas |first16=Peter C. |last17=Williams |first17=Iwan P. |title=Report of the IAU Working Group on Cartographic Coordinates and Rotational Elements: 2009 |journal=Celestial Mechanics and Dynamical Astronomy |volume=109 |issue=2 |date=2010 |pages=101–135 |issn=0923-2958 |doi=10.1007/s10569-010-9320-4 |bibcode=2011CeMDA.109..101A|s2cid=189842666 }}</ref><ref name="usgs">{{cite web |url=https://astrogeology.usgs.gov/Projects/WGCCRE/constants/iau2000_table1.html |access-date=October 22, 2009 |title=USGS Astrogeology: Rotation and pole position for the Sun and planets (IAU WGCCRE) |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111024101856/http://astrogeology.usgs.gov/Projects/WGCCRE/constants/iau2000_table1.html |archive-date=October 24, 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
* Defined in 1992,<ref>[[Merton E. Davies]]; Colvin, T. R.; Rogers, P. G.; Chodas, P. G.; Sjogren, W. L.; Akim, W. L.; Stepanyantz, E. L.; Vlasova, Z. P.; and Zakharov, A. I.; "The Rotation Period, Direction of the North Pole, and Geodetic Control Network of Venus", ''Journal of Geophysical Research'', vol. 97, no. 8, 1992, pp. 1–14, 151</ref> the prime meridian of [[Venus]] passes through the central peak in [[Ariadne (crater)|the crater Ariadne]], chosen arbitrarily.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://astrogeology.usgs.gov/Projects/WGCCRE/constants/iau2000_table1.html |access-date=22 October 2009 |title=USGS Astrogeology: Rotation and pole position for the Sun and planets (IAU WGCCRE) |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111024101856/http://astrogeology.usgs.gov/Projects/WGCCRE/constants/iau2000_table1.html |archive-date=24 October 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
* The prime meridian of the [[Moon]] lies directly in the middle of the face of the Moon visible from Earth and passes near the crater [[Bruce (crater)|Bruce]].{{cn|date=March 2025}}
* The prime meridian of [[Mars]] was established in 1971<ref>[[Merton E. Davies]], and Berg, R. A.; "Preliminary Control Net of Mars", ''Journal of Geophysical Research'', vol. 76, no. 2, 10 January 1971, pp. 373–393</ref> and passes through the center of the crater [[Airy-0]], although it is fixed by the longitude of the [[Viking 1#Lander|''Viking 1'' lander]], which is defined to be 47.95137°W.<ref>{{ Citation | last1 = Archinal | first1 = Brent A. | last2 = Acton | first2 = C. H. | last3 = A'Hearn | first3 = Michael F. | author3-link = Michael A'Hearn | last4 = Conrad | first4 = Albert R. |display-authors=etal| date = 2018 | title = Report of the IAU Working Group on Cartographic Coordinates and Rotational Elements: 2015 | journal = Celestial Mechanics and Dynamical Astronomy | volume = 130 | issue = 22 | pages = 22 | doi = 10.1007/s10569-017-9805-5 | bibcode = 2018CeMDA.130...22A | s2cid = 189844155 }}</ref>
*The prime meridian on [[Ceres (dwarf planet)|Ceres]] runs through the Kait crater, which was arbitrarily chosen because it is near the equator (about 2° south).<ref>{{cite web|title= New Maps of Ceres Reveal Topography Surrounding Mysterious 'Bright Spots'|author= Marc Reyman|publisher=NASA|date=30 October 2015|url=https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/blog/2015/10/new-maps-of-ceres-reveal-topography-surrounding-mysterious-bright-spots|accessdate=13 September 2022}}</ref>
*The prime meridian on [[4 Vesta]] is 4 degrees east of the crater [[Claudia (crater)|Claudia]], chosen because it is sharply defined.<ref name=IAUcoordinates>{{cite web|url=https://astrogeology.usgs.gov/search/details/Docs/WGCCRE/IAU-WGCCRE-Coordinate-System-for-Vesta/pdf |title=IAU WGCCRE Coordinate System for Vesta {{pipe}} USGS Astrogeology Science Center |publisher=Astrogeology.usgs.gov |date=2013-11-15 |access-date=2014-06-25}}</ref>
*[[Jupiter]] has several coordinate systems because its cloud tops—the only part of the planet visible from space—rotate at different rates depending on latitude.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://reference.wolfram.com/legacy/applications/astronomer/AdditionalInformation/PlanetographicCoordinates.html |title=Planetographic Coordinates |access-date=24 May 2017 |archive-date=15 April 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120415120251/http://reference.wolfram.com/legacy/applications/astronomer/AdditionalInformation/PlanetographicCoordinates.html |url-status=live }}</ref> It is unknown whether Jupiter has any internal solid surface that would enable a more Earth-like coordinate system. System I and System II coordinates are based on atmospheric rotation, and System III coordinates use Jupiter's magnetic field. The prime meridians of Jupiter's four [[Galilean moons]] were established in 1979.<ref>[[Merton E. Davies]], Thomas A. Hauge, et al.: Control Networks for the Galilean Satellites: November 1979 R-2532-JPL/NASA</ref>
**[[Europa (moon)|Europa]]'s prime meridian is defined such that [[Cilix (crater)|the crater Cilix]] is at 182° W.<ref name="IAU09"/> The 0° longitude runs through the middle of the face that is always turned towards Jupiter.
**[[Io (moon)|Io]]'s prime meridian, like that of Earth's moon, is defined so that it runs through the middle of the face that is always turned towards Jupiter (the near side, known as the subjovian hemisphere).<ref name="Lopes2005">{{cite journal |title=Io after ''Galileo'' |journal=[[Reports on Progress in Physics]] |last1=Lopes |first1=R. M. C. |author1-link=Rosaly Lopes |first2=D. A. |last2=Williams |pages=303–340 |volume=68 |issue=2 |date=2005 |doi=10.1088/0034-4885/68/2/R02 |bibcode=2005RPPh...68..303L|s2cid=44208045 }}</ref>
**[[Ganymede (moon)|Ganymede]]'s prime meridian is defined such that [[Anat (crater)|the crater Anat]] is at 128° W, and the 0° longitude runs through the middle of the subjovian hemisphere.<ref name="iau.table2">{{cite web |url=https://astrogeology.usgs.gov/Projects/WGCCRE/constants/iau2000_table2.html |title=USGS Astrogeology: Rotation and pole position for planetary satellites (IAU WGCCRE) |access-date=August 28, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111024101848/http://astrogeology.usgs.gov/Projects/WGCCRE/constants/iau2000_table2.html |archive-date=October 24, 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
**[[Callisto (moon)|Callisto]]'s prime meridian is defined such that [[Saga (crater)|the crater Saga]] is at 326° W.<ref>''Satellites of Jupiter''. (1982:912). United States: University of Arizona Press.</ref>
*[[Titan (moon)|Titan]] is the largest moon of [[Saturn]] and, like the Earth's moon, is tidally locked and always has the same face towards Saturn. The middle of that face is 0 longitude.{{cn|date=March 2025}}
*Like Jupiter, [[Neptune]] is a gas giant, so any surface is obscured by clouds. The prime meridian of its largest moon, [[Triton (moon)|Triton]], was established in 1991.<ref>[[Merton E. Davies]], P. G. Rogers, and T. R. Colvin, "A Control Network of Triton," Journal of Geophysical Research, Vo l. 96, E l, pp. 15,675-15,681, 1991.</ref>
*[[Pluto]]'s prime meridian is defined as the meridian passing through the center of the face that is always towards [[Charon (moon)|Charon]], its largest moon, as the two are tidally locked to each other. Charon's prime meridian is similarly defined as the meridian always facing directly toward Pluto.

==List of historic prime meridians on Earth==

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Locality
! Modern longitude
! style="width:200px;"| Meridian name
!Image
! Comment
|-
| [[Bering Strait]] || 168°30′ W
|
|{{Location map-line|lon=-168}}
| Offered in 1884 as possibility for a neutral prime meridian by [[Pierre Janssen]] at the International Meridian Conference<ref>[https://www.gutenberg.org/files/17759/17759-h/17759-h.htm International Conference Held at Washington for the Purpose of Fixing a Prime Meridian and a Universal Day. October, 1884] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211218082731/https://www.gutenberg.org/files/17759/17759-h/17759-h.htm |date=18 December 2021 }}, pp. 43–51. Project Gutenberg</ref>
|-
| rowspan="4" | [[Washington, D.C.]] || 77°03{{prime}}56.07{{pprime}} W (1897) or 77°04{{prime}}02.24{{pprime}} W (NAD 27){{clarify|date=December 2016}} or 77°04{{prime}}01.16{{pprime}} W (NAD 83)
| [[New Naval Observatory meridian]]
| rowspan="4" |{{Location map-line|lon=-77}}
|
|-
| 77°02{{prime}}48.0{{pprime}} W, 77°03{{prime}}02.3{{pprime}}, 77°03{{prime}}06.119{{pprime}} W or 77°03{{prime}}06.276{{pprime}} W (both presumably NAD 27). If NAD27, the latter would be 77°03{{prime}}05.194{{pprime}} W (NAD 83)
| [[Old Naval Observatory meridian]]
|
|-
| 77°02{{prime}}11.56299{{pprime}} W (NAD 83),{{sfn|NGS|2016|loc = PID: HV1847}} 77°02{{prime}}11.55811{{pprime}} W (NAD 83),{{sfn|NGS|2016|loc = PID: HV1846}} 77°02{{prime}}11.58325{{pprime}} W (NAD 83){{sfn|NGS|2016|loc = PID: AH7372}} (three different monuments originally intended to be on the White House meridian)
| [[White House meridian]]
|
|-
| 77°00{{prime}}32.6{{pprime}} W (NAD 83)
| [[Capitol meridian]]
|
|-
| [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania|Philadelphia]] || 75° 10{{prime}} 12{{pprime}} W
|
|{{Location map-line|lon=-75}}
|{{sfn|Hooker|2006|loc=introduction}}<ref name="WIRED">[https://www.wired.com/2010/10/1013greenwich-prime-meridian/ Oct. 13, 1884: Greenwich Resolves Subprime Meridian Crisis] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181201141846/https://www.wired.com/2010/10/1013greenwich-prime-meridian/ |date=1 December 2018 }}, ''WIRED'', 13 October 2010.</ref>
|-
| [[Rio de Janeiro]] || 43° 10{{prime}} 19{{pprime}} W
|
|{{Location map-line|lon=-43}}
|<ref>[http://www.maproom.org/00/49/index.php Atlas do Brazil] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140616011924/http://www.maproom.org/00/49/index.php |date=16 June 2014 }}, 1909, by Barão Homem de Mello e Francisco Homem de Mello, published in Rio de Janeiro by F. Briguiet & Cia.</ref>
|-
| [[Fortunate Isles]] / Azores || 25° 40{{prime}} 32{{pprime}} W
|
|{{Location map-line|lon=-25}}
| Used until the Middle Ages, proposed as one possible neutral meridian by [[Pierre Janssen]] at the International Meridian Conference<ref name="gutenberg.org">{{cite web |url=https://www.gutenberg.org/files/17759/17759-h/17759-h.htm |title=The Project Gutenberg eBook of International Conference Held at Washington for the Purpose of Fixing a Prime Meridian and a Universal Day |publisher=Gutenberg.org |date=12 February 2006 |access-date=28 March 2016 |archive-date=18 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211218082731/https://www.gutenberg.org/files/17759/17759-h/17759-h.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| [[El Hierro|El Hierro (Ferro)]], Canary Islands || 18° 03{{prime}} W, {{nowrap|later redefined as}} 17° 39{{prime}} 46{{pprime}} W
| [[Ferro meridian]]
|{{Location map-line|lon=-18}}
|<ref>Ancient, used in [[Ptolemy]]'s ''[[Geographia]]''. Later redefined 17° 39{{prime}} 46{{pprime}} W of Greenwich to be exactly 20° W of Paris. French "submarin" at Washington 1884.</ref>
|-
| [[Tenerife]] || 16°38{{prime}}22{{pprime}} W
| [[Tenerife meridian]]
|{{Location map-line|lon=-16}}
| Rose to prominence with Dutch cartographers and navigators after they abandoned the idea of a magnetic meridian<ref>A.R.T. Jonkers; [https://livrepository.liverpool.ac.uk/3000739/1/PARAMER.pdf Parallel meridians: Diffusion and change in early modern oceanic reckoning] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180126070923/https://livrepository.liverpool.ac.uk/3000739/1/PARAMER.pdf |date=26 January 2018 }}, in ''Noord-Zuid in Oostindisch perspectief'', The Hague, 2005, p. 7. Retrieved 2 February 2015.</ref>
|-
| [[Lisbon]] || 9° 07{{prime}} 54.862{{pprime}} W
|
|{{Location map-line|lon=-9}}
|<ref name="Bartky">{{cite book|last=Bartky|first=Ian R.|title=One Time Fits All: The Campaigns for Global Uniformity|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rC6sAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA98|year=2007|publisher=Stanford University Press|isbn=978-0-8047-5642-6|page=98|access-date=8 December 2018|archive-date=22 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230122160000/https://books.google.com/books?id=rC6sAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA98|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
| [[Cadiz]] || 6° 17{{prime}} 35.4" W
| Cadiz meridian
|{{Location map-line|lon=-6}}
| Royal Observatory in southeast tower of [[:es:Castillo de la Villa (Cádiz)|Castillo de la Villa]], used 1735–1850 by Spanish Navy.<ref name="Cadiz1">[https://elpais.com/elpais/2017/01/02/inenglish/1483355711_147804.html "In search of the lost meridian of Cadiz"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191130014945/https://elpais.com/elpais/2017/01/02/inenglish/1483355711_147804.html |date=30 November 2019 }}, ''El País'', 23 December 2016. Retrieved 8 November 2018.</ref><ref name=Cadiz2>Antonio Lafuente and Manuel Sellés, [https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&as_sdt=0%2C10&q=El+Meridiano+de+C%C3%A1diz&btnG= El Observatorio de Cádiz (1753–1831)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200602035018/https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&as_sdt=0%2C10&q=El+Meridiano+de+C%C3%A1diz&btnG= |date=2 June 2020 }}, Ministerio de Defensa, 1988, p.144, {{isbn|84-505-7563-X}}. {{in lang|es}}</ref>
|-
| [[Madrid]] || 3° 41{{prime}} 16.58{{pprime}} W
|
|{{Location map-line|lon=-3}}
|<ref name="Bartky" />
|-
| [[Kew]] || 0° 00{{prime}} 19.0{{pprime}} W
| Prime Meridian (prior to Greenwich)
| rowspan="4" |{{Location map-line|lon=0}}
| Located at King George III's [[Kew Observatory]]
|-
| rowspan="3" | Greenwich || 0° 00{{prime}} 05.33{{pprime}} W
| [[United Kingdom Ordnance Survey Zero Meridian]]
| [[James Bradley|Bradley]] Meridian{{sfn|Dolan|2013a}}
|-
| 0° 00{{prime}} 05.3101{{pprime}} W
| [[Prime meridian (Greenwich)|Greenwich meridian]]
| Airy Meridian{{sfn|Dolan|2013a}}
|-
| 0° 00{{prime}} 00.00{{pprime}}
| [[IERS Reference Meridian]]
|
|-
| [[Paris]] || 2° 20{{prime}} 14.025{{pprime}} E
| [[Paris meridian]]
|{{Location map-line|lon=2}}
|
|-
| [[Brussels]] || 4° 22{{prime}} 4.71{{pprime}} E
|
| rowspan="3" |{{Location map-line|lon=4}}
|<ref name="Bartky" />
|-
| [[Antwerp]] || 4° 24{{prime}} E
| [[Antwerp meridian]]
|
|-
| [[Amsterdam]] || 4° 53{{prime}} E
|
| Through the [[Westerkerk]] in Amsterdam; used to define the legal time in the Netherlands from 1909 to 1937<ref>{{in lang|nl}}[http://www.staff.science.uu.nl/~gent0113/wettijd/wt_text3d.htm Eenheid van tijd in Nederland (Unity of time in the Netherlands)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150210095902/http://www.staff.science.uu.nl/~gent0113/wettijd/wt_text3d.htm |date=10 February 2015 }}, Utrecht University website, retrieved 28 August 2013.</ref>
|-
| [[Pisa]] || 10° 24{{prime}} E
|
| rowspan="2" |{{Location map-line|lon=10}}
|{{sfn|Hooker|2006|loc=introduction}}
|-
| [[Oslo|Oslo (Kristiania)]] || 10° 43{{prime}} 22.5{{pprime}} E
|
|{{sfn|Hooker|2006|loc=introduction}}<ref name="WIRED" />
|-
| [[Florence]] || 11°15{{prime}} E
| [[Florence meridian]]
|{{Location map-line|lon=11}}
| Used in the [[Peters projection]], 180° from a meridian running through the [[Bering Strait]]
|-
| [[Rome]] || 12° 27{{prime}} 08.4{{pprime}} E
| ''Meridian of [[Monte Mario]]''
| rowspan="2" |{{Location map-line|lon=12}}
| Used in Roma 40 Datum<ref>[http://www.asprs.org/a/resources/grids/08-2005-italy.pdf Grids & Datums – Italian Republic] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121120145503/http://www.asprs.org/a/resources/grids/08-2005-italy.pdf |date=20 November 2012 }}, asprs.org, Retrieved 10 December 2013.</ref>
|-
| [[Copenhagen]] || 12° 34{{prime}} 32.25{{pprime}} E
|
| [[Rundetårn]]<ref>''[http://www.denstoredanske.dk/index.php?sideId=124327 meridian] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160314105013/http://denstoredanske.dk/index.php?sideid=124327 |date=14 March 2016 }}'', article from [[Den Store Danske Encyklopædi]]</ref>
|-
| [[Naples]] || 14° 15{{prime}} E
|
|{{Location map-line|lon=14}}
|<ref name="gutenberg.org"/>
|-
| [[Bratislava|Pressburg]] || 17° 06{{prime}} 03{{pprime}} E
|Meridianus Posoniensis
|{{Location map-line|lon=17}}
|Used by [[Sámuel Mikoviny]]
|-
| Stockholm || 18° 03{{prime}} 29.8{{pprime}} E
|
|{{Location map-line|lon=18}}
| At the [[Stockholm Observatory]]<ref name="Bartky" />
|-
| [[Buda]] || 19° 03{{prime}} 37{{pprime}} E
| Meridianu(s) Budense
| rowspan="2" |{{Location map-line|lon=19}}
| Used between 1469 and 1495; introduced by [[Regiomontanus]], used by [[Marcin Bylica]], [[Galeotto Marzio]], Miklós Erdélyi (1423–1473), Johannes Tolhopff (c. 1445–1503), Johannes Muntz. Set in the royal castle (and observatory) of Buda.{{Efn|When Tolhopff handed over his book, titled {{lang|la|Stellarium}} (1480),<ref>{{cite book |title=Stellarium |first=Johannes |last=Tolhopff |date=1480 |url=https://www.corvina.oszk.hu/kepnezegeto/index.php?corvina=codguelf84_1aug2o&lang=en&img=11#11 |language=la |access-date=30 December 2021 |archive-date=30 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211230012913/https://www.corvina.oszk.hu/kepnezegeto/index.php?corvina=codguelf84_1aug2o&lang=en&img=11#11 |url-status=live }} (facsimile, not machine readable)</ref> to King Matthias Corvinus, he emphasized that he had used the meridian of [[Buda]] for his calculations. The German physician, Johannes Müntz used it the same way in his 1495 calendar. However, in the second edition, he used the Vienna meridian.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Zsoldos |first=Endre |journal=Orpheus Noster |volume= 5 |number= 4 |pages= 64–87 |date=2014 |title=Stellarium – egy csillagászati kódex Mátyás könyvtárában |trans-title=Stellarium - an Astronomical Codex in the Library of King Matthias |url=https://www.academia.edu/8257327|language=hu}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Szathmáry |first=László |title=Az asztrológia, alkémia és misztika Mátyás király udvarában. |trans-title=Astrology, alchemy and mysticism in the court of King Matthias. |journal=Ponticulus Hungaricus |volume=VI. évfolyam 5. szám |date=2002 |url=http://members.iif.hu/visontay/ponticulus/rovatok/hidverok/matyas-01.html |url-status=dead |language=hu |access-date=27 December 2018 |archive-date=18 October 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091018162305/http://members.iif.hu/visontay/ponticulus/rovatok/hidverok/matyas-01.html }}</ref>}}
|-
| [[Kraków]] || 19° 57{{prime}} 21.43{{pprime}} E
| Kraków meridian
| at the Old Kraków Observatory at the [[Botanic Garden of the Jagiellonian University|Śniadecki' College]]; mentioned also in [[Nicolaus Copernicus]]'s work ''On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres''.
|-
| [[Warsaw]] || 21° 00{{prime}} 42{{pprime}} E
| [[Warsaw meridian]]
|{{Location map-line|lon=21}}
|<ref name="Bartky" />
|-
| [[History of Oradea|Várad]] || 21° 55{{prime}} 16{{pprime}} E
| {{lang|la|Tabulae Varadienses}}
|{{Location map-line|lon=21}}
|<ref>{{cite web |url=http://romaniatourism.com/oradea.html |title=Oradea |publisher=Romania Tourism |access-date=3 February 2015 |archive-date=6 February 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150206142118/http://romaniatourism.com/oradea.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Between 1464 and 1667, a ''prime meridian'' was set in the Fortress of Oradea (''Varadinum'' at the time) by [[Georg von Peuerbach]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2015 |title=Romanian astronaut marks 10th anniversary of Prime Meridian Astronomy Club |url=http://www.nineoclock.ro/romanian-astronaut-marks-10th-anniversary-of-prime-meridian-astronomy-club/ |website=NineO'Clock |access-date=26 June 2017 |archive-date=1 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171001075121/http://www.nineoclock.ro/romanian-astronaut-marks-10th-anniversary-of-prime-meridian-astronomy-club/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In his logbook [[Christopher Columbus|Columbus]] stated, he had one copy of Tabulae Varadienses ({{lang|la|Tabula Varadiensis}} or {{lang|la|Tabulae directionum}}) on board to calculate the actual meridian based on the position of the Moon, in correlation to Várad. [[Amerigo Vespucci]] also recalled, how was he acquired the knowledge to calculate meridians by means of these tables.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://meridianzero.astroclubul.org/istoric_hu.html |title=Meridian Zero csillagászklub |access-date=27 December 2018 |language=ro |archive-date=12 April 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090412084006/http://www.meridianzero.ro/istoric_hu.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
| [[Alexandria]] || 29° 53{{prime}} E
| Meridian of Alexandria
|{{Location map-line|lon=29}}
| The meridian of [[Ptolemy]]'s [[Almagest]].
|-
| [[Saint Petersburg]] || 30° 19{{prime}} 42.09{{pprime}} E
| [[Pulkovo meridian]]
|{{Location map-line|lon=30}}
|
|-
| {{nowrap|[[Great Pyramid of Giza]]}} || 31° 08{{prime}} 03.69{{pprime}} E
|
|{{Location map-line|lon=31}}
| 1884<ref>Wilcomb E. Washburn, "[http://muweb.millersville.edu/~columbus/data/geo/WASHBR04.GEO The Canary Islands and the Question of the Prime Meridian: The Search for Precision in the Measurement of the Earth] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070529031631/http://muweb.millersville.edu/~columbus/data/geo/WASHBR04.GEO |date=29 May 2007 }}"</ref>
|-
| [[Jerusalem]] || 35° 13{{prime}} 47.1{{pprime}} E
|
|{{Location map-line|lon=35}}
|<ref name="WIRED" />
|-
| [[Mecca]] || 39° 49{{prime}} 34{{pprime}} E
|
|{{Location map-line|lon=39}}
| See also [[Mecca Time]]
|-
| || Approx. 59° E
|
|{{Location map-line|lon=59}}
|[[Maimonides]]<ref>[http://mechon-mamre.org/i/3811.htm#17 ''Hilchot Kiddush Hachodesh'' 11:17]</ref> calls this point (24 degrees east of [[Jerusalem]]) אמצע היישוב, "the middle of the habitation", i.e. the habitable hemisphere. Evidently this was a convention accepted by Arab geographers of his day.
|-
| [[Ujjain]] || 75° 47{{prime}} E
|
|{{Location map-line|lon=75}}
| Used from 4th century CE Indian astronomy and calendars(see also [[Time in India#Ancient India|Time in India]]).{{sfn|Burgess|1860}}
|-
| [[Beijing]] || 116° 24{{prime}} E
|
|{{Location map-line|lon=116}}
| Used in [[Qing Dynasty]] for astronomical<ref>{{cite web |title=御製厯象考成下篇 |language=zh-hant |url=https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E5%BE%A1%E8%A3%BD%E5%8E%AF%E8%B1%A1%E8%80%83%E6%88%90_(%E5%9B%9B%E5%BA%AB%E5%85%A8%E6%9B%B8%E6%9C%AC)/%E4%B8%8B%E7%B7%A8%E5%8D%B701#%E6%8E%A8%E5%90%84%E7%9C%81%E7%AF%80%E6%B0%A3%E6%99%82%E5%88%BB%E6%B3%95}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=清史稿 |language=zh-hant |url=https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E6%B8%85%E5%8F%B2%E7%A8%BF/%E5%8D%B748}}</ref> and cartographical<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.eastday.com/epublish/gb/paper148/20010726/class014800009/hwz447203.htm|title=新闻精选-我国清代世界地图以北京为本初子午线|language=zh-hans|website=news.eastday.com|accessdate=2012-05-04|archive-date=2016-03-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304200732/http://news.eastday.com/epublish/gb/paper148/20010726/class014800009/hwz447203.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> purposes.
|-
| [[Kyoto]] || 136° 14{{prime}} E
|
|{{Location map-line|lon=136}}
| Used in 18th and 19th (officially 1779–1871) century Japanese maps. Exact place unknown, but in "Kairekisyo" in Nishigekkoutyou-town in Kyoto, then the capital.{{citation needed|date=July 2013}}
|-
| || ~ 180
|
|[[File:Earth map with 180th meridian.jpg|thumb|300px|180th meridian]]
| Opposite of Greenwich, proposed 13 October 1884 on the International Meridian Conference by [[Sandford Fleming]]<ref name="gutenberg.org"/>
|}

==See also==
* {{Annotated link |1st meridian east}}
* {{Annotated link |1st meridian west}}
* {{Annotated link |180th meridian}}
* {{Annotated link |Null Island}}
* {{Annotated link |Geographical center of Earth}}

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Works cited==
{{refbegin|30em|indent=yes}}
*{{Citation
| last = Burgess
| first = Ebenezer
| publication-date = 2013
| date = 1860
| title = Journal of the American Oriental Society
| contribution = Translation of the Surya-Siddhanta
| type = e-book
| volume = 6
| page = 185
}}
*{{cite web
|last = Dolan
|first = Graham
|url = http://www.thegreenwichmeridian.org/tgm/articles.php?article=8
|work = The Greenwich Meridian
|title = The Greenwich Meridian before the Airy Transit Circle
|date = 2013a
|access-date = 6 January 2013
|archive-date = 2 May 2012
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120502225626/http://www.thegreenwichmeridian.org/tgm/articles.php?article=8
|url-status = live
}}
*{{cite web
|last = Dolan
|first = Graham
|url = http://www.thegreenwichmeridian.org/tgm/articles.php?article=7
|work = The Greenwich Meridian
|title = WGS84 and the Greenwich Meridian
|date = 2013b
|access-date = 6 January 2013
|archive-date = 8 July 2014
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140708074531/http://www.thegreenwichmeridian.org/tgm/articles.php?article=7
|url-status = live
}}
*{{citation |first=Brian |last=Hooker |title=A multitude of prime meridians |date=2006 |url=http://zeehaen.tripod.com/unpub_2/multitude_meridians.htm |access-date=28 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180926052301/http://zeehaen.tripod.com/unpub_2/multitude_meridians.htm |archive-date=26 September 2018 }}
*{{citation | last = Howse | first = Derek | title = Greenwich Time and the Longitude | date = 1997 | publisher = Phillip Wilson | isbn = 978-0-85667-468-6 | url-access = registration | url = https://archive.org/details/greenwichtimelon0000hows }}
*{{citation |first1=Jean |first2=Martin |last1=Norgate |last2=Norgate |date=2006 |title=Prime meridian |url=https://www.oldhampshiremapped.org.uk/hantsmap/meridian.htm |website=Old Hampshire Mapped |access-date=13 January 2013 |archive-date=28 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211228152854/https://www.oldhampshiremapped.org.uk/hantsmap/meridian.htm |url-status=live }}
*{{citation | title = NGS datasheet station name form | date = 2016 | publisher = National Geodetic Survey | url = http://www.ngs.noaa.gov/cgi-bin/ds_desig.prl | access-date = 11 December 2016 | ref = {{SfnRef|NGS|2016}} | archive-date = 16 February 2016 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160216184812/http://www.ngs.noaa.gov/cgi-bin/ds_desig.prl | url-status = live }}
*{{citation |first1=Dava |last1=Sobel |first2=William J. H. |last2=Andrewes |title=The Illustrated Longitude |date=1998 |publisher=Fourth Estate, London|title-link=The Illustrated Longitude }}
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{commons category|Prime meridian}}
* [https://books.google.com/books?id=qOIDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA927 "Where the Earth's surface begins—and ends"], ''Popular Mechanics'', December 1930
* [http://www.ucolick.org/~sla/leapsecs/scans-meridian.html scanned TIFFs of the conference proceedings]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20061029234822/http://wwp.greenwichmeantime.com/info/prime-meridian.htm Prime meridians in use in the 1880s, by country]

{{Time measurement and standards}}
{{geographical coordinates}}
{{Portal bar|Geography|Earth sciences|Astronomy|Stars|Spaceflight|Outer space|Solar System}}
{{Authority control}}


[[Category:Geodesy]]
[[Category:Meridians (geography)]]
[[Category:Prime meridians| ]]
[[Category:Cardinal Richelieu]]

Richard Brocklesby

2025-06-15T18:14:43Z

2A00:23C7:C8BC:C501:507C:445E:62F7:256D: Added location

{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2016}}
{{Use British English|date=September 2016}}
{{For|the priest|Richard Brocklesby (priest)}}
[[File:Richard Brocklesby 2.jpg|thumb|Richard Brocklesby]]
'''Richard Brocklesby''' (11 August 1722 – 11 December 1797), an [[English people|English]] [[physician]], was born at [[Minehead]], [[Somerset]].

He was educated at [[Ballitore]], in [[Ireland]], where [[Edmund Burke]] was one of his school fellows, studied medicine at [[Edinburgh]], and finally graduated at [[Leiden]] in 1745. He succeeded [[John Pringle (physician)|John Pringle]] as Surgeon General of the British Army in 1758, and served in [[Germany]] during part of the [[Seven Years' War]], and on his return settled down to practice in London. He was admitted a fellow of the [[Royal College of Physicians]] and in 1758 delivered their [[Goulstonian Lectures]], in 1763 their [[Croonian Lecture]] and in 1760 the Harveian Oratory.<ref>{{cite book|title = The Roll of the Royal College of Physicians of London, Volume 2|page = 175|publisher= Royal College of Physicians|volume = 2}}</ref> In 1764 he published ''Œconomical and Medical Observations'', which contained suggestions for improving the hygiene of army hospitals. In his latter years he withdrew altogether into private life. He was elected a [[Fellow of the Royal Society]] in 1757.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://royalsociety.org/DServe/dserve.exe?dsqIni=Dserve.ini&dsqApp=Archive&dsqCmd=Show.tcl&dsqDb=Persons&dsqPos=0&dsqSearch=%28%28text%29%3D%27brocklesby%27%29|title= Library and Archive|publisher= Royal Society|accessdate =2012-09-10}}</ref>

He was on the premises of the House of Lords when he attended [[William Pitt, 1st Earl of Chatham|the Earl of Chatham]] following the latter's ultimately fatal collapse while speaking at a debate in the House on the [[American War of Independence]] in April 1778.<ref>{{cite book|last=Brown|first=Peter Douglas|title=William Pitt, Earl of Chatham, The Great Commoner|publisher=George Allen and Unwin|year=1978|pages=392–393}}</ref>

The circle of his friends included some of the most distinguished literary men of the age. He was warmly attached to Dr. [[Samuel Johnson]], to whom about 1784 he offered an annuity of £100 for life, and whom he attended on his deathbed, while in 1788 he presented Burke, of whom he was an intimate friend, with £1000, and offered to repeat the gift every year "until your merit is rewarded as it ought to be at court."

He died on 11 December 1797 aged 75, leaving his house and part of his fortune to his grandnephew, Dr. [[Thomas Young (scientist)|Thomas Young]].
He was buried at [[St Clement Danes]]’ Church in [[Westminster]].

==References==
{{reflist}}
{{Commons category}}
*{{EB1911|wstitle=Brocklesby, Richard}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Brocklesby, Richard}}
[[Category:1722 births]]
[[Category:1797 deaths]]
[[Category:People from Minehead]]
[[Category:18th-century English medical doctors]]
[[Category:Fellows of the Royal Society]]
[[Category:Fellows of the Royal College of Physicians]]
[[Category:Alumni of the University of Edinburgh]]

Thomas Young (scientist)

2025-06-15T18:13:05Z

2A00:23C7:C8BC:C501:507C:445E:62F7:256D: /* Personal life */Added apostrophe

{{Short description|English polymath (1773–1829)}}
{{Use British English|date=October 2013}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2017}}
{{Infobox scientist
| name = Thomas Young
| post-nominals = {{postnominals|country=GBR|size=100%|FRS}}
| image = File:Thomas Young by Briggs cropped.jpg
| image_size = 240px
| caption = Portrait by [[Henry Perronet Briggs]], 1822
| birth_date = {{birth date|df=yes|1773|06|13}}
| birth_place = [[Milverton, Somerset]], England
| death_date = {{death date and age|df=yes|1829|05|10|1773|06|13}}
| death_place = London, England
| residence =
| citizenship =
| nationality =
| field = [[Physics]] [[Physiology]] [[Egyptology]]
| work_institutions =
| alma_mater = [[University of Edinburgh Medical School]] [[University of Göttingen]] [[Emmanuel College, Cambridge]]
| doctoral_advisor =
| doctoral_students =
| known_for = [[Wave theory of light]] [[Young's interference experiment|Double-slit experiment]] [[Astigmatism (eye)|Astigmatism]] [[Wetting#The Young–Dupré equation and spreading coefficient|Young–Dupré equation]] [[Young–Helmholtz theory]] [[Young–Laplace equation]] [[Young temperament]] [[Young's modulus]] [[Young's rule]]
| author_abbrev_bot =
| author_abbrev_zoo =
| prizes =
| footnotes =
| signature = Young Thomas signature.jpg
}}
'''Thomas Young''' [[Fellow of the Royal Society|FRS]] (13 June 1773{{snd}}10 May 1829) was a British [[polymath]] who made notable contributions to the fields of [[Visual perception|vision]], [[light]], [[solid mechanics]], [[energy]], [[physiology]], [[language]], [[harmony|musical harmony]], and [[Egyptology]]. He was instrumental in the [[decipherment of Egyptian hieroglyphs]], specifically the [[Rosetta Stone]].

Young has been described as "[[The Last Man Who Knew Everything]]".<ref name=":0" /> His work influenced that of [[William Herschel]], [[Hermann von Helmholtz]], [[James Clerk Maxwell]], and [[Albert Einstein]]. Young is credited with establishing [[Christiaan Huygens]]' [[wave theory of light]], in contrast to the corpuscular theory of [[Isaac Newton]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Kipnis|first=Naum S.|title= History of the Principle of Interference of Light|date=1991|publisher=Springer|pages=65|isbn=9780817623166 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e7fvAAAAMAAJ}}</ref> Young's work was subsequently supported by the work of [[Augustin-Jean Fresnel]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Nolte|first=David D.|date=2023|title=Interference: The History of Optical Interferometry and the Scientists Who Tamed Light (Oxford University Press, 2023)|publisher=Oxford University Press |url=https://global.oup.com/academic/product/interference-9780192869760 |isbn=978-0192869760}}pp. 45-84</ref>

==Personal life==
Young belonged to a [[Quaker]] family of [[Milverton, Somerset]], where he was born in 1773, the eldest of ten children.<ref>{{cite web|title=Thomas Young|url=http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Young_Thomas.html|publisher=School of Mathematics and Statistics University of St Andrews, Scotland|access-date=30 August 2017}}</ref><ref name="EB1911">{{EB1911|wstitle=Young, Thomas|inline=1|volume=28|page=940}}</ref> By the age of fourteen, Young had learned [[Greek language|Greek]], [[Latin]], [[French language|French]], [[Italian language|Italian]], [[Syriac language|Syriac]], [[Samaritan Hebrew]], [[Arabic]], [[Biblical Aramaic]], [[Persian language|Persian]], [[Turkish language|Turkish]], and [[Geʽez|Ge'ez]].<ref name=EB1911/><ref>{{cite book |author=Singh |first=Simon |title=The Code Book: The Evolution of Secrecy from Mary, Queen of Scots to Quantum Cryptography |title-link=The Code Book |date=October 1999 |publisher=[[Doubleday (publisher)|Doubleday]] |isbn=978-0-385-49532-5 |edition=1st |location=New York |pages=207–208 |language=en |author-link=Simon Singh}}</ref>

Young began to study medicine in London at [[St Bartholomew's Hospital]] in 1792, moved to the [[University of Edinburgh Medical School]] in 1794, and a year later went to [[Göttingen]], Lower Saxony, Germany, where he obtained the degree of doctor of medicine in 1796 from the [[University of Göttingen]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Thomas Young (1773–1829)|date=5 May 2016|url=https://www.andrewgasson.co.uk/thomas-young-1773-1829/|publisher=Andrew Gasson|access-date=30 August 2017|archive-date=31 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170831002910/https://www.andrewgasson.co.uk/thomas-young-1773-1829/|url-status=dead}}</ref> In 1797 he entered [[Emmanuel College, Cambridge]].<ref>{{acad|id=YN797T|name=Young, Thomas}}</ref> In the same year he inherited the estate of his grand-uncle, [[Richard Brocklesby]], which made him financially independent, and in 1799 he established himself as a physician at 48 [[Welbeck Street]], London<ref name=EB1911/> (now recorded with a [[blue plaque]]). Young published many of his first academic articles anonymously to protect his reputation as a physician.<ref>{{cite book| last=Robinson|first=Andrew| author-link=W. Andrew Robinson | title=The Last Man Who Knew Everything: Thomas Young, the Anonymous Polymath Who Proved Newton Wrong, Explained How We See, Cured the Sick and Deciphered the Rosetta Stone|date=2006|publisher=[[Oneworld Publications]]|isbn=978-1851684946|page=4|title-link=The Last Man Who Knew Everything}}</ref>

In 1801, Young was appointed professor of [[natural philosophy]] (mainly [[physics]]) at the [[Royal Institution]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Ri Professors|url=http://www.rigb.org/our-history/people/ri-professors|publisher=Royal Institution|access-date=30 August 2017}}</ref> In two years, he delivered 91 lectures. In 1802, he was appointed foreign secretary of the [[Royal Society]],<ref>{{cite web|title=THOMAS YOUNG (1773–1829)|url=https://www.emma.cam.ac.uk/about/history/famous//index.cfm?id=9|publisher=Emmanuel College|access-date=30 August 2017|archive-date=31 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170831002017/https://www.emma.cam.ac.uk/about/history/famous//index.cfm?id=9|url-status=dead}}</ref> of which he had been elected a fellow in 1794.<ref>{{cite web|title=Portrait of Thomas Young|url=https://pictures.royalsociety.org/image-rs-11916|publisher=Royal Society|access-date=30 August 2017}}</ref> He resigned his professorship in 1803, fearing that its duties would interfere with his medical practice. His lectures were published in 1807 in the ''Course of Lectures on Natural Philosophy'' and contain a number of anticipations of later theories.<ref name=EB1911/><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Morgan|first1=Michael|title=Thomas Young's Lectures on Natural Philosophy and the Mechanical Arts|journal=Perception|date=2002|volume=31|issue=12|pages=1509–1511|doi=10.1068/p3112rvw|doi-access=free}}</ref>

In 1811, Young became physician to [[St George's Hospital]], and in 1814 he served on a committee appointed to consider the dangers involved in the general introduction of [[gas lighting|gas]] for lighting into London.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Weld|first1=Charles Richard|title=A History of the Royal Society: With Memoirs of the Presidents|date=2011|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9781108028189|pages=235–237|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fhoeyvuEJI4C&q=Thomas+Young+gas+lighting&pg=PA236}}</ref> In 1816 he was secretary of a commission charged with ascertaining the precise length of the [[seconds pendulum]] (the length of a pendulum whose period is exactly 2 seconds), and in 1818 he became secretary to the [[Board of Longitude]] and superintendent of the [[HM Nautical Almanac Office]].<ref name=EB1911/><ref>{{cite book|last1=Wood|first1=Alexander|last2=Oldham|first2=Frank|title=Thomas Young: Natural Philosopher, 1773-1829|date=1954|publisher=CUP Archive|pages=304–308|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hHc6AAAAIAAJ&q=Thomas+Young+HM+Nautical+Almanac+Office&pg=PA308}}</ref>

Young was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the [[American Academy of Arts and Sciences]] in 1822.<ref name=AAAS>{{cite web|title=Book of Members, 1780–2010: Chapter Y|url=http://www.amacad.org/publications/BookofMembers/ChapterY.pdf|publisher=American Academy of Arts and Sciences|access-date=8 September 2016}}</ref> A few years before his death he became interested in [[life insurance]],<ref name="Peacock, George 1855">{{cite book | title = Life of Thomas Young: M.D., F.R.S., &c.; and One of the Eight Foreign Associates of the National Institute of France | author = Peacock, George | publisher = J. Murray | year = 1855 | url = https://archive.org/details/lifethomasyoung01peacgoog| page = [https://archive.org/details/lifethomasyoung01peacgoog/page/n417 403] }}</ref> and in 1827 he was chosen as one of the eight foreign associates of the [[French Academy of Sciences]].<ref name=EB1911/> In the same year he became a first class corresponding member, living abroad, of the [[Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences|Royal Institute of the Netherlands]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.dwc.knaw.nl/biografie/pmknaw/?pagetype=authorDetail&aId=PE00004005 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200822173837/https://www.dwc.knaw.nl/biografie/pmknaw/?pagetype=authorDetail&aId=PE00004005 |title=Thomas Young (1773 - 1829) |publisher=Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences |archive-date=22 August 2020}}</ref> In 1828, he was elected a foreign member of the [[Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Cooper|first=David K.C.|title=Doctors of Another Calling: Physicians Who Are Known Best in Fields Other than Medicine|date=2013|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=9781611494679|pages=98–101|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=b3NBAgAAQBAJ&q=Thomas+Young+Royal+Swedish+Academy+of+Sciences&pg=PA99}}</ref>

In 1804, Young married Eliza Maxwell. They had no children.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Young_Thomas.html| first1=J. J.|last1=O'Connor| first2=E. F. |last2=Robertson| title=Thomas Young|publisher=School of Mathematics and Statistics University of St Andrews, Scotland| year=2006}}</ref>

Young died in his 56th year in London on 10 May 1829, having suffered recurrent attacks of "asthma". His autopsy revealed [[atherosclerosis]] of the aorta.<ref>{{Citation|last1=Bruce Fye|first1=W.|title=Thomas Young|journal=Clinical Cardiology|volume=20|issue=1|pages=87–88|year=1997|doi=10.1002/clc.4960200119|pmc=6656136|pmid=8994746|last2=Willis Hurst|first2=J.}}</ref> His body was buried in the graveyard of St Giles’ Church at [[Farnborough, London|Farnborough]], in the county of [[Kent]]. [[Westminster Abbey]] houses a white marble tablet in memory of Young,<ref>'The Abbey Scientists' Hall, A.R. p58: London; Roger & Robert Nicholson; 1966</ref> bearing an epitaph by [[Hudson Gurney]]:<ref>
{{cite book|author=Samuel Austin Allibone|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j2MLAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA2904|title=A Critical Dictionary of English Literature: And British and American Authors, Living and Deceased, from the Earliest Accounts to the Middle of the Nineteenth Century. Containing Thirty Thousand Biographies and Literary Notices, with Forty Indexes of Subjects, Volume 3|publisher=J. B. Lippincott & Co.|year=1871|page=2904}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Wood|first1=Alexander|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hHc6AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA331|title=Thomas Young Natural Philosopher 1773–1829|last2=Oldham|first2=Frank|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1954|page=331}}</ref>

{{blockquote |
Sacred to the memory of Thomas Young, M.D., Fellow and Foreign Secretary of the Royal Society Member of the National Institute of France; a man alike eminent in almost every department of human learning. Patient of unintermitted labour, endowed with the faculty of intuitive perception, who, bringing an equal mastery to the most abstruse investigations of letters and of science, first established the undulatory theory of light, and first penetrated the obscurity which had veiled for ages the hieroglyphs of Egypt. Endeared to his friends by his domestic virtues, honoured by the World for his unrivalled acquirements, he died in the hopes of the Resurrection of the just. —Born at Milverton, in Somersetshire, 13 June 1773. Died in Park Square, London, 10 May 1829, in the 56th year of his age.}}

Young was highly regarded by his friends and colleagues. He was said never to impose his knowledge, but if asked was able to answer even the most difficult scientific question with ease. Although very learned he had a reputation for sometimes having difficulty in communicating his knowledge. It was said by one of his contemporaries that, "His words were not those in familiar use, and the arrangement of his ideas seldom the same as those he conversed with. He was therefore worse calculated than any man I ever knew for the communication of knowledge."<ref>"Peacock's Life of Dr Young" by George Peacock, D.D., F.R.S., etc. Dean of Ely, Lowndean Professor of Astronomy University of Cambridge, etc. quoted in "The Living Age" by E. Littell, Second Series, Volume X, 1855, Littell, Son and Company, Boston.</ref>

=== Religious views ===
Though he sometimes dealt with religious topics of history in Egypt and wrote about the history of Christianity in [[Nubia]], not much is known about Young's personal religious views.<ref>[[Alexander Wood (physicist)|Wood, Alexander]]. 2011. ''Thomas Young: Natural Philosopher 1773–1829''. Cambridge University Press. p. 56</ref> On [[George Peacock (mathematician)|George Peacock]]'s account, Young never spoke to him about morals, metaphysics or religion, though according to Young's wife, his attitudes showed that "his [[Quaker]] upbringing had strongly influenced his religious practices."<ref>[[Alexander Wood (physicist)|Wood, Alexander]]. 2011. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Jw9nLFVjXdEC Thomas Young: Natural Philosopher 1773–1829]''. Cambridge University Press. p. 329</ref> Authoritative sources have described Young in terms of a cultural Christian Quaker.<ref>Peacock & Leitch., ''[[iarchive:miscellaneouswo00youngoog|Miscellaneous works of the late Thomas Young]]'' (1855), London, J. Murray, p. 516: "he was pre-eminently entitled to the high distinction of a Christian, patriot, and philosopher."</ref><ref>[[Alexander Wood (physicist)|Wood, Alexander]]. 2011. ''Thomas Young: Natural Philosopher 1773–1829''. Cambridge University Press. p. XVI</ref>

[[Hudson Gurney]] informed that before his marriage, Young had to join the [[Church of England]], and was baptized later.<ref>[[Alexander Wood (physicist)|Wood, Alexander]]. 2011. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Jw9nLFVjXdEC Thomas Young: Natural Philosopher 1773–1829]''. Cambridge University Press. p. 56</ref> Gurney stated that Young "retained a good deal of his old creed, and carried to his scriptural studies his habit of inquisition of languages and manners," rather than the habit of proselytism.<ref>[[Alexander Wood (physicist)|Wood, Alexander]]. 2011, p. 56</ref> Yet, the day before his death, Young participated in religious sacraments; as reported in [[David Brewster]]'s ''Edinburgh Journal of Science'': "After some information concerning his affairs, and some instructions concerning the hierographical papers in his hands, he said that, perfectly aware of his situation, he had taken the sacraments of the church on the day preceding. His religious sentiments were by himself stated to be liberal, though orthodox. He had extensively studied [[The Bible|the Scriptures]], of which the precepts were deeply impressed upon his mind from his earliest years; and he evidenced the faith which he professed; in an unbending course of usefulness and rectitude."<ref>Brewster, David. 1831. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=P_hSAAAAcAAJ The Edinburgh Journal of Science]''. Vol. 8, Blackwood. pp. 204;207</ref>

==Research==
===Wave theory of light===
{{see also|Wave–particle duality}}
In Young's own judgment, of his many achievements the most important was to establish the [[wave theory of light]] set out by Christiaan Huygens in his ''[[Treatise on Light]]'' (1690).<ref>{{cite web|title=Thomas Young (1773–1829)|url=http://www.geog.ucsb.edu/~jeff/115a/history/young.html|publisher=UC Santa Barbara|access-date=5 September 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Haidar|first=Riad|title=Thomas Young and the wave theory of light|url=https://www.bibnum.education.fr/sites/default/files/71-young-analysis.pdf|publisher=Bibnum|access-date=5 September 2016|archive-date=15 September 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160915001601/https://www.bibnum.education.fr/sites/default/files/71-young-analysis.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> To do so, he had to overcome the century-old view, expressed in the venerable Newton's ''[[Opticks]]'', that light is a particle. Nevertheless, in the early 19th century Young put forth a number of theoretical reasons supporting the wave theory of light, and he developed two enduring demonstrations to support this viewpoint. With the [[ripple tank]] he demonstrated the idea of [[Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] in the context of water waves. With [[Young's interference experiment]], the predecessor of the [[double-slit experiment]], he demonstrated interference in the context of light as a wave.

[[File:Young-Thomas-Lectures1807-Plate_XXX.jpg|thumb|Plate from "Lectures" of 1802 (RI), pub. 1807]]

Young, speaking on 24 November 1803, to the Royal Society of London, began his now-classic description of the historic experiment:<ref>{{cite book|last=Shamos|first=Morris|title=Great Experiments in Physics|year=1959|publisher=Holt Rinehart and Winston|location=New York|pages=96–101}}</ref>
{{blockquote|The experiments I am about to relate ... may be repeated with great ease, whenever the sun shines, and without any other apparatus than is at hand to every one.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Young|first=Thomas|title=Bakerian Lecture: Experiments and calculations relative to physical optics |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society |year=1804 |volume=94 |pages=1–2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7AZGAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA1|bibcode=1804RSPT...94....1Y|doi=10.1098/rstl.1804.0001|s2cid=110408369|doi-access=free|url-access=subscription}}</ref>}}

In his subsequent paper, titled ''Experiments and Calculations Relative to Physical Optics'' (1804), Young describes an experiment in which he placed a card measuring approximately {{convert|0.85|mm|in}} in a [[beam of light]] from a single opening in a window and observed the fringes of colour in the shadow and to the sides of the card. He observed that placing another card in front or behind the narrow strip so as to prevent the light beam from striking one of its edges caused the fringes to disappear.<ref>{{cite book|last=Magie|first=William Francis|title=A Source Book in Physics|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.449479|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=1935}} p. 309</ref> This supported the contention that light is composed of [[wave]]s.<ref>Both Young and Newton were eventually shown to be partially correct, as neither wave nor particle explanations alone can explain the behaviour of light. See e.g. http://www.single-molecule.nl/notes/light-waves-and-photons/ {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160309130103/https://www.single-molecule.nl/notes/light-waves-and-photons/ |date=9 March 2016 }}.</ref>

Young performed and analysed a number of experiments, including interference of light from reflection off nearby pairs of micrometre grooves, from reflection off thin films of soap and oil, and from [[Newton's rings]]. He also performed two important diffraction experiments using fibres and long narrow strips. In his ''Course of Lectures on Natural Philosophy and the Mechanical Arts'' (1807) he gives [[Francesco Maria Grimaldi|Grimaldi]] credit for first observing the fringes in the shadow of an object placed in a beam of light. Within ten years, much of Young's work was reproduced and then extended by [[Augustin-Jean Fresnel]].

===Young's modulus===
{{main|Young's modulus}}
[[File:Young - Mathematical elements of natural philosophy, 2002 - 3933182 F.tif|thumb|Young's ''Mathematical Elements of Natural Philosophy'']]

Young described the characterization of elasticity that came to be known as Young's modulus, denoted as ''E'', in 1807, and further described it in his ''Course of Lectures on Natural Philosophy and the Mechanical Arts''.<ref>{{cite book | title = Course of Lectures on Natural Philosophy and the Mechanical Arts | author = Young, Thomas | url = https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_fGMSAAAAIAAJ | page = [https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_fGMSAAAAIAAJ/page/n141 106] | quote = modulus thomas young. | year = 1845 | publisher = London: Taylor and Walton}}</ref>
However, the first use of the concept of Young's modulus in experiments was by [[Giordano Riccati]] in 1782—predating Young by 25 years.<ref>{{cite book | author = Truesdell, Clifford A.| year = 1960 | title = The Rational Mechanics of Flexible or Elastic Bodies, 1638–1788: Introduction to Leonhardi Euleri Opera Omnia, vol. X and XI, Seriei Secundae | publisher = Orell Fussli}}</ref>
Furthermore, the idea can be traced to a paper by [[Leonhard Euler]] published in 1727, some 80 years before Thomas Young's 1807 paper.

The Young's modulus relates the stress (pressure) in a body to its associated strain (change in length as a ratio of the original length); that is, stress = ''E'' × strain, for a uniaxially loaded specimen. Young's modulus is independent of the component under investigation; that is, it is an inherent material property (the term modulus refers to an inherent material property). Young's Modulus allowed, for the first time, prediction of the strain in a component subject to a known stress (and vice versa). Prior to Young's contribution, engineers were required to apply Hooke's F = kx relationship to identify the deformation (x) of a body subject to a known load (F), where the constant (k) is a function of both the geometry and material under consideration. Finding k required physical testing for any new component, as the F = kx relationship is a function of both geometry and material. Young's Modulus depends only on the material, not its geometry, thus allowing a revolution in engineering strategies.

Young's problems in sometimes not expressing himself clearly were shown by his own definition of the modulus: "The modulus of the elasticity of any substance is a column of the same substance, capable of producing a pressure on its base which is to the weight causing a certain degree of compression as the length of the substance is to the diminution of its length." When this explanation was put to the Lords of the Admiralty, their clerk wrote to Young saying "Though science is much respected by their Lordships and your paper is much esteemed, it is too learned ... in short it is not understood."<ref>"Structures, or Why Things Don't Fall Down" by J. E. Gordon, Penguin Books, 1978.</ref>

===Vision and colour theory===
Young has also been called the founder of physiological optics. In 1793 he explained the mode in which the eye [[accommodation (eye)|accommodates]] itself to vision at different distances as depending on change of the curvature of the [[lens (vision)|crystalline lens]]; in 1801 he was the first to describe [[Astigmatism (eye)|astigmatism]];<ref>{{cite journal | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=3I9JAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA23-IA3 | title = On the mechanics of the eye | journal = Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society | volume = 91 | year = 1801 | pages = 23–88 | first = Thomas | last = Young|bibcode = 1801RSPT...91...23Y | doi = 10.1098/rstl.1801.0004 | doi-access = free | url-access = subscription }}</ref> and in his lectures he presented the hypothesis, afterwards developed by [[Hermann von Helmholtz]], (the [[Young–Helmholtz theory]]), that colour perception depends on the presence in the retina of three kinds of nerve fibres.<ref name="EB1911" /><ref>{{cite journal|author=Young, T.|year= 1802|title= Bakerian Lecture: On the Theory of Light and Colours|journal=Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond.|volume= 92|pages=12–48| doi= 10.1098/rstl.1802.0004|doi-access= free}}</ref> This foreshadowed the modern understanding of [[colour vision]], in particular the finding that the eye does indeed have three colour receptors which are sensitive to different wavelength ranges.

===Young–Laplace equation===
In 1804, Young developed the theory of capillary phenomena on the principle of [[surface tension]].<ref>{{cite journal |title=An Essay on the Cohesion of Fluids|jstor=107159|author=Young, Thomas|journal=Phil. Trans. |volume=95|pages=65–87|year=1805 |doi=10.1098/rstl.1805.0005|s2cid=116124581|url=https://archive.org/details/philtrans01794383 |doi-access=free}}</ref> He also observed the constancy of the angle of contact of a liquid surface with a solid, and showed how to deduce from these two principles the phenomena of capillary action. In 1805, [[Pierre-Simon Laplace]], the French philosopher, discovered the significance of meniscus radii with respect to capillary action.

In 1830, [[Carl Friedrich Gauss]], the German mathematician, unified the work of these two scientists to derive the [[Young–Laplace equation]], the formula that describes the [[capillary pressure]] difference sustained across the interface between two static fluids.

Young was the first to define the term "energy" in the modern sense.<ref>{{cite book |last=Weber |first=Wilhelm |title=Abhandlungen der Mathematisch-Physischen Classe der königlich Sächsischen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften |publisher=S. Hirzel |date=1878 |chapter=Elektrodynamische Massbestimmungen insbesondere über die Energie der Wechselwirkung |url=https://archive.org/details/ueberdenausgang00fechgoog |page=[https://archive.org/details/ueberdenausgang00fechgoog/page/n699 650] }}</ref> He also did work on the theory of tides paralleling that of Laplace and anticipating more well-known work by [[George Biddell Airy|Airy]].

===Young's equation and Young–Dupré equation===
{{further|Wetting}}
Young's equation describes the [[contact angle]] of a liquid drop on a plane solid surface as a function of the surface free energy, the interfacial free energy and the surface tension of the liquid. Young's equation was developed further some 60 years later by Dupré to account for thermodynamic effects, and this is known as the Young–Dupré equation.

===Medicine===
In physiology Young made an important contribution to [[haemodynamics]] in the Croonian lecture for 1808 on the "Functions of the Heart and Arteries," where he derived a formula for the wave speed of the pulse.<ref>{{cite book | chapter = Thomas Young's research on fluid transients: 200 years on | author = Tijsseling, A.S., Anderson, A. | title = Proceedings 10th International Conference on Pressure Surges (Edinburgh, UK, May 14–16, 2008) |editor-first=S. |editor-last=Hunt |location=Cranfield, UK |pages=21–33 | year = 2008 | publisher = BHR Group | isbn = 978-1-85598-095-2 |chapter-url=https://research.tue.nl/en/publications/thomas-youngs-research-on-fluid-transients-200-years-on-2}}</ref> His medical writings included ''An Introduction to Medical Literature'', including a ''System of Practical Nosology'' (1813) and ''A Practical and Historical Treatise on Consumptive Diseases'' (1815).<ref name="EB1911" />

Young devised a rule of thumb for determining a child's drug dosage. Young's Rule states that the child dosage is equal to the adult dosage multiplied by the child's age in years, divided by the sum of 12 plus the child's age.

===Languages===
In an appendix to his 1796 Göttingen dissertation {{lang|la|De corporis humani viribus conservatricibus}} there are four pages added proposing a universal phonetic alphabet (so as "not to leave these pages blank"; "{{lang|la|Ne vacuae starent hae paginae, libuit e praelectione ante disputationem habenda tabellam literarum universalem raptim describere}}"). It includes 16 "pure" vowel symbols, nasal vowels, various consonants, and examples of these, drawn primarily from French and English.

In his ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' article "Languages", Young compared the grammar and vocabulary of 400 languages.<ref name=":0">{{cite book | author=Robinson, Andrew | title=The Last Man Who Knew Everything: Thomas Young, the Anonymous Genius who Proved Newton Wrong and Deciphered the Rosetta Stone, among Other Surprising Feats | publisher=Penguin | year=2007 | isbn=978-0-13-134304-7 | url=https://archive.org/details/lastmanwhoknewev00robi }}</ref> In a separate work in 1813, he introduced the term [[Indo-European languages]], 165 years after the Dutch linguist and scholar [[Marcus Zuerius van Boxhorn]] proposed the grouping to which this term refers in 1647.

===Egyptian hieroglyphs===
{{main|Decipherment of ancient Egyptian scripts}}
Young made significant contributions to the [[decipher]]ment of [[writing in ancient Egypt|ancient Egyptian writing systems]]. He started his Egyptology work rather late, in 1813, when the work was already in progress among other researchers. He began by using an [[Demotic (Egyptian)|Egyptian demotic]] alphabet of 29 letters built up by [[Johan David Åkerblad]] in 1802 (14 turned out to be incorrect). Åkerblad was correct in stressing the importance of the demotic text in trying to read the inscriptions, but he wrongly believed that demotic was entirely alphabetic.<ref>E.A.W. Budge, [1893], [http://www.sacred-texts.com/egy/trs/trs04.htm ''The Rosetta Stone.''] www.sacred-texts.com p132</ref>

By 1814 Young had completely translated the "enchorial" text of the [[Rosetta Stone]]<ref name="EB1911" /> (using a list with 86 demotic words), and then studied the [[Egyptian hieroglyph|hieroglyphic alphabet]] but initially failed to recognise that the demotic and hieroglyphic texts were paraphrases and not simple translations.<ref>Young's first publications are as follows: "Letter to the Rev. S. Weston respecting some Egyptian Antiquities". With four copper plates [published under the name of his friend William Rouse Boughton, but written by Young], ''Archeologia Britannica''. London, 1814. Vol. XVIII. P. 59-72; [Anonymous publication], Museum Criticum of Cambridge, Pt. VI., 1815 (this includes the correspondence which took place between Young, [[Silvestre de Sacy]] and Akerblad)</ref>

There was considerable rivalry between Young and [[Jean-François Champollion]] while both were working on hieroglyphic decipherment. At first they briefly cooperated in their work, but later, from around 1815, a chill arose between them. For many years they kept details of their work away from each other. When Champollion finally published a translation of the hieroglyphs and the key to the grammatical system in 1822, Young (and many others) praised his work. Nevertheless, a year later Young published an ''Account of the Recent Discoveries in Hieroglyphic Literature and Egyptian Antiquities'',<ref name="EB1911" /> with the aim of having his own work recognised as the basis for Champollion's system.

Some of Young's conclusions appeared in the famous article "Egypt" he wrote for the 1818 edition of the ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]''.<ref name="EB1911" />

Young had correctly found the sound value of six hieroglyphic signs, but had not deduced the grammar of the language. Young himself acknowledged that he was somewhat at a disadvantage because Champollion's knowledge of the relevant languages, such as Coptic, was much greater.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Singh|first1=Simon|title=The Decipherment of Hieroglyphs|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/egyptians/decipherment_01.shtml|publisher=BBC|access-date=8 October 2015}}</ref>

Several scholars have suggested that Young's true contribution to Egyptology was his decipherment of the demotic script. He made the first major advances in this area; he also correctly identified demotic as being composed by both ideographic and phonetic signs.{{sfn|Adkins|Adkins|2000|p=277}}

Subsequently, Young felt that Champollion was unwilling to share the credit for the decipherment. In the ensuing controversy, strongly motivated by the political tensions of that time, the British tended to champion Young, while the French mostly championed Champollion. Champollion did acknowledge some of Young's contribution, but rather sparingly. However, after 1826, when Champollion was a curator in the [[Louvre]], he did offer Young access to demotic manuscripts.<ref>{{cite web|title=Jean-François Champollion|url=http://greathistorians.com/en/jean-francois-champollion|publisher=Great Historians|access-date=8 October 2015|archive-date=20 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200420184428/https://www.greathistorians.com/en/jean-francois-champollion|url-status=dead}}</ref>

In England, while [[Sir George Cornewall Lewis, 2nd Baronet|Sir George Lewis]] still doubted Champollion's achievement as late as 1862, others were more accepting. For example, [[Reginald Stuart Poole|Reginald Poole]], and Sir [[Peter Le Page Renouf]] both defended Champollion.{{sfn|Thomasson|2013}}

===Music===
Young developed [[Young temperament]], a method of tuning musical instruments.

==Legacy==
Later scholars and scientists have praised Young's work although they may know him only through achievements he made in their fields. His contemporary Sir [[John Herschel]] called him a "truly original genius".<ref>{{cite book|last1=Buick|first1=Tony|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TKja1yLMLyQC&q=Thomas+Young+Herschel+truly+original+genius&pg=PA81|title=The Rainbow Sky: An Exploration of Colors in the Solar System and Beyond|date=2010|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=9781441910530|page=81}}</ref> [[Albert Einstein]] praised him in the 1931 foreword to an edition of [[Isaac Newton]]'s ''[[Opticks]]''. Other admirers include physicist [[Lord Rayleigh]] and Nobel Physics laureate [[Philip W. Anderson|Philip Anderson]].

Thomas Young's name has been adopted as the name of the London-based [[Thomas Young Centre]], an alliance of academic research groups engaged in the theory and simulation of materials.

[[Young Sound]] in eastern [[Greenland]] was named in his honour by [[William Scoresby]] (1789–1857).<ref name="cat">[https://data.geus.dk/geusmap/?mapname=stednavnedb#baslay=baseMapGl&optlay=&extent=549832.8357720698,8582739.868248867,622444.3190166993,8680765.370629115&layers=grl_geus_north_east_higgins_map,grl_ne_higgins_placenames,grl_ne_placenames&filter_1=txt_search.part%3D%26placename%3D&filter_2=txt_search.part%3D%26placename%3D Place names, NE Greenland]</ref>

==Selected writings==
* [https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_fGMSAAAAIAAJ ''A Course of Lectures on Natural Philosophy and the Mechanical Arts'' (1807, republished 2002 by Thoemmes Press).]
* [https://books.google.com/books?id=Pb-JvNOjDhEC&pg=PA1 ''Miscellaneous Works of the Late Thomas Young, M.D., F.R.S.'' (1855, 3 volumes, editor John Murray, republished 2003 by Thoemmes Press).]
<gallery>
File:Young-1.jpg|Volumes I and II of ''A Course of Lectures on Natural Philosophy and the Mechanical Arts'' (1807)
File:Young-3.jpg|Title page to volume I of ''A Course of Lectures on Natural Philosophy and the Mechanical Arts'' (1807)
File:Young-6.jpg|Contents to volume I of ''A Course of Lectures on Natural Philosophy and the Mechanical Arts'' (1807)
File:Young-7.jpg|Title page to volume I of ''A Course of Lectures on Natural Philosophy and the Mechanical Arts'' (1807)
</gallery>

==See also==
*[[Coandă effect]]
*[[Color space]]
*[[History of energy]]
*[[List of Egyptologists#Y|List of Egyptologists]]
*[[Refractive index]]
*[[Ultrahydrophobicity]]

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

'''Works cited'''
*{{cite book | last1 = Adkins | first1 = Lesley | last2 = Adkins | first2 = Roy | title = The Keys of Egypt: The Obsession to Decipher Egyptian Hieroglyphs | publisher = Harper Collins Publishers | year = 2000 | isbn = 978-0-06-019439-0 | url = https://archive.org/details/keysofegyptobses00adki }}
*{{cite book|title=The Life of J. D. Åkerblad: Egyptian Decipherment and Orientalism in Revolutionary Times|first=Fredrik|last=Thomasson|publisher=BRILL|year=2013}}

==Further reading==
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite journal | author = Barr, E. Scott | title = Men and Milestones in Optics. II. Thomas Young | journal = Applied Optics | year = 1963 | volume = 2 | pages = 639–647 | url = http://ao.osa.org/ViewMedia.cfm?id=13115&seq=0 | doi = 10.1364/AO.2.000639 | bibcode = 1963ApOpt...2..639B | issue = 6 | url-access = subscription }}- The link is to a pdf version of the paper.
* {{cite journal | author = Robinson, Andrew | title = A Polymath's Dilemma | journal = Nature | year = 2005 | volume = 438 | pages = 291 | doi = 10.1038/438291a | issue = 7066 | pmid = 16292291 |bibcode = 2005Natur.438..291R | s2cid = 4417924 | doi-access = free }}
* {{cite journal | author = Robinson, Andrew | title = Thomas Young: The Man Who Knew Everything | journal = History Today |date=April 2006 | volume = 56 | pages = 53–57}}
* {{cite book | author = Robinson, Andrew | title = The Last Man Who Knew Everything: Thomas Young, the Anonymous Polymath Who Proved Newton Wrong, Explained How We See, Cured the Sick and Deciphered the Rosetta Stone | year = 2006 | publisher = Pi Press | location = New York | isbn = 978-0-13-134304-7 | url = https://archive.org/details/lastmanwhoknewev00robi }}
** [https://www.telegraph.co.uk/arts/main.jhtml?xml=/arts/2006/09/24/borob16.xml Reviewed]{{dead link|date=January 2025|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}} by Nicholas Shakespeare in [https://web.archive.org/web/20001219165200/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/ ''The Telegraph''], 24 September 2006.
** [http://www.newstatesman.com/200611130051 Reviewed] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120322082257/http://www.newstatesman.com/200611130051 |date=22 March 2012 }} by Michael Bywater in [http://www.newstatesman.com/ ''The New Statesman''], 13 November 2006.
** [https://web.archive.org/web/20061228224508/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/arts/main.jhtml?xml=%2Farts%2F2006%2F11%2F26%2Fborob19.xml Reviewed] by Simon Singh in [https://web.archive.org/web/20001219165200/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/ ''The Telegraph''], 26 November 2006.
** [https://web.archive.org/web/20081202174000/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,2102-2487627,00.html Reviewed] by Rosemary Hill in [https://web.archive.org/web/20001027132124/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/ ''The Times''], 10 December 2006.
** [http://books.guardian.co.uk/review/story/0,,1993741,00.html Reviewed] by PD Smith in ''[[The Guardian]]'', 20 January 2007.
* {{cite book | author = Saslow, Wayne | title = Electricity, Magnetism, and Light | year = 2002 | publisher = Thomson Learning | location = Toronton | isbn = 978-0-12-619455-5}}- Discusses Young's theoretical and experimental work on interference
* {{cite book | last1 = Wood|first1= Alex | first2= Frank |last2=Oldham | title = Thomas Young | year = 1954 | publisher = Cambridge University Press | location = Cambridge }}
*{{cite book | author = Young, Thomas | title = An Account of Some Recent Discoveries in Hieroglyphical Literature and Egyptian Antiquities | url = https://archive.org/details/anaccountsomere00youngoog | year = 1823 | publisher = John Murray | location = London }} Young's account of his hieroglyphic research. (reissued by [[Cambridge University Press]], 2010. {{ISBN|978-1-108-01716-9}})
{{refend}}

== External links ==
*{{Commons category-inline}}
*{{Wikiquote-inline}}
*{{wikisource author-inline}}
*[https://naadal.com/thomas-young/ Thomas Young, the founder of wave theory] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220819084250/https://naadal.com/thomas-young/ |date=19 August 2022 }}
* {{BHL author}}
* {{OL author}}
* {{Internet Archive author|sopt=t}}

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Gouthwaite Reservoir

2025-06-15T18:01:25Z

2A00:23C7:C8BC:C501:507C:445E:62F7:256D: /* History */

{{Short description|Reservoir in North Yorkshire, England}}
{{Use British English|date=November 2018}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2019}}
{{Infobox body of water
| name = Gouthwaite Reservoir
| image = Gouthwaite Reservoir.jpg
| caption = Gouthwaite Reservoir
| alt = Image of a lake with steep hills beyond
| image_bathymetry =
| pushpin_map = North Yorkshire
| pushpin_map_alt = Relief map of North Yorkshire
| caption_bathymetry =
| location = [[England]]
| coords = {{coord|54|6|51|N|1|47|47|W|type:waterbody_region:GB|display=inline,title}}
| type = [[reservoir]]
| inflow = [[River Nidd]]
| outflow = [[River Nidd]]
| catchment =
| basin_countries = [[United Kingdom]]
| length =
| width =
| area = {{convert|312|acre}}<ref name="BL">{{cite web |title=Gouthwaite Reservoir, North Yorkshire – British Lakes |url=http://www.britishlakes.info/29770-gouthwaite-reservoir-north-yorkshire |website=britishlakes.info |accessdate=27 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181127193749/http://www.britishlakes.info/29770-gouthwaite-reservoir-north-yorkshire |archivedate=27 November 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref>
| depth =
| max-depth =
| residence_time =
| shore = {{convert|4.9|mi}}<ref name="BL" />
| elevation = {{convert|433|ft}}<ref name="BL" />
| islands =
| cities =
}}

'''Gouthwaite Reservoir''' is in [[Nidderdale]], [[North Yorkshire]], England. It is one of many [[reservoir]]s in the area, others include [[Roundhill Reservoir]] and [[Angram Reservoir]].

Gouthwaite is a compensation reservoir for the [[River Nidd]], i.e. it maintains the downstream flow of the river during periods of high and low rainfall.<ref>{{cite news |title=Yorkshire Water to start £7m scheme to improve safety at Gouthwaite reservoir |url=https://www.waterbriefing.org/home/company-news/item/13913-yorkshire-water-to-start-£7m-scheme-to-improve-safety-at-gouthwaite-reservoir |accessdate=27 November 2018 |work=Water Briefing |date=12 May 2017}}</ref><ref name="Cudworth 1896 p. 232">{{cite book |last=Cudworth |first=W. |title=Manningham, Heaton, and Allerton (townships of Bradford) treated historically and topographically |publisher=Cudworth|year=1896 |oclc=1454896009 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lVALAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA232 |access-date=13 May 2025 |page=232}}</ref>

== History ==
[[File:Gouthwaite Hall-geograph-5534881.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|The relocated Gouthwaite Hall]]
The reservoir was constructed between 1893 and 1901.<ref>{{cite book |last=Jennings |first=Bernard |authorlink=Bernard Jennings |title=A History of Nidderdale |page=346 |year=1992 |isbn=1-85072-114-9}}</ref> The Elizabethan manor house of Gouthwaite White Hall, the ancient home of the Yorke family, was submerged beneath its waters. Gouthwaite Hall was rebuilt beside the reservoir with materials from the old hall, and is now a Grade II [[listed building]].<ref>{{NHLE |num=1150482 |desc=Gouthwaite White Hall |accessdate=25 December 2012}}</ref> The Hall is known in theatre history for performances by travelling players hosted by [[John Yorke (c.1566–1634)|John Yorke]] at Christmas 1609 and [[Candlemas]] 1610, which were denounced by a neighbour [[Stephen Proctor]].<ref>Siobhan Keenan, "The Simpson players of Jacobean Yorkshire and the professional stage", ''Theatre Notebook'', 67:1 (2013), pp. 16–35.</ref>

On 1 June 1978, a [[Royal Air Force]] [[Jet Provost]] aircraft crashed into the reservoir killing the pilot. His body and most of the aircraft were recovered in the following days.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Ranter |first1=Harro |title=Accident Hunting Jet Provost T3A XN598, 01 Jun 1978 |url=https://aviation-safety.net/wikibase/56639 |website=aviation-safety.net |accessdate=16 July 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Provost Training Aircraft (Hansard, 5 July 1978) |url=https://api.parliament.uk/historic-hansard/written-answers/1978/jul/05/provost-training-aircraft |website=api.parliament.uk |accessdate=16 July 2019}}</ref>

== Birdwatching ==
Gouthwaite Reservoir is a nature reserve and a [[Site of Special Scientific Interest]] (SSSI).<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.sssi.naturalengland.org.uk/citation/citation_photo/1002575.pdf |title=SSSI citation |accessdate=25 December 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121023223506/http://www.sssi.naturalengland.org.uk/citation/citation_photo/1002575.pdf |archivedate=23 October 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref> The reservoir is independently owned by the Gouthwaite Management Board, but they are advised by [[Yorkshire Water]] and the Environment Agency,<ref>{{cite news |title=Multi-million pound plan to improve safety at Gouthwaite reservoir |url=https://www.harrogateadvertiser.co.uk/news/environment/multi-million-pound-plan-to-improve-safety-at-gouthwaite-reservoir-1-8534412 |accessdate=27 November 2018 |work=Harrogate Advertiser |date=9 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181127193650/https://www.harrogateadvertiser.co.uk/news/environment/multi-million-pound-plan-to-improve-safety-at-gouthwaite-reservoir-1-8534412 |archivedate=27 November 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref> who have created viewing areas for bird watchers on the edge of the reservoir. Tree and shrub cover along the shoreline provides a habitat for small birds such as [[willow warbler]] and [[blackcap]]. Other records include woodland specialists like [[great spotted woodpecker]] and [[nuthatch]]. The [[European green woodpecker|green woodpecker]] has also been recorded.

In winter, after the summer migrants have gone, the reservoir margins are good for [[fieldfare]]s and [[redwing]]s. On the reservoir itself, [[Canada geese]] are always present and are joined during the autumn and winter by [[goosander]]s and [[Goldeneye (duck)|goldeneye]] accompanied by [[mallard]], [[tufted duck]] and [[Common pochard|pochard]]. [[Whooper swan]]s from Iceland frequently join them.

Winter is also a good time for birds of prey with [[buzzard]]s, [[red kite]]s, [[hen harrier]]s, [[Merlin (bird)|merlin]]s and [[kestrel]]s being observed around the reservoir and the surrounding moorland. [[Osprey]]s and [[golden eagle]]s are frequently observed on passage.

== References ==
{{Portal|Yorkshire}}
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category-inline|Gouthwaite Reservoir}}

{{Reservoirs in Yorkshire}}
{{authority control}}

[[Category:Reservoirs in North Yorkshire]]
[[Category:Nidderdale]]
[[Category:Sites of Special Scientific Interest in North Yorkshire]]

John White (colonist and artist)

2025-06-15T17:59:16Z

2A00:23C7:C8BC:C501:507C:445E:62F7:256D: /* Early life */Improved link

{{Short description|English governor of the Roanoke Colony (1587 to 1590)}}
{{For|information about other persons with the name John White|John White (disambiguation)}}
{{Use British English|date=July 2017}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2020}}
{{Infobox artist
| name = John White
| image = A popular history of the United States - from the first discovery of the western hemisphere by the Northmen, to the end of the first century of the union of the states; preceded by a sketch of the (14781233224).jpg
| caption = The return of Governor White to the "Lost Colony"
| birth_date = {{circa|1539}}
| birth_place = [[London]], England
| death_date = {{circa}} 1593 (aged {{circa}} 54)
| patrons = Sir [[Walter Raleigh]]
| spouse = {{marriage|Tomasyn Cooper|1566}}
| occupation = {{hlist|Colonial governor|explorer|artist|mapmaker}}
| children = [[Eleanor Dare|Eleanor]] and 1 son
}}

'''John White''' ({{circa|1539}}–{{circa|1593}}) was an English colonial governor, explorer, artist, and cartographer. White was among those who sailed with [[Richard Grenville]] in the first attempt to colonize [[Roanoke Island]] in 1585, acting as artist and mapmaker to the expedition. He would most famously briefly serve as the governor of the second attempt to found [[Roanoke Colony]] on the same island in 1587 and discover the colonists had mysteriously vanished.

During his time at Roanoke Island, he made several watercolor sketches of the surrounding landscape and the native [[Algonquian peoples|Algonkin]] peoples. These works are significant as they are the most informative illustrations of a Native American society of the [[East Coast of the United States|Eastern seaboard]]; the surviving original watercolors are now preserved in the [[print room]] of the [[British Museum]].

In 1587, White became governor of Sir [[Walter Raleigh]]'s failed attempt at a permanent settlement on Roanoke Island, known to history as the "[[Roanoke Colony|Lost Colony]]". This was the earliest effort to establish a permanent [[British Empire|English colony]] in the [[New World]]. White's granddaughter [[Virginia Dare]] was the first English child born in North America. In late 1587, White returned to England for supplies. The return expedition was delayed due to various reasons, including the [[Spanish Armada]]. Governor White finally returned to Roanoke Island in August 1590, but found the colony had been long deserted.

After the failure of the colony, White retired to Raleigh's [[Estate (land)|estate]]s in Ireland, reflecting upon the "evils and unfortunate events" which had ruined his hopes in America, though never giving up hope that his daughter and granddaughter were still alive.

==Early life==
John White's exact date of birth is unknown but it seems likely he was born sometime in the 1530s–1540s.<ref name="ncpedia">[http://ncpedia.org/biography/governors/white John White at ncpedia.org ]. Retrieved March 2011</ref> White is known to have attended church in the parish of [[St Martin, Ludgate]] in [[London]].<ref name="ncpedia"/> In 1566, he married Tomasyn Cooper; with whom he had a son, Thomas, who died young, and a daughter, [[Eleanor Dare|Eleanor]].<ref name="ncpedia"/> Little is known of White's training as an artist but it is possible that he apprenticed as an illustrator under a London master.<ref name="ncpedia"/>

==Career==
[[File:North carolina algonkin-rituale02.jpg|left|thumb|Watercolour by John White of [[Roanoke (tribe)|Roanoke]] Indians]]
In the late sixteenth century, efforts to establish an English colony in the New World began to gain momentum, and White soon became an enthusiastic supporter.<ref name="ncpedia"/> In 1577, White may have accompanied [[Martin Frobisher]] to search for precious metals and a northwest passage to Asia on his [[Baffin Island]] and [[Greenland]] expeditions.<ref name="auto">{{Cite web|title=Encyclopedia Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/John-White|date=2020|website=Encyclopedia Britannica}}</ref> Despite this, White was not mentioned by name. His drawings from this period were of the lands and people encountered on the voyage.<ref name="auto"/> In 1585, White accompanied the expedition led by Sir [[Ralph Lane]] to attempt to found the first English colony in North America.<ref name="ncpedia"/> White was sent by [[Sir Walter Raleigh]] as Sir [[Richard Grenville]]'s artist-illustrator on his first voyage to the [[New World]]; working closely with the scientist [[Thomas Harriot]], he served as mapmaker and artist to the expedition, which encountered considerable difficulties and returned to England in 1586.<ref name="ncpedia"/><ref name="Moran2014">{{Cite web|url=https://www.encyclopediavirginia.org/Hariot_Thomas_ca_1560-1621#start_entry|title=Thomas Hariot (ca. 1560–1621)|last=Moran|first=Michael|date=2014|website=Encyclopedia Virginia|access-date=23 October 2020}}</ref>

==Gentleman artist==
In 1585, White had been commissioned to "draw to life" the inhabitants of the New World and their surroundings.<ref name="Smithsonian">[http://www.smithsonianmag.com/people-places/Brave-New-World.htmlin Article in Smithsonian Magazine by Abigal Tucker, December 2008]. Retrieved March 2011</ref> During White's time at Roanoke Island, he completed numerous watercolor drawings of the surrounding landscape and native peoples. These works are significant as they are the most informative illustrations of a Native American society of the [[East Coast of the United States|Eastern Seaboard]], and predate the first body of "discovery voyage art" created in the late 18th century by the artists who sailed with Captain [[James Cook]]. They represent the sole-surviving visual record of the native inhabitants of America encountered by England's first settlers.<ref name="Smithsonian"/>

White's enthusiasm for [[Watercolor painting|watercolor]] was unusual – most contemporary painters preferred to use [[Oil painting|oil-based paints]].<ref name="Milton, p199">Milton, p. 199</ref> White's watercolors would soon become a sensation in Europe; it was not long before the watercolors were [[engraving|engraved]] by the [[Flemish people|Flemish]] master engraver [[Theodor de Bry]].<ref name="Milton, p200">Milton, p. 200</ref> Through the medium of print, the illustrations became widely known and distributed; they were published in 1590 under the title ''America''.<ref name="Milton, p200"/>

==Governor of the Roanoke colony==
{{Main|Lost Colony}}
[[File:Sir Walter Raleigh.jpg|thumb|right|White's patron, [[Sir Walter Raleigh]]]]
[[File:Roanoke map 1584.JPG|thumb|right|White's sketch of the Roanoke area {{Circa}} 1584]]

After Lane's colonists returned to England in 1586, [[Sir Walter Raleigh]], who held the [[land patent]] for the proposed English [[colony of Virginia]], tasked White with the job of organising a new settlement in the [[Chesapeake Bay]] area, one which would be self-sustaining and which would include women and children.<ref name="ncpedia"/> During 1586, White was able to persuade 113 prospective colonists to join Raleigh's expedition, including his daughter [[Eleanor Dare|Eleanor]] and his son-in-law [[Ananias Dare]], recently married at [[St Bride's Church]] in [[Fleet Street]].<ref name="ncpedia"/><ref>Morgan, p. 77</ref> His efforts did not go unrewarded; on 7 January 1587, Raleigh named "John White of London Gentleman, to be the chief Governor" of the new colony.<ref name="ncpedia"/> White, with thirteen others, were incorporated under the name of "The Governor and Assistants of the Cities of Raleigh of Virginia".<ref>[[Queen's College, Oxford]], MSS 137](a). On the occasion, he was granted arms with eight-quarters. The 1st contained his new arms: Ermine, on a canton Gules, a fusil Argent. The 2nd contained the ancient arms of White of Truro. The remaining six quarters contained the arms of some of his “Assistants”. This marshalling, other than being unorthodox, produced minute detail unsuitable for the [[New World Tapestry]] canvas. Therefore White (ancient) of Truro is depicted (Poptarts of 1587).</ref>

===Arrival at Roanoke===
[[File:Coat of Arms of John White.svg|125px|thumb|left|Coat of Arms of Governor John White]]
In May 1587, White's colonists sailed for Virginia in the ''Lion''. They were guided by the Portuguese navigator [[Simon Fernandes|Simão Fernandes]], the same pilot who had led the 1585 expedition and who was given by his fellow sailors the unhappy nickname of "the swine."<ref>Milton, p. 201</ref> The settlers' chosen destination was not Roanoke but the [[Chesapeake Bay]]. But, upon reaching Roanoke in late July,<ref name="ncpedia"/> and allowing the colonists to disembark, Fernandez refused to let White's men re-board the ship.

According to White's journal, Fernandez's deputy "called to the sailors in the [[Full-rigged pinnace|pinesse]], charging them not to bring any of the planters [settlers] back again, but leave them on the island."<ref name="Milton, p.215">Milton, p. 215</ref> Faced with what amounted to a [[mutiny]] by his navigator, White appears to have backed down and acquiesced in this sudden change of plan.<ref name="Milton, p.215"/> Despite the governor's protests, Fernandez held that "summer was farre spent [summer was almost over], wherefore hee would land all the planters in no other place."<ref>Milton, p. 216</ref>

This second colony at Roanoke set about repairing the structures left behind in 1585.<ref name="ncpedia"/> They also searched for the fifteen men left behind by the previous expedition, but found only bones.<ref>Milton, p. 217</ref> From an early stage there were tensions with the local [[Algonquian peoples|Algonquian]] Indians,<ref name="ncpedia"/> though initially things went well. White quickly made contact with friendly natives led by Chief [[Manteo (Croatan)|
Manteo]], who explained to him that the lost fifteen had been killed by hostile [[Secotan]], [[Aquascogoc]], and [[Dasamongueponke]] warriors,<ref>Milton, p. 218</ref> choosing a time and place of attack "of great advantage to the savages."<ref>Milton, p. 220</ref>
On 8 August 1587, White led a dawn attack on the Dasamongueponkes that went disastrously wrong. White and his soldiers entered the Dasamongueponke village in the morning "so early that it was yet dark,"<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=A_T0GyxK9DYC&q=Dasamonquepeucbut&pg=PA131 Miller, Lee, p. 131]. Retrieved April 2011</ref> but mistakenly attacked a group of hitherto friendly Indians, killing one and wounding many. "We were deceived," wrote White in his journal, "for the savages were our friends." Henceforth, relations with the local tribes would steadily deteriorate.<ref>Milton, p. 235</ref>

===Virginia Dare===
[[File:Baptism of Virginia Dare.jpeg|thumb|right|200px|''Baptism of [[Virginia Dare]]'', [[wood-engraving]], 1880]]

On 18 August 1587, there was happier news – White became a grandfather. "Eleanor, daughter to the governor and wife to Ananias Dare, one of the assistants, was delivered of a daughter in Roanoke."<ref name="Milton, p.239">Milton, p. 239</ref> The child was healthy and "was christened there the Sunday following, and because this child was the first Christian born in Virginia,<ref>Modern-day North Carolina</ref> she was named Virginia."<ref name="ncpedia"/><ref name="Milton, p.239"/>

===White returns to England===
However, the colonists' food supplies soon began to grow short, and in late 1587 the settlers pressed White to return to England "for the better and sooner obtaining of supplies, and other necessaries."<ref name="ncpedia"/><ref>Milton, p. 240</ref> Because the colony had been deposited in Roanoke rather than the [[Chesapeake Bay|Chesapeake]] area, supply ships from England ignorant of Fernandez's change of plan would most likely not land in Roanoke at all, and the settlement might not survive the coming winter.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=A_T0GyxK9DYC&dq=Dasamonquepeuc&pg=PA131 Miller, Lee, p. 132]. Retrieved April 2011</ref> White was reluctant to abandon his colony, anxious that his enemies in England "would not spare to slander [him] falsely" should he leave,<ref name="Milton, p.241">Milton, p. 241</ref> and worried that his "stuff and goods might be spoiled and most of it pilfered away."<ref name="Milton, p.241"/> Eventually the colonists agreed to stand surety for White's belongings and he was prevailed upon to sail, "much against his will," to seek help.<ref>Milton, p. 243</ref>

Misfortune struck White's return to England from the beginning. The anchor of the [[flyboat]] on which White was quartered could not be raised, and many crew members were severely injured during the attempt.<ref>Milton, p. 244</ref> Worse, their journey home was delayed by "scarce and variable winds" followed by "a storm at the north-east," and many sailors starved or died of scurvy.<ref>Milton, p. 245</ref> On 16 October 1587 the desperate crew, at last, landed in [[Ard na Caithne|Smerwicke]], in the west of Ireland, and White was finally able to make his way back to [[Southampton]].<ref>Milton, p. 246</ref>

===Amir ===
[[File:English Ships and the Spanish Armada, August 1588 RMG BHC0262.jpg|thumb|The invincible [[Spanish Armada]], later proved to be vincible]]

Further bad news awaited White on his return to England. Just two weeks previously [[Queen Elizabeth I]] had issued a general "stay of shipping," preventing any ships from leaving English shores.<ref name="Milton, p.247">Milton, p. 247</ref> The reason was the "invincible fleetes made by the King of Spain, joined with the power of the Pope, for the invading of England" – the [[Spanish Armada]].<ref name="Milton, p.247"/> White's patron [[Sir Walter Raleigh]] attempted to provide ships to rescue the colony but he was over-ruled by the Queen.<ref>Milton, p. 248</ref>

===''Brave'' and the ''Roe''===
[[File:Kalamar Nycel Lewes DE.jpg|right|thumb|175px|A modern replica of an early 17th-century [[Full-rigged pinnace|pinnace]]]]

In early 1588, White was able to scrape together a pair of small [[Full-rigged pinnace|pinnace]]s, the ''Brave'' and the ''Roe'', which were unsuitable for military service and could be spared for the expedition to Roanoke. Unluckily for White, they were barely suited for the Atlantic crossing and the governor endured further bad luck as the ships were intercepted by French [[Pirate|pirates]], who "playd extreemely upon us with their shot," hitting White (to his great embarrassment) "in the side of the buttoke."<ref>Milton, p. 249.</ref> White and his crew escaped to England with their lives, but "they robbed us of all our victuals, powder, weapons and provision," and the journey to Virginia had to be abandoned.<ref name="Milton, p.250">Milton, p. 250</ref> By this stage White appears to have formed the view that he was born under "an unlucky star."<ref name="Milton, p.250"/>

===Return to the "Lost Colony"===
{{further|Watts' West Indies and Virginia expedition}}
Finally, in March 1590, with the immediate threat of a Spanish invasion by now abated, Raleigh was able to equip White's rescue expedition. Two ships, the ''Hopewell'' and the ''Moonlight'' set sail for Roanoke.<ref>Milton, p. 257</ref> The return journey was prolonged by extensive [[privateering]] and several sea battles, and White's eventual landing at the [[Outer Banks]] was further imperiled by poor weather.<ref>Milton, p. 260</ref> The landing was hazardous and was beset by bad conditions and adverse currents. During the landing on Roanoke, of the mariners who accompanied White, "seven of the chiefest were drowned."<ref>Milton, p. 262</ref>

Governor White finally reached Roanoke Island on 18 August 1590, his granddaughter's third birthday, but he found his colony had been long deserted. The buildings had collapsed and "the houses [were] taken downe."<ref name="Milton p.265">Milton, p. 265</ref> The few clues about the colonists' whereabouts included the letters "CRO" carved into a tree, and the word "[[Croatoan Island|CROATOAN]]" carved on a post of the fort.<ref name="Milton p.265"/> Croatoan was the name of a nearby [[Croatoan Island|island]] (likely modern-day [[Hatteras Island]]) and of a local tribe of Native Americans. Roanoke Island was originally not a planned location for the colony and the idea of moving elsewhere had been discussed. Before the Governor's departure, he and the colonists had agreed that a message would be carved into a tree if they had moved and would include an image of a [[Maltese Cross]] if the decision was made by force.<ref name="Milton p.265"/> White found no such cross and was hopeful that his family were still alive.<ref name="Milton p.266">Milton, p. 266</ref>

True to their word, the colonists had looked after White's belongings, which had been carefully buried and hidden. However, local Indians had looted the hiding place, and White found "about the place many of my things spoyled and broken, and my books torne from the covers, the frames of some of my pictures and mappes rotten and spoyled with rayne, and my armour almost eaten through with rust."<ref>Milton p. 267</ref>

Due to the weather, which "grew to be fouler and fouler,"<ref name="Milton, p.268">Milton, p. 268</ref> White had to abandon the search of adjacent islands for the colonists. The ship's captain had already lost three anchors and could not afford the loss of another.<ref name="Milton, p.268"/> White returned to [[Plymouth]], England, on 24 October 1590.

The loss of the colony was a personal tragedy for White, from which he never fully recovered. He would never return to the New World, and in a letter to [[Richard Hakluyt]] he wrote that he must hand over the fate of the colonists and his family "to the merciful help of the Almighty, whom I most humbly beseech to helpe and comfort them."<ref name="Milton, p.268"/>

==Later life==
Little is known of White's life after the failure of the Roanoke Colony. He lived in [[Plymouth]],<ref>as the will of his twin brother Robert White bequeathing him property in the city of Plymouth, referred to him as "of Plymouth"</ref><ref>Transcripts of Robert White's will are in the same MSS [Queen's College, Oxford, MSS 137]; and in the New World Tapestry Library (as is the New World Tapestry) at the British Empire & Commonwealth Museum, Bristol, England.</ref> and also owned a house at Newtown, Kylmore (Kilmore, [[County Cork]]), Ireland. He appears to have been in Ireland living on the estates of Sir Walter Raleigh, making maps of land for Raleigh's tenants, and reflecting upon the "evils and unfortunate events" which had ruined his hopes in the New World, though never giving up hope that his daughter and granddaughter were still alive.<ref>Milton, p. 269</ref>

White's year of death is unclear and not widely known.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=John White (U.S. National Park Service) |url=https://www.nps.gov/people/johnwhite.htm#:~:text=After%20the%20failure%20of%20the,possibly%20in%20Ireland,%20around%201606 |access-date=2025-01-31 |website=www.nps.gov |language=en}}</ref> The last surviving document related to White is a letter he wrote from Ireland in 1593 to the publisher of the [[old master print|prints]] of his Roanoke drawings. However, a record from May 1606 that Bridget White, who was appointed estate administrator for her brother "John White", may refer to him. {{citation needed|date=March 2011}} Furthermore, another two documents give his year of death as 1606.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=American Journeys Background on The Fourth Voyage Made to Virginia in the Yere 1587 |url=https://www.americanjourneys.org/aj-037/summary/ |access-date=2025-01-31 |website=www.americanjourneys.org}}</ref>

==Legacy==
White is chiefly remembered today for his watercolors, which represent a unique record of 16th-century [[Algonquian peoples|Algonquian society]]. All of White's surviving works are now in the [[print room]] of the [[British Museum]].

In 2007, the British Museum placed the entire group of John White's watercolors on public display under the collection, "''A New World: England's First View of America''." There are more than seventy watercolors in the travelling exhibit. There were plans to show the collection at the [[North Carolina Museum of History]].<ref>{{cite web| url= http://www.historyisfun.org/pdf/John-White-Watercolors/ANewWorld.pdf|title= A New World: England's First View of America|publisher=The British Museum|access-date=15 July 2012}}</ref>

The [[World War II]] [[Liberty ship]] {{SS|John White}} was named in his honor.

==In popular culture==
* In the [[American Horror Story: Roanoke|sixth season]] of ''[[American Horror Story]]'', White is mentioned in the [[Chapter 3 (American Horror Story)|third episode]]. [[Kathy Bates]] portrays [[List of American Horror Story: Roanoke characters#The Butcher|Tomasyn "The Butcher" White]], his fictional wife and regent-governor while he is away getting supplies from England. [[Wes Bentley]] portrays John and Tomasyn's son, [[List of American Horror Story: Roanoke characters#Ambrose White|Ambrose]].{{secondary source needed|date=August 2020}}

==Gallery==
<gallery perrow="7">
File:North carolina algonkin-dorf.jpg|Watercolour painted by John White
File:North carolina algonkin-essen.jpg|Engraving by Theodor de Bry after a watercolour painted by John White
File:North carolina algonkin-essen01.jpg|Clay pot of North Carolina Algonquins used for boiling.
File:North carolina algonkin-essen02.jpg|Equipment for curing fish used by the North Carolina Algonquins.
File:North carolina algonkin-kleidung01.jpg|Woman of the Secotan-Indians in North Carolina. Watercolour painted by John White in 1585.
File:North carolina algonkin-kleidung02.jpg|Man of the Secotan Indians in North Carolina. Watercolour painted by John White in 1585.
File:North carolina algonkin-kleidung04.jpg|Mother and child of the Secotan Indians in North Carolina. Watercolour painted by John White in 1585.
File:North carolina algonkin-kleidung08.jpg|Warrior of the Secotan Indians in North Carolina. Watercolour painted by John White in 1585.
File:North carolina algonkin-rituale01.jpg|Ceremony of Secotan warriors in North Carolina. Watercolour painted by John White in 1585.
File:North carolina algonkin-fischen.jpg|Engraving by Theodor de Bry after a watercolour painted by John White
File:An old man in his winter clothes (1590).jpg|An aged Native man from Pomeiock, full-length portrait, facing front, wearing winter garment; landscape scene with village in the background.
</gallery>

{{clear}}

==See also==
* [[List of colonial governors of North Carolina]]
* [[List of colonial governors of Virginia]]
* [[List of colonists at Roanoke]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

== Further reading ==
* Dulac, Anne-Valérie, "Fish in Watercolour : John White’s Lively Specimens", ''RursuSpicae'' (2022), http://journals.openedition.org/rursuspicae/2198 ; {{DOI|10.4000/rursuspicae.2198}}
* Miller, Lee, ''[[Roanoke: Solving the Mystery of the Lost Colony]]''. Retrieved April 2011
* Milton, Giles, ''Big Chief Elizabeth – How England's Adventurers Gambled and Won the New World'', Hodder & Stoughton, London (2000){{ISBN?}}
* Morgan, Dewi, ''Phoenix of Fleet St – 2,000 years of St Bride's'', Charles Knight & Co., London (1973), {{ISBN|0-85314-196-7}}
* Sloan, Kim, "A New World: England's First View of America", University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill (2007), {{ISBN|978-0-8078-3125-0}}
* Tucker, Abigail, [http://www.smithsonianmag.com/people-places/Brave-New-World.html "Sketching the Earliest Views of the New World"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130703075024/http://www.smithsonianmag.com/people-places/Brave-New-World.html |date=3 July 2013 }}, [[Smithsonian (magazine)|''Smithsonian'']] magazine, December 2008

==External links==
{{commons category|John White (colonist and artist)}}
* [http://ncpedia.org/biography/governors/white NCpedia biography of John White]. Retrieved March 2011
* [https://www.britishmuseum.org/the_museum/news_and_press_releases/press_releases/2007/a_new_world.aspx British Museum article on John White and his paintings]. Retrieved March 2011
* [http://www.suffolkchurches.co.uk/stantonsj.htm The Church of Stanton St John, Suffolk] This link includes a map.
* [http://www.virtualjamestown.org/images/white_debry_html/introduction.html John white drawings and Theodore DeBry engravings from Virtual Jamestown]. Retrieved March 2011
* [http://www.publicbookshelf.com/public_html/Our_Country_Vol_1/roanokei_dc.html Account of the Roanoke settlements]. Retrieved April 2011

{{Roanoke Colony}}

{{s-start}}
{{s-gov}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Ralph Lane|Sir Ralph Lane]]|as={{Nowrap|Governor of Roanoke (Virginia)}}}}
{{s-ttl|title={{Nowrap|[[Governor]] of [[Roanoke Colony|Raleigh (Virginia)]]}}|years=1587–1590}}
{{s-non|reason=Office abolished}}
{{s-end}}
{{Portal bar|Art|Biography|England|Maps|North America}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:White, John}}
[[Category:16th-century births]]
[[Category:1590s deaths]]
[[Category:16th-century English artists]]
[[Category:English cartographers]]
[[Category:English male artists]]
[[Category:English surveyors]]
[[Category:People of the Roanoke Colony]]
[[Category:English scientific illustrators]]
[[Category:16th-century English cartographers]]

Peter's Friends

2025-06-15T17:30:21Z

2A00:23C7:C8BC:C501:507C:445E:62F7:256D: /* Production and casting */Added county

{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2022}}
{{Use British English|date=July 2012}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Peter's Friends
| caption =
| image = Peter's Friends FilmPoster.jpeg
| director = [[Kenneth Branagh]]
| producer = Kenneth Branagh
| writer = [[Rita Rudner]] [[Martin Bergman]]
| starring = {{plainlist|
* [[Stephen Fry]]
* Kenneth Branagh
* [[Alphonsia Emmanuel]]
* [[Hugh Laurie]]
* [[Imelda Staunton]]
* [[Emma Thompson]]
* Rita Rudner
}}
| cinematography = Roger Lanser
| editing = [[Andrew Marcus]]
| studio = [[Channel Four Films]]
| distributor = [[Entertainment Film Distributors]]<ref>{{cite web|title=Peter's Friends (1992)|work=[[BBFC]]|access-date=31 March 2021|url=https://www.bbfc.co.uk/release/peters-friends-q29sbgvjdglvbjpwwc0zmjy5mje}}</ref>
| released = {{Film date|df=yes|1992|9|18|[[1992 Toronto International Film Festival|Toronto]]|1992|11|13}}
| runtime = 101 minutes
| country = United Kingdom
| language = English
| budget = $5 million
| gross = $7.2 million<ref>{{Mojo title|petersfriends}}</ref><ref name=Ilott>{{cite book | first=Terry | last=Ilott | title=Budgets and Markets: A Study of the Budgeting of European Films | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KUd9xnsNFNoC&q=peter%27s+friends+uk+box+office&pg=PA20 | publisher=Routledge | isbn=9781135102678 | date=17 June 2013 | access-date=9 January 2017}}</ref>
}}
'''''Peter's Friends''''' is a 1992 British [[comedy film]] directed and produced by [[Kenneth Branagh]], and written by [[Rita Rudner]] and [[Martin Bergman]].

The film follows six friends (played by [[Stephen Fry]], Branagh, [[Alphonsia Emmanuel]], [[Hugh Laurie]], [[Imelda Staunton]] and [[Emma Thompson]]), members of an acting troupe who graduated from [[Cambridge University]] in 1982 and went their separate ways. Ten years later, Peter inherits a large estate from his father and invites the group to spend the New Year's holiday with him.

==Plot==
Peter and his five friends act together in a [[Cambridge University]] student comedy troupe. They are shown performing on New Year's Eve, ringing in 1983 for Peter's father and his own group of middle-aged friends at the family's country estate. The stodgy partygoers are underwhelmed by the stylings of Peter and his friends, whose only supporters seem to be the family housekeeper, Vera, and her young son, Paul.

Ten years later, Peter has recently inherited the family estate, and invites his friends up for the 1992-1993 New Year's weekend.

Peter's friends are Andrew, now a writer in [[Hollywood, Los Angeles|Hollywood]]; married jingle writers Roger and Mary; glamorous costume designer Sarah; and eccentric Maggie, who works in publishing. Joining them are Carol, Andrew's American TV star wife; and impolite Brian, Sarah's very recently acquired, and still married, lover. Vera, and the now grown Paul, are still at the estate, though Vera has given their notice, intending to leave immediately after the weekend, as Peter plans to sell the house after this last party.

Andrew and Carol's marriage is strained by the demands of her fame, made worse by Mary's inappropriate mention that Andrew and Sarah had been engaged a decade earlier. Roger and Mary are recovering from a devastating personal tragedy, made more difficult by Mary ringing home every few minutes and by Brian suddenly talking at length about using their twins in one of their commercials, which leads to the revelation (to Brian, and the audience) that one of the toddler twins died nine months earlier. Lonely Maggie is determined to persuade Peter they should be more than just friends, and Sarah is not as happy with her life as she appears.

The weekend does not go as planned. After a failed attempt to seduce Peter, where he reveals he is bisexual but no longer sleeping with either sex, Maggie receives a [[makeover]] from Carol and successfully seduces Paul. Carol leaves Andrew and returns to America, and after a year of [[Teetotalism|sobriety]] Andrew returns to the bottle. Roger and Mary reach an emotional breakthrough, share their grief and address her obsessive overprotection of their remaining child. Brian calls his wife, who comes to pick him up, after he realizes that Sarah is not interested in that which she already has, but only in that which belongs to someone else. In the climax of the film, Peter reveals the real reason for his bringing them all together: he is [[HIV|HIV-positive]]. The friends emerge from their own problems and pledge their assistance to Peter.

==Cast==

{{Cast listing|
* [[Hugh Laurie]] as Roger Anderson
* [[Kenneth Branagh]] as Andrew Benson
* [[Stephen Fry]] as Peter Morton
* [[Alphonsia Emmanuel]] as Sarah Johnson
* [[Emma Thompson]] as Maggie Chester
* [[Imelda Staunton]] as Mary Anderson
* [[Phyllida Law]] as Vera
* [[Rita Rudner]] as Carol Benson
* [[Tony Slattery]] as Brian
* [[Alex Lowe (actor)|Alex Lowe]] as Paul
* [[Richard Briers]] as Lord Morton
}}

==Production and casting==
Most of the cast are actually old university friends or have previously collaborated in other films. Hugh Laurie, Stephen Fry, Emma Thompson and Tony Slattery attended the [[University of Cambridge]] and had been members of the [[Cambridge Footlights]], a student comedy troupe similar to the one portrayed in the film, at the same time. Co-writer Martin Bergman (husband of co-writer/star Rita Rudner) also attended Cambridge and was a member of the Footlights as well.

Prior to filming, [[Fry and Laurie]] were already a successful [[double act]] with TV series ''[[A Bit of Fry & Laurie]]'' and ''[[Jeeves and Wooster]]''. At the time the film was made, Branagh was married to Thompson, who had also dated Laurie during their university days. Phyllida Law is Thompson's mother and along with Richard Briers, Imelda Staunton and Alex Lowe appeared with Branagh and Thompson in Branagh's adaptation of ''[[Much Ado About Nothing (1993 film)|Much Ado About Nothing]]'' the following year. More than a decade later Fry, Law and Slattery appeared together in the ITV series ''[[Kingdom (2007 TV series)|Kingdom]]''.

Filming took place at [[Wrotham Park]] in [[Hertfordshire]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0105130/locations|title = Peter's Friends (1992) - IMDb|publisher = [[IMDb]]}}</ref> The central character of Peter is said to have been partly inspired by [[Nicholas Eden]], the son of former British Prime Minister [[Anthony Eden]] who was diagnosed with HIV/AIDS after inheriting his father's titles.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thetimes.com/uk/obituaries/article/clarissa-eden-countess-of-avon-dies-aged-101-g0fhbnltw|title = Clarissa Eden, Countess of Avon, obituary}}</ref>

==Soundtrack==
The soundtrack featured many artists from the 1980s, including [[Tears for Fears]] (whose song "[[Everybody Wants to Rule the World]]" was heard over the opening credits of the film), [[Eric Clapton]], [[The Pretenders]], [[Daryl Braithwaite]], [[Kiri Te Kanawa]] and [[Bruce Springsteen]].

The soundtrack album did not, however, feature the cast's rendition of the [[Jerome Kern]] standard "[[The Way You Look Tonight]]", as performed in the film nor the song, "Orpheus on the Underground", by John Hudson, which features at the beginning and end of the film.

==Reception==

===Box office===
''Peter's Friends'' grossed £3.1 million in the United Kingdom,<ref name=Ilott /> and grossed over $4 million in the USA.<ref>{{Citation|last=Branagh|first=Kenneth|title=Peter's Friends|date=1992-12-25|url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0105130/business|access-date=2016-04-10}}</ref>

===Critical response===
''Peter's Friends'' was well received by most critics. On [[Rotten Tomatoes]] it has an approval rating of 65% based on reviews from 37 critics.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/peters_friends/ |title=Peter's Friends |publisher=[[Rotten Tomatoes]] |access-date=30 March 2023}}</ref>

[[Roger Ebert]], film critic of the ''[[Chicago Sun-Times]]'', described the film as "more or less predictable", but awarded it three-and-a-half stars, stating, "The structure of ''Peter's Friends'' is not blazingly original - ''[[The Big Chill (film)|The Big Chill]]'' comes instantly to mind - but a movie like this succeeds in its particulars. If the dialogue is witty, if the characters are convincingly funny or sad, if there is the right bittersweet nostalgia and the sense that someone is likely to burst into '[[Those Were the Days (song)|Those Were the Days]],' then it doesn't matter that we've seen the formula before. This is a new weekend with new friends."<ref>{{cite web | date = 25 December 1992 | last = Ebert | first = Roger |author-link = Roger Ebert | title = Peter's Friends | work = [[Chicago Sun-Times]] | url = https://www.rogerebert.com/reviews/peters-friends-1992 | access-date = 19 January 2012 }}</ref>

Critic [[James Berardinelli]] gave the film a mixed review, giving it two-and-a-half out of a possible four stars and stating, "At its best, ''Peter's Friends'' is warm, touching, and funny. At its worst, it's annoying and preachy. Fortunately, there are a ''few'' more moments in the former category than in the latter." While praising Branagh's direction and performances by the cast, Berardinelli attributed most of his discontent to the film's screenplay, concluding, "This is Branagh's worst effort to date and shows, if nothing else, that no matter how talented the director and his cast, he still needs a decent screenplay. And that, ultimately, is where ''Peter's Friends'' falls short."<ref>{{cite web | date = 1992-12-25 | last =Berardinelli | first = James |author-link= James Berardinelli | title = Peter's Friends | work = ReelViews | url = http://preview.reelviews.net/movies/p/peters_friends.html | access-date = 1 January 2020 }}</ref>

===Accolades===
''Peter's Friends'' was nominated for a [[Goya Award]] and won two [[Evening Standard British Film Awards]]. It also ranked in eighth place on the [[National Board of Review of Motion Pictures|National Board of Review's]] [[National Board of Review Awards 1992|Top Ten 1992 films]].
{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="font-size: 95%;"
|-
! scope="col" | Award
! scope="col" | Category
! scope="col" | Recipients
! scope="col" | Result
|-
| rowspan=2 | [[Evening Standard British Film Awards#1992 Winners|Evening Standard British Film Awards]]
| Best Actress
| [[Emma Thompson]]
| {{won}}
|-
| Peter Sellers Award for Comedy
| [[Kenneth Branagh]]
| {{won}}
|-
| [[Goya Awards]]
| [[Goya Award for Best European Film|Best European Film]]
| Kenneth Branagh
| {{nom}}
|}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{IMDb title|0105130}}

{{Kenneth Branagh}}

[[Category:1992 films]]
[[Category:1992 romantic comedy films]]
[[Category:1992 LGBTQ-related films]]
[[Category:Films set in 1983]]
[[Category:Films set in 1992]]
[[Category:Films set in 1993]]
[[Category:British LGBTQ-related films]]
[[Category:British romantic comedy films]]
[[Category:Films about class reunions]]
[[Category:The Samuel Goldwyn Company films]]
[[Category:Films directed by Kenneth Branagh]]
[[Category:Films set in England]]
[[Category:Films shot in England]]
[[Category:Films set in country houses]]
[[Category:Films set around New Year]]
[[Category:HIV/AIDS in British films]]
[[Category:1990s English-language films]]
[[Category:1990s British films]]
[[Category:Films produced by Kenneth Branagh]]
[[Category:English-language romantic comedy films]]

Mollington, Oxfordshire

2025-06-15T17:00:00Z

2A00:23C7:C8BC:C501:507C:445E:62F7:256D: /* Manor and governance */Added commas

{{Short description|Village in Oxfordshire, England}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2015}}
{{Use British English|date=August 2015}}
{{Infobox UK place
| official_name = Mollington
| static_image_name = Mollington AllSaints NE.jpg
| static_image_caption = All Saints' parish church
| coordinates = {{coord|52.124|-1.361|display=inline,title}}
| os_grid_reference = SP4447
| label_position = left
| area_total_km2 = 5.89
| population = 479
| population_ref = ([[United Kingdom Census 2011|2011 Census]])
| civil_parish = Mollington
| shire_district = [[Cherwell (district)|Cherwell]]
| shire_county = [[Oxfordshire]]
| region = South East England
| country = England
| post_town = [[Banbury]]
| postcode_district = OX17
| postcode_area = OX
| dial_code = 01295
| constituency_westminster = [[Banbury (UK Parliament constituency)|Banbury]]
| website =
}}

'''Mollington''' is a village and [[Civil parishes in England|civil parish]] about {{convert|4|mi}} north of [[Banbury]] in [[Oxfordshire]], England. The [[United Kingdom Census 2011|2011 Census]] recorded the parish's population as 479.<ref>{{NOMIS2011 |id= E04008067 |title=Mollington Parish |access-date=15 June 2019}}</ref>

==Toponym==
An Anglo-Saxon will from AD 1015 records the [[Toponymy|toponym]] as ''Mollintun'' and the [[Domesday Book]] of 1086 records it as ''Molitone'' and ''Mollitone''. An entry for 1220 in the [[Book of Fees]] records it as ''Mulinton'' and a [[Pipe rolls|pipe roll]] from 1230 records it in its modern form of ''Mollington''. It is derived from [[Old English]], meaning the ''tūn'' of ''Moll''{{'}}s people.{{sfn|Ekwall|1960|loc=Mollington}}

==Manor and governance==
[[Æthelstan Ætheling]], the eldest son of [[Æthelred the Unready]], willed an estate at Mollington to his father in 1014 or 1015.{{sfn|Crossley|1972|p=197–206}} The [[Domesday Book]] of 1086 records that by 1086 the [[Manorialism|manor]] was held by William d'[[Évreux]], a kinsman of [[William I of England|William the Conqueror]].{{sfn|Crossley|1972|p=197–206}}

In 1086 Mollington was partly in three counties: Oxfordshire, [[Warwickshire]] and [[Northamptonshire]]. Later the village was only in Oxfordshire and Warwickshire, and in 1895 the Warwickshire part was transferred to Oxfordshire by the [[Local Government Act 1894]].{{sfn|Crossley|1972|p=197–206}}

==Church and chapel==
===Church of England===
The earliest parts of the [[Church of England parish church]] of [[All Saints' Day|All Saints]] date from the 14th century, but the [[Baptismal font|font]] is 13th century so there may have been an earlier church building on the site.{{sfn|Crossley|1972|p=197–206}}<ref>{{cite web |author=Archbishops' Council |author-link=Archbishops' Council |title=Mollington: All Saints |work=[[A Church Near You]] |publisher=[[Church of England]] |url= https://www.achurchnearyou.com/church/5948/ |access-date=15 June 2019}}</ref> All Saints' has a north [[aisle]] which is linked to the [[nave]] by an [[Arcade (architecture)|arcade]] of four [[Bay (architecture)|bays]]. The tower was built in the 16th century. There was a chapel on the north side of the [[chancel]], but it was demolished in 1786. A blocked arch and doorway survive in the north wall of the chancel and a [[piscina]] can be seen from the outside.{{sfn|Sherwood|Pevsner|1974|p=711}}

[[File:Mollington AllSaints NorthChapel piscina.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Piscina]] of the former north chapel of All Saints' parish church]]
The building was restored in 1856 under the direction of the [[Gothic Revival architecture|Gothic Revival architect]] [[William White (architect)|William White]].{{sfn|Sherwood|Pevsner|1974|p=710}} All Saints' is a [[Listed building#Categories of listed building|Grade II* listed building]].<ref>{{NHLE |num=1228026 |desc=Church of All Saints |access-date=20 January 2012}}</ref>

The tower has a [[Change ringing|ring]] of six bells. Henry I Bagley of [[Chacombe#Social and economic history|Chacombe]],<ref name=DoveFounders>{{cite web |url= http://dove.cccbr.org.uk/founders.php |title=Founders |work=[[Dove's Guide for Church Bell Ringers]] |publisher=[[Central Council of Church Bell Ringers]] |author=Dovemaster |date=25 June 2010 |access-date=20 January 2012}}</ref> Northamptonshire cast the fifth bell in 1631<ref name=DoveDetails>{{cite web |url= http://dove.cccbr.org.uk/detail.php?searchString=Mollington&Submit=+Go+&DoveID=MOLLINGTON |title=Mollington All Saints |work=[[Dove's Guide for Church Bell Ringers]] |publisher=[[Central Council of Church Bell Ringers]] |last=Davies |first=Peter |date=9 January 2009 |access-date=20 January 2012}}</ref> and John Briant of [[Hertford]]<ref name=DoveFounders/> cast the fourth bell in 1789.<ref name=DoveDetails/> Mears and Stainbank of the [[Whitechapel Bell Foundry]] cast the third and tenor bells in 1875.<ref name=DoveDetails/> The Whitechapel Bell Foundry cast the treble and second bells in 1981,<ref name=DoveDetails/> completing the present ring. All Saints has also a [[Church bell#Sanctus bells|Sanctus bell]], cast by John Conyers of [[Yorkshire]] in about 1630.<ref name=DoveDetails/> Conyers had two [[Bellfounding|bell-foundries]]: one in [[Kingston upon Hull]] and the other in [[Malton, North Yorkshire|New Malton]].<ref name=DoveFounders/>

All Saints' parish is now part of the [[Benefice#Church of England|Benefice]] of Shires' Edge along with the parishes of [[Claydon, Oxfordshire|Claydon]], [[Cropredy]], [[Great Bourton]] and [[Wardington]].<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.achurchnearyou.com/benefice.php?B=27/139CW |title=Benefice of Shires' Edge |author=Archbishops' Council |work=A Church Near You |publisher=Church of England |access-date=5 August 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20121005101829/http://www.achurchnearyou.com/benefice.php?B=27%2F139CW |archive-date=5 October 2012 |df=dmy-all }}</ref>

===Primitive Methodist and Brethren===
In 1817 a private house in Mollington was registered for [[Nonconformist (Protestantism)|non-conformist]] worship. Houses were registered for [[Methodism|Methodist]] worship in 1821 and 1828. A [[Primitive Methodism|Primitive Methodist]] minister preached in Mollington in 1835, and a red brick chapel of that denomination was built in the village in 1845. It thrived the 1850s, 60s and 70s but declined in the first half of the 20th century, and was closed in 1947.

The chapel was bought in 1950 for [[Plymouth Brethren|Brethren]] worship, but closed again by 1969.{{sfn|Crossley|1972|p=197–206}} It is now a private house.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.oxfordshirechurches.info/MollingtonPrimitiveMethodist.htm |title=Mollington |work=Oxfordshire Churches & Chapels |publisher=Brian Curtis |access-date=15 June 2019}}</ref>

==Social and economic history==
[[File:Green Man Inn, Mollington - geograph.org.uk - 131142.jpg|thumb|The Green Man public house]]
In 1872 a [[National school (England and Wales)|National School]] was built in the village. It was a [[Voluntary controlled school|Church of England school]] and was still open in 1996,<ref>{{cite web |title=Mollington CofE School |publisher=[[Department for Children, Schools and Families]] |date=30 June 1997 |url= http://www.dcsf.gov.uk/cgi-bin/performancetables/archives/shschoolp_96?School=9313006 |archive-url= http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20100203222652/http://www.dcsf.gov.uk/cgi%2Dbin/performancetables/archives/shschoolp_96?School%3D9313006 |url-status= dead |archive-date= 3 February 2010 |access-date=18 October 2007}}</ref> but has since been closed.

Mollington used to have a post office.{{sfn|Crossley|1972|p=197–206}}

A [[Point to point (steeplechase)|Point to point racing]] ground opened at Mollington in 1972. A number of hunt groups were based at the ground until its closure in 2007.<ref>{{cite news |last=Smith |first=Russell |title=POINT TO POINT: Mollington set to close |work=[[Oxford Mail]] |publisher=[[Newsquest]] |date=19 July 2007 |url= http://www.oxfordmail.net/search/display.var.1556106.0.point_to_point_mollington_set_to_close.php |access-date=18 October 2007}}</ref> It has since reopened with its first event on 7 May 2012.{{citation needed|date=September 2015}}

==Amenities==
Mollington has a [[public house]], The Green Man, that was probably built in the middle of the 18th century.<ref>{{NHLE |num=1216574 |desc=The Green Man Public House |grade=II |access-date=20 January 2012}}</ref> It also has a [[village hall]]<ref>[http://www.mollingtonvillagehall.co.uk/ Mollington Village Hall Oxfordshire]</ref> and two children's playgrounds.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Sources==
*{{cite book |last1=Crossley |first1=Alan (ed.) |last2=Colvin |first2=Christina |last3=Cooper |first3=Janet |last4=Cooper |first4=N.H. |last5=Harvey |first5=P.D.A. |last6=Hollings |first6=Marjory |last7=Hook |first7=Judith |last8=Jessup |first8=Mary |last9=Lobel |first9=Mary D. |author9-link=Mary Lobel |last10=Mason |first10=J.F.A. |last11=Trinder |first11=B.S. |last12=Turner |first12=Hilary |year=1972 |title=A History of the County of Oxford |volume=10: Banbury Hundred |series=[[Victoria County History]] |place=London |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] for the [[Institute of Historical Research]] |isbn=978-0-19722-728-2 |pages=197–206 |url= http://www.british-history.ac.uk/vch/oxon/vol10/pp197-206 |ref={{harvid|Crossley|1972}}}}
*{{cite book |last=Ekwall |first=Eilert |author-link=Eilert Ekwall |orig-year=1936 |year=1960 |title=Concise Oxford Dictionary of English Place-Names |edition=4th |place=Oxford |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=0198691033 |at=Mollington }}
*{{Cite book |last1=Sherwood |first1=Jennifer |last2=Pevsner |first2=Nikolaus |author-link2=Nikolaus Pevsner |series=The Buildings of England |title=Oxfordshire |year=1974 |publisher=[[Penguin Books]] |location=Harmondsworth |isbn=0-14-071045-0 |pages=710–711 }}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
*[http://www.mollingtonvillagehall.co.uk/ Mollington Village Hall Oxfordshire]

{{Cherwell}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Civil parishes in Oxfordshire]]
[[Category:Villages in Oxfordshire]]

Ancient university

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2A00:23C7:C8BC:C501:507C:445E:62F7:256D: /* Foundation and development */Improved link

{{Short description|British and Irish universities founded before 1600}}
{{About|the oldest universities in Britain and Ireland|ancient centres of higher education around the world|Ancient higher-learning institutions}}
[[File:1_oxford_aerial_panorama_2016_(cropped).jpg|thumb|upright=1|The [[University of Oxford]] in [[Oxford]], England, is the oldest university in the [[English-speaking world]]]]
[[File:MS Laud Misc 165 fol 109.png|thumb|Illustration of [[William of Nottingham II|William of Nottingham]] teaching at either Oxford or Cambridge, {{circa|1350}}.]]
The '''ancient universities''' are seven British and Irish [[Medieval university|medieval universities]] and [[List of early modern universities in Europe|early modern universities]] that were founded before 1600.<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite web|url=http://ukinusa.fco.gov.uk/en/newsroom/?view=News&id=5586301 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20110809124918/http://ukinusa.fco.gov.uk/en/newsroom/?view=News&id=5586301 |url-status=dead |archive-date=2011-08-09 |title=Radcliffe dean to lead historic university in Scotland |publisher=Ukinusa.fco.gov.uk |access-date=2012-02-17 }}</ref> Four of these are located in [[Scotland]] ([[University of Edinburgh|Edinburgh]], [[University of Glasgow|Glasgow]], [[University of Aberdeen|Aberdeen]], and [[University of St Andrews|St Andrews]]), two in [[England]] ([[University of Oxford|Oxford]] and [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge]]), and one in [[Ireland]] ([[University of Dublin|Dublin]]). The ancient universities in Great Britain and Ireland are amongst the [[List of oldest universities in continuous operation|oldest extant universities in the world]]. The ancient universities in Britain are also among twenty-seven institutions recognised by the British monarchy as [[privileged bodies of the United Kingdom]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Elston |first1=Laura |title=King invites leading institutions to reaffirm loyalty to him at historic ceremony |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/charles-british-boris-johnson-london-edinburgh-b2295255.html |work=The Independent |date=7 March 2023}}</ref>

{{Location map+|United Kingdom and Ireland|alt=Map of Great Britain and Ireland with the locations of the ancient universities highlighted|caption=Locations of the ancient universities or colleges (red: extant; blue: defunct)|float=right|width=297|places=
{{Location map~|United Kingdom and Ireland|lat=51.76|long=-1.26|position=bottom|label=[[University of Oxford|Oxford]]}}
{{Location map~|United Kingdom and Ireland|lat=52.21|long=0.12|position=bottom|label=[[University of Cambridge|Cambridge]]}}
{{Location map~|United Kingdom and Ireland|lat=56.34|long=-2.79|position=top|label=[[University of St Andrews|St Andrews]]}}
{{Location map~|United Kingdom and Ireland|lat=55.87|long=-4.29|position=bottom|label=[[University of Glasgow|Glasgow]]}}
{{Location map~|United Kingdom and Ireland|lat=57.17|long=-2.1|position=left|label=[[University of Aberdeen|Aberdeen]]}}
{{Location map~|United Kingdom and Ireland|lat=55.95|long=-3.19|position=right|label=[[University of Edinburgh|Edinburgh]]}}
{{Location map~|United Kingdom and Ireland|lat=53.34|long=-6.26|position=top|label=[[University of Dublin|Dublin]]}}
{{Location map~|United Kingdom and Ireland|lat=52.23|long=-0.89|mark=Blue pog.svg|position=left|label=[[University of Northampton (thirteenth century)|Northampton]]}}
{{Location map~|United Kingdom and Ireland|lat=52.66|long=-0.48|mark=Blue pog.svg|position=top|label=[[University of Stamford|Stamford]]}}
{{Location map~|United Kingdom and Ireland|lat=57.69|long=-2.01|mark=Blue pog.svg|position=top|label=[[Fraserburgh University|Fraserburgh]]}}
}}

==Foundation and development==

The surviving ancient universities in [[England]], [[Scotland]] and [[Ireland]] are, in order of formation:

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Year !! Name !! Nation of Founding !! Location !! Notes
|- valign="top"
| 1096
| [[University of Oxford]]
| rowspan="2" | [[Kingdom of England]]
| [[Oxford]], England
| Oxford's official website says, "There is no clear date of foundation, but teaching existed at Oxford in some form in 1096 and developed rapidly from 1167, when [[Henry II of England|Henry II]] banned English students from attending the [[University of Paris]]."<ref>[http://www.ox.ac.uk/about_the_university/introducing_oxford/a_brief_history_of_the_university/index.html A brief history of the University of Oxford] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080411014607/http://www.ox.ac.uk/about_the_university/introducing_oxford/a_brief_history_of_the_university/index.html |date=2008-04-11 }}, [[Oxford University]]</ref> Teaching suspended in 1209 (due to town execution of two scholars) and 1355 (due to the [[St Scholastica Day riot]]).
|- valign="top"
| 1209
| [[University of Cambridge]]
| [[Cambridge]], England
| Founded by scholars leaving [[Oxford]] after a dispute caused by the execution of two scholars in 1209. It was generally recognized as a ''[[studium generale]]'' by the late 13th century and this was either confirmed or formally granted by a [[Papal bull]] in 1318.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7zorDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA59|title=The Medieval English Universities: Oxford and Cambridge to C. 1500|author=Alan B. Cobban|pages=58, 59|publisher=Taylor & Francis|date=5 July 2017|isbn=9781351885805}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1OMGDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA162|pages=162–170|title=Law as Profession and Practice in Medieval Europe: Essays in Honor of James A. Brundage|editor1=Kenneth Pennington|editor2=Melodie Harris Eichbauer|publisher=Routledge|date=15 April 2016|chapter=When did Cambridge become a ''studium generale''|author=Patrick Zutshi|isbn=9781317107682}}</ref>
|- valign="top"
| 1413
| [[University of St Andrews]]
| rowspan="4" | [[Kingdom of Scotland]]
| [[St Andrews]], Scotland
| Founded by a [[papal bull]] building on earlier bodies established between 1410 and 1413, but officially recognized in 1413<ref>{{Cite book |last=Jobson Lyon |first=Charles |title=The History of St. Andrews, Ancient and Modern |publisher=BiblioLife |year=2009 |isbn=978-1103782949 |pages=68}}</ref>
|- valign="top"
| 1451
| [[University of Glasgow]]
| [[Glasgow]], Scotland
| Founded by a [[papal bull]] of Pope Nicholas V<ref>{{Cite book |last=Devine |first=Thomas |title=Glasgow: Beginnings to 1830 |publisher=Manchester University Press |year=1995 |isbn=9780719036910 |pages=3}}</ref>
|- valign="top"
| 1495
| [[University of Aberdeen]]
| [[Aberdeen]], Scotland
| [[King's College, Aberdeen|King's College]] was founded in 1495 by [[papal bull]] and [[Marischal College]] in 1593; they merged in 1860
|- valign="top"
| 1582
| [[University of Edinburgh]]
| [[Edinburgh]], Scotland
| Established by the town council under the authority of a [[royal charter]] granted by [[James VI]]
|- valign="top"
| 1592
| [[University of Dublin]]
| [[Kingdom of Ireland]]
| [[Dublin]], Ireland
| Founded by charter of Queen Elizabeth I; [[Trinity College Dublin|Trinity College]]<ref name="autogenerated1" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=Meenan |first=James |date=May 30, 1946 |title="The Universities." II.—The University of Dublin: Trinity College |url=http://www.tara.tcd.ie/bitstream/2262/5699/1/jssisiVolXVII594_610.pdf |website=TARA - Trinity College Dublin}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newmanreader.org/works/historical/volume3/universities/chapter17.html |title=Rise & Progress of Universities – Chapter 17 |publisher=Newman Reader |access-date=2012-02-17}}</ref> is the only constituent college of the university
|-
|}

In the middle ages, universities followed the [[canonical hours]] of the church. As the masters in the arts faculty would often also be students in one of the higher faculties, universities used these canonical hours to define periods when the compulsory lectures in the different facilities were given in order to prevent timetable clashes. At Cambridge, for example, only the canon lawyers could lecture between ''[[Prime (liturgy)|prime]]'' (dawn) and ''[[Nones (liturgy)|nones]]'' (mid afternoon).<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Pedersen |first=Olaf |title=The First Universities |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1998 |isbn=978-0521594318 |pages=252–253}}</ref> In the morning, there were lectures offered by [[regent master]]s on standard texts that they wanted to lecture. Then in the afternoon there would be advanced bachelors that would give lectures that reviews the material learned that morning. Also in the afternoon, the junior masters would discuss about other books of mathematical science or natural philosophy.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Lindberg |first1=David |last2=Shank |first2=Michael |date=2013 |title=The Cambridge History of Science |chapter=Medieval Science |publisher=Cambridge University Press |volume=2 |pages=222–223 |doi=10.1017/CHO9780511974007 |isbn=978-0-511-97400-7 }}</ref>

==Governance==
[[File:20130808 Kings Back Court 02.jpg|thumb|upright=1|The [[University of Cambridge]] in [[Cambridge]], England]]
[[File:StAndrewsWedding 2013-08.jpg|thumb|upright=1|The [[University of St Andrews]] in [[St Andrews]], Scotland]]
[[File:University of Glasgow Quadrangle.jpg|thumb|upright=1|The [[University of Glasgow]] in [[Glasgow]], Scotland]]
[[File:King's College Chapel, University of Aberdeen.jpg|thumb|upright=1|The [[University of Aberdeen]] in [[Aberdeen]], Scotland]]
[[File:Old College, University of Edinburgh (24923171570).jpg|thumb|upright=1|The [[University of Edinburgh]] in [[Edinburgh]], Scotland]]
[[File:Dublin - Trinity College Dublin - 20180925051055 (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright=1|[[Trinity College Dublin]] Ireland]]
These universities are often governed in a quite different fashion to more recent foundations. The [[ancient universities of Scotland]] also share several distinctive features and are governed by arrangements laid down by the ''Universities (Scotland) Acts''. In addition to these universities, some now-defunct institutions were founded during this period, including the [[University of Northampton (thirteenth century)|University of Northampton]] (1261–1265),<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-northamptonshire-37165019|title=Northampton: The ancient English university killed by a king|author=Laurence Cawley|work=BBC News|date=11 September 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20230718143926/https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-northamptonshire-37165019 |archive-date= Jul 18, 2023 }}</ref> [[University of Stamford]], Lincolnshire (1333–1335),<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1WU-AQAAIAAJ&pg=PA468|pages=468–474|title=Stamford University|series=The Victoria History of the County of Lincoln|author=William Page|date= 1906}}</ref> and the [[Fraserburgh University|University of Fraserburgh]], Aberdeenshire (1592–1605).<ref>{{cite ODNB|url=https://www.oxforddnb.com/view/10.1093/ref:odnb/9780198614128.001.0001/odnb-9780198614128-e-10099?genre=book&sid=oup%3Aorr&title=Fasti+academiae+Mariscallanae+Aberdonensis&volume=1|title=Fraser, Sir Alexander, of Philorth|date=23 September 2004|author=R. P. Wells|doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/10099}}</ref> There was also the [[medieval University of Dublin]] which was an early but largely unsuccessful attempt to establish a university in Dublin, the capital city of the [[Lordship of Ireland]]. Founded in 1320, it maintained an intermittent existence for the next two centuries, but it never flourished, and disappeared for good at the [[Reformation in Ireland]] (1534–41). It was located in [[St Patrick's Cathedral, Dublin]]. It had no connection with the present University of Dublin, better known as Trinity College Dublin (its sole college), which was founded in 1592.

==Undergraduate Master of Arts degree==
{{Main|Master of Arts (Scotland)|Master of Arts (Oxbridge and Dublin)}}
The ancient universities are distinctive in awarding the [[Magister Artium]]/Master of Arts (MA) as an undergraduate [[academic degree]]. This is commonly known as the '''Oxbridge MA''', '''Trinity MA''' (Dublin), or the '''Scottish MA'''.

The ancient universities in Scotland confer the MA degree at graduation with honours and a final mark; in contrast, the ancient universities in England and Ireland award the MA purely after a period of good standing following graduation as [[Bachelor of Arts]], usually around three years.

Because they award the MA as an undergraduate Arts degree, the ancient universities award differing titles for their postgraduate master's degrees in the Arts and Humanities, such as the taught Master of Letters ("MLitt (T)"). Some confusion can arise as to whether such degrees are taught degrees or the most established (and advanced) two-year research degrees, although this is often specified.

==Acts of Parliament related to the universities of Oxford and Cambridge==
While both universities received grants of liberties and privileges by royal charter, the charters granted to Cambridge in 1231 and to Oxford in 1248 being the earliest recorded on the Privy Councils list of chartered bodies,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://privycouncil.independent.gov.uk/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/2018-12-06-Record-of-Charters-Granted.xls.xlsx|title=List of chartered bodies|publisher=Privy Council|access-date=18 July 2020}}</ref> neither university was created or incorporated by royal charter. After existing for the first few centuries of their existence as common law corporations, they were formally incorporated by the [[Oxford and Cambridge Act 1571]], under [[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabeth I]]. The [[Universities of Oxford and Cambridge Act 1859]] repealed the parts of the 1571 act that required the mayor, aldermen, citizens or municipal officer of the City of Oxford to take any oath for the conservation of the liberties and privileges of the University of Oxford.

Parliament passed the Chantries Act in 1545, which transferred ownership of all [[Chantry|chantries]] and their properties to [[Henry VIII|King Henry VIII]]. Members of the University of Cambridge sent letters to the king's wife, [[Catherine Parr]], about the potential threat this posed to the university. It is evident that the king already had special plans for the universities of Oxford and Cambridge, and that they were given special treatment compared to the other schools of England.{{clarification needed|there were no other universities in England, so what does this mean?|date=December 2023}} At Cambridge, for example, King Henry VIII founded [[Trinity College, Cambridge|Trinity College]], which would later become an important part of the University.{{clarification needed|why is this relevant to the Chantries Act?|date=December 2023}}<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Rex |first=Richard |date=Oct 2022 |title=The University of Cambridge and the Chantries Act of 1545 |journal=The Journal of Ecclesiastical History |volume=73 |issue=4 |pages=779–780|doi=10.1017/S0022046921001494 |s2cid=253081569 }}</ref>

In the 19th century a series of acts and commissions reduced the powers of the universities to make their own statutes. A Royal Commission in 1850 looked into both universities and proposed major reforms to their constitutions. These were enacted by the [[Oxford University Act 1854]] and the [[Cambridge University Act 1856]]. The [[Universities Tests Act 1871]] removed almost all religious tests from both universities (and from [[Durham University]]). The Oxford and Cambridge Universities Act 1877 set up commissioners to look into further reform of the statutes of both universities and of their constituent colleges. Further Royal Commissions into both universities were established in 1919, resulting in the Oxford and Cambridge Universities Act 1923, setting up a commission to again make statutes and regulations for the universities and their colleges. This has resulted in there being two kind of statutes at these universities – those made by the universities themselves, which may be changed by them, and the "Queen-in-Council" statutes made under the 1923 act or the [[Education Reform Act 1988]] that can only be changed with permission from the Privy Council.<ref name=OxfordStatutes>{{cite web|title=Preface: Constitution and Statute-making Powers of the University|work=Statutes|publisher=University of Oxford|url=https://governance.admin.ox.ac.uk/legislation/preface-constitution-and-statute-making-powers-of-the-university|access-date=18 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www-g.eng.cam.ac.uk/125/1875-1900/milestones_03.html|title=Royal Commission of 1850|work=125 Years of Engineering Excellence|publisher=University of Cambridge|access-date=18 July 2020}}</ref>

==Universities (Scotland) Acts==
{{Main|Ancient university governance in Scotland}}
The Universities (Scotland) Acts created a distinctive system of governance for the ancient universities in [[Scotland]], the process beginning with the 1858 Act and ending with the 1966 Act. Despite not being founded until after the first in these series of Acts, the [[University of Dundee]] shares all the features contained therein.

As a result of these Acts, each of these universities is [[governance|governed]] by a tripartite system of [[General Council (Scottish university)|General Council]], [[University Court]], and [[Academic Senate]].

The [[chief executive]] and [[academic|chief academic]] is the [[University Principal]] who also holds the title of [[Vice-Chancellor]] as an [[honorific]]. The [[Chancellor (education)|Chancellor]] is a [[Titular ruler|titular]] non-resident head to each university and is elected for life by the respective General Council, although in actuality a good number of Chancellors resign before the end of their 'term of office'.

Each also has a [[students' representative council]] as required by [[statute]], although at the University of Aberdeen this has recently been renamed the ''Students' Association Council''.<ref>{{cite web|title=University of Aberdeen Students' Association Constitution| url=http://www.ausa.org.uk/about/constitution| access-date=2007-04-21| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20070408093630/http://www.ausa.org.uk/about/constitution| archive-date= 8 April 2007 | url-status= live}}</ref>

==Later universities==
{{main|List of UK universities by date of foundation}}
Following the creation of the ancient universities, no more universities were created in Britain and Ireland until the 19th century except three defunct universities in England (Northampton, Stamford and Durham), which were quickly shut down after opening due to strong opposition-lobbying efforts by Oxford and Cambridge.

Which of the 19th-century institutions should be considered the earliest post-ancient university is [[Third oldest university in England debate|a matter of debate]]. The main university-level foundations up to the mid 19th century were:

*[[Durham College (17th century)|Durham College]] (1657–1660) founded under [[Oliver Cromwell]], for which a charter as a university was drawn up under [[Richard Cromwell]] but never sealed<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.durhamworldheritagesite.com/history/university/college|title=Plans for a College in Durham|work=Durham World Heritage Site|access-date=17 July 2020}}</ref>
*[[University of Wales Lampeter|St David's College, Lampeter]] by the [[Bishop of St David's]] in 1822 (royal charter 1828) (now part of [[University of Wales Trinity Saint David]])
*[[University College London]] as a [[joint stock company]] in 1826 under the name "London University" (royal charter as University College, London 1836)
*[[King's College London]] by royal charter in 1829
*[[Durham University]] by [[act of parliament]] in 1832 (royal charter 1837)
*[[University of London]] by royal charter in 1836
*[[Queen's College, Birmingham]] (now [[The Queen's Foundation]]) by royal charter in 1843
*Queen's College Belfast (now, [[Queen's University Belfast]]), Queen's College Cork (now [[University College Cork]]) and Queen's College Galway (now [[University of Galway]]) by royal charters in 1845
*[[Bedford College, London|Bedford College]], London founded by [[Elizabeth Jesser Reid]] in 1849 and the first institution of higher learning for women in the British Isles; now part of [[Royal Holloway, University of London]]
*[[Queen's University of Ireland]] by royal charter in 1850, with the above Queen's Colleges as constituent institutions (dissolved 1882; replaced by the [[Royal University of Ireland]], which was in turn replaced by the [[National University of Ireland]] and [[Queen's University Belfast]])
*[[Catholic University of Ireland]] in 1851 (royal charter as [[University College Dublin]] 1908)
*Owens College Manchester in 1851, now the [[University of Manchester]] (via the [[Victoria University of Manchester]])

Only Durham, London and the Queen's University of Ireland were recognised as universities at the time of their foundation, granting their first degrees in 1837, 1839 and 1851 respectively. Durham was a collegiate university, London was an examining board, and the Queen's University was a federal university. The other institutions, while teaching at university level, were colleges, some becoming universities later. In addition, many other universities trace their roots to institutions founded in this period, including the [[University of Strathclyde]] to the Andersonian Institute (1796), [[Heriot-Watt University]] to the School of Arts of Edinburgh (1821), [[Birkbeck, University of London]] to the London Mechanics' Institute (1823), the [[University of Manchester]] (via [[UMIST]]) to the [[Manchester Mechanics' Institute]] (1824) and (via Owen's College) to the [[Manchester Royal School of Medicine]] (also 1824), the [[University of Chester]] to Chester Diocesan Training College (1839), [[Plymouth Marjon University]] to St John's College, Battersea (1840) and St Mark's College, Chelsea (1841), the [[University of Winchester]] to Winchester Diocesan Training School (1840), the [[University of Roehampton]] to [[Whitelands College]] (1841), [[York St John University]] to York Diocesan College (1841) and the York Diocesan Institution for Female Teachers (1846), and [[St Mary's University, Twickenham]] to St Mary's College (1850). Many medical schools also date from the 18th century or earlier, including [[St Thomas's Hospital Medical School]] (now part of [[King's College London]]) between 1693 and 1709,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://kingscollections.org/catalogues/kclca/collection/s/10sa70-1/|title=ST THOMAS'S HOSPITAL: Medical school records|work=King's College London College Archives}}</ref> [[St George's, University of London]] in 1733, [[UCL Medical School|Middlesex Hospital Medical School]] (now part of University College London) in 1746, [[London Hospital Medical College]] (now part of [[Queen Mary, University of London]]) in 1786.

The [[Red brick university|redbrick universities]] were established as university colleges in the latter half of the 19th century and mostly became universities in the early 20th century. The [[Royal University of Ireland]] (1881, as the successor of the Queen's University of Ireland), the [[Victoria University (UK)|Victoria University]] (1881), and the [[University of Wales]] (1893) were the only other universities established in the 1800s, all as federal or examining universities. The first unitary university in the British Isles outside of Scotland was the [[University of Birmingham]] (1900).<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LdXhBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA128|page=128|title=Redbrick: A Social and Architectural History of Britain's Civic Universities|author=William Whyte|publisher=Oxford University Press|date=16 January 2015|isbn=9780191025228}}</ref>

== See also ==
*[[List of oldest universities in continuous operation]]
*[[Ancient universities of Scotland]], oldest universities in Scotland
*[[Colonial colleges]], oldest universities in the United States of America
*[[Imperial Universities]], oldest universities founded during the Empire of Japan
*[[Sandstone universities]], oldest universities in Australia

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{University associations and groupings in the United Kingdom}}
{{Portal bar|United Kingdom}}

{{authority control}}

[[Category:Ancient history]]
[[Category:Ancient universities|United Kingdom and Ireland]]
[[Category:Universities and colleges in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:History of higher education in the United Kingdom]]

Ciborium (architecture)

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2A00:23C7:C8BC:C501:507C:445E:62F7:256D: /* History */Added word

{{Short description|Canopy or covering that covers the altar in a church}}
{{About|the altar canopy|the vessel|Ciborium (container)}}

[[File:9663 - Milano - S. Ambrogio - Ciborio - Foto Giovanni Dall'Orto 25-Apr-2007.jpg|thumb|Ciborium of [[Basilica of Sant'Ambrogio|Sant'Ambrogio, Milan]]; note the rods for curtains. The columns are probably 4th century, the canopy 9th, 10th or 12th century.<ref>{{cite book | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=DlkVAAAAIAAJ&q=Sant%27Ambrogio+ciborium&pg=PA44 | title = Romanesque Sculpture in Italy}}</ref>]]
In [[Church architecture|ecclesiastical architecture]], a '''ciborium''' ([[Greek language|Greek]]: κιβώριον; {{literally|ciborion}}) is a canopy or covering supported by columns, freestanding in the [[sanctuary]], that stands over and covers the [[altar]] in a [[church architecture|church]]. It may also be known by the more general term of [[baldachin]], though ''ciborium'' is often considered more correct for examples in churches. A baldachin (originally an exotic type of silk from Baghdad) should have a textile covering, or, as at [[St. Peter’s Basilica|Saint Peter’s]] in Rome, imitate one.<ref>See Krouse, 110; Grove</ref><ref name="Espín Nickoloff">{{cite book |editor1-first=Orlando O. |editor1-last=Espín |editor2-first=James B. |editor2-last=Nickoloff |title=An Introductory Dictionary of Theology and Religious Studies |year=2007 |page=110 |publisher=Liturgical Press |isbn=9780814658567 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=k85JKr1OXcQC&q=ciborium+baldachin&pg=PA110}}</ref> There are exceptions; [[St. Peter's Baldachin|Bernini's structure in Saint Peter's, Rome]] is always called the baldachin.<ref name="hibbard">{{cite book|last=Hibbard |first=Howard |title=Bernini |url=https://archive.org/details/bernini00hibb |url-access=registration |publisher=Penguin |location=New York |page=[https://archive.org/details/bernini00hibb/page/78 78] |year=1991 |isbn=978-0-14-013598-5 }}</ref>

Early ciboria had curtains hanging from rods between the columns, so that the altar could be concealed from the congregation at points in the [[liturgy]]. Smaller examples may cover other objects in a church. In a very large church, a ciborium is an effective way of visually highlighting the altar, and emphasizing its importance. The altar and ciborium are often set upon a [[dais]] to raise it above the floor of the sanctuary.

A [[Ciborium (container)|ciborium]] is also a covered, [[Chalice#Christian|chalice]]-shaped container for [[Eucharist]]ic [[Sacramental bread#Catholic Church|host]]s. In Italian the word is often used for the [[Church tabernacle|tabernacle]] on the altar, which is not the case in English.

==History==
[[File:EuphrasiusBasilika.jpg|thumb|left|260px|The [[Euphrasian Basilica]] in [[Poreč]],[[Croatia]]. The columns are 6th century, and canopy from 1277.]]

The ciborium arose in the context of a wide range of canopies, both honorific and practical, used in the ancient world to cover both important persons and religious images or objects.<ref>Grove, Introduction</ref> Some of these were temporary and portable, including those using poles and textiles, and others permanent structures. Roman emperors are often shown underneath such a structure, often called an ''[[aedicula]]'' ("little house"), which term is reserved in modern architectural usage to a niche-like structure attached to a wall, but was originally used more widely. Examples can be seen on many coins, in the [[Missorium of Theodosius I]], the [[Chronography of 354]], and other [[Late Antique]] works. The [[Holy of Holies]] of the Jewish [[Temple of Jerusalem]], a room whose entrance was covered by the ''[[parochet]]'', a curtain or "veil", was certainly regarded as a precedent by the church;<ref>Barker, 95-97</ref> the ''[[Shrine|naos]]'' containing the [[cult image]] in an [[Egyptian temple]] is perhaps a comparable structure.

The free-standing domed ciborium-like structure that stood over what was thought to be the site of Jesus's tomb within the [[Church of the Holy Sepulchre]] in [[Jerusalem]] was called the {{Lang|la|aedicula}} (or edicule), and was a key sight for pilgrims, often shown in art, for example in the [[Monza Ampullae]].<ref>Barker, 96</ref> This structure, erected under [[Constantine the Great]], may itself have been important in spreading the idea of ciboria over altars.<ref>Cracraft and Rowland, 30</ref> The later structure now in its place is far larger, with solid stone walls; the silver plaques covering the old structure were apparently used to make coins to pay the army defending Jerusalem against [[Saladin]] in the desperate days of 1187.<ref>Folda, 22</ref> Ciboria were placed over the shrines of [[martyr]]s, which then had churches built over them, with the altar over the spot believed to be the site of the burial.<ref>Stancliffe, 24, 37; Grove appears to disagree (though agreeing that Constantine's in St John Lateran is the earliest known), and the immediate origins of the ciborium over altars appears to be undocumented.</ref> They also served to shelter the altar from dust and the like from high ceilings that could only rarely be reached.<ref name="Grove">Grove</ref>
[[File:Basilica di San Giovanni in Laterano - Ciborium.jpg|thumb|[[Basilica of Saint John Lateran]] in Rome, by [[Arnolfo di Cambio]]]]

Possibly the earliest important example over an altar was in the [[Basilica of Saint John Lateran]] in Rome, also donated by Constantine, looted by the [[Visigoths]] in the 5th century and now replaced by a large Gothic structure (see below). This is described as a {{Lang|la|fastigium}} in the earliest sources, but was probably a ciborium. Like most major early examples it was "of silver", whose weight is given, presumably meaning that decorated silver plaques were fixed to a wood or stone framework. No early examples in precious metal have survived, but many are recorded in important churches.<ref>Smith & Cheetham, 65; Grove, 1</ref> Possibly the earliest ciborium to survive largely complete is one in [[Basilica of Sant'Apollinare in Classe|Sant'Apollinare in Classe]] in [[Ravenna]] (not over the main altar), which is dated to 806-810,<ref>Krouse, 110; Smith & Cheetham, 65</ref> though the columns of the example at [[Basilica of Sant'Ambrogio|Sant'Ambrogio]] appear to date from the original 4th-century church.

The ciborium commissioned by [[Justinian the Great]] for [[Hagia Sophia]] in [[Constantinople]] and described by [[Paulus Silentarius]] is now lost. It was also of silver, [[niello]]ed, surmounted by "a globe of pure gold weighing 118 pounds, and golden lilies weighing 4 pounds [each], and above these a [[crux gemmata|golden cross with precious and rare stones]], which cross weighed 80 pounds of gold". The roof had eight panels rising to the globe and cross.<ref>[[Paulus Silentarius]], [https://books.google.com/books?id=rSvf_KMYQiwC&dq=ciborium+Byzantine&pg=PA99], "pounds" substituted for "lbs."; Smith & Cheetham, 65</ref>

The Early Medieval [[Eastern Orthodox]] church "directed that the [[eucharist]] be celebrated at an altar with a ciborium, from which hung the vessel in which the consecrated host was kept",<ref>Schiller, 29</ref> the vessel sometimes being in the form of a dove. Early depictions of the [[Last Supper in Christian art]], showing the ''Communion of the Apostles'', show them queueing to receive the bread and wine from Christ, who stands under or beside a ciborium, presumably reflecting contemporary liturgical practice. An example of this type is in [[mosaic]] in the [[apse]] of the [[Saint Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv]], under a very large standing Virgin.<ref>Schiller, 28-31</ref>

According to the 8th-century saint and [[Patriarch Germanus I of Constantinople]]: "The ciborium represents here the place where Christ was crucified; for the place where He was buried was nearby and raised on a base. It is placed in the church in order to represent concisely the crucifixion, burial, and resurrection of Christ. It similarly corresponds to the ark of the covenant of the Lord in which, it is written, is His Holy of Holies and His holy place. Next to it God commanded that two wrought Cherubim be placed on either side (cf Ex 25:18) —for KIB is the ark, and OURIN is the effulgence, or the light, of God." ({{Lang|grc|Τὸ κιβώριόν ἐστι ἀντὶ τοῦ τόπου ἔνθα ἐσταυρώθη ὁ Χριστός· ἐγγὺς γὰρ ἦν ὁ τόπος καὶ ὑπόβαθρος ἔνθα ἐτάφη· ἀλλὰ διὰ τὸ ἐν συντομίᾳ ἐκφέρεσθαι τὴν σταύρωσιν, τὴν ταφὴν καὶ τὴν ἀνάστασιν τοῦ Χριστοῦ ἐν τῇ Ἐκκλησίᾳ τέτακται. Ἔστι δὲ καὶ κατὰ τὴν κιβωτὸν τῆς διαθήκης Κυρίου, ἐν ᾗ λέγεται Ἅγια Ἁγίων καὶ ἁγίασμα αὐτοῦ· ἐν ᾗ προσέταξεν ὁ Θεὸς γενέσθαι δύο χερουβὶμ ἑκατέρωθεν τορευτά· τὸ γὰρ ΚΙΒ ἐστὶ κιβωτός, τὸ δὲ ΟΥΡΙΝ φωτισμὸς Θεοῦ, ἢ φῶς Θεοῦ}}.)<ref>Germanus, [http://www.ldysinger.com/@texts/0720_germanus/02_div-liturgy.htm ''On the Divine Liturgy'', 5; see below for other views on the etymology. The traditional attribution of this very widely-read work to Germanus is disputed by modern scholars.]</ref>
[[File:Bari BW 2016-10-19 10-26-30.jpg|thumb|[[Basilica di San Nicola]] in [[Bari]], Italy]]

Examples in [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Orthodox]] manuscripts mostly show rounded dome roofs, but surviving early examples in the West often placed a circular canopy over four columns, with tiers of little columns supporting two or more stages rising to a central [[finial]], giving a very open appearance, and allowing candles to be placed along the beams between the columns.<ref>Bock, 298</ref> The example by the [[Cosmati]] in the gallery is similar to another 12th-century Italian ciborium now in the [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] in New York,<ref>[http://www.metmuseum.org/special/se_event.asp?OccurrenceId={433981B7-B19B-4255-8CB4-3758584F8F72} Metropolitan Museum]</ref> and that in the [[Basilica di San Nicola]] in [[Bari]]. By the [[Romanesque architecture|Romanesque]], gabled forms, as at [[Basilica of Sant'Ambrogio|Sant'Ambrogio]], or ones with a flat top, as at the [[Euphrasian Basilica]] (illustrated) or [[St Mark's, Venice]], are more typical.

In [[Gothic architecture]] the gabled form already used at Sant'Ambrogio returns, now with an elaborate spire-like pinnacle. Probably the most elaborate is the one in the [[Basilica of Saint John Lateran]] in Rome, designed by [[Arnolfo di Cambio]] and later painted by [[Barna da Siena]]. The columns here and at [[San Paolo Fuori le Mura]] are still re-used classical ones, in [[porphyry (geology)|porphyry]] at San Paolo and Sant'Ambrogio ([[Sant'Apollinare Nuovo]] in Ravenna has its porphyry columns, with no canopy surviving). Most of the surviving early examples are in stone in basilica churches, especially in Rome and other parts of Italy; it is unclear how common examples, perhaps in wood, once were in smaller churches.<ref>Stancliffe, 37; Grove, who mentions various lost examples mainly in wood.</ref>

==Altar curtains==
[[File:Yaroslavl gospel.jpg|thumb|left|260px|13th-century Yaroslavl Gospels, with curtained ciborium in the centre; a common motif in [[Evangelist portraits]]]]

Images and documentary mentions of early examples often have curtains called {{Lang|la|tetravela}} hung between the columns; these altar-curtains were used to cover and then reveal the view of the altar by the congregation at points during services — exactly which points varied, and is often unclear.<ref>Bock, 297-300 on the Western and Greek churches.</ref> Altar-curtains survived the decline of the ciborium in both East and West, and in English are often called ''riddels'' (from French {{Lang|fr|rideau}}, a word once also used for ordinary domestic curtains). A few churches have "riddle posts" or "riddel posts" around the altar, which supported the curtain-rails, and perhaps a cloth stretched above.<ref>However this term is so rare, that (spelt as "riddel"), a use in a poem by [[John Betjeman]] puzzled his biographer [[Bevis Hillier]]; see [https://archive.today/20120714231304/http://res.oxfordjournals.org/content/XLII/168/541.extract here] and [http://haligweorc.wordpress.com/2011/03/21/riddel-posts/ here] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721121218/http://haligweorc.wordpress.com/2011/03/21/riddel-posts/ |date=2011-07-21 }}</ref> Such an arrangement, open above, can be seen in folio 199v of the [[Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry]].<ref>[[:File:Folio 199v - A Funeral Service.jpg|Commons image]] folio 199v of the [[Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry]].</ref> Late medieval examples in Northern Europe were often topped by angels, and the posts, but not the curtains, were revived in some new or refitted [[Anglo-Catholic]] churches by [[Ninian Comper]] and others around 1900.

In earlier periods the curtains were closed at the most solemn part of the [[Mass (liturgy)|Mass]], a practice that continues to the present day in the [[Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria|Coptic]] and [[Armenia]]n churches.<ref>The Orthodox [[Armenian Apostolic Church]] and Catholic [[Armenian Catholic Church]];</ref> A comparison to the biblical [[Kodesh Hakodashim|Veil of the Temple]] was intended. The small domed structures, usually with red curtains, that are often shown near the writing saint in early [[Evangelist portrait]]s, especially in the East, represent a ciborium,<ref>Bock covers the use and decline of ciborium curtains in considerable detail, though he is an old source.</ref> as do the structures surrounding many manuscript portraits of medieval rulers.<ref>Grove, 2.1</ref>

A single curtain hung, usually on a wall, behind an altar, is called a [[dossal]].

[[File:Master Of Saint Gilles - The Mass of St Gilles - WGA14485.jpg|thumb|Green [[riddels|riddel]] curtains, with a metalwork [[dossal]], in the ''Mass of St Gilles'' by the [[Master of Saint Giles]]]]

==Other uses==
Ciboria, often much smaller, were sometimes also erected to cover particular objects, especially [[icons]] and [[reliquaries]],<ref>Cormack, 63, with a manuscript miniature showing an icon displayed under a ciborium</ref> and smaller ciboria that stood on, rather than over, the altar are also found. The word may also be used of some large sculptural structures that stand behind an altar, often offering no canopy or covering as such, for example at [[Siena Cathedral]]. These may be free-standing, or built against a wall, and usage here overlaps with the terms [[Church tabernacle|tabernacle]] and [[retable]].<ref name="Grove"/> The typical Gothic form of canopied niche to enclose a statue may be regarded as a "reduced form of ciborium".<ref>Grove, 2, (i)</ref>

A very famous ciborium that apparently did not stand over an altar was one that apparently functioned as a quasi-reliquary shrine or symbolic tomb for the missing remains of St [[Demetrius of Thessaloniki]] in [[Hagios Demetrios]], the large and important church erected in [[Thessaloniki]] over the mass grave in which he was traditionally buried. This appears, from various accounts of miracles associated with it, and depictions in [[mosaic]], to have been a free-standing roofed structure inside the church, at one side of the nave, with doors or walls in precious metal all around it. It was [[hexagonal]] and made of or covered with silver; inside there was a couch or bed. The roof had flat triangular panels rising shallowly to a central point. It was rebuilt at least once.<ref name="RC">Cormack, Chapter 2, especially p. 63 and figs. 23, 27, 29.</ref> A medium-sized 13th-century ciborium in a corner of [[San Marco, Venice]], known as the {{Lang|it|capitello}} ('little chapel'), was used for the display of important icons and relics in the Middle Ages.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=jyKBVmLQzHoC&dq=ciborium+Byzantine&pg=PA416], p. 416. [http://www.slowtrav.com/blog/annienc/2009/04/il_capitello.html Photo here] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101228164546/http://www.slowtrav.com/blog/annienc/2009/04/il_capitello.html|date=2010-12-28}}</ref>

==Decline and revival==
[[File:Сень над папским алтарём.jpg|thumb|[[Bernini]]'s [[St. Peter's baldachin]] (1620s), actually a ciborium, was hugely influential on later ciboria]]
Ciboria are now much rarer in churches in both East and West, as the introduction of other structures that screened the altar, such as the [[iconostasis]] in the East and [[rood screen]] and [[pulpitum]] in the West, meant that they would be little seen, and smaller examples often conflicted with the large [[altarpiece]]s that came into fashion in the later Middle Ages.<ref>Grove, 2 (i)</ref> They enjoyed something of a revival after the Renaissance once again opened up the view of the sanctuary, but never again became usual even in large churches. [[Bernini]]'s [[St. Peter's baldachin|enormous ciborium]] in [[Saint Peter's, Rome]] is a famous exception; it is the largest in existence, and always called a baldachin.<ref>Krouse, 110</ref> Many other elaborate aedicular [[Baroque]] altar surrounds that project from, but remain attached to, the wall behind, and have pairs of columns on each side, may be thought of as hinting at the ciborium without exactly using its form.

The [[Gothic Revival]] saw the true free-standing ciborium return to some popularity: the [[Votive Church, Vienna]] has a large [[Gothic architecture|Gothic]] example designed in 1856, and Ninian Comper built a number, including one for [[Pusey House]]. [[Peterborough Cathedral]] has a neo-Gothic example, and [[Derby Cathedral]] one with the Romanesque small columns below a [[Neoclassical architecture|neo-classical]] [[architrave]] and [[pediment]]. [[Westminster Cathedral]], a neo-Byzantine building, has a splayed version of 1894, with extra flanking columns, which within that context is "resolutely modernistic".<ref>Grove, 2 (ii)</ref> The Gothic style of ciborium was also borrowed for some public monuments like the [[Albert Memorial]] in London,<ref>Risebero, Bill, ''Modern Architecture and Design: An Alternative History'', p. 91, MIT Press, 1985, {{ISBN|0-262-68046-7}}, {{ISBN|978-0-262-68046-2}}</ref> as it had been in the Middle Ages for the outdoor [[Scaliger Tombs]] in [[Verona]]. For other post-Renaissance versions, many variations of the basic square four-column plan, see the next section.

==Terms: ''ciborium'' or ''baldachin''?==
The word ''ciborium'', in both senses, is said to derive from the cup-shaped seed vessel of the Egyptian water-lily ''[[nelumbium speciosum]]'', which is supposed to have been used as a cup itself, and to resemble both the metal cup shape and, when inverted, the dome of the architectural feature, though the [[Grove Dictionary of Art]], the [[Catholic Encyclopedia]] and other sources are somewhat dubious about this etymology, which goes back to at least the Late Antique period. An alternative is to derive the word from ''cibes'' ('food').<ref>Articles on "Ciborium" in works mentioned and [[OED]]; the shape of the seed cops of modern varieties of the plant seems very variable.</ref> Both senses of the word were in use in classical times. The word ''baldachin'' derives from a luxurious type of cloth from [[Baghdad]], from which name the word is derived, in English as ''baudekin'' and other spellings. [[Matthew Paris]] records that [[Henry III of England]] wore a robe "de preciosissimo baldekino" at a ceremony at [[Westminster Abbey]] in 1247.<ref>Richard Ettinghausen et al., ''The Art and Architecture of Islam: 650-1250'', 1987, Yale University Press (Yale/Penguin History of Art)</ref> The word for the cloth became the word for the ceremonial canopies made from the cloth.

Bernini's [[St. Peter's baldachin]] imitates in bronze a cloth canopy above, and thus has some claim to be called a baldachin, as it always is. A number of other Baroque ciboria, and secular architectural canopies, copied this conceit, for example [[Santa Maria Maggiore]] in Rome. The [[volute]]d top of the Bernini baldachin was also copied by a number of French architects, often producing structures around an altar with no actual canopy or roof, just columns arrayed in an approximate curve (a "rotunda altar"), with only an architrave and volutes above. Examples are at the churches at [[Val-de-Grâce (church)|Val-de-Grâce]] ([[François Mansart]] and [[Jacques Lemercier]], 1660s) and [[Les Invalides|Saint-Louis-des-Invalides Cathedral]] ([[Jules Hardouin Mansart]], 1706) in Paris, [[Angers Cathedral]], [[Verdun Cathedral]], Notre-Dame de Mouzon in [[Mouzon, Ardennes|Mouzon]], Saint-Sauveur in [[Rennes]], and the Saint-Sauveur Basilica in [[Dinan]].<ref>Grove, with further examples</ref> These are usually called baldachins (not at Angers), and many have certainly departed from the traditional form of the ciborium. There is a [[Rococo]] German example at [[Worms Cathedral]]; many German Rococo churches used similar styles that were engaged with the [[apse]] wall, or partly so. In addition, according to the 1913 [[Catholic Encyclopedia]] articles on "Baldachin" and "Ciborium", the Catholic Church opted, apparently in the 20th century, to use officially ''ciborium'' only for the vessel and ''baldachin'' for all architectural forms.<ref>1913 [[Catholic Encyclopedia]]: [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03767a.htm "Ciborium"] and [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01351a.htm Altar Canopy]</ref> Architectural historians generally prefer to use ''ciborium'' at the least for all square four-column roofed forms.

==Gallery==
<gallery>
Elias cathedral Yaroslavl 16.jpg|A 17th-century Orthodox ciborium from Church of [[Elijah]] the Prophet, [[Yaroslavl]]
Arche scaligere (Verona).jpg|[[Scaliger Tombs]], Verona, in the foreground the tomb of Cansignorio, and that of Mastino II behind.
File:Rennes - église Saint-Sauveur - autel - 20080706.jpg|French canopy-less "rotunda altar", with voluted top derived from Bernini (Saint-Sauveur Basilica in [[Rennes]])
Image:Wien.Votivkirche11.jpg|[[Votive Church, Vienna]], designed in 1856
Image:Siena.Duomo.HighAltar01.jpg|[[Siena Cathedral]], Siena, free-standing with no canopy
File:Cyborium close-up.JPG|[[St. Mary's Basilica, Kraków]], [[Poland]], attached to a wall, with no canopy.
File:Khor Virap - altar Surp Gevork.jpg|Altar-curtain in an Armenian monastery
File:Ciborium_Sint-Janskerk_Waalwijk.jpg|Copper baldachin in the Sint-Janskerk at Waalwijk (Netherlands) with the shape of leather skins, 1924
Image:Baldaquino de altar medieval (M.A.N. Inv.1984-70-3) 01.jpg|Small [[Pre-Romanesque]] ciborium, from Italy.
Image:Lugnano in Teverina santa Maria Assunta 008.JPG|[[Santa Maria Assunta]] Lugnano in Teverina Italy, by the [[Cosmati]]
Image:Roma-sanpaolo3.jpg|[[San Paolo Fuori le Mura]], Rome
File:Voskresenia Hristova Kilisesi ciborium.JPG|[[Church of the Saviour on the Blood]], St. Petersburg
</gallery>

==See also==
* [[Gazebo]]
* [[Aedicule]]: often not free-standing
* [[Monopteros]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==References==
*{{Cite book |last=Barker |first=Margaret |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NjQTjI-pDekC&q=edicule&pg=PA97 |title=The great high priest: the temple roots of Christian liturgy |publisher=Continuum International Publishing Group |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-567-08942-7}}
*{{Cite book |last=Bock |first=Franz Johann Joseph |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oeZJAAAAMAAJ&q=ciborium,+evangelist+portrait&pg=PA301 |title=The Hangings of the Ciborium of the Altar |work=The Ecclesiologist |publisher=Ecclesiological Society/Stevenson |year=1868 |volume=26 |quote=translated section of his ''Organ fur Christliche Kunst'' |author-link=Franz Johann Joseph Bock}}
*{{Cite book |last=Cormack |first=Robin |title=Writing in Gold, Byzantine Society and its Icons |publisher=George Philip |year=1985 |isbn=0-540-01085-5 |location=London}}
*{{Cite book |last1=Cracraft |first1=James |title=Architectures of Russian identity: 1500 to the present |last2=Rowland |first2=Daniel Bruce |publisher=Cornell University Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-8014-8828-3}}
*{{Cite book |last=Folda |first=Jaroslav |title=Crusader Art in the Holy Land: From the Third Crusade to the Fall of Acre, 1187-1291 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=2005 |isbn=9780521835831 |author-link=Jaroslav Folda}}
*{{Cite book |last=van Hemeldonck |first=G. |url=http://www.oxfordartonline.com/subscriber/article/grove/art/T017726 |title=Ciborium (ii) |work=[[Grove Art Online]] |publisher=Oxford Art Online |access-date=2011-04-25}}
*{{Cite book |last=Krouse |first=Dennis W. |title=Baldachino |work=An introductory dictionary of theology and religious studies |publisher=Liturgical Press |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-8146-5856-7 |editor-last=Espín |editor-first=Orlando O. |editor-last2=Nickoloff |editor-first2=James B.}}
*{{Cite book |last=Schiller |first=Gertrud |title=Iconography of Christian Art |publisher=Lund Humphries |year=1972 |isbn=0-85331-324-5 |volume=II |location=London |quote=English trans from German |author-link=Gertrud Schiller}}
*{{Cite book |last1=Smith |first1=William |title=Encyclopaedic Dictionary Of Christian Antiquities (in 9 Volumes) |last2=Cheetham |first2=Samuel |publisher=Concept Publishing Company |year=2005 |isbn=978-81-7268-111-1}}
*{{Cite book |last=Stancliffe |first=David |title=The Lion Companion to Church Architecture |publisher=Lion Hudson plc |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-7459-5190-4}}

==Further reading==
*{{Cite book |last=Bogdanovic |first=Jelena |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m2IpDwAAQBAJ |title=The Framing of Sacred Space: The Canopy and the Byzantine Church |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2017 |isbn=9780190465186 |location=New York}}

==External links==
*{{Commons category-inline}}
*[http://blog.marcantonioarchitects.com/parts-of-the-church-building-the-ciborium Marcantonio Architects blog]: "Parts of the church building: the ciborium

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ciborium (Architecture)}}
[[Category:Church architecture]]

Monmouth Castle

2025-06-15T15:54:52Z

2A00:23C7:C8BC:C501:507C:445E:62F7:256D: /* Gallery */Improved wording

{{Short description|Castle in Monmouth, Wales}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2022}}
{{Infobox military installation
| name = Monmouth Castle
| native_name = {{langx|cy|'''Castell Trefynwy'''}}
| partof = 
| location = [[Monmouth]]
| country = [[Wales]], [[United Kingdom]]
| image = Monmouth Castle - geograph.org.uk - 1373622.jpg
| caption = Ruins of the castle
| image2 = 
| alt2 =
| caption2 =
| coordinates = {{coord|51.8125|-2.7167|type:landmark|display=title,inline}}
| gridref = SO506128
| type = Fortified castle
| pushpin_map = Wales Monmouthshire#Wales#United Kingdom
| pushpin_relief = yes
| ownership = [[British Army]]
| operator = [[Territorial_Army_(United_Kingdom)|British Army Reserve]]
| controlledby = [[Royal Monmouthshire Royal Engineers]]
| open_to_public = Yes
| condition = Ruin
| website = [https://cadw.gov.wales/visit/places-to-visit/monmouth-castle Official website]
| built = {{Start date and age|1067}}
| builder = [[William FitzOsbern, 1st Earl of Hereford]]
| fate = [[Slighting|Slighted]] (ordered demolished)
| demolished = {{end date|1647|03|30|df=y}}
| events = [[English Civil War]]
| designations = {{Infobox designation list| embed = yes
| designation1 = Grade I
| designation1_offname = Monmouth Castle
| designation1_type = Defence
| designation1_date = {{start date|1974|08|15|df=y}}
| designation1_partof =
| designation1_number = 2216
| designation1_free1name =
}}
| footnotes = Designation information via [[Cadw]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Monmouth Castle |url=https://cadwpublic-api.azurewebsites.net/reports/listedbuilding/FullReport?lang=en&id=2216 |website=HeritageBill Cadw Assets |publisher=Cadw |access-date=16 May 2024}}</ref>
}}

'''Monmouth Castle''' ({{langx|cy|'''Castell Trefynwy'''}}) is a [[castle]] close to the centre of the town of [[Monmouth]], the [[county town]] of [[Monmouthshire (historic)|Monmouthshire]], on a hill above the [[River Monnow]] in south-east [[Wales]].

Once an important border castle, and birthplace of [[Henry V of England]], it stood until the [[English Civil War]] when it was damaged and changed hands three times before being [[slighting|slighted]] to prevent it being fortified again. After partial collapse in 1647, the site was reused and built over by [[Great Castle House]], which became the headquarters and regimental museum of the [[Royal Monmouthshire Royal Engineers]].

It is a Grade I [[listed building]] and [[scheduled monument]].

== Early Norman border castle ==
Immediately after the [[Norman conquest of England|Norman Conquest]], [[William the Conqueror]] installed three of his most trusted confidants, [[Hugh d'Avranches, Earl of Chester]], [[Roger de Montgomery|Roger of Montgomery]], and [[William FitzOsbern, 1st Earl of Hereford|William FitzOsbern]], as the Earls of [[Earl of Chester|Chester]], [[Earl of Shrewsbury|Shrewsbury]] and [[Earl of Hereford|Hereford]] respectively.{{sfn|Carpenter|2004|p=110}} The earldoms served to guard the frontier and provided bases for the [[Norman invasion of Wales]].{{sfn|Carpenter|2004|p=110}} Over the next four centuries, Norman lords established mostly small [[Marcher Lord]]ships between the [[River Dee, Wales|Dee]] and [[River Severn|Severn]], and further west. Military adventurers came to Wales from [[Normandy]] and elsewhere, raided an area of Wales, and then fortified it and granted land to some of their supporters.{{sfn|Lieberman|2008|p=?}}

William FitzOsbern established Monmouth Castle between 1066 and 1069 as a counterpart to his other major castle at [[Chepstow Castle|Chepstow]].{{sfn|Carpenter|2004|p=110}}{{sfn|Prior|2006|p=123}} It occupied relatively high ground, overlooking the confluence of the Monnow with the [[River Wye]].{{sfn|Newman|2000|p=394}} It was originally an earth and timber ringwork fortress, which was listed in the [[Domesday Book]] of 1086.<ref name=domesday>{{citation|title=Monmouth|url=http://www.domesdaymap.co.uk/place/SO5012/monmouth/|work=Open Domesday|publisher=King William I of England|access-date=2 January 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://archive.today/20121223121125/http://www.domesdaymap.co.uk/place/SO5012/monmouth/|archive-date=23 December 2012}}</ref> Initially, Monmouth was a fairly typical border castle in the [[Welsh Marches]], presided over by a [[Marcher Lord]] and similar in style and status to its near neighbours [[Grosmont Castle]], [[Skenfrith Castle]], [[White Castle, Wales|White Castle]] and [[Abergavenny Castle]]. The wooden castle had stonework added before 1150.<ref name=castleswales/> Its tower shares some similarities with that of [[Chepstow Castle]], another stronghold built for FitzOsbern further south, at the lower end of the River Wye.<ref name=castleswales>{{cite web|title=Monmouth Castle|url=http://www.castlewales.com/monmouth.html|publisher=Castles Wales|access-date=31 December 2011}}</ref>

==Expansion and later use==
After briefly being held by [[Simon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester]], Monmouth Castle passed into the hands of [[Edmund Crouchback]], [[Earl of Lancaster]] and son of [[Henry III of England|Henry III]] in 1267.{{sfn|Salter|2002|pp=32-33}} He redeveloped the castle, building the Hall and took it as his main residence in the area. It was further improved in the early 14th century, probably by Crouchback's grandson, [[Henry of Grosmont, 1st Duke of Lancaster]].{{sfn|Kenyon|2010|p=125}} During this period large decorated windows were installed in the upper part of the Great Tower which also had a new roof.<ref name=castleswales/> As a town developed around the castle, the castle's defences were augmented by a town wall and [[Monnow Bridge|fortified bridge]], built at the end of the 13th century.<ref>{{Structurae|id=20007217|title=Monnow Bridge}}</ref>

[[Edward II of England|Edward II]] briefly was held prisoner in the castle before he was transferred to [[Berkeley Castle]] where he died.<ref name=castleruins>{{cite web|title=Monmouth Castle Ruins|url=http://www.monmouthcastlemuseum.org.uk/castle/page11.html|publisher=The Castle and Regimental Museum|access-date=31 December 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120414235733/http://www.monmouthcastlemuseum.org.uk/castle/page11.html|archive-date=14 April 2012}}</ref> The castle was a favourite residence of [[Henry IV of England|Henry Bolingbroke]], later King as [[Henry IV of England|Henry IV]]. It was here that in 1386 the future King [[Henry V of England]] was born, to Bolingbroke's first wife [[Mary de Bohun]].{{sfn|Allmand|2010|p=12952}}

The turmoil and conflict in Wales during the ten years of the [[Owain Glyndŵr]] rebellion did not directly affect Monmouth Castle as it was a stronghold of the region and lesser targets presented themselves more readily to essentially a guerilla army. However other local towns, settlements and castles were directly attacked with [[Grosmont Castle|Grosmont]] and [[Abergavenny Castle|Abergavenny]] being razed and [[Crickhowell]] Castle and [[Newport Castle]] successfully attacked.{{sfn|Matthews|1910|p=236}}

Over the centuries, as its defensive function diminished, the outer [[Motte-and-bailey castle|bailey]] of the castle became increasingly used as a market place, later (and now) known as Agincourt Square. During the sixteenth century, when Monmouth became the [[county town]] of the newly formed [[Monmouthshire (historic)|shire of Monmouth]], the county's [[Courts of Assize]] began to be held in the castle's Great Hall.{{sfn|Newman|2000|p=400}}

== Civil War ==
[[File:Plan of Monmouth Castle.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Plan of the castle, published in 1904{{sfn|Armitage|1904|loc=facing page 168}}]]
In the tumult of the [[English Civil War]], Monmouth Castle changed hands three times, finally falling to the [[Roundhead|Parliamentarians]] in 1645.<ref name=ggat>{{cite web|title=Monmouth|url=http://www.ggat.org.uk/cadw/historic_landscape/wye_valley/english/wyevalley_011.htm|work=Historic Landscape Characterisation|publisher=Glamorgan-Gwent Archaeological Trust|access-date=31 December 2011}}</ref> [[Oliver Cromwell]] visited Monmouth in 1646, and according to tradition ordered the [[slighting]] (demolition) of the castle.{{sfn|Evans|1953|p=416}} On 1 March 1647, the House of Commons resolved "That the Town and Castle of Monmouth be disgarisoned, and the Works slighted".<ref>{{cite web|title="House of Commons Journal Volume 5: 1 March 1647," in Journal of the House of Commons: Volume 5, 1646-1648|location=London|publisher=His Majesty's Stationery Office|year=1802|pages=101–102|work=British History Online|access-date=12 July 2021|url= http://www.british-history.ac.uk/commons-jrnl/vol5/pp101-102}}</ref>{{sfn|Rakoczy|2007|p=392}} The demolition process began with the round tower on 30 March 1647.<ref name=castleswales/> The events were recorded in the diary, now lost, of More Pye, then usher at [[Monmouth School]]. The demolition took months, and Pye's diary also recorded the collapse on 22 December 1647; "about twelve o'clock, the Tower in the Castle of Monmouth fell down, upon one side, whilst we were at sermon".{{sfn|Whittle|1992|pp=104-105}} [[William Gilpin (priest)|William Gilpin]], visiting Monmouth on his [[Wye Tour]], described the castle's decline by the end of the 18th century; "The transmutations of time are often ludicrous... formerly the palace of a king, and birth-place of a mighty prince: it is now converted into a yard for fatting ducks".{{sfn|Gilpin|2005|p=38}}

[[Great Castle House]] was built in 1673, on the site of the old round tower, by [[Henry Somerset, 1st Duke of Beaufort]].<ref name=castleswales/> It is a Grade I [[listed building]],<ref>{{National Historic Assets of Wales|num=2217|desc=Great Castle House|grade=I|access-date=24 August 2020}}</ref> and has been described as "a house of splendid swagger outside and in".{{sfn|Newman|2000|pp=400-401}} It later became used for the [[Assizes|Assize Courts]], until they relocated to the new [[Shire Hall, Monmouth|Shire Hall]] in 1725.{{sfn|Bly|2012|p=9}}

== Modern history ==
Only fragments of the castle, including the Great Tower and Hall and parts of the walls, remain above ground, and on the site Castle House and Great House have been built. In 1875, the [[Royal Monmouthshire Royal Engineers]] [[Militia]], the senior [[Army Reserve (United Kingdom)|Army Reserve]] regiment today, made it their Headquarters building and so it remains. It is one of the few British castles in continuous military occupancy.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ggat.org.uk/cadw/historic_landscape/wye_valley/english/wyevalley_011.htm|title=Lower Wye Valley|publisher=Glamorgan-Gwent Archaeological Trust|access-date=15 June 2018}}</ref> The Royal Monmouthshire Royal Engineers museum is located in the stable block attached to Great Castle House. It includes exhibits relating to the history of the regiment from 1539 to the present day.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Castle and Regimental Museum|url=http://www.monmouthcastlemuseum.org.uk/|publisher=Monmouth Castle Museum|access-date=31 December 2011}}</ref>

The castle is a [[Listed building|Grade I listed building]]<ref name="ReferenceA">{{National Historic Assets of Wales|num=2216|desc=Monmouth Castle|grade=I|access-date=24 August 2020}}</ref> and a [[scheduled monument]] in the care of [[Cadw]].<ref>{{National Historic Assets of Wales|uid=2393|class=SM|num=MM159|desc=Monmouth Castle|access-date=24 August 2020}}</ref>

==Gallery==
<gallery>
File:Monmouth Castle - architectural details.jpeg|Architectural drawing of Monmouth Castle, black and white print, from engraving, 1801
Monmouth Castle, Henry 5th. Born here Aug.9th. 1587. (3375352).jpg|Early lithograph by [[George Rowe (printmaker)|George Rowe]]
File:Monmouth Castle.jpg|Ruins of the Great Tower
File:Window detail, Great Tower, Monmouth Castle - geograph.org.uk - 867912.jpg|Medieval window in the ruins of the Great Tower
File:Monmouth Castle, Church, &c - Bridge over the Wye at Monmouth.jpeg|Monmouth Castle and [[St Mary's Priory Church, Monmouth|St Mary's Priory Church]], black and white print on engraving, 1800
File:Monmouth Castle from above.jpg|Aerial photo of Monmouth Castle and surrounding areas from the west.
</gallery>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

==Sources==
* {{cite ODNB
|last=Allmand|first=Christopher
|author-link=Christopher Allmand
|date=September 2010
|title=10.1093/ref:odnb/12952
|doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/12952
}}
* {{cite journal
| last=Armitage | first=Ella S.
| author-link=Ella Sophia Armitage
| year=1904
| title=The Early Norman Castles of England. Part I
| journal=The English Historical Review
| volume=19
| issue=74
| pages=209–245
| doi=10.1093/ehr/XIX.LXXIV.209
| url=https://archive.org/details/earlynormancastl00armiuoft/page/n230/mode/1up?view=theater}}
* {{cite book
|last=Bly |first=Phil
|year=2012
|title=Guide to the complete Monmouth Heritage Blue Plaque Trail
|publisher=Monmouth Civic Society
|location=Monmouth
|oclc=797974800
}}
* {{cite book
| last=Carpenter | first=David
| year=2004
| title=The Struggle for Mastery: Britain 1066-1284
| publisher=Penguin Books
|location=London
| isbn=0-14-014824-8
| url=https://archive.org/details/struggleformaste00davi/page/110
}}
* {{Cite book
| last=Evans|first=C. J. O.
| year=1953
| title=Monmouthshire: Its History and Topography
| publisher=William Lewis Ltd
}}
* {{Cite book
|last=Gilpin|first=William
|author-link = William Gilpin (priest)
|title=Observations on the River Wye
|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1118261174
|year=2005
|orig-date=1782
|publisher=Pallas Athene
|location=London
|isbn=978-1843-68197-7
|oclc=1118261174
}}
* {{cite book
|last1=Kenyon |first1=John R.
|year=2010
|title=The Medieval Castles of Wales
|publisher=[[University of Wales Press]]
|location=Cardiff
|isbn=978-0-7083-2180-5
|oclc=693942235
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Lieberman|first=Max
|title=The March of Wales, 1067-1300: a borderland of medieval Britain
|year=2008
|publisher=University of Wales Press
|location=Cardiff
|isbn=978-0-7083-2115-7
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Matthews|first=James
|title=Historic Newport
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hHM1AQAAIAAJ&pg=PA236
|year=1910
|publisher=The William Press Limited
|location=Newport-on-Usk
}}
* {{Cite book
|last=Newman|first=John
|author-link = John Newman (architectural historian)
|series=The Buildings of Wales
|title=Gwent/Monmouthshire
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=knRf4U60QjcC&q=The+Buildings+of+Wales:+Gwent/Monmouthshire&pg=PA2
|year=2000
|publisher=Penguin
|location=London
|isbn=0-14-071053-1
}}
* {{Cite book
| last=Prior | first=Stuart
| year=2006
| title=A Few Well Positioned Castles: The Norman Art of War
| publisher=Tempus
| isbn=0-7524-3651-1
}}
* {{cite thesis
| last=Rakoczy | first=Lila
| title=Archaeology of Destruction: A Reinterpretation of Castle Slightings in the English Civil War
| publisher=University of York
| degree=PhD
| year=2007
| url=http://etheses.whiterose.ac.uk/11092/
| oclc=931130655
}}
* {{Cite book
| last = Salter
| first = Mike
| title = Castles of Gwent, Glamorgan and Gower
| year = 2002
| publisher = Folly Publications
| location = Malvern, UK
| isbn = 9781871731613
| oclc = 54947157
}}
* {{Cite book
|last=Whittle
|first=Elisabeth
|title=Glamorgan and Gwent
|series = A Guide to Ancient and Historic Wales
|year=1992
|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/473187732
|location=London
|publisher=[[HMSO]]
|isbn=9780117012219
|oclc=473187732
}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Monmouth Castle}}
*[http://www.castlewales.com/monmouth.html Monmouth Castle at castlewales.com]
*[http://www.monmouthcastlemuseum.org.uk/ Monmouth Castle Museum website]

{{Buildings in Monmouth}}

[[Category:History of Monmouthshire]]
[[Category:Towers in Wales]]
[[Category:Castle ruins in Wales]]
[[Category:Grade I listed castles in Monmouthshire]]
[[Category:Scheduled monuments in Monmouthshire]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Monmouth, Wales]]

Richard Culmer

2025-06-15T15:46:00Z

2A00:23C7:C8BC:C501:507C:445E:62F7:256D: /* Post death */Added links

{{cleanup|date=September 2020|reason= grammar, punctuation}}
'''The Most Reverend Canon Richard Culmer of Canterbury ''' (1597–1662) was an English Puritan clergyman, iconoclast, and theologian. He is listed by the ''[[Oxford Dictionary of National Biography]]''<ref name = "dnb">[http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/6881 "Richard Culmer"] ''Oxford Dictionary of National Biography''</ref> as being of unknown parentage, although some sources<ref>an unverified family tree on (among other places) familysearch.org</ref> indicate that he was the eldest son of Sir Henry Culmer (c. 1574-1633), the first [[Baron Culmer]]. According to this family tree, Sir Henry, himself a son of a Henry Culmer, had married Mary Baldwyn of Kent in 1602, and was created a Baron by King [[Charles I of England|Charles I]] in 1630. Although this is not listed in ''[[Burke's Peerage]]'', his family was of considerable importance.

==Biography==
Culmer was educated at [[Magdalene College, Cambridge]]; he matriculated as [[Sizar]] in 1613, [[Bachelor of Arts|B.A.]] Theology in 1618, and [[Master of Arts (Oxbridge and Dublin)|M.A. Th (Ox).]] in 1621.<ref>{{acad|id=CLMR613R|name=Culmer, Richard}}</ref> He was ordained in the Diocese of [[Peterborough]] that September, and then returned to Kent, marrying a Katherine Johnson from Ringwould (near Deal) in 1624. He then established himself as a [[Puritan]] Minister of some note. He was generally known in Kent as "Blue Dick Culmer", on account of his refusing to wear the usual black gown of a cleric; he preferred blue instead, as it "had more joy". He later was appointed Academic Dean of Divinity at Cambridge University. He was suspended in 1635, and restored to the clergy in 1638, being appointed as a [[curate]] in the Parish of [[Harbledown]] in Kent.

In 1643 Culmer was considered for the living of the parish of [[Chartham]]. As a general serving under [[Oliver Cromwell]] he became quite notorious, so disliked that the parishioners of [[Harbledown]] objected, that so long as it was not Culmer they cared not who ministered unto them. This view prevailed and another person was appointed, with Culmer being appointed to the Commission for the "Blessed Reformation", the demolition of "superstitious" ([[High Church]]) monuments and "idols", including the purge of [[Canterbury Cathedral]].<ref>{{Cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UvZNzngArGQC&q=richard+culmer+puritan&pg=PA159 |title = Angels in the Early Modern World|isbn = 9780521843324|last1 = Marshall|first1 = Peter|last2 = Walsham|first2 = Alexandra|date = 2006-08-31}}</ref> Culmer delighted in his promotion as a Commissioner, and set about his task at [[Canterbury]] with enthusiasm, so much so that his parishioners would openly flock to attack him. On account of these attacks, he soon required Cromwell's soldiers to protect him while he carried out his task.

He was known to have despised [[William Laud]], who had him committed to the [[Fleet Prison]] in London for refusing to read the ''[[Declaration of Sports]]'' after his services in Church, and his objections to that book were used in [[Laud's trial]] for treason, in 1644.

At the end of 1644, Culmer was appointed as one of six preachers at [[Canterbury Cathedral]] and the office as curate of Canterbury. In 1645, in return for his services to Parliament, he was offered the living of the parish of [[Minster-in-Thanet]]. At his [[ordination]] for that post, his parishioners locked the church against him, and when he attempted to break into the church he was mobbed and beaten. He was so despised that the parish refused to pay [[tithe]]s to support him, but then offered to pay his arrears if he would go away. To this day, his name does not appear in the list of incumbents displayed in the church porch. He served as acting Dean of Rochester before his exit from the public eye.

He later found himself under arrest in London, and, when asked why he had destroyed the figure of Christ in the Canterbury Cathedral windows and not that of the Devil, he merely replied that Parliament's orders were for the removal of images of Christ and made no reference to Satan. Among his few critics was Henry De Forte, who argued that art expressed religious emotion. It is recorded that Culmer's attitude changed towards religious art and spiritualism.

Described as "odious for his zeal and fury", Culmer survived in his position until 1660, shortly before the Restoration of [[Charles II of England|Charles II]]. He then moved to [[Monkton, Kent|Monkton]], where he died at the Parsonage House on 20 March 1662, and was buried two days later in the parish church of [[Monkton, Kent|Monkton]] in Kent, on the [[Isle of Thanet]].

==Post death==
The above-mentioned Culmer family tree states that Richard Culmer married in 1639 to a Miss Beeson, and again twenty years later to a Dutch woman, the widow Mrs. Bocher of Haarlem in Holland, "the country in which he died in 1669". This would appear to be based on a record in the [[International Genealogical Index]], listing a Richard Culmer, 1612-1669, who married a "Mrs Bechor" of Haarlem.

The will of a clerk called Richard Culmer, of Monkton on the Isle of Thanet, was proved by his son-in-law Nicholas Roe.<ref>East Kent Wills; PRC 32/53/377, written eighteenth day of March, one thousand six hundred sixty & one, in the fourteenth yeare of the Reigne of our Soveraigne Lord Charles the second.....</ref> It mentions sons James & Richard, and daughters Anne, Katherine & Elizabeth, together with 'Margaret Culmer, my beloved wife' who is to receive an annuity. No mention is made of allotments in either St Peter's or Broadstairs; it appears that Joseph Culmer, of St Peter's, is owed £50. Some marshland in Monkton is mentioned, together with two very large areas of land in Ireland bequeathed to his son James, which the testator fears he may be deprived of.

Edward Hasted refers to a Richard Culmer & Culmer's allotments, in Broadstairs, Isle of Thanet, without any source being given.<ref>Edward Hasted: The History and topographical survey of the county of Kent, volume X, second edition, 1800. Page 291 of the pdf file, page 369 in the original; Kent Archaeological Society; 'Richard Culmer, by his will in 1444'</ref>
Richard Culmer, a carpenter and theologian is commemorated in St Peter's Church, in the 15th century, with an inscribed brass plate, as having given land for allotments.<ref>Volume 12 of the Kent Archaeological Society, page 385</ref>

The will of a Richard Culmer, of St Peter's, Thanet, proved in 1494, provided for 60 [[hectare]]s of land in [[Broadstairs]], which may be the land now known as Sir Culmer's allotments.<ref>Canterbury Cathedral Archives; Will of Richard Culmer; 1494; PRC 17/6/81; lines 10 to 13 in the registered copy of the will: " in broadsteyrlynch, the rent of the land to be distributed perpetually among poor people most nedyng in the said parish every good fryday for the helth of my saulle & my ffryndys [friends?] "</ref>
His peerage was unlisted from [[Burke's Peerage]], and there is no modern use of the title Baron Culmer.

==Fictional appearances==
Blue Richard Culmer appears as a supporting character in Jeff Guinn's novel ''The Christmas Chronicles''.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x_rinVexvq0C&q=richard+culmer+the+christmas+chronicles&pg=PA321|title=''The Christmas Chronicles''|last=Guinn|first=Jeff|date=2008|publisher=Penguin|pages=414–421|access-date=2015-12-18|isbn=9781585426690}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Culmer, Richard}}
[[Category:1597 births]]
[[Category:1662 deaths]]
[[Category:People from Thanet (district)]]
[[Category:Alumni of Magdalene College, Cambridge]]

Minster (church)

2025-06-15T15:36:05Z

2A00:23C7:C8BC:C501:507C:445E:62F7:256D: /* Etymology */Added word

{{short description|Honorific title given to particular churches in England}}
{{Use British English|date=October 2020}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2020}}
[[File:Southwell minster1.jpg|thumb|[[Southwell Minster]]]]

'''Minster''' is an [[Honorific|honorific title]] given to particular churches in [[England and Wales]], most notably [[York Minster]] in Yorkshire, [[Westminster Abbey]] in London and [[Southwell Minster]] in Nottinghamshire.

The term ''minster'' is first found in royal foundation charters of the 7th century, when it designated any settlement of clergy living a communal life and endowed by [[charter]] with the obligation of maintaining the [[Liturgy of the hours|daily office of prayer]]. Widespread in [[History of Anglo-Saxon England|10th-century England]], minsters declined in importance with the systematic introduction of [[parish]]es and [[parish church]]es from the 11th century onwards. The term continued as a title of dignity in [[Kingdom of England|later medieval England]], for instances where a [[cathedral]], [[monastery]], [[collegiate church]] or parish church had originated with an Anglo-Saxon foundation.

Eventually a minster came to refer more generally to "any large or important church, especially a collegiate or cathedral church".<ref name="oed"/> In the 21st century, the [[Church of England]] has designated additional minsters by bestowing the status on certain parish churches.<ref name="St Mary">{{Cite web |date=2022-02-05 |title=St Mary's becoming a Minster church |url=https://www.stmarymagdalenetaunton.org.uk/news/st-mary-magdalene-becoming-a-minster-church/ |access-date=2022-04-21 |website=St Mary Magdalene Church |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Ipswich |first=Diocese of St Edmundsbury and |title=A prominent Ipswich church will be redesignated by the Bishop as a Minster - Diocese of St Edmundsbury and Ipswich |url=https://www.cofesuffolk.org/news/a-prominent-ipswich-church-will-be-redesignated-by-the-bishop-as-a-minster-.php |access-date=2025-01-14 |website=www.cofesuffolk.org |language=en}}</ref> Almost half of the minsters are found in the [[Yorkshire and the Humber|Yorkshire and the Humber region]], with [[Dorset]] and [[Devon]] as other areas with many historic minsters.

The term also exists in German as "''Münster''" and is used mainly for Protestant churches. The German term can be used for some Roman Catholic churches, such as the [[Strasbourg Cathedral]].

== Etymology ==
[[File:UlmMinster0061a.jpg|thumb|[[Ulm Minster]] in Germany, the tallest church in the world (2003)]]
The word ''minster'' ([[Old English language|Old English]] ''mynster'') was a rendering of the [[Latin]] ''monasterium'',{{sfnm|1a1=Morris|1y=1989|1p=128|2a1=Foot|2y=2006|2p=4}}<ref name="oed"/> from Greek "μοναστήριον" ("monasterion"). In early English sources, ''monasterium'' and ''mynster'' were used interchangeably.{{sfn|Foot|2006|p=4}} They were applied to all communities who had devoted their lives to Christian observance, regardless of the gender of the occupants or the activities in which said occupants typically engaged.{{sfn|Foot|2006|pp=4-5}} ''Monasterium'' was for instance applied equally to a small community of men living away from other secular settlements, to a large community of men and women living in a planned enclosure designed around a church, and to a widow and her unmarried daughters living in seclusion.{{sfn|Foot|2006|p=5}}

The modern English term "monastery" does not express the same connotations as the Latin ''monasterium'', from which it derives, or the Old English ''mynster''. This is because the term has come to be associated with [[Contemplation|contemplative]] [[Regular clergy|regularity]], such as that observed by the [[Order of Saint Benedict|Benedictine]] or [[Cistercians|Cistercian]] orders, although this does not apply to the situation in Anglo-Saxon England prior to the tenth century.{{sfn|Foot|2006|pp=5–6}}

By the tenth century, a gradual distinction between a "church" and a "mynster" began to emerge.{{sfn|Morris|1989|p=128}} For instance, in the ‘Leechdoms’, the sixteenth day was propitious for establishing a ''mynster'', and the sixth day of the moon for founding a church.{{sfn|Morris|1989|p=128}} This suggests that by the tenth and eleventh centuries, ''mynster'' was being used to refer to a "superior church" which was regarded as long-established and to which people paid their dues.{{sfn|Morris|1989|p=128}}

An early appearance was in the ''[[Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum|Ecclesiastical History]]'' of the [[Venerable Bede]] (731).<ref name="oed">{{cite web|url=http://dictionary.oed.com/|title=Minster|publisher=Oxford English Dictionary Online|access-date=2009-02-16}}</ref>

The modern German term "''Münster''" is the translation for minster. Monastery or cloister is called "''Kloster''".

== History ==

=== Early and mid Anglo-Saxon periods ===
The first minsters in the English-speaking parts of Britain were founded in the century after the [[Gregorian mission|mission to the Saxons]] led by [[Augustine of Canterbury]] in 597. The first cases for which documentary evidence has been preserved are [[Oswiu of Northumbria|Oswy's]] programme of 654/5, in which he endowed 12 small minsters, and a gift from [[Alhfrith of Deira|Alhfrith]] to [[Wilfrid]] in around 660 to accompany the foundation of the minster at [[Ripon]]. An expansion of monasteries began around 670, with many substantial royal gifts of land.<ref name="blair">{{cite book|author=John Blair|title=The Church in Anglo-Saxon Society|year=2005|publisher=OUP}}</ref> Kings made grants of land to named individuals to found a minster. In 734 Bede wrote a letter to [[Ecgbert (Archbishop of York)]], warning that noble families were abusing the privileged legal status accorded to the clergy, by making excessive landed endowments to minsters under their control. This reduced the overall stock of lands carrying the obligations of military service to the Northumbrian state.

Alan Thacker states:
{{quote|The term 'minster' was applied by the Anglo-Saxons to all religious communities, whether of monks proper or of secular clergy, a usage which reflects the fact that many early Anglo-Saxon monasteries had assumed the pastoral role which was ultimately the principal distinction of the secular college. Early Anglo-Saxon monks might baptize, preach, and administer the sacraments to the laity in their locality, and distinctions were further blurred by the existence of 'double monasteries' of nuns and secular clerks. In the last resort, however, monks could be free of pastoral obligations, while the secular minster always had its parish ('parochia') over which it exercised extensive and well-defined rights, including control over baptism and burial and the receipt of various financial dues such as church-scot and tithe.<ref>{{cite journal|journal=Midland History|first=Alan|last=Thacker|title=Kings, Saints and Monasteries in Pre-Viking Mercia|publisher=University of Birmingham|year =1985|volume=X|pages=1–2|doi=10.1179/mdh.1985.10.1.1 }}</ref>}}

The word derives from the [[Old English language|Old English]] "mynster", meaning "[[monastery]]", "[[nunnery]]", "[[mother church]]" or "[[cathedral]]", itself derived from the [[Latin language|Latin]] "monasterium" and the [[Ancient Greek]] "μοναστήριον", meaning a group of clergy where the Brothers would cloister themselves to meditate . Thus, "minster" could apply to any church whose clergy followed a formal rule: as for example a [[monastery]] or a [[Chapter (religion)|chapter]]; or to a church served by a less formal group of clergy living communally. In the earliest days of the English Church, from the 6th to the 8th centuries, minsters, in their various forms, constituted the only form of Christian institution with a permanent site. At the beginning of the period, they were the only form of permanent [[collective settlement]] in a culture that had not developed towns or cities. Kings, nobles and [[Bishop (Catholic Church)|bishops]] were continually on the move, with their respective retinues, from estate to estate.

Minsters were commonly founded by the king or by a royal [[thegn]], receiving a [[royal charter]] and a corporate endowment of [[bookland (type of land)|bookland]] and other customary agricultural rights and entitlements within a broad territory; as well as exemption from certain forms of customary service (especially military). The superior of the minster was generally from the family of the founder. The minster's primary purpose was to support the king and the thegn in the regular worship of the [[Canonical hours|divine office]]; especially through intercession in times of war. Minsters are also said to have been founded, or extensively endowed, in expiation for royal crimes; as for example [[Minster-in-Thanet]] near [[Ramsgate]]. Minsters might acquire [[pastoral]] and [[missionary]] responsibilities, for instance the three minsters of north-east Herefordshire, [[Leominster]], [[Bromyard]] and [[Ledbury]],<ref>Joe Hillaby, Ledbury, a medieval borough, Logaston 2nd ed. 2005</ref> all active in their areas before the towns were founded on episcopal manors; but initially this appear to have been of secondary importance. In the 9th century, almost all English minsters suffered severely from the depredations of [[Viking]] invaders; and even when a body of clergy continued, any form of regular monastic life typically ceased. The important role of minsters in the organisation of the early Christian church in Anglo-Saxon England has been called the "[[Minster hypothesis]]".

=== Late Saxon and Norman periods ===
Following the English recovery in the 10th century, surviving minsters were often refounded in accordance with the new types of collective religious bodies then becoming widespread in [[Western Europe]], as monasteries following the reformed [[Benedictine]] rule, or as [[collegiate church]]es or [[cathedral chapter]]s following the rule of [[Chrodegang of Metz]]. Consequently, by the 11th century, a hierarchy of minsters became apparent; cathedral churches, or ''head minsters'' having pre-eminence within a [[diocese]]; surviving ''old minsters'' being pre-eminent within an area broadly equivalent to an administrative [[hundred (administrative division)|hundred]]; while newer ''lesser minsters'' and ''field churches'' were increasingly proliferating on local estates; the difference being that lesser minsters had graveyards, where field churches did not. Of particular importance for these developments, was the royal enforcement in this period of [[tithe]] as a compulsory religious levy on arable production. This vastly increased the resources available to support clergy; but at the same time strongly motivated local landowners to found their own local churches, so as to retain [[tithe]] income within their own estates.

In the 11th and 12th centuries former lesser minsters and field churches, typically served by individual [[presbyter|priests]], developed into the network of [[parish]]es familiar to this day. The ''old minsters'' mostly then were designated as parish churches. For these parish churches, their former pre-eminence was acknowledged by the occasional retention of the honorific title; and sometimes by the continued recognition of former estate churches within their ancient territories as being, in some degree, of subsidiary status and dignity. Otherwise however, old minsters might continue collective worship as collegiate churches; their clergy initially being designated as 'portioners', as each canon was supported by a set portion of the college's endowment income. During the 11th and 12th centuries many such former minsters were provided with new statutes by which their endowments were split between their complement of canons, such that each canonry then became a '[[prebend]]'; but otherwise numbers of former minsters continued as 'portioner' colleges through the medieval period.

=== Late-20th- and 21st-century additions ===
The Church of England has designated additional minsters in the 20th and 21st centuries, by adding an honorific title to existing parish churches. The practice continues in the 2020s.<ref name="St Mary" /><ref name=":0" />

== Current usage in England ==
{| class="wikitable" border="1"
|-
! colspan="2" | Status
! Examples
|-
| rowspan="2" |Cathedrals
|[[Time immemorial]]
|
* [[Lincoln Cathedral]], Lincolnshire<ref name="pitt">{{cite web|url=http://vrcoll.fa.pitt.edu/medart/image/England/lincoln/Cathedral/Mainlincolncathedral.html |title=Medieval Art and Architecture – Medieval Lincoln Minster |publisher=vrcoll.fa.pitt.edu|access-date=2015-10-09}}</ref>
* [[York Minster]], North Yorkshire
|-
| 19th-century elevation
|
* [[Ripon Cathedral]], North Yorkshire
* [[Southwell Minster]], Nottinghamshire
|-
| rowspan="4" | Parish churches
| Former cathedral
|
* [[Stow Minster]], Lincolnshire
|-
| Former [[collegiate church]]
|
* [[Beverley Minster]], East Yorkshire
* [[Hemingbrough Minster]], North Yorkshire
* [[Howden Minster]], East Yorkshire
* [[Wimborne Minster (church)|Wimborne Minster]], Dorset
|-
| Parish church
|
* St Andrew's Minster, [[Ashingdon]], Essex
* [[Reading Minster]], Berkshire

* [[Stonegrave Minster]], North Yorkshire
* [[St Gregory's Minster, Kirkdale|St. Gregory's Minster]], North Yorkshire
* [[St Denys' Church, Warminster|St Denys' Church]], Wiltshire<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Minster Church of St Denys |url=https://www.achurchnearyou.com/church/9571/more-information/ |access-date=3 September 2022 |website=A Church Near You |publisher=The Archbishops' Council}}</ref>
|-
| Parish church (recent elevation)
|
* [[Cheltenham Minster, St Mary's|Cheltenham Minster]], Gloucestershire (2013)<ref>{{Cite news |date=2013-02-03 |title=St Mary's Church becomes Cheltenham Minster |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-gloucestershire-21314630 |access-date=2025-01-14 |work=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref>
* [[Croydon Minster]], London (2011)<ref>{{cite web |date=26 May 2011 |title=Croydon Parish Church to become a Minster |url=http://www.southwark.anglican.org/news/pr/pr.php?id=1522 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131224084315/http://www.southwark.anglican.org/news/pr/pr.php?id=1522 |archive-date=24 December 2013 |access-date=2013-05-08 |publisher=Diocese of Southwark}}</ref>
* [[Dewsbury Minster]], West Yorkshire (1994)
* [[Doncaster Minster]], South Yorkshire (2004)
* [[Church of St Peter & St Paul, Godalming|Godalming Minster]], Surrey (2024)
* [[Great Yarmouth Minster]], Norfolk (2011)
* [[Grimsby Minster]], Lincolnshire (2010)<ref>{{cite news |date=2010-04-15 |title=Parish church gets Minster status |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/humber/8622187.stm |work=BBC News}}</ref>
* [[Halifax Minster]], West Yorkshire (2009)
* [[Hull Minster]], East Yorkshire (2017)<ref>{{Cite news |date=2016-11-07 |title=Hull's Holy Trinity Church to become Minster on 13 May |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-humber-37895164 |access-date=2017-07-13 |work=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref>
* [[St Mary-le-Tower|Ipswich Minster]], Suffolk (2025)<ref name="St Mary" /><ref name=":0" />
* [[King's Lynn Minster]], Norfolk (2011)
* [[Leeds Minster]], West Yorkshire (2012)<ref>{{Cite news |date=2012-02-20 |title=Leeds Parish Church to become Minster |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-leeds-17099065 |access-date=2025-01-14 |work=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref>
* [[Plymouth Minster]], Devon (2009)<ref>{{cite news |date=2009-03-02 |title=Mother Church becomes a Minster |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/devon/7919017.stm |access-date=2009-03-12 |publisher=BBC}}</ref>
* [[St John's Minster, Preston|Preston Minster]], Lancashire (2003)
* [[Rotherham Minster]], South Yorkshire (2004)<ref>{{cite news |date=2004-11-16 |title=Church raised to minster status |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/south_yorkshire/4014671.stm |access-date=2009-02-16 |publisher=BBC}}</ref>
* [[Stoke Minster]], Staffordshire (2005)
* [[Sunderland Minster]], Tyne and Wear (1998)
* [[St Thomas Minster|Sts. Thomas Minster]], Isle of Wight (2008)
* [[Taunton Minster]], Somerset (2022)
|-
| colspan="2" | Minster status preserved in placenames
| [[Axminster]], [[Bedminster, Bristol|Bedminster]], [[Exminster]], [[Forrabury and Minster]], [[Ilminster]], [[Iwerne Minster]], [[Leominster]], [[Lytchett Minster]], [[Minster, Thanet|Minster-in-Thanet]], [[Kidderminster]], [[Upminster]], [[Westminster Abbey|Westminster]], [[Wimborne Minster]]
|-
| colspan="2" | Ruins
| [[The Saints, Suffolk|South Elmham Minster]]
|}

== Current usage in Wales ==
[[Wales]] saw the designation of its first minster church in 2024, as [[St Mary's Church, Swansea|St. Mary's Church]] in [[Swansea]] was officially granted minster status by the [[Church in Wales]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |last=Birrell |first=Donna |date=2024-09-21 |title=Swansea church to become first Minster church in Wales |url=https://premierchristian.news/en/news/article/swansea-church-to-become-first-minster-church-in-wales |access-date=2025-02-20 |website=premierchristian.news |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite web |date=2025-02-18 |title=Swansea church named Wales’ first minster in Feb. 16 service |url=https://episcopalnewsservice.org/2025/02/18/swansea-church-named-wales-first-minster-in-feb-16-service/ |access-date=2025-02-20 |website=Episcopal News Service |language=en-US}}</ref>

Similarly to Church of England practice, the Welsh anglicans announced that minster status is a title for large or important churches, particularly collegiate churches or cathedrals. The dedication was part of the Church in Wales historic £10 million effort of [[evangelism]] throughout Wales, and reflects the importance of the minster to the surrounding area.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=Church to invest nearly £10m in new schemes to promote growth |url=https://www.churchinwales.org.uk/en/news-and-events/church-to-invest-nearly-10m-in-new-schemes-to-promote-growth/ |access-date=2025-02-20 |website=Church in Wales |language=en}}</ref> The dedication was presided over by [[The Most Reverend|The Most Rev.]] [[Andy John]], [[Archbishop of Wales]] and [[Bishop of Bangor]], in a special service on February 16, 2025.<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=Special service for Wales' first minster |url=https://www.churchinwales.org.uk/en/news-and-events/special-service-for-wales-first-minster/ |access-date=2025-02-20 |website=Church in Wales |language=en}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable" border="1"
|-
! colspan="2" | Status
! Examples
|-
|Parish churches
|Parish church (recent elevation)
|
* Swansea Minster, South Wales (2025)<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" />
|}

== In German-speaking countries==
Some churches have the title ''Münster'', and some churches are officially one but do not carry it in their name. Examples include:
* [[Basel Minster]]
* [[Bern Minster]]
* [[Essen Minster]]
* [[Freiburg Minster]]
* [[Konstanz Minster]]
* [[Salem Minster]]
* [[Ulm Minster]]
* {{ill|Radolfzell Minster|de|Radolfzeller Münster}}
* {{ill|Moosburg Minster|de|St. Kastulus (Moosburg an der Isar)}}

== Footnotes ==
{{reflist}}

===Sources===
* {{cite book |last=Foot |first=Sarah |title=Monastic Life in Anglo-Saxon England, c.600-900 |year=2006 |publisher=Cambridge University Press }}
* {{cite book |last=Morris |first=Richard |author-link=Richard Morris (archaeologist) |title=Churches in the Landscape |year=1989 |publisher=J.M. Dent }}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Minster (Church)}}
[[Category:History of cathedrals]]
[[Category:Churches in England]]
[[Category:Types of church buildings]]

St Michael's Church, Monkton Combe

2025-06-15T15:21:18Z

2A00:23C7:C8BC:C501:507C:445E:62F7:256D: /* Background */Added hyphen

{{Short description|Church in Somerset, England}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2022}}
{{Infobox church
|name = St Michael's Church, Monkton Combe
|image = Monkton combe church arp.jpg
|caption =
|dedication = [[St. Michael]]
|denomination = [[Church of England]]
|churchmanship = [[Broad Church]]
|parish = [[Monkton Combe]]
|deanery =
|archdeaconry =
|diocese = [[Diocese of Bath and Wells|Bath and Wells]]
|province = [[Province of Canterbury|Canterbury]]
|canon =
|priest =
|vicar =
|rector =
|curate =
|minister =
|assistant =
|honpriest =
|deacon =
|pastor =
|organistdom =
|organist =
|website =
|coordinates = {{coord|51|21|22|N|2|19|43|W |type:landmark_region:GB |display=inline,title}}
}}

'''St Michael's Church''' is the [[Church of England parish church]] of [[Monkton Combe]], [[Somerset]], England. It was also the parish church of [[Combe Down]] until the 1850s when the communities separated. It is a Grade II [[listed building]].<ref>{{cite web|title=St Michael's Church, Monkton Combe|url=http://www.britishlistedbuildings.co.uk/en-400247-st-michael-s-church-monkton-combe|publisher=British Listed Buildings|accessdate=5 September 2011}}</ref>

==Background==

The structure is mostly mid-Victorian. Predominantly an example of [[Early English Period|Early English]] Gothic Revival, the structure has a steep pitched polychrome [[Welsh Slate]] roof and other aspects that clearly mark it from a distance as being a mid 19th-century construction. The main tower is surmounted by a gilded [[weather cock]].

==Norman Church==
The village was owned by the Bath Abbey monks, hence the name Monkton Combe, and the first structure was considered to be an “ancient Norman” one. The parish minutes of 1757 give a glimpse of the small church structure having a [[chancel]] with at least two pews.<ref name=coe>{{cite web|title=St Michael, Monkton Combe|url=http://www.achurchnearyou.com/stmichaelmonktoncombe/|publisher=Church of England|accessdate=5 September 2011}}</ref> “The church is a small structure, 50 feet in length and 16 feet in breadth, covered with tiles; at the west end in a little stone turret hangs two small bells. It is dedicated to St. Michael.”<ref>{{cite web|title=Church of St. Michael and All Angels|url=http://www.monktoncombe.com/poap/names/page13.htm|publisher=Monkton Combe|accessdate=5 September 2011}}</ref><ref name=mcchurch>{{cite web|title=St. Michael's Church|url=http://www.tastytemplates.com/_village/church.html|publisher=Monkton Combe|accessdate=5 September 2011}}</ref>

==Regency Church==
“About the beginning of the 19th century, when this little old church, after long neglect, needed extensive repairs, the inhabitant instead of repairing it, pulled it down and out of its materials build a new church of about the same size, seating only 95 persons, but to their minds no doubt more comfortable. It was erected in 1814 and did not last long. The Rev. Francis Pocock, being appointed vicar of Monkton Combe in 1863, found this church in a dilapidated state, and … for the needs for the parish, and had the courage to undertake the entire rebuilding of the sacred edifice.”<ref name=coe/> Revd Pocock went on to found [[Monkton Combe School]] in 1868.

==Bells==

The tower contains an 8-bell [[Chime (bell instrument)|chime]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.htcd.church/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/PARISH-PROFILE-AW-V6-Low-res.pdf|title=Holy Trinity Combe Down Profile of Benefice|last=|first=|date=|website=Holy Trinity Combe Down|access-date=21 February 2018}}</ref>
which was installed as a memorial to Rev. Francis Pocock, vicar of the parish from 1863 to 1875.
It was cast by J. Taylor of Loughborough and dedicated at Easter 1927 by the Lord Bishop of Bath and Wells.
There are also two small ancient bells which are survivors from a previous building on this site.

==Organ==
The church contains a two manual [[pipe organ]] by Henry Jones and Sons.<ref>{{cite web|title=Somerset (Avon), Monkton Combe St. Michael [N08612]|url=http://www.npor.org.uk/cgi-bin/Rsearch.cgi?Fn=Rsearch&rec_index=N08612|publisher=National Pipe Organ Register|accessdate=5 September 2011}}</ref>

==Churchyard==
The churchyard contains the grave of [[Harry Patch]], known as the "Last Fighting Tommy" and the last surviving [[British Army]] soldier to have fought in [[World War I]]. He died aged 111 and was buried there in July 2009, near the graves of several members of his family.<ref name=mcchurch/>

==List of Incumbents==

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Name || Years as Minister
|-
| The Revd F. Pocock || 1863–1876
|-
| The Revd A.G. Gristock || 1876–1882
|-
| The Revd D.L. Pitcairn || 1883–1914
|-
| The Revd Sir [[Montagu Proctor-Beauchamp|M.H.P. Beauchamp]]
|| 1914–1918
|-
| The Revd [[Percy Warrington|P.E. Warrington]] || 1918–1961
|}

==See also==
* [[List of ecclesiastical parishes in the Diocese of Bath and Wells]]

==External links==
* [http://bathdailyphoto.wordpress.com/2007/02/26/070226monkton-combe-st-michaels-pevsner-architectural-church-chat Photos of St. Michael's]

==References==
{{reflist}}
*Rev. John Collinson, ''History of Somerset'', 1791.
*Rev. D. Lee Pitcairn and Rev. Alfred Richardson, ''An Historical Guide to Monkton Combe, Combe Down and Claverton'' (Bath: F. Goodall Printer, 1924) 28–29.
*''Bath Chronicle'', July 6, 1865.
*Nikolaus Pevsner, ''The Buildings of England: North Somerset and Bristol'', (Harmondsworth, Middlesex: Penguin Books, 1958), 229.

{{DEFAULTSORT:Saint Michael's Church, Monkton Combe}}
[[Category:Church of England church buildings in Bath and North East Somerset|Monkton Combe]]
[[Category:Churches completed in 1865]]
[[Category:19th-century Church of England church buildings]]
[[Category:Gothic Revival church buildings in England]]
[[Category:Gothic Revival architecture in Somerset]]
[[Category:Monkton Combe]]

Black Notley

2025-06-15T15:14:27Z

2A00:23C7:C8BC:C501:507C:445E:62F7:256D: /* History */Added hyphens

{{Short description|Village in Essex, England}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2019}}
{{Use British English|date=May 2025}}
{{Infobox UK place
|country = England
|official_name= Black Notley
|coordinates = {{coord|51.8519|0.5660|display=inline,title|format=dms}}
|os_grid_reference= TL764210
| population = 1,646
| population_ref = (2001) 2,478 (2011)<ref name = ONS/>
|civil_parish = Black Notley<ref>{{cite web |title=Black Notley Parish Council Website |url=http://www.blacknotley-pc.gov.uk/home/ |website =Black Notley Parish Council |access-date=26 September 2021}}</ref>
|shire_district= [[Braintree (district)|Braintree]]
|shire_county = [[Essex]]
|region= East of England
|constituency_westminster= [[Witham (UK Parliament constituency)|Witham]]
|post_town= BRAINTREE
|postcode_district = CM77
|postcode_area= CM
|dial_code= 01376
|static_image_name = Black Notley church and Hall, Essex - geograph.org.uk - 153768.jpg
|static_image_width =
|static_image_caption= Black Notley church and Hall
}}
'''Black Notley''' is a village and [[civil parish]] in [[Essex]], England. It is located approximately {{convert|1 + 1/2|mi|km}} south of [[Braintree, Essex|Braintree]] and is {{convert|9|mi|km}} north-northeast from the county town of [[Chelmsford]]. According to the 2011 census including [[Young's End]] it had a population of 2,478.<ref name = ONS>{{cite web |url=http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/data/dataset-finder/-/q/datasetView/Census/QS102EW?p_auth=Ye34wVBO&p_p_auth=A0szfOO3&p_p_lifecycle=1&_FOFlow1_WAR_FOFlow1portlet_geoTypeId=2011PARISH&_FOFlow1_WAR_FOFlow1portlet_UUID=0 |title=ONS Data Explorer |publisher=ONS |accessdate=5 February 2015}}</ref>

==History==
The place-name 'Notley' is first attested in a Saxon charter of 998 as ''Hnutlea'', and appears as 'Nutlea' in the [[Domesday Book]] of 1086. The name means 'nut wood'. 'Black Notley' is first attested in 1240.<ref>[[Eilert Ekwall]], ''Concise Oxford Dictionary of English Place-names'', p.345.</ref>

The parish church is dedicated to both [[St. Peter]] and [[St. Paul]], and has walls of flint and pebble. The nave was constructed in the 12th century and the chancel was rebuilt around the 16th century when also the south porch and bell-turret were added. Around 100 yards to the south of the church is the 15th-century Grade II-[[listed building|listed]] Black Notley Hall.<ref>'Black Notley', in An Inventory of the Historical Monuments in Essex, Volume 2, Central and South west (London, 1921), pp. 18-21. [https://www.british-history.ac.uk/rchme/essex/vol2/pp18-21 British History Online]</ref>

==Geography==
The village is in the [[Braintree (district)|district]] of Braintree, but as of 2010, forms part of the [[Braintree (UK Parliament constituency)|parliamentary constituency]] of Witham. It has its own parish council, and is part of the wider [[Cressing]], Black Notley, [[White Notley]] and [[Faulkbourne]] parish cluster.<ref name="parishmap">{{cite web |url=http://www.braintree.gov.uk/NR/rdonlyres/8095EE77-2A1C-41DB-984D-CC05F89C25B1/0/parishclustermap2005.jpg |title=Parish cluster map |accessdate=2007-01-27 |format=JPG |work=www.braintree.gov.uk |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20061014102407/http://www.braintree.gov.uk/NR/rdonlyres/8095EE77-2A1C-41DB-984D-CC05F89C25B1/0/parishclustermap2005.jpg |archivedate=2006-10-14 }}</ref>

The [[Cressing railway station]], on the [[Braintree Branch Line]], is around half a mile from the village centre. It is close to the [[River Brain]]. In 2002 work was completed on the new estate, built in place of the old hospital giving 350 new houses to the area.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.essexchronicle.co.uk/BLACK-NOTLEY-old-new-united/story-12624194-detail/story.html|title=BLACK NOTLEY Where old and new are united|publisher=Essex Chronicle|accessdate=5 February 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150206010243/http://www.essexchronicle.co.uk/BLACK-NOTLEY-old-new-united/story-12624194-detail/story.html|archive-date=6 February 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==Notable residents==
*[[William Bedell]] (1571–1642), Anglican churchman, [[Bishop of Kilmore]] and [[List of provosts of Trinity College Dublin|Provost of Trinity College Dublin]].<ref>{{Cite EB1911 |wstitle= Bedell, William |volume= 3 |page= 616 |short=1}}</ref>
*[[Richard Symonds (diarist)|Richard Symonds]] (1617–1660), royalist and antiquary, he wrote about the [[First English Civil War]].<ref>{{cite DNB |wstitle= Symonds, Richard (1617-1692?) |volume= 55 |last= Thomas |first= Daniel Lleufer |author-link= Daniel Lleufer Thomas |pages=276-277 |short= 1}}</ref>
*[[John Ray]] (1627–1705), naturalist, known as the father of English natural history.<ref>{{Cite EB1911 |wstitle= Ray, John |last= Thompson |first= D'Arcy Wentworth |author-link= D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson |volume= 22 |pages= 931-932 |short=1}}</ref>
*[[Arthur Halestrap]] (1898–2004), one of the last surviving soldiers of WWI, lived locally

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Black Notley}}
*[http://www.blacknotley-pc.gov.uk/home/ Black Notley Parish Council website]
*[http://www.visitessex.com/thedms.aspx?dms=3&venue=0725406 Black Notley - Visit Essex]

{{authority control}}

[[Category:Villages in Essex]]
[[Category:Braintree District]]

{{Essex-geo-stub}}

Gamma Arietis

2025-06-15T14:57:13Z

2A00:23C7:C8BC:C501:507C:445E:62F7:256D: /* Properties */Added description

{{Short description|Star in the constellation Aries. "The First Star in Aries"}}
{{Starbox begin
| name=γ Arietis
}}
{{Starbox image
| image=
{{Location mark
|image=Aries constellation map.svg|alt=|float=center|width=240
|label=|position=right
|mark=Red circle.svg|mark_width=10|mark_link=γ Ari|x=900|y=476
}}
|caption=Location of γ Arietis (circled)
}}
{{Starbox observe
| epoch = J2000
| constell = [[Aries (constellation)|Aries]]<ref name=xhip/>
| ra = {{RA|01|53|31.813}}<ref name=Gaia_DR3/>
| dec = {{DEC|+19|17|37.88}}<ref name=Gaia_DR3/>
| appmag_v = {{nowrap|3.86 (4.58/4.64)}}<ref name=mnras389_2_869/>
}}
{{Starbox character
| component1 = Gamma1 Ari (B)
| class = {{nowrap|A0Vnp λ Boo<ref name=abt1995/>}} or {{nowrap|A0IV-V(n)kB8<ref name=murphy2015/>}}
| b-v = −0.14<ref name=murphy2015/>
| u-b =
| variable =
| component2 = Gamma2 Ari (A)
| class2 = A2IVpSiSrCr<ref name=abt1984/>
| b-v2 = −0.03<ref name=murphy2015/>
| u-b2 =
| variable2 = [[Alpha2 Canum Venaticorum variable|α2 CVn]]<ref name=gcvs/>
}}
{{Starbox astrometry
| radial_v = +3.7<ref name=gcsrv/>
| prop_mo_ra = +77.138
| prop_mo_dec = −97.321
| pm_footnote = <ref name=Gaia_DR3/>
| parallax = 19.6268
| p_error = 0.1526
| parallax_footnote = <ref name=Gaia_DR3/>
| absmag_v = −0.10<ref name=xhip/>
}}
{{Starbox detail
| component1 = Gamma1 Ari (Ba)
| mass = 2.67<ref name=ticv8/>
| radius = {{val|1.97|0.12}}<ref name="gordon2019"/>
| luminosity = 42.0
| temperature = {{val|11000|1100|fmt=commas}}<ref name="gordon2019"/>
| gravity = 4.26<ref name=ticv8/>
| metal_fe =
| rotational_velocity = 54<ref name=aaa393_897/>
| age_myr = 34<ref name=gullikson2016/>
| component2 = Gamma2 Ari (A)
| mass2 = 2.72<ref name=ticv8/>
| radius2 = 1.941<ref name=ticv8/>
| luminosity2 = 41.5
| metal2_fe = {{val|0.43|0.14}}<ref name=aaa525_A71/>
| gravity2 = 4.30<ref name=ticv8/>
| temperature2= 10,512<ref name=ticv8/>
| rotational_velocity2 = 201<ref name=aaa393_897/>
}}
{{starbox detail|no_heading=y
| component1 = Gamma1 Ari (Bb)
| mass = 0.7<ref name=gullikson2016/>
| temperature = 4,312<ref name=gullikson2016/>
| rotational_velocity = 5<ref name=gullikson2016/>
| metal_fe = −0.5<ref name=gullikson2016/>
}}
{{Starbox catalog
| names = {{odlist | F=5 Ari | BD=+18 243 | HIP=8832 | WDS=J01535+1918 }}<ref name=SIMBAD/>
| component1 = Gamma1 Ari (B)
| names1 = {{odlist | HD=11502 | HR=545 | SAO=92680 | WDS=J01535+1918B }}
| component2 = Gamma2 Ari (A)
| names2 = {{odlist | HD=11503 | HR=546 | SAO=92681 | WDS=J01535+1918A | GC=2291 }}
}}
{{Starbox reference
| Simbad=gam+Ari|sn=γ Ari
| Simbad2=gam01+Ari|sn2=γ1 Ari (B)
| Simbad3=gam02+Ari|sn3=γ2 Ari (A)
}}
{{Starbox end}}

'''Gamma Arietis''' is a [[binary star|binary]] or possibly [[trinary star|trinary]] [[star system]] in the northern [[constellation]] of [[Aries (constellation)|Aries]]. Its name is a [[Bayer designation]] that is [[Romanization of Greek|Latinized]] from '''γ Arietis''', and abbreviated '''Gamma Ari''' or '''γ Ari'''. This system is called "The First Star in Aries" as having been at one time the nearest visible star to the [[equinoctial point]]. The combined [[apparent visual magnitude]] of the stars is 3.86,<ref name=mnras389_2_869/> which is readily visible to the [[naked eye]] and makes this the fourth-brightest member of Aries. Based upon [[stellar parallax|parallax]] measurements,<ref name=Gaia_DR3/> the distance to Gamma Arietis from the [[Sun]] is approximately {{Convert|166|ly|pc|abbr=off|lk=on}}.

The two components are designated γ1 Arietis or Gamma Arietis B and γ2 Arietis or Gamma Arietis A. The latter is formally named '''Mesarthim''', pronounced {{IPAc-en|m|ɛ|ˈ|s|ɑr|θ|ɪ|m}}, the traditional name for the Gamma Arietis system. γ1 Arietis may itself be a [[spectroscopic binary]] with a low mass companion.

==Properties==
The [[double star]] nature of this system was discovered by the English scientist and astronomer [[Robert Hooke]] in 1664.<ref name=aitken1935/> The two components have an [[angular separation]] of 7.606 [[arcsecond]]s,<ref name=mnras389_2_869/> which can be resolved with a small [[telescope]]. The [[orbital period]] of the pair is greater than 5,000 years.<ref name=kaler/>

[[File:GammaAriLightCurve.png|thumb|left|A [[light curve]] for Gamma Arietis, plotted from ''[[Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite|TESS]]'' data,<ref name=MAST/> folded with a period of 1.6092 days<ref name="IVSI"/>]]
The brighter component, γ2 Arietis, is an [[Alpha2 Canum Venaticorum variable|α2 CVn type]] [[variable star]], a type of star with a strong magnetic field and enhanced spectral lines of some metals, with high [[chromospheric]] activity causing brightness changes as the star rotates. Its brightness varies by 0.04 magnitudes with a period of 2.61 days.<ref name=gcvs/> It is also an [[Ap star]], a type of chemically peculiar star with enhanced lines of many metals.<ref name=renson2009/> The spectral class has been given as A2IVpSiSrCr, noting the particular strength of lines of [[silicon]], [[strontium]], and [[chromium]], although other lines such as [[europium]], [[mercury (element)|mercury]], and [[manganese]] are also stronger than in a normal star. This spectral type suggests that the star is an A2-class [[subgiant]].<ref name=skiff2014/> One study from 2016 identified a low-mass companion to γ2 Arietis, a probable [[red dwarf]] in a close orbit.<ref name=gullikson2016/>

The marginally fainter of the two visible stars, γ1 Arietis, is a [[Lambda Boötis star|Lambda Boötis]]<ref name=aaa412_447/> ([[chemically peculiar star|chemically peculiar]]) star with a [[stellar classification]] of A0Vnp and a magnitude of 4.64.<ref name=abt1995/> Lambda Boötis stars are identified based on unusually low abundances of [[iron peak]] elements in their spectra. This star is spinning rapidly with a [[projected rotational velocity]] of 201 km/s,<ref name=aaa393_897/> as suggested by the 'n' (nebulosity) notation. The spectral class of this component has also been given as A0IV-V(n)kB8, indicating that [[calcium K line]]s in its spectrum are more typical of a B8 star.<ref name=murphy2015/> Older studies often classified it as B9 or B9.5 with a luminosity class of IV or V, indicating either a [[main sequence]] or subgiant.<ref name=skiff2014/>

Both of the visible stars have mass of about {{solar mass|2.7|link=y}}, luminosities of about {{solar luminosity|40|link=y}}, [[effective temperature]]s of about {{val|10,000|fmt=commas|ul=K}}, and radii of about {{solar radius|2|link=y}}. Their age is about 34 million years.

==Nomenclature==

''γ Arietis'' ([[Latinisation of names|Latinised]] to ''Gamma Arietis'') is the system's [[Bayer designation]]; γ1 and γ2 Arietis those of its two components. The designation of the two components as ''Gamma Arietis A'' and ''B'' derive from the convention used by the Washington Multiplicity Catalog (WMC) for [[Star system|multiple star system]]s, and adopted by the [[International Astronomical Union]] (IAU).<ref name="planetnaming"/>

Gamma Arietis has been called "the First Star in Aries" as having been at one time the nearest visible star to the equinoctial point.

It bore the traditional name ''Mesarthim''. Originally it had shared the name [[Sheratan]] with Beta Arietis. However, this got corrupted to "Sartai" in medieval manuscripts, which Bayer erroneously explained as being the Hebrew grammatical term {{lang|hbo|מְשָׁרְתִים}} {{Transliteration|hbo|''mᵉshārᵉthīm''}} "servants", and later scholars picked up on this term.<ref name=Kunitzsch/>

In 2016, the IAU organized a [[IAU Working Group on Star Names|Working Group on Star Names]] (WGSN)<ref name="WGSN"/> to catalogue and standardize proper names for stars. The WGSN decided to attribute proper names to individual stars rather than entire [[multiple star|multiple systems]].<ref name="TriRpt18"/> It approved the name ''Mesarthim'' for the component ''γ2 Arietis'' on 21 August 2016 and it is now so entered in the IAU Catalog of Star Names.<ref name="IAU-CSN">{{citation |postscript=. | url=http://www.pas.rochester.edu/~emamajek/WGSN/IAU-CSN.txt | title=IAU Catalog of Star Names |access-date=28 July 2016}}</ref>

In [[Chinese astronomy|Chinese]], {{lang|zh|婁宿}} ({{lang|zh-Latn|Lóusù}}), meaning ''[[Bond (Chinese constellation)|Bond]] (asterism)'', refers to an [[Asterism (astronomy)|asterism]] consisting of Gamma, [[Beta Arietis|Beta]] and [[Alpha Arietis]].<ref>{{in lang|zh}} ''中國星座神話'', written by 陳久金. Published by 台灣書房出版有限公司, 2005, {{ISBN|978-986-7332-25-7}}.</ref> Consequently, the [[Chinese star names|Chinese name]] for Gamma Arietis itself is {{lang|zh|婁宿二}} ({{lang|zh-Latn|Lóusù Èr}}, {{langx|en|the Second Star of Bond}}).<ref>{{in lang|zh}} [http://www.lcsd.gov.hk/CE/Museum/Space/Research/StarName/c_research_chinengstars_m.htm 香港太空館 - 研究資源 - 亮星中英對照表] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110130063012/http://www.lcsd.gov.hk/CE/Museum/Space/Research/StarName/c_research_chinengstars_m.htm |date=January 30, 2011 }}, Hong Kong Space Museum. Accessed on line November 23, 2010.</ref>

In [[Hindu astrology]], Gamma Arietis and Beta Arietis (Sheratan) are [[Ashvins]], the twin [[Rigvedic deities]] who act as doctors of the divine of the world.<ref name=allen/>

==References==
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<ref name=aaa412_447>{{citation
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<ref name=SIMBAD>{{cite simbad | title=gam Ari | access-date=2012-08-04 | postscript=. | mode=cs2 }}</ref>

<ref name=kaler>{{citation | first1=James B. | last1=Kaler | title=Mesarthim | work=Stars | publisher=[[University of Illinois]] | url=http://stars.astro.illinois.edu/sow/mesarthim.html | access-date=2012-08-04 | postscript=. }}</ref>

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<ref name=gcvs>{{citation | postscript=.
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<ref name=ticv8>{{Citation|postscript=.|display-authors=1|last1=Stassun|first1=Keivan G.|last2=Oelkers|first2=Ryan J.|last3=Paegert|first3=Martin|last4=Torres|first4=Guillermo|last5=Pepper|first5=Joshua|last6=De Lee|first6=Nathan|last7=Collins|first7=Kevin|last8=Latham|first8=David W.|last9=Muirhead|first9=Philip S.|last10=Chittidi|first10=Jay|last11=Rojas-Ayala|first11=Bárbara|date=2019-10-01|title=The Revised TESS Input Catalog and Candidate Target List|bibcode=2019AJ....158..138S|journal=The Astronomical Journal|volume=158|issue=4|pages=138|doi=10.3847/1538-3881/ab3467|arxiv=1905.10694|hdl=1721.1/124721|s2cid=166227927|issn=0004-6256|hdl-access=free|doi-access=free}}</ref>

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}}

==External links==
* [http://webviz.u-strasbg.fr/viz-bin/VizieR-S?HR%20545 HR 545]
* [http://webviz.u-strasbg.fr/viz-bin/VizieR-S?HR%20546 HR 546]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080926185552/http://www.purplehell.com/riddletools/stars.htm The Constellations and Named Stars]
* [http://aladin.u-strasbg.fr/AladinPreview?-c=01+53+31.80%2B19+17+45.0&ident=HD++11502&submit=Aladin+previewer Image Gamma Arietis]
* [http://aladin.u-strasbg.fr/AladinPreview?-c=01+53+31.83%2B19+17+37.2&ident=V*+gam+Ari&submit=Aladin+previewer Image Gamma2 Arietis]

{{Stars of Aries}}
{{Authority control}}



{{DEFAULTSORT:Gamma Arietis}}
[[Category:A-type main-sequence stars]]
[[Category:Alpha2 Canum Venaticorum variables]]
[[Category:A-type subgiants]]
[[Category:Lambda Boötis stars]]
[[Category:Binary stars]]

[[Category:Aries (constellation)]]
[[Category:Bayer objects|Arietis, Gamma]]
[[Category:Bright Star Catalogue objects|0545 6]]
[[Category:Durchmusterung objects]]
[[Category:Flamsteed objects|Arietis, 05]]
[[Category:Henry Draper Catalogue objects|011502]]
[[Category:Hipparcos objects|008832]]
[[Category:Stars with proper names|Mesarthim]]
[[Category:Robert Hooke]]

Malcolm Hardee

2025-06-15T12:37:41Z

2A00:23C7:C8BC:C501:507C:445E:62F7:256D: /* Death and legacy */Improved link

{{Short description|English comedian (1950–2005)}}
{{Good article}}
{{Use British English|date=December 2012}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2023}}
{{Infobox comedian
| name = Malcolm Hardee
| image = MalcolmHardee1995.jpg
| imagesize =
| caption = Hardee in 1995, outside his childhood home in [[Lewisham]]
| pseudonym =
| birth_name =
| birth_date = {{Birth date|df=yes|1950|1|5}}
| birth_place = [[Lewisham]], London, England
| death_date = {{Death date and age|df=yes|2005|1|31|1950|1|5}}
| death_place = [[Rotherhithe]], London, England
| medium = Stand-up
| active = Mid-1970s–2005
| genre = [[Physical comedy]], [[Surreal humour]]
| subject = [[Current events]]
| notable_work= Autobiography: ''I Stole Freddie Mercury's Birthday Cake'', [[The Greatest Show on Legs]].
| signature =
| website = {{url|malcolmhardee.co.uk}}
| emmyawards =
| britishcomedyawards =
}}

'''Malcolm Hardee''' (5 January 1950 – 31 January 2005)<ref name="Guardian">{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/obituaries/story/0,,1405432,00.html|title= Obituary: Malcolm Hardee| work=The Guardian | location=London | first=William | last=Cook | date=4 February 2005 | access-date=12 May 2010}}</ref> was an English comedian and [[comedy club]] proprietor.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://arts.guardian.co.uk/features/story/0,,1408261,00.html|title= Guardian, 8 February 2005 | work=The Guardian | location=London | date=8 February 2005 | access-date=12 May 2010 | first=Alex | last=Games}}</ref>

His high reputation among his peers rests on his outrageous [[publicity stunt]]s and on the help and advice he gave to successful British [[Alternative comedy|alternative comedians]] early in their careers, acting as "godfather to a generation of comic talent in the 1980s".<ref name="Telegraph">{{cite news
|title=Alternative comedy pioneer drowns on way home from his floating pub
|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2005/02/04/nhard04.xml
|date=5 February 2005
|newspaper=The Daily Telegraph
|location=London
|first=Andrew
|last=Haldenby
|url-status=dead
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070313082632/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=%2Fnews%2F2005%2F02%2F04%2Fnhard04.xml
|archive-date=13 March 2007
|access-date=2 July 2012
}}</ref> Fellow comic [[Robert Newman (comedian)|Rob Newman]] called him "a hilarious, [[Anarchism|anarchic]], [[living legend (person)|living legend]]; a millennial [[Falstaff]]",<ref name="ISFMBC front quotes">Hardee, Malcolm: "I Stole Freddie Mercury's Birthday Cake" (pub Ebury Press, 1996), pre-title page</ref> while [[Stewart Lee]] wrote that "Malcolm Hardee is a natural clown who in any decent country would be a national institution"<ref name="ISFMBC front quotes" /> and [[Arthur Smith (comedian)|Arthur Smith]] described him as "a South London [[Rabelais]]"<ref name="ISFMBC front quotes" /> and claimed that "everything about Malcolm, apart from his stand-up act, was original".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thestage.co.uk/features/feature.php/6717 |work=The Stage |date=1 March 2005 |title=Letter to a Young Comedian |access-date=2 July 2012}}</ref>

Hardee was also a compère and talent-spotting booker at his own clubs, particularly The Tunnel Club in [[Greenwich]], [[List of sub-regions used in the London Plan|South East London]], which gave early exposure to up-and-coming comedians during the early years of British alternative comedy.<ref name="Independent obit">{{cite news |url=http://news.independent.co.uk/people/obituaries/article13691.ece |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130420223646/http://news.independent.co.uk/people/obituaries/article13691.ece |url-status=dead |archive-date=20 April 2013 |title=Malcolm Hardee |work=The Independent |location=London |date=5 February 2005 |access-date=12 May 2010 }}</ref> In his [[obituary]], ''[[The Times]]'' opined that "throughout his life he maintained a fearlessness and an indifference to consequences"<ref name="Times">{{cite news |url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/comment/obituaries/article511345.ece|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110524004056/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/comment/obituaries/article511345.ece|archivedate=24 May 2011|title=Malcolm Hardee|work= The Times |location=London |date=7 February 2005|first=David |last=Byers}}</ref> and one journalist claimed: "To say that he has no shame is to drastically exaggerate the amount of shame that he has".<ref name="Times" /> In a publicity quote printed in Hardee's autobiography ''I Stole Freddie Mercury's Birthday Cake'', Arthur Smith wrote that Hardee had "led his life as though for the perfect autobiography and now he has paid himself the compliment of writing it."<ref name="ISFMBC front quotes" />

== Early life ==

Hardee was born in [[Lewisham]], South East London, near the [[River Thames]], and came from a long line of [[lightermen]]<ref name="Telegraph" /> who earned their living on [[tugs]] pulling [[barges]] on the river. He was the eldest son of Frank and Joan Hardee. He spent his first two years in an [[orphanage]] while his mother was in hospital with [[tuberculosis]]<ref name="Guardian" /> and was educated at three South East London schools – [[St Stephen]]'s [[Church of England]] primary, [[Colfe's School]], and [[Sedgehill School|Sedgehill]] [[Comprehensive school|comprehensive]].<ref name="Guardian" />

Expelled from the latter two schools he drifted into petty crime:<ref name="Guardian" /> stealing [[Coca-Cola]] from a local bottling plant, burgling a pawnbrokers<ref name="Chortle">{{cite web |url=http://www.chortle.co.uk/news/2005/02/02/3494/malcolm_hardee_dies|title= news page on UK comedy industry website Chortle, 2 February 2005}}</ref> and setting fire to a [[Sunday school]] piano because he wanted to see "holy smoke".<ref name="Times" /> He served prison sentences for [[cheque fraud]], burglary and escaping custody;<ref name="BBC">{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/london/4230789.stm|work= BBC News | date=2 February 2005 | access-date=6 January 2010 |title=Comedian's body found in Thames}}</ref> in 1967, he escaped from [[Gaynes Hall]] [[Borstal]] dressed as a [[monk]].<ref name="Times" /><ref name="Scotsman">{{cite news
|url=http://news.scotsman.com/obituaries.cfm?id=146002005
|title= Malcolm Hardee, Stand-up comedian
|location=Edinburgh
|newspaper=[[The Scotsman]]
|first=Alasdair |last=Steven
|date=8 February 2005
}}</ref> He also had [[convictions]] for arson and once infamously stole a [[Rolls-Royce (car)|Rolls-Royce]]<ref name="Telegraph" /> which he believed belonged to British cabinet minister [[Peter Walker, Baron Walker of Worcester|Peter Walker]]. (Walker later wrote to Hardee after reading about this widely reported story and denied it had been his car.)<ref>Hardee, Malcolm: "I Stole Freddie Mercury's Birthday Cake" (pub Ebury Press, 1996), page 65</ref>

Hardee decided to turn to showbusiness as a way of staying out of trouble, saying: "There are only two things you can do when you come out of prison and you want immediate employment. You can either be a [[minicab]] driver or you can go into showbusiness"<ref name="BBC" /> and "Prison is like [[mime]] or [[juggling]] – a tragic waste of time".<ref name="Guardian" />

== Acts and stunts ==

After coming out of prison in 1977 or 1978 (sources vary), Hardee joined Martin Soan's [[The Greatest Show on Legs]] – at the time, a one-man adult [[Punch and Judy]] act.<ref name="Guardian" /> Revamped as a [[Surreal humor|surreal]] [[Sketch comedy|sketch]] group, The Greatest Show on Legs became a regular at the Tramshed venue in [[Woolwich]], alongside the likes of [[Rik Mayall]] and [[Ade Edmondson]].<ref name="Chortle" /> Soon afterwards, in 1979, [[The Comedy Store, London|The Comedy Store]] opened in [[Soho]] and The Greatest Show on Legs became regulars there, too.<ref name="Times" /> Their breakthrough came in 1982, when they performed their Naked Balloon Dance on [[Chris Tarrant]]'s anarchic late-night TV show ''[[O.T.T. (television series)|O.T.T.]]''<ref name="Telegraph" />

In 1987, as one of his many publicity stunts, Hardee stood for [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|Parliament]] in the famous [[1987 Greenwich by-election]], as the "[[Rainbow Dream Ticket]], Beer, Fags & [[Skittles (game)|Skittles]] Party" candidate, polling 174 votes.<ref name="Guardian" /> He stood again in the 1992 election in order to publicise his comedy club because the election rules allowed him a free mailshot to all registered voters in the [[constituency]].<ref name="Telegraph" />

Hardee regularly appeared in his own shows at the [[Edinburgh Fringe]]. The Greatest Show on Legs debuted there in 1982.<ref name=Venables170711>
{{cite web |title=How Comedy Captured the Edinburgh Fringe: Part 3 |last=Venables |first=Ben |publisher=[[The Skinny (magazine)|The Skinny]] |url=http://www.theskinny.co.uk/comedy/opinion/how-comedy-captured-the-edinburgh-fringe-part-3 |date=6 June 2017 |access-date=13 October 2017}}
</ref> Arguably his most infamous confirmed stunt there was in 1983 when, performing at The Circuit venue – a series of three adjoining tents in a construction site with a different show in each tent – he became annoyed by what he regarded as excessive noise emanating nightly from [[Eric Bogosian]]'s neighbouring performance tent. Hardee obtained a nearby [[tractor]] and, entirely naked, drove it across Bogosian's stage during his performance.<ref name="Borkowski">{{cite news |author=Mark Borkowski |url=https://www.theguardian.com/edinburghfestival2001/story/0,,529703,00.html|title=Weird is not enough |work=The-Guardian |date= 30 July 2001 | location=London}}</ref><ref>''[[The Oldie]]'' – issue 192 – March 2005</ref><ref name=Venables170711/> Rivalling this stunt in Fringe infamy, in 1989, Hardee and Arthur Smith wrote a rave 5-star review of Hardee's own Fringe show and successfully managed to get it printed in ''[[The Scotsman]]'' under the [[byline]] of the influential newspaper's comedy critic.<ref name="Scotsman" /><ref>{{cite news |url=http://media.guardian.co.uk/columnists/story/0,,1280093,00.html|title= PR stunts: an expert's guide| work=The Guardian | location=London | first=Mark | last=Borkowski | date=10 August 2004 | access-date=12 May 2010}}</ref> At the Fringe in 1996, ''[[The Independent]]'' reported that he attempted to sabotage American [[ventriloquist]] [[David Strassman]]'s Edinburgh show by [[Kidnapping|abducting]] the act's [[hi-tech]] dummy, holding it to [[ransom]] and sending it back to Strassman piece by piece in return for hard cash. The plan failed.<ref>Wareham, Mark: "Legends of the Comedy Terrorist", Independent, 21 August 1996</ref>

[[File:HardeeGlastonbury2003.jpg|left|thumb|Hardee at the [[Glastonbury Festival 2013|2003 Glastonbury Festival]]]]
Perhaps the most-quoted anecdote concerning Hardee was that, on 9 October 1986<ref name="FunnyTalk">ed Driver, Jim: "Funny Talk" (pub The Do-Not Press, 1995), pages 123–127</ref> his house was searched by the police – who were looking for crumbs – two days after<ref name="FunnyTalk" /> he and others stole [[Freddie Mercury]]'s £4,000<ref name="Telegraph" /> 40th birthday cake. No crumbs were found at the house as he had already by then donated the cake to a local [[nursing home]].<ref name="Guardian" /><ref name="FunnyTalk" /> He used this incident as the title of his 1996 autobiography ''I Stole Freddie Mercury's Birthday Cake'' which he wrote with John Fleming. In another encounter with the police, Hardee was once questioned by [[Special Branch (Metropolitan Police)|Special Branch]] officers after being found on the balcony outside government minister [[Michael Heseltine]]'s hotel room, wearing nothing but a pair of socks and a leather coat containing £5,200 in cash and a pack of pornographic playing cards. He had mistaken the room for that of a friend.<ref name="flemingblog">{{cite web|url=http://thejohnfleming.wordpress.com/2011/01/18/the-weird-daily-life-of-comedian-malcolm-hardee-and-after/ |title=The weird daily life of comedian Malcolm Hardee – and after | SO IT GOES – John Fleming's blog |publisher=Thejohnfleming.wordpress.com |date=18 January 2011 |access-date=2012-01-23}}</ref>

Collaborator John Fleming said of him that "At home, he occasionally put a live goldfish in his mouth to get attention – I saw him do it twice. It was often said of Malcolm, with a lot of justification, that he never had a stage act – his life was his act."<ref name="flemingblog" />

In his autobiography, Hardee claimed he was the first to attempt the '[[firecracker|banger]]-up-the-[[buttocks|bum]]' routine, later perfected and performed by Greatest Show on Legs co-star Chris Lynam, in which a [[firework]] (occasionally a three-stage [[Roman candle (firework)|Roman Candle]]) was clenched between the buttocks and lit to a recording of [[Ethel Merman]] singing "[[There's No Business Like Show Business]]".<ref>Hardee, Malcolm: "I Stole Freddie Mercury's Birthday Cake" (pub Ebury Press, 1996), page 160</ref>

The claim for which Hardee was arguably best known throughout his performing life was that he was said to have "the biggest bollocks in show business"<ref name="Independent obit" /><ref name="Time Out Munnery">{{cite web|url=http://www.timeout.com/london/comedy/features/2486/Simon_Munnery_on_Malcolm_Hardee.html|title=Simon Munnery on Malcolm Hardee|work=Time Out|date=12 January 2007|access-date=26 December 2007|archive-date=7 October 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081007192849/http://www.timeout.com/london/comedy/features/2486/Simon_Munnery_on_Malcolm_Hardee.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> and he became renowned for a rarely performed but vividly unforgettable act in which he would use his own [[spectacles]] atop his [[genitals]] to create a unique visual [[Impressionist (entertainment)|impression]] of [[French President]] [[Charles de Gaulle]] with his [[testicles]] representing the politician's cheeks; this act pre-dated the Australian show ''[[Puppetry of the Penis]]'' by several years.<ref name="Guardian" /><ref name="Telegraph" />

Hardee rarely appeared on television, though he did play minor roles in six ''[[The Comic Strip|Comic Strip]]'' TV films and one episode in the first series of ''[[The Black Adder|Blackadder]]''.<ref name="Guardian" />

== Clubs ==
Hardee was also renowned as a talent spotter and owner of clubs which gave vital early exposure to up-and-coming comedians<ref name="Independent obit" /> including [[Charlie Chuck]], [[Alan Davies]], [[Harry Enfield]], [[Harry Hill]], [[Paul Merton]], [[Vic Reeves]], [[Frank Skinner]], [[Johnny Vegas]]<ref name="Standard">{{cite web |url=http://www.thisislondon.co.uk/news/article-16342292-details/Comedian+found+dead/article.do;jsessionid=Y32pG1KcL1WdPxwK2wx5PsbTX1nYj6wPnQsLrtQGc1VSQqkChJ60!1557838166!-1407319225!7001!-1|title= London Evening Standard, 3 February 2005|date= 3 December 2015}}</ref> and [[Jo Brand]], with whom he had a two-year affair<ref name="Telegraph" /><ref name="Standard" /> and whom he persuaded to become a comedian.<ref name="Scotsman" /> He hosted the first-ever outing of the [[new circus]] group [[Ra-Ra Zoo]], who performed comedy mime to a, for once, silenced audience. He also worked for a time as the manager of [[Jerry Sadowitz]]<ref name="Guardian" /> and was an occasional promoter and tour manager for his friend and neighbour [[Jools Holland]].<ref name="Guardian" />

His most infamous venue<ref name="Time Out Munnery" /> was The Tunnel Club, which he opened in 1984<ref name="Independent obit" /> next to the southern exit from the [[Blackwall Tunnel]] in Greenwich, South East London. He would sometimes introduce inexperienced stand-ups to audiences with the nerve-jangling line: "This next act's probably a bit shit",<ref name="Times" /> but once their performance was finished, he would often comfort those he thought showed promise with backstage words of encouragement and urge them to try again. According to [[Stewart Lee]], he would often insult comedians after they had finished their acts while also simultaneously praising them, as a way of protecting their dignity. Lee notes that after his first gig he did for him, Hardee said "That was Stewart Lee. Started off well, got worse, by the end he was shit".<ref>{{cite web |title=Stewart Lee Improvised Around Industry Prejudice To Make His Name|The Breakdown with Jamali Maddix |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AHfnCpH4-Oo |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211212/AHfnCpH4-Oo| archive-date=2021-12-12 |url-status=live|website=YouTube | date=22 January 2019 |access-date=14 February 2019}}{{cbignore}}</ref> His advice to comics who were concerned that a joke might be offensive to an audience was: "If you think it's funny, then fuck 'em."<ref name="Times" />

[[File:Up the Creek comedy club, London SE10.jpg|left|thumb|Up The Creek comedy club, Greenwich, 2011]]
At his weekly ''Sunday Night at the Tunnel Palladium'' shows, sometimes even experienced and accomplished comedians failed to complete a whole set against the unforgiving crowd and razor-sharp [[Heckler|heckling]].<ref name="Time Out Munnery" /> When the club became established, it attracted groups of men apparently from the suburb of [[Eltham]] who Hardee referred to as 'Herberts'. They were usually drunk and attending the Tunnel club as it offered after hours drinks on a Sunday night, a rarity back then. They usually ended the evening by fighting, fortunately usually between themselves, leaving everybody else as spectators. It was at the Tunnel Club that comedian [[Jim Tavare]] once began his act with the unwise opener, "Hello, I'm a [[schizophrenic]]" – to be met with the lightning rejoinder from a heckler in that night's audience, "Well, you can both fuck off then!".<ref name="Times" /> [[Julian Clary]] together with Fanny the Wonder dog were surprising hits at such evenings.

The Tunnel closed in 1988<ref name="Independent obit" /> and, in 1991, Hardee opened the [[Up the Creek (comedy club)|Up The Creek]] comedy club in Creek Road, Greenwich.<ref name="Guardian" /> In an upstairs bar at the club was a [[mural]] commissioned by Hardee as a [[parody]] of [[Leonardo da Vinci]]'s ''[[The Last Supper (Leonardo)|The Last Supper]]''. It showed Hardee as Christ with Jo Brand, [[Julian Clary]] and other famous British comedians as the [[Twelve Apostles|Disciples]] including [[Ben Elton]] as [[Judas Iscariot]].<ref name="Chortle Inquest">{{cite web |url=http://www.chortle.co.uk/news/2005/06/20/790/he_died_with_a_beer_in_his_hand?PHPSESSID=304|title= report on UK comedy industry website Chortle, 20 July 2005}}</ref><ref name="Times Last Supper">{{cite web|url=http://timesonline.typepad.com/faith/2008/01/the-latest-last.html|title=Photo of Hardee's 'Last Supper' in The Times Online, 8 January 2008|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081015201936/http://timesonline.typepad.com/faith/2008/01/the-latest-last.html|archive-date=15 October 2008|df=dmy-all}}</ref>
[[File:Up_The_Creek,_Christmas_1990.jpg|thumb]]
In 2001,<ref name="Telegraph obit">{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2005/02/04//db0402.xml&sSheet=/portal/2005/02/04/ixportal.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070313094748/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=%2Fnews%2F2005%2F02%2F04%2F%2Fdb0402.xml&sSheet=%2Fportal%2F2005%2F02%2F04%2Fixportal.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=13 March 2007|title=Daily Telegraph obituary, 4 February 2005|work=The Daily Telegraph|location=London|access-date=12 May 2010|first=Andrew|last=Haldenby}}</ref> after he sold his percentage in Up The Creek, Hardee took over a floating [[pub]], The Wibbley Wobbley, on a converted Rhine pleasure cruiser in [[Greenland Dock]], [[Rotherhithe]], by the River Thames.<ref name="Telegraph obit" />

== Death and legacy ==
[[File:FuneralWreaths.jpg|thumb|Wreaths at Hardee's funeral]]
On 2 February 2005, Hardee's body was recovered from Greenland Dock, after he was reported missing from The Wibbley Wobbley on 31 January; he had been last seen late-night on 30 January. A post-mortem soon confirmed he had drowned. In an inquest at [[Southwark]] [[Coroner's Court]] on 20 July, Coroner John Sampson recorded a verdict of accidental death. It had been assumed in several reports of his death that, while trying to make his way home by [[dinghy]] from The Wibbley Wobbley to his houseboat ''The Sea Sovereign'' just fifteen yards away<ref name="Telegraph" /> across Greenland Dock, Hardee had lost his balance and drowned while drunk. But the Coroner found that, whilst attempting to access ''The Sea Sovereign'' from the quayside, Hardee had fallen into the dock while drunk.<ref name="LifeStyleExtra">{{cite web|url=http://www.lifestyleextra.com/ShowStory.asp?story=JG2015528B&news_headline=drowned_comic_was_still_clutching_his_beer|title=LifeStyleExtra, 20 July 2005|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110713204434/http://www.lifestyleextra.com/ShowStory.asp?story=JG2015528B&news_headline=drowned_comic_was_still_clutching_his_beer|archive-date=13 July 2011|df=dmy-all}}</ref>

[[File:HackneyAdWikipedia.gif|left|thumb|Flyer for 2006 memorial show]]
Police constable Martin Spirito told the court that, on 2 February: "The search commenced at 10:00{{nbsp}}am. At 10:24{{nbsp}}am one of the officers came up and said he had found a lifeless body. I followed the officer's line down. Six metres down I saw a white male. The male had a bottle of beer clenched in his right hand." Police sergeant Roy Dawson, in charge of overseeing the dive, told the court: "The bottle was held in his right hand. It fell from his hand on the ascent."<ref name="LifeStyleExtra" />

Hardee's date of death is usually said to be 31 January, although Coroner John Sampson said, "He was last seen on the quayside outside the Wibbly Wobbly public house at about 6{{nbsp}}am on Sunday January 30".<ref name="LifeStyleExtra" />

About 700 people attended his funeral at [[St Alfege Church]] in Greenwich. Jo Brand, Arthur Smith, Stewart Lee and his son Frank Hardee all delivered eulogies, and the musician [[Jools Holland]] played the piano.<ref>[http://www.malcolmhardee.co.uk/CentreFrameFuneral.html Order of Service at the Funeral of Malcolm Hardee], retrieved 15 February 2011</ref> He was [[cremated]] at [[Hither Green]] in South East London.

In June 2005, there were two tribute shows<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/comedy/withcomicintent.shtml|title= BBC Radio 4 recording of one Glastonbury tribute: With Comic Intent, transmitted 28 June 2005}}</ref> at the [[Glastonbury Festival]]; in July, a [[BBC Radio 4]] documentary tribute;<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/comedy/withoutapaddle.shtml|title= Without a Paddle, transmitted 5 July 2005}}</ref> and, in August, two tribute shows at the Edinburgh Fringe. There were five-hour tribute shows at the [[Hackney Empire]] theatre in London on 5 February 2006<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.chortle.co.uk/shows/misc_live_shows/m/1972/malcolm_hardee_tribute_show/review/|title= review on UK comedy industry website Chortle, February 2006}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://entertainment.timesonline.co.uk/tol/arts_and_entertainment/article727888.ece |title=TITLE |work=The Times |location=London |first=Dominic |last=Maxwell |date=7 February 2006 |access-date=12 May 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110517053842/http://entertainment.timesonline.co.uk/tol/arts_and_entertainment/article727888.ece |archive-date=17 May 2011 }}</ref> and 28 January 2007 to commemorate the anniversary of his death.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.chortle.co.uk/shows/misc_live_shows/m/15055/malcolm_hardee_charity_cabaret_2007/review/|title= review on UK comedy industry website Chortle, 28 January 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://entertainment.timesonline.co.uk/tol/arts_and_entertainment/stage/comedy/article1303169.ece |title=TITLE |work=The Times |location=London |first=Dominic |last=Maxwell |date=30 January 2007 |access-date=12 May 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110517053506/http://entertainment.timesonline.co.uk/tol/arts_and_entertainment/stage/comedy/article1303169.ece |archive-date=17 May 2011 }}</ref>

== The Annual Malcolm Hardee Awards (2005–present) ==
'''The Malcolm Hardee Award for Comic Originality''' are awards given annually at the Edinburgh Fringe Festival "for comic originality of thought or performance".<ref name="MH site">{{cite web |url=http://www.malcolmhardee.co.uk/award|title= official Malcolm Hardee Award page, retrieved 26 August 2008}}</ref><ref>[https://www.chortle.co.uk/news/2019/08/06/43886/malcolm_hardee_awards_make_a_comeback Chortle - Malcolm Hardee Awards Make a Comeback]</ref> Previous winners:

* 2005 – [[Reggie Watts]]<ref name="Irish Independent Award">{{cite news |url=http://www.independent.ie/entertainment/arts/and-now-for-something-completely--different-1091538.html|work= Irish Independent |access-date=15 June 2008 | date=28 September 2007 |title=And now for something completely different}}</ref>
* 2006 – No award presented
* 2007 – Doktor Cocacolamcdonalds<ref name="MH 2008 Award Winners">{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/7577789.stm|work= BBC News| date=23 August 2008 | access-date=6 January 2010 | first=Kevin | last=Young | title=Stand-up Aczel wins comedy award}}</ref>
* 2008 – [[Edward Aczel]] (nominees: Aindreas de Staic, The Fringe Box Office, [[Peter Buckley Hill]], Otto Kuhnle)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.chortle.co.uk/news/2008/06/02/6853/in_malcs_memory|title=In Malc's memory: New Fringe award set up|publisher=Chortle.co.uk|date=2 June 2008|access-date=2008-06-02}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Wolf|first=Ian|url=http://www.sitcom.co.uk/news/news.php?story=000457|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120909110839/http://www.sitcom.co.uk/news/news.php?story=000457|url-status=dead|archive-date=9 September 2012|title=News – New Fringe award dedicated to Malcolm Hardee|publisher=British Sitcom Guide|date=2 June 2008|access-date=2008-06-02}}</ref>
* 2009 – Otto Kuhnle<ref name="2009 Awards">{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/scotland/edinburgh_and_east/8226733.stm|title=Schaffer scoops best stunt award|work=BBC News|date=29 August 2009|access-date=29 August 2009 | first=Angie | last=Brown}}</ref> (nominees: Three Gaga Heads, [[Tim Key]], [[Joey Page]], [[Toby Williams (comedian)|George Ryegold]])
* 2010 – [[Robert White (comedian)|Robert White]]<ref name="STV News">{{cite news |url=http://entertainment.stv.tv/edinburgh-festivals/interviews/194394-bo-burnham-wins-malcolm-hardee-award-and-set-to-make-millions/|work= STV News |title=Bo Burnham Wins Malcolm Hardee Award and Set to Make Millions|date=28 August 2010|access-date=28 August 2010}}</ref> (nominees: [[Doctor Brown]], [[Bo Burnham]], [[Lewis Schaffer]], [[Bob Slayer]])
* 2011 – Johnny Sorrow (nominees: Doctor Brown, James Hamilton, Bob Slayer)
* 2012 – [[The Rubberbandits]] (nominees: James Hamilton, [[Simon Munnery]])<ref name="2012 nominees">{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland-19374887|title= Cunning Stunt nominees| access-date=8 September 2012 | work=BBC News | date=25 August 2012}}</ref>
* 2013 – [[Adrienne Truscott]] (nominees: Ursula Burns, [[Red Bastard]])
* 2014 – Candy Gigi (nominees The Birdmann, Michael Brunström)
* 2015 – [[Michael Brunström]] (nominees: [[Richard Gadd]], The Story Beast, Mr Twonkey/[[Paul Vickers (musician)|Paul Vickers]])
* 2016 – Mr Twonkey/[[Paul Vickers (musician)|Paul Vickers]]<ref name="auto">{{cite web|last=Fringe|first=Edinburgh|url=https://www.edfringe.com/media/award-winners#Malcolm//|title=2016 Edinburgh Festival Fringe Award Winners|publisher=[[Edinburgh Fringe]]|date=30 August 2016|access-date=30 August 2016}}</ref> (nominees The Baby (in ''Come Look at The Baby''), Foxdog Studios, [[Arthur Smith (comedian)|Arthur Smith]])<ref name="auto1">{{cite web|last=Wolf|first=Ian|url=https://www.comedy.co.uk/fringe/2016/features/malcolm_hardee_awards_shortlist//|title=Malcolm Hardee Awards 2016 shortlist|publisher=[[British Comedy Awards]]|date=22 August 2016|access-date=22 August 2016}}</ref>
* 2017 – [[Terry Alderton]] (nominees: [[Rob Kemp]], [[Elf Lyons]], Mark Dean Quinn.<ref name="auto2"/><ref name="auto3"/><ref name="auto4"/>
* 2018 - no award presented
* 2019 - [[Julia Masli]] & The Duncan Brothers: LEGS (nominees Charles Quarterman, Jimmy Slim and Lewis Blomfield, [[Joz Norris]], President Obonjo, Sean Morley)<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.comedy.co.uk/live/news/5471/malcolm_hardee_awards_2019/ | title=Malcolm Hardee Awards 2019 results | website=[[British Comedy Guide]] | date=24 August 2019 }}</ref>
* 2020 - (No Award made/ No Edinburgh Fringe because of the Covid pandemic)
* 2021 - (No Award made/ No Edinburgh Fringe because of the Covid pandemic)
* 2022 - The Flop: A Band of Idiots (nominee: Mr Chonkers)<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.comedy.co.uk/fringe/news/7003/2022-hardee-awards-winners/ | title=2022 Malcolm Hardee Awards winners revealed | website=[[British Comedy Guide]] | date=27 August 2022 }}</ref>
* 2023 - [[Phil Ellis]] (nominees: Stephen Catling, Ivor Dembina, Mark Silcox)<ref name="hardee2023">{{cite web |title=Malcolm Hardee Awards Winners And Shortlist Revealed |url=https://www.beyondthejoke.co.uk/content/13890/julia-masli-award |website=Beyond The Joke |access-date=28 August 2023 |language=en |date=27 August 2023}}</ref>
* 2024 - Mark Dean Quinn (nominees: Vinay Sagar, the Duncan Brothers; Elliot Wengler; Garry Starr; Nate Kitch; Paulina Lenoir; Neil Davidson)<ref name="Hardees 2024">{{cite web|url=https://www.comedy.co.uk/fringe/news/8027/hardees-winners-2024/|title=Malcolm Hardee Awards 2024 results|publisher=British Comedy Guide|date=24 August 2024|access-date=25 August 2024}}</ref>

'''The Malcolm Hardee Cunning Stunt Award''' is given for the best Fringe publicity stunt of the year. Previous winners:

* 2008 – Gill Smith, awarded retrospectively in 2009, for nominating herself for a Malcolm Hardee award and putting "Malcolm Hardee Award Nominee" on her posters<ref name=scoop2009>{{cite news|title=Best Publicity Stunt at the Edinburgh Fringe|url=http://www.scoop.co.nz/stories/CU0906/S00153.htm|access-date=22 January 2013|newspaper=Scoop (New Zealand)|date=15 June 2009}}</ref>
* 2009 – [[Lewis Schaffer]], after convincing several publications he was sponsoring the [[Edinburgh Comedy Awards]] (or "Lewies") for the modest sum of £99<ref name="2009 Awards" /> (nominees: [[Shed Simove]], Oliver Moore, [[Jennifer Warren]] and Charlotte Jo Hanbury)
* 2010 – [[Stewart Lee]], for successfully encouraging people to vote for little-known Japanese act [[Frank Chickens]] in a poll for best fringe performer<ref name="BBC News 2010">{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland-11113607|work= BBC News |access-date=28 August 2010 | date=27 August 2010 |title=Stewart Lee wins Malcolm Hardee Fringe stunt prize}}</ref> (nominees: Manos The Greek, [[Arthur Smith (comedian)|Arthur Smith]])
* 2011 – [[Kunt and the Gang]] and Bob Slayer, for getting fans to put stickers depicting penises on the posters of rival acts (nominees: [[Tim FitzHigham]], Sanderson Jones)<ref name="2011 nominees">{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland-14631265|title= Cunning Stunt nominees| access-date=3 September 2011 | work=BBC News | date=23 August 2011}}</ref>
* 2012 – [[Stuart Goldsmith]], for YouTube videos about the censorship of his show ''Prick''<ref>{{cite news|title=Stuart Goldsmith wins Cunning Stunt award|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland-19374887|newspaper=BBC News|date=25 August 2012}}</ref> (nominees [[Nathan Cassidy]], [[Chris Dangerfield (comedian)|Chris Dangerfield]])
* 2013 – [[Barry Ferns]], for printing fake copies of ''[[Broadway Baby]]'' which gave his show 6-out-of-5 star reviews and reported that his show had been nominated for the [[Edinburgh Comedy Awards|Fosters Comedy Awards]], in both the main category and the newcomer category.<ref name="2013 Hardee Awards">{{cite web|url=https://www.comedy.co.uk/fringe/2013/features/malcolm_hardee_awards_2013_results/|title=Adrienne Truscott and Barry Ferns win Malcolm Hardee Awards 2013|publisher=[[British Comedy Awards]]|date=24 August 2013|access-date=30 July 2016}}</ref> (nominees: [[Richard Herring]], [[Lewis Schaffer]], Gareth Morinan)
* 2014 – Christian Talbot, for using his 12-year-old daughter Kate to go up to strangers, looking sad, asking them, "Have you seen my daddy?", and if they said "No" she would hand out flyers to them.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.comedy.co.uk/fringe/2014/features/malcolm_hardee_awards_2014/|title=Malcolm Hardee Award Winners 2014|publisher=[[British Comedy Awards]]|date=23 August 2014|access-date=30 July 2016}}</ref> (nominees Luke McQueen, Mark Dean Quinn)
* 2015 – [[Matt Roper]], for hacking into the [[Facebook]] account of Malcolm Hardee judge [[Kate Copstick]] and posting fake messages "bigging himself up".<ref>{{cite web|last=Wolf|first=Ian|url=https://www.comedy.co.uk/fringe/2015/features/malcolm_hardee_awards_2015/|title=2015 Malcolm Hardee Award winners announced|publisher=[[British Comedy Awards]]|date=29 August 2015|access-date=30 July 2016}}</ref> (nominees Miss Behave, Abigoliah Schamaun)
* 2016 – Becky Fury, for claiming on her flyer she was a 'Last Minute Comedy finalist' - implying it was for the last minute.com awards when, in fact, it was for a Hertfordshire comedy club contest <ref name="auto" /> (nominees: Richard Gadd, Arthur Smith) <ref name="auto1" />
* 2017 – Mark Dean Quinn, for putting other acts' stars and quotes on his own flyers and thus undermining the 'star' system.<ref name="auto" /> (nominees Damian Kingsley, Martha McBrier)<ref name="auto2"/><ref name="auto3"/><ref name="auto4"/>
* 2018 - no award presented
* 2019 - West End Producer, for using quotes from the names of normal people with the same names as reviewers. (nominees: Jimmy Slim & Lewis Blomfield, E4 and BBC Studios)
* 2020 - (No Award made/ No Edinburgh Fringe because of the Covid pandemic)
* 2021 - [[Will Mars]], for mirroring the Dave TV channel's 'Dave's [[Joke Of The Fringe]]' (not awarded in 2021) by announcing that the '(Some guy called) Dave Joke of the Fringe 2021' was won by Masai Graham... The winner was chosen by a random member of the public called Dave whom Mars found by walking up the Royal Mile in Edinburgh.
* 2022 - [[Ivor Dembina]], for his reaction to the Edinburgh bin collection strike, promoting the growing piles of uncollected rubbish as performance art.
* 2023 - (nominees: Batsu!, Lee Kyle, Tom Mayhew)<ref name=hardee2023 />
* 2024 - [[Thom Tuck]], for performing a show which took place at a different location and a different time every day, giving out cryptic clues giving details to when and where each performance took place. (Nominees: [[Huge Davies]]; [[Luke Rollason]]; Tim Reeves)<ref name="Hardees 2024"/>

'''The Malcolm Hardee 'Act Most Likely to Make a Million Quid' Award''' was started in 2010. In 2024, the name of the award was changed to ''''Act That Should Make a Million Quid' Award'''.

* 2010 – [[Bo Burnham]]<ref name="BBC News 2010" /> (nominee: [[Greg Davies]])
* 2011 – Benet Brandreth (nominee: [[Josh Widdicombe]])
* 2012 – [[Trevor Noah]] (nominees: Tim FitzHigham, The Rubberbandits)<ref name="2012 nominees" />
* 2013 – No award presented
* 2014 – [[Luisa Omielan]] (nominees: Peter Buckley Hill (would have won '''The Malcolm Hardee 'Act Least Likely to Win a Million Quid' Award'''))
* 2015 – [[Laurence Owen (composer)|Laurence Owen]] (nominees Sarah Callaghan, Phil Ellis, [[Al Porter]])
* 2016 - 'The Baby' <ref name="auto" /> (nominees Foxdog Studios, Al Porter, Arthur Smith; The Baby was added in by the judges after the nominations were first announced)<ref name="auto1" />
* 2017 - Rob Kemp (nominee: Al Porter)<ref name="auto2">{{cite web|last=Wolf|first=Ian|url=https://www.comedy.co.uk/live/news/2750/malcolm_hardee_awards_2017///|title=Malcolm Hardee Awards 2017 results|publisher=[[British Comedy Guide]]|date=26 August 2017|access-date=31 August 2017}}</ref><ref name="auto3">{{cite web|last=Glynn|first=Polly|url=http://www.theskinny.co.uk/festivals/edinburgh-fringe/comedy/malcolm-hardee-awards-get-riotous-finale|title=Malcolm Hardee Awards 2017 results|publisher=[[The Skinny arts magazine]]|date=28 August 2017|access-date=31 August 2017}}</ref><ref name="auto4">{{cite web|last=Bennett|first=Steve|url=http://www.chortle.co.uk/news/2017/08/26/37708/terry_alderton_scoops_malcolm_hardee_award///|title=Terry Alderton scoops Malcolm Hardee award|publisher=[[Chortle]]|date=25 August 2017|access-date=31 August 2017}}</ref>
* 2018 - no award presented
* 2019 - President Obonjo (Nominees Candy Gigi, [[Catherine Cohen]], [[Sophie Duker]] and [[Tom Crosbie]])
* 2020 - (No Award made/ No Edinburgh Fringe because of the Covid pandemic)
* 2021 - (No Award made/ No Edinburgh Fringe because of the Covid pandemic)
* 2022 - [[Jerry Sadowitz]]
* 2023 - [[Julia Masli]] (nominees: Sam Campbell, Larry Owens, Seymour Mace, Natalie Perlin<ref name=hardee2023 />
* 2024 - Garry Starr (nominees: [[Finlay Christie (comedian)|Finlay Christie]]; [[Dylan Mulvaney]])<ref name="Hardees 2024"/>

'''The Malcolm Hardee 'Pound of Flesh' Award''' was given in 2013 to an act which created "the kind of publicity money cannot – and perhaps should not – buy"

* 2013 – Gareth Ellis (and Richard Rose), for faking a story that they had been attacked in the street following bad reviews, which involved Rose punching Ellis so he got a [[black eye]].<ref name="2013 Hardee Awards" />

'''The Malcolm Hardee FirstMinute Award''' was given in 2016, to the show with the funniest first minute (to spoof the Edinburgh Comedy Awards that year being sponsored by lastminute.com).<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.comedy.co.uk/fringe/2016/features/malcolm_hardee_awards_2016/ | title=Mr Twonkey, Becky Fury and a baby win Malcolm Hardee Awards | website=[[British Comedy Guide]] | date=27 August 2016 }}</ref>

* 2016 - Cat Call, performed by [[Cally Beaton]] and [[Catherine Bohart]]

== Writing ==
* ''I Stole Freddie Mercury's Birthday Cake'' (autobiography; co-writer John Fleming) Fourth Estate, 1996. {{ISBN|1-85702-385-4}}.
* ''Sit-Down Comedy'' (anthology, ed Malcolm Hardee & John Fleming) Ebury Press/Random House, 2003. {{ISBN|0-09-188924-3}}.

Hardee also wrote a number of [[Column (newspaper)|columns]] in comedy magazines in which he gave tips and told [[anecdotes]] about life as a comic.

== References ==
{{Reflist|colwidth=35em}}

== External links ==
* [http://www.malcolmhardee.co.uk/ His website: obituaries, tributes and newspaper articles]
* [http://www.sitdowncomedy.co.uk/ Sit Down Comedy website]
* {{YouTube|gdN5TmsmNXg|Celebration of Hardee's life}}
* {{IMDb name|0362072|Malcolm Hardee}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Hardee, Malcolm}}
[[Category:1950 births]]
[[Category:2005 deaths]]
[[Category:Deaths by drowning in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:English male comedians]]
[[Category:English comedy writers]]
[[Category:English autobiographers]]
[[Category:People educated at Colfe's School]]
[[Category:Alcohol-related deaths in England]]
[[Category:Accidental deaths in London]]
[[Category:British arsonists]]
[[Category:English escapees]]
[[Category:English fraudsters]]
[[Category:British people convicted of theft]]
[[Category:British people convicted of fraud]]
[[Category:Comedians from the London Borough of Lewisham]]
[[Category:Writers from the London Borough of Lewisham]]
[[Category:20th-century English comedians]]
[[Category:21st-century English comedians]]
[[Category:20th-century English businesspeople]]

Penelope Fitzgerald

2025-06-15T12:07:03Z

2A00:23C7:C8BC:C501:507C:445E:62F7:256D: /* Biography */Improved link

{{Short description|English biographer and novelist (1916–2000)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2013}}
{{Use British English|date=December 2012}}
{{Infobox writer 
|name = Penelope Fitzgerald
|image = Penelope Fitzgerald.jpg
|imagesize =
|caption =
|pseudonym =
|birth_name = Penelope Mary Knox
|birth_date = {{birth date|1916|12|17|df=y}}
|birth_place = [[Lincoln, England|Lincoln]], England
|death_date = {{death date and age|2000|04|28|1916|12|17|df=y}}
|death_place = London, England
|occupation = Writer
|period = {{hlist |20th century}}
|genre =
|subject =
|spouse = {{marriage|Desmond Fitzgerald|1941|1976|end=died}}
|relatives = {{ubl|[[Wilfred Knox]] (uncle)|[[Ronald Knox]] (uncle)|[[Dilly Knox]] (uncle)|[[Winifred Peck]] (aunt)}}
|parents = [[E. V. Knox]] (father) [[Mary Shepard]] (step-mother)
|movement =
|notableworks = {{ubl |''[[Offshore (novel)|Offshore]]'' (1979) |''[[The Blue Flower]]'' (1995)}}
|awards = {{ubl |class=nowrap|[[Booker Prize]] (1979) |[[National Book Critics Circle Award]] (1997)}}
|influences =
|influenced =
|signature =
|website =
}}
'''Penelope Mary Fitzgerald''' (17 December 1916 – 28 April 2000) was a [[Booker Prize]]-winning novelist, poet, essayist and [[biographer]] from [[Lincoln, England]].<ref name=nyb>{{Cite journal |author1= Hollinghurst, Alan |author-link1= Alan Hollinghurst |title=The Victory of Penelope Fitzgerald |volume=61 |issue=19 |url= http://www.nybooks.com/articles/archives/2014/dec/04/victory-penelope-fitzgerald/ |journal=[[The New York Review of Books]] |date=4 December 2014 |access-date=1 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160204205522/http://www.nybooks.com/articles/2014/12/04/victory-penelope-fitzgerald/ |archive-date=4 February 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref> In 2008 ''[[The Times]]'' listed her among "the 50 greatest British writers since 1945".<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080511204023/http://entertainment.timesonline.co.uk/tol/arts_and_entertainment/books/article3127837.ece "The 50 greatest British writers since 1945"]. ''The Times'' (London). 5 January 2008. Retrieved 1 February 2010.</ref> ''[[The Observer]]'' in 2012 placed her final novel, ''[[The Blue Flower]]'', among "the ten best [[historical novel]]s".<ref>{{Cite news |first=William |last=Skidelsky |url=https://www.theguardian.com/culture/gallery/2012/may/13/ten-best-historical-novels#/?picture=389920307&index=6 |title=The 10 best historical novels |work=The Observer |location=London |date=13 May 2012 |access-date=13 May 2012}}</ref> [[A.S. Byatt]] called her, "Jane Austen’s nearest heir for precision and invention."<ref>‘Penelope Fitzgerald’, Telegraph, 3 May 2000, p. 27</ref>

==Biography==
Penelope Fitzgerald was born Penelope Mary Knox on 17 December 1916 at [[Lincoln Medieval Bishop's Palace]], the daughter of [[E. V. Knox|Edmund Knox]], later editor of ''[[Punch (magazine)|Punch]]'', and Christina, ''née'' Hicks, daughter of [[Edward Hicks (bishop)|Edward Hicks, Bishop of Lincoln]], and one of the first female students at [[University of Oxford|Oxford]]. She was a niece of the theologian and crime writer [[Ronald Knox]], the cryptographer [[Dillwyn Knox]], the Bible scholar [[Wilfred Knox]], and the novelist and biographer [[Winifred Peck]].<ref>{{Cite journal |author=Jenny Turner |url=http://www.lrb.co.uk/v35/n24/jenny-turner/in-the-potato-patch |title=In the Potato Patch: Review of ''Penelope Fitzgerald: A Life'' by Hermione Lee |journal=[[London Review of Books]] |date=19 December 2013 |volume=35 |issue=24 |access-date=1 January 2024}}</ref> Fitzgerald later wrote: "When I was young I took my father and my three uncles for granted, and it never occurred to me that everyone else wasn't like them. Later on, I found that this was a mistake, but I've never quite managed to adapt myself to it. I suppose they were unusual, but I still think that they were right, and insofar as the world disagrees with them, I disagree with the world."<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Knox Brothers |first=search |last=results |date=14 August 2000 |publisher=Counterpoint |id={{ASIN|1582430950|country=uk}} }}</ref>

She was educated at [[Wycombe Abbey]], an independent girls' boarding school, and [[Somerville College, Oxford|Somerville College]], [[Oxford University]], where she graduated in 1938 with a congratulatory First, being named a "Woman of the Year" in ''[[The Isis Magazine|Isis]]'', the student newspaper.<ref name=nyb/> She worked for the [[BBC]] in [[World War II|the Second World War]]. In 1942 she married Desmond Fitzgerald, whom she had met in 1940 at Oxford. He had been studying for the bar and enlisted as a soldier in the [[Irish Guards]]. Six months later, Desmond's regiment was sent to [[North African Campaign|North Africa]]. He won the [[Military Cross]] in the [[Western Desert Campaign]] in [[Libya]], but returned to civilian life an [[alcoholic]].<ref name=nyb/>

In the early 1950s the couple lived in [[Hampstead]], London, where she had grown up. They co-edited a magazine called ''World Review'', in which [[J. D. Salinger]]'s "For Esmé with Love and Squalor" was first published in the UK, as were writings of [[Bernard Malamud]], [[Norman Mailer]], and [[Alberto Moravia]]. Fitzgerald also contributed, writing about literature, music and sculpture. Soon afterwards Desmond was disbarred from the legal profession for "forging signatures on cheques that he cashed at the pub." This led to a life of poverty for the Fitzgeralds. At times they were even [[homeless]], living for four months in a homeless centre and for eleven years in public housing. To provide for her family in the 1960s, Fitzgerald taught at a drama school, [[Italia Conti Academy]], and at [[Queen's Gate School]], where her pupils included Camilla Shand (later [[Queen Camilla]]). She also taught "at a posh [[Cram school|crammer]]", where her pupils included [[Anna Wintour]], [[Edward St Aubyn]], and [[Helena Bonham Carter]]. Indeed, she continued to teach until she was 70 years old.<ref name=nyb/> For a while she worked in a bookshop in [[Southwold]], Suffolk, and in another period lived in [[Battersea]] on a [[houseboat]] that sank twice – the second time for good, destroying many of her books and family papers.

The couple had three children: a son, [[Valpy Fitzgerald|Valpy]], and two daughters, Tina and [[Maria Fitzgerald|Maria]].<ref name=nyb/> Penelope Fitzgerald died on 28 April 2000.

==Legacy==
Fitzgerald's archive was acquired by the [[British Library]] in June 2017. It consists of 170 files of correspondence and papers relating to her literary works, and of correspondence and other items belonging to family members, including her father, E. V. Knox, and papers of Fitzgerald's Literary Estate.<ref>[http://searcharchives.bl.uk/IAMS_VU2:IAMS032-003441246 Penelope Fitzgerald Archive]{{Dead link|date=May 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}, archives and manuscripts catalogue, the British Library. Retrieved 7 May 2020.</ref> Many of her literary papers, including research notes, manuscript drafts letters, and photographs are held in the [[Harry Ransom Center]].

==Literary career==
Fitzgerald launched her literary career in 1975 at the age of 58, with "scholarly, accessible [[biography|biographies]]"<ref>Virginia Blain, Patricia Clements and Isobel Grundy (eds): ''The Feminist Companion to Literature in English'' (London: Batsford, 1990), pp. 377–378.</ref> of the [[Pre-Raphaelite]] artist [[Edward Burne-Jones]] and two years later of ''The Knox Brothers'', her father and uncles, although she never mentions herself by name. Later in 1977 she published her first novel, ''[[The Golden Child (novel)|The Golden Child]]'', a comic [[murder mystery]] with a museum setting inspired by the [[Tutankhamun]] mania of the 1970s, written to amuse her terminally ill husband, who died in 1976.

Over the next five years she published four novels, each tied to her own experiences. ''[[The Bookshop]]'' (1978), which was shortlisted for the [[Booker Prize]], concerns a struggling store in a fictional [[East Anglia]]n town. Set in 1959, it includes as a pivotal event the shop's decision to stock ''[[Lolita]]''.<ref>Mark Bostridge (23 August 2008). [https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/books/reviews/so-i-have-thought-of-you-the-letters-of-penelope-fitzgerald-ed-terence-dooley-5470807.html "So I Have Thought of You: The letters of Penelope Fitzgerald, ed Terence Dooley"]. ''The Independent'' (London).</ref> A 2017 film adaptation, also entitled ''[[The Bookshop (film)|The Bookshop]]'', stars [[Emily Mortimer]] as Florence Green. It was written and directed by [[Isabel Coixet]]. Fitzgerald won the 1979 Booker Prize with ''[[Offshore (novel)|Offshore]]'', a novel set among houseboat residents in Battersea in 1961. ''[[Human Voices]]'' (1980) fictionalises wartime life at the BBC, while ''[[At Freddie's]]'' (1982) depicts life at a drama school.

In 1999 Fitzgerald was awarded the [[Golden PEN Award]] by [[English PEN]] for "a Lifetime's Distinguished Service to Literature".<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.englishpen.org/prizes/golden-pen-award-for-a-lifetimes-distinguished-service-to-literature |title=Golden Pen Award, official website |publisher=[[English PEN]] |access-date=3 December 2012 |archive-date=21 November 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121121020544/http://www.englishpen.org/prizes/golden-pen-award-for-a-lifetimes-distinguished-service-to-literature |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=Pc1UA3uhUlYC&pg=PA349 |page=349 |title=A Historical Dictionary of British Women |author=Hartley, Cathy |publisher=[[Psychology Press]] |year=2003|isbn=9780203403907}}</ref>

===Historical novels===
Fitzgerald said after ''At Freddie's'' that she "had finished writing about the things in my own life, which I wanted to write about."<ref>Harvey-Wood, Harriet (3 May 2000).[http://books.guardian.co.uk/news/articles/0,6109,216535,00.html "Penelope Fitzgerald"]. ''The Guardian'' (London).</ref> Instead she wrote a biography of the poet [[Charlotte Mew]] and began a series of novels with a variety of [[historical novel|historical]] settings. The first was ''[[Innocence (Penelope Fitzgerald novel)|Innocence]]'' (1986), a romance between the daughter of an impoverished aristocrat and a doctor from a southern Communist family set in 1950s [[Florence]], Italy. The Italian Marxist theorist [[Antonio Gramsci]] appears as a minor character.

''[[The Beginning of Spring]]'' (1988) takes place in [[Moscow]] in 1913. It examines the world just before the [[Russian Revolution of 1917|Russian Revolution]] through the family and work troubles of a British businessman born and raised in Russia. ''[[The Gate of Angels]]'' (1990), about a young [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge]] physicist who falls in love with a nursing trainee after a bicycle accident, is set in 1912, when physics was about to enter its own revolutionary period.

Fitzgerald's final novel, ''[[The Blue Flower]]'' (1995), centres on the 18th-century German poet and philosopher [[Novalis]] and his love for what is portrayed as an ordinary child. Other historical figures such as the poet [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe|Goethe]] and the philosopher [[Karl Wilhelm Friedrich von Schlegel]], feature in the story. It won the [[National Book Critics Circle Award]] 1997 and has been called her masterpiece.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Hofmann |first1=Michael |title=Nonsense Is Only Another Language |url= https://www.nytimes.com/books/97/04/13/reviews/970413.13hofmant.html |work=The New York Times |date=13 April 1997}}</ref><ref>Harriet Harvey-Wood (3 May 2000)[https://www.theguardian.com/news/2000/may/03/guardianobituaries.books "Penelope Fitzgerald (obituary)"]. ''The Guardian'' (London).</ref> In 1999 it was adapted and dramatised for [[BBC Radio]] by Peter Wolf.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.radiolistings.co.uk/programmes/b/bl/blue_flower__the.html |title=Blue Flower, The |website=www.radiolistings.co.uk |access-date=12 April 2018}}</ref>

A collection of Fitzgerald's [[short stories]], ''The Means of Escape'', and a volume of her essays, reviews and commentaries, ''A House of Air'', were published posthumously. In 2013 the first full biography of Fitzgerald, ''Penelope Fitzgerald: A Life'' by [[Hermione Lee]],<ref name=nyb/> appeared, and was awarded the [[James Tait Black Memorial Prize]].

==Bibliography==
===Biographies===
*''[[Edward Burne-Jones]]'' (1975)
*''The Knox Brothers'' (1977)
*''[[Charlotte Mew]] and Her Friends: With a Selection of Her Poems'' (1984)

===Novels===
*''[[The Golden Child (novel)|The Golden Child]]'' (1977)
*''[[The Bookshop]]'' (1978)
*''[[Offshore (novel)|Offshore]]'' (1979)
*''[[Human Voices]]'' (1980)
*''[[At Freddie's]]'' (1982)
*''[[Innocence (Penelope Fitzgerald novel)|Innocence]]'' (1986)
*''[[The Beginning of Spring]]'' (1988)
*''[[The Gate of Angels]]'' (1990)
*''[[The Blue Flower]]'' (UK 1995, U.S. 1997)

===Short story collections===
*''The Means of Escape'' (2000)
**Paperback edition (2001) has 2 additional stories

===Essays and reviews===
*''A House of Air: Selected Writings'' (U.S. title ''The Afterlife'') edited by [[Terence Dooley]] with Mandy Kirkby and Chris Carduff, with an introduction by Hermione Lee (2003)

===Letters===
*''So I Have Thought of You. The Letters of Penelope Fitzgerald'' edited by [[Terence Dooley]], with a preface by [[A. S. Byatt]] (2008)

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
*[https://www.nytimes.com/2000/05/03/books/penelope-fitzgerald-novelist-is-dead-at-83.html Obituary, The New York Times, May 3, 2000]
*[[Julian Barnes]], [https://www.theguardian.com/books/2008/jul/26/fiction "How did she do it?"], ''The Guardian'', 26 July 2008
*Edmund Gordon, [https://web.archive.org/web/20110615165947/http://entertainment.timesonline.co.uk/tol/arts_and_entertainment/the_tls/article7157313.ece "The Unknown Penelope Fitzgerald"], ''TLS'', 30 June 2010
*Courtney Cook, [http://lareviewofbooks.org/essay/penelope-fitzgerald-appreciation/ "Penelope Fitzgerald Was Here: An Appreciation"], ''Los Angeles Review of Books'', 23 January 2015
*[http://research.hrc.utexas.edu:8080/hrcxtf/view?docId=ead/00037.xml&query=fitzgerald,penelope&query-join=and Penelope Fitzgerald Collection] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130116083430/http://research.hrc.utexas.edu:8080/hrcxtf/view?docId=ead%2F00037.xml&query=fitzgerald%2Cpenelope&query-join=and |date=16 January 2013 }}
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20080516011805/http://www.hrc.utexas.edu/research/fa/fitzgerald.addition.html Additional Papers] at the [[Harry Ransom Center]] at the [[University of Texas at Austin]]
*[https://blogs.bl.uk/english-and-drama/2019/07/penelope-fitzgeralds-archive-a-human-connection.html Penelope Fitzgerald archive] at the [[British Library]]

{{Penelope Fitzgerald}}
{{Booker Prize}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Fitzgerald, Penelope}}
[[Category:1916 births]]
[[Category:2000 deaths]]
[[Category:English women poets]]
[[Category:English women novelists]]
[[Category:Booker Prize winners]]
[[Category:Alumni of Somerville College, Oxford]]
[[Category:People educated at Wycombe Abbey]]
[[Category:People from Lincoln, England]]
[[Category:Writers from Lincolnshire]]
[[Category:20th-century English novelists]]
[[Category:20th-century English women writers]]
[[Category:20th-century English poets]]
[[Category:20th-century English biographers]]
[[Category:English women non-fiction writers]]
[[Category:English women biographers]]
[[Category:National Book Critics Circle Award winners]]

The Lost Language of Cranes

2025-06-15T12:02:24Z

2A00:23C7:C8BC:C501:507C:445E:62F7:256D: /* References to other works */Added detail

{{Short description|1986 novel by David Leavitt}}
{{More citations needed|date=January 2022}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=March 2025}}
{{Infobox book | 
| name = The Lost Language of Cranes
| image = Lost Language.jpg
| caption = '''The Lost Language of Cranes''' 1990s reprint book cover
| author = David Leavitt
| cover_artist =
| country =
| language = English
| series =
| genre =
| publisher = Knopf
| pub_date = 26 September 1986 (1st edition)
| media_type = Print
| pages =
| isbn =
| oclc =
}}

'''''The Lost Language of Cranes''''' is a [[novel]] by [[David Leavitt]], first published on September 26, 1986. A British [[The Lost Language of Cranes (film)|TV film of the novel]] was made in 1991. The film was released on [[DVD]] in 2009.

==Plot introduction==
''The Lost Language of Cranes'' was the second novel by David Leavitt, and deals primarily with the difficulties a young [[homosexuality|gay]] man, Philip Benjamin, has in [[coming out]] to his parents, Rose and Owen, and with their subsequent reactions.

==Plot summary==

===Voyages===
Rose and Owen find out that their apartment block is to become a [[housing cooperative|co-op]]. Rose visits her son, who lives in a shabby neighborhood; he says he likes to go to the [[East Village, Manhattan|East Village]]. One Sunday she takes a walk, goes to an [[automat]] and bumps into her husband. Owen then goes to a gay [[pornographic]] cinema, where a man leaves him his number.

Philip and Eliot are in bed; Philip gets up to do the dishes. He thinks back to how they met through Sally. Back to the parents, Owen gets back to his apartment, soaked through. Philip and Eliot then wake up; Philip seems keen on flatmate Jerene's research on lost languages. There is then an account of Jerene's childhood up to her coming out to her parents and being spurned by them. Philip and Eliot then talk about their experiences with men. Philip goes on to remember the way he would masturbate a lot and how he tried to ask girls out - and they refused. Finally, he recalls going to a gay pornographic cinema when he was seventeen.

===Myths of origin===
Owen calls Alex Melchor and finds out it was a wrong number. Philip asks Eliot to introduce him to Derek and Geoffrey. Later, he goes to his parents' flat to look at Derek's books. Jerene is getting ready for a date. Philip meets Eliot's foster parents for dinner, then they go to a gay bar where Philip meets his old acquaintance Alex Kamarov. Outside, Eliot admits to being unsure about their relationship; nevertheless they return to Eliot's, where he teaches Philip how to shave properly.

Philip eventually comes out to his parents. His mother is tersely averse; his father says it is fine, though he starts weeping as soon as the young man has left.

===The crane-child===
In the library, Jerene reads an article about a child who emulates [[Crane (machine)|cranes]] as this was the only thing he would see out of his window from his cot, and his parents weren't about. He was then sent to a psych ward.

===Father and Son===
Eliot doesn't return Philip's calls; when Jerene meets Philip for a drink, she admits there is not much that can be done. Later, Philip talks to his friend Brad. He then gets really drunk out on the town to forget. A few days later, he meets Rob in a bar and they return to the boy's dorm room where they have sex. Subsequently, Philip does not return his calls.

Owen calls a gay hotline, then hangs up and calls Alex Melchor, who tells him to call someone else, and then Philip, hanging up before they can talk. Later, Philip runs into his parents and tells them he's broken up with Eliot.

Rose says to Philip that she needs more time to ruminate. Owen calls a gay sex phone-line and starts sobbing. He then goes to a gay bar and meets another man named Frank; they go to Frank's flat and have sex. When he gets home, it's half past two in the morning, and Rose is hurt.

Owen invites Winston Penn to dinner, and attempts to fix him up with Philip. That night, Rose finally realizes that Owen is gay too. While Philip and Brad get into bed together, Rose and Owen have a big argument. Owen goes off to a [[Burger King]] until he calls his son asking for a place to stay for the night. Before Philip goes to find his father, he passionately kisses Brad. Upon Philip's arrival Owen confesses to being gay, and they settle in for a sleepless night in Philip's disorderly apartment.

==Characters==
*'''Rose Benjamin''', a copy editor. She likes order and cooking. She reads the [[New York Times]] and uncritically believes their stories regarding [[AIDS]]. She also likes to do crosswords and [[acrostics]].
*'''Owen Benjamin''', a teacher. He is said to be quiet. He lives on [[Second Avenue (Manhattan)|Second Avenue]] with his wife Rose.
*'''Philip Benjamin''', Rose and Owen's son. He is twenty-five years old and lives on the [[West Side (Manhattan)|West Side]]. He works in publishing as does his mother. His voice is once compared to that of [[Greta Garbo]]. He is gay, likes to go out in the [[East Village, Manhattan|East Village]] and lives on his own.
*'''Mrs Lubin''', a widow who lives in the same building as Rose and Owen.
*'''Arnold Selensky''', a friend of Owen's. He runs a video rental business.
*'''Carole Schneebaum''', a co-worker of Rose's.
*'''Bob Haber''', a man Owen meets at a gay pornographic cinema. He confuses him with '''Alex Melchor'''.
*'''Eliot Abrams''', Philip's boyfriend, who does freelance work. He then breaks up with Philip and goes to live in [[Paris]], where he moves in with a [[depression (mood)|depressed]] young man, Thierry.
*'''Brad''', Philip's old friend from [[Columbia University]]. After Eliot breaks up with Philip, Brad became Philip's closer friend and later on Philip's new boyfriend.
*'''Derek Moulthorp''', a gay man writing children's books. He brought up Eliot with his partner.
*'''Geoffrey Bacon''', Derek's partner, who brought up Eliot with Derek.
*'''Sally''', a friend of Philip's. She is a tax analyst.
*'''Jerene''', Eliot's black roommate. An early riser and a workaholic. She works in a library and does research on lost languages. She grew up in [[Westport, Connecticut|Westport]] and was adopted by foster parents.
*'''Mr Samuel J. Parks''', Jerene's father. He is a lawyer.
*'''Laura Finley''', Jerene's new girlfriend. She likes to cook.
*'''Margaret''', Jerene's mother.
*'''Jessica''', Jerene's girlfriend at high school.
*'''Cornelia Patterson''', a black lesbian Jerene looked up to for inspiration while in college.
*'''Timmy Musseo''', Eliot's first boyfriend, at age eleven.
*'''Ben Hartley''', Eliot's first real lover, at age seventeen.
*'''Dmitri Kamarov''', Philip's first lover. He later went to [[MIT]].
*'''Alex Kamarov''', Dmitri's brother, gay too.
*'''Gerard''', Philip's straight childhood friend.
*'''Maxon''', the head of the English department at a college in New York City, who dislikes Owen's marxist psychoanalytic stance.
*'''Karl Mutter''', an American archaeologist, in [[Rome]].
*'''Rhea Mutter''', Karl's wife, like him an archaeologist, though specialized in [[Mexico]] and without a fellowship.
*'''Mira''', Karl and Rhea's daughter.
*'''Brad Robinson''', a friend of Sally's and Philip's from college, with whom he eventually sleeps.
* '''Rob''', a young man from [[Columbia University]], whom Philip sleeps with after his break-up with Eliot.
*'''Roger Bell''', a co-worker of Rose's.
*'''Penelope''', a co-worker of Rose's. Her seventeen-year-old son is gay, and she is questioning her own sexual identity.
*'''Darryl''', Penelope's husband, whom she left after she found him in bed with three [[Ethnic groups in Indonesia|Indonesian]] prostitutes.
*'''Nick''', a co-worker of Rose's, with whom she had a five-year affair seven years ago.
*'''Nadia''', Nick's wife.
*'''Winston Penn''', a co-worker of Owen's. Owen thinks he is gay. He lives in [[Hoboken, New Jersey|Hoboken]]. He likes to listen to [[Bruce Springsteen]]. Although he is fine with Philip's homosexuality, he has a girlfriend, though she lives in [[Dallas]]. He is also very aggressive with other drivers and likes to drive fast.
*'''Stan''', co-worker of Owen's, who is openly gay. Winston likes him, thus niggling Owen.
*'''Frank''', a man Owen meets in a gay bar. He is older and married like Owen, and the latter intends to see him again, as he confesses to his son in the last few pages.
*'''Nellie''', Jerene's grandmother. She lives in an old people's home and watching [[soap opera]]s is her day's highlight.

==References to other works==
*Rose and Owen's neighborhood is compared to ''[[I Love Lucy]]''. Later skyscrapers make Rose think of ''[[The Twilight Zone (1959 TV series)|The Twilight Zone]]''.
*Owen is said to be reading a biography by [[Lytton Strachey]].
*Arnold Selensky listens to [[Eurythmics]] and spurns [[Lawrence Welk]].
*Mice on the streets make Philip think of the book ''[[Mrs. Frisby and the Rats of NIMH]]''.
*The song "[[Like a Virgin (song)|Like a Virgin]]" by [[Madonna (entertainer)|Madonna]] is being played in the club in [[Chelsea, Manhattan|Chelsea]] where Philip and Eliot go on the day they meet.
*The film ''[[The Exorcist (film)|The Exorcist]]'' is playing at a bar where Philip and Eliot also go on their first night together.
*[[Edward Lear]]'s poem "The Jumblies" is quoted.
*Jerene is said to like to watch ''[[The Facts of Life (TV series)|The Facts of Life]]''.
*Owen wrote a thesis on [[Edmund Spenser]]. Later there is a book of [[John Milton|Milton]]'s poems on Winston's car's backseat.
*Rose likes to listen to [[Billie Holiday]]. Later, she sings, "[[Do You Know What It Means to Miss New Orleans]]".
*[[Jimi Hendrix]] and [[Menudo (band)|Menudo]] are mentioned.
*Rose is said to be reading ''[[Middlemarch]]'' by [[George Eliot]].
*Rose is said to be watching ''[[The Rockford Files]]''.
*Alex Melchor listens to [[Antonio Vivaldi|Vivaldi]]'s ''[[The Four Seasons (Vivaldi)|The Four Seasons]]'' and refers to ''[[Tango Argentino (musical)|Tango Argentino]]'' and [[Stephen Sondheim]].
* Other references made are to [[Tintin (character)|Tintin]], [[Oscar Wilde]], [[Allen Ginsberg]], [[Philip Glass]] and [[The Roches]].
*Through doing crosswords, Rose comes across [[Thomas Mann]], ''[[Timon of Athens]]'' and [[Lévi-Strauss]]'s ''[[Tristes Tropiques]]''.
*When he was younger, Philip would listen to [[The Carpenters]] and [[The Partridge Family]].
*Winston compares Rose to [[Gene Tierney]] and admits he likes her films.
*Philip and Winston compare the Benjamins to [[Tennessee Williams]]'s ''[[The Glass Menagerie]]''.
*Brad watches ''[[Star Trek]]''. He then compares Philip's description of Winston to [[Zeno's paradoxes]].

==References to real life and actual history==
*Skyscrapers make Rose think of [[John Glenn]].
*Jerene's father was a supporter of [[Richard Nixon]] during the 1968 election.
*[[Billie Jean King]] is mentioned through Rose having read about her lesbianism in a newspaper.
*[[Colleen Dewhurst]] would read to Eliot when he was a child.
*The [[Watergate]] trials are mentioned in passing, about the way the 'Watergate conspirators had wept at their trials', after Owen hears Philip's coming-out story.

==Main themes==
*'''Homosexuality'''
*'''Coming out''' : Philip comes out to his parents; Jerene came out to her parents and was disowned; Owen eventually comes out to his wife and his son.
*'''Gay father''' : Owen explains his unquestionable sense of filial love, but admits he grew up at a time when homosexuality was regarded as a disease and feared his son would spurn him if he found out he was gay.
*'''Homophobia''' : Rose spurns both her son and her husband after she finds out they are gay.

==Critical reception==
It has been said that 'the novel sums up the history of gay books themselves': that is, from the pangs of opprobrium (Owen) to self-acceptance (Philip).<ref>[https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=940DE3D91330F93AA25755C0A96E948260&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=3 Gay Fiction Comes Home – New York Times]</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Lost Language Of Cranes}}
[[Category:1986 American novels]]
[[Category:Novels by David Leavitt]]
[[Category:Alfred A. Knopf books]]
[[Category:Novels about gay topics]]
[[Category:American novels adapted into films]]
[[Category:Novels set in New York City]]
[[Category:1980s LGBTQ novels]]

Gustaf V

2025-06-15T07:26:56Z

2A00:23C7:C8BC:C501:507C:445E:62F7:256D: /* Crown Prince */Added link

{{short description|King of Sweden from 1907 to 1950}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2021}}
{{Infobox royalty
| name = Gustaf V
| succession = [[King of Sweden]]
| image = Gustaf V av Sverige.jpg
| caption = Gustaf V in 1938
| alt =
| reign = 8 December 1907 – {{nowrap|29 October 1950}}
| full name = Oscar Gustaf Adolf
| predecessor = [[Oscar II]]
| successor = [[Gustaf VI Adolf]]
| reg-type = {{nowrap|[[Prime Minister of Sweden|Prime ministers]]}}
| regent = {{list collapsed|title=''{{nobold|See list}}''|[[Arvid Lindman]]|[[Karl Staaff]]|[[Hjalmar Hammarskjöld]]|[[Carl Swartz]]|[[Nils Edén]]|[[Hjalmar Branting]]|[[Gerhard Louis De Geer]]|[[Oscar von Sydow]]|[[Ernst Trygger]]|[[Rickard Sandler]]|[[Carl Gustaf Ekman]]|Arvid Lindman|[[Felix Hamrin]]|[[Per Albin Hansson]]|[[Axel Pehrsson-Bramstorp]]|[[Tage Erlander]]}}
| spouse = {{marriage|[[Victoria of Baden]]|1881|4 April 1930|end=d.}}
| issue = {{plainlist|
*[[Gustaf VI Adolf]]
*[[Prince Wilhelm, Duke of Södermanland]]
*[[Prince Erik, Duke of Västmanland]]
}}
| royal house = [[House of Bernadotte|Bernadotte]]
| father = [[Oscar II]]
| mother = [[Sophia of Nassau]]
| birth_date = {{birth date|1858|6|16|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Drottningholm Palace]], Stockholm, Sweden
| death_date = {{death date and age|1950|10|29|1858|6|16|df=yes}}
| death_place = Drottningholm Palace, Stockholm, Sweden
| date of burial = 9 November 1950
| place of burial = [[Riddarholmen Church]]
| religion = [[Church of Sweden]]
| signature = Gustaf V signature.svg
}}

'''Gustaf V''' (Oscar Gustaf Adolf; 16 June 1858 – 29 October 1950) was [[List of Swedish monarchs|King of Sweden]] from 8 December 1907 until his death in 1950. He was the eldest son of King [[Oscar II of Sweden]] and [[Sophia of Nassau]], a half-sister of [[Adolphe, Grand Duke of Luxembourg]]. Reigning from the death of his father Oscar II in 1907 to his own death nearly 43 years later, he holds the record of being the oldest monarch of Sweden with the third-longest reign after [[Magnus IV of Sweden|Magnus IV]] (1319–1364) and his own great-grandson, [[Carl XVI Gustaf]] (1973–present). He was also the last Swedish monarch to exercise his royal prerogatives, which largely died with him, although they were formally abolished only with the [[Instrument of Government (1974)|remaking of the Swedish constitution in 1974]]. He was the first Swedish king since the [[High Middle Ages]] not to have a [[coronation]] and so never wore the king's crown, a practice that has continued ever since.

Gustaf's early reign saw the rise of [[parliamentary democracy|parliamentary rule]] in Sweden although the leadup to [[World War I]] induced [[Courtyard Crisis|his dismissal]] of Liberal Prime Minister [[Karl Staaff]] in 1914, replacing him with his own figurehead, [[Hjalmar Hammarskjöld]], the father of [[Dag Hammarskjöld]], for most of the war. However, after the [[Free-minded National Association|Liberals]] and [[Social Democrats (Sweden)|Social Democrats]] secured a parliamentary majority under Staaff's successor, [[Nils Edén]], he allowed Edén to form a new government which ''de facto'' stripped the monarchy of virtually all powers and enacted [[Universal suffrage|universal and equal suffrage]], including for women, by 1919. Bowing to the principles of parliamentary democracy, he remained a popular figurehead for the remaining 31 years of his rule, although not completely without influence. Gustaf V had pro-German and anti-Communist stances which were outwardly expressed during [[World War I]] and the [[Russian Civil War]]. During [[World War II]], he allegedly urged [[Per Albin Hansson]]'s coalition government to accept requests from [[Nazi Germany]] for logistics support, arguing that refusing might provoke an invasion. His intervention remains controversial.

An avid hunter and sportsman, Gustaf presided over the [[1912 Olympic Games]] and chaired the Swedish Association of Sports from 1897 to 1907. Most notably, he represented Sweden (under the alias of ''Mr G.'') as a competitive tennis player, keeping up competitive tennis until his eighties, when his eyesight deteriorated rapidly.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ne.se/lang/gustaf-v |title=Gustaf V |website=NE Nationalencyklopedin AB |language=sv|access-date=26 April 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ne.se/lang/haijbyaff%C3%A4ren |title=Haijbyaffären |website=NE Nationalencyklopedin AB |language=sv |access-date=26 April 2021}}</ref> He was succeeded by his son, [[Gustaf VI Adolf]].

==Early life==

===First years===
[[File:Portrett av arveprins Oscar (senere Oscar II) og prinsesse Sophie med familie (6961203929).jpg|thumb|left|Prince Gustaf (far left) with his parents and brothers in 1865.]]
Gustaf V was born on 16 June 1858 in [[Drottningholm Palace]] in [[Ekerö Municipality|Ekerö]], [[Stockholm County]], the son of [[Oscar II of Sweden|Prince Oscar, Duke of Östergötland]] and [[Princess Sofia of Nassau]]. His father was a younger son of the reigning king, [[Oscar I of Sweden|Oscar I]], and as the king's eldest son, [[Charles XV of Sweden|Crown Prince Charles]] had no surviving sons, it could be expected that the new-born prince would one day inherit the Swedish throne. At birth he was created [[Duke of Värmland]], and on 12 July he was baptised ''Oscar Gustaf Adolf'' at the [[Royal Chapel (Sweden)|Royal Chapel]] of the [[Stockholm Palace]] by the [[Archbishop of Uppsala]], [[Henrik Reuterdahl]].

The following year, his brother [[Oscar Bernadotte|Prince Oscar]] was born, followed by [[Prince Carl, Duke of Västergötland|Prince Carl]] in 1861, and [[Prince Eugen, Duke of Närke|Prince Eugen]] in 1865. The family lived in the [[Arvfurstens palats]] (''Palace of the Hereditary Prince''), an 18th-century palace located at [[Gustav Adolfs torg, Stockholm|Gustav Adolfs torg]] in [[central Stockholm]], and the summers were spent at [[Sofiero Castle]] near [[Helsingborg]] in [[Scania]], which the father acquired in 1864. During his early years, the prince was considered to have a weak body constitution, and as a consequence he was treated with [[electrotherapy]] on 10 May 1871.<ref>{{cite book|first=Fritz|last=von Dardel|title=Minnen, Fjärde delen 1871–1872|publisher=P.A. Norstedt & Söners förlag|location=Stockholm|year=1913|page=37|language=sv}}</ref>

The three eldest princes began their schooling at the newly founded Beskowska School in [[Östermalm]] in Stockholm in October 1869. Among the prince's classmates at the school was [[Hjalmar Branting]], who went on to become leader of the [[Swedish Social Democratic Party]] and three times [[Prime Minister of Sweden]].

===Crown Prince===
On 18 September 1872 his uncle [[Charles XV of Sweden|King Charles XV]] died, and Gustaf's father ascended the throne as King Oscar II. Upon his father's accession to the throne, Gustaf became crown prince of both Sweden and Norway at the age of 14. The new king and queen and their children now moved into the large [[Stockholm Palace]], and the crown prince's schooling at the Beskowska School was interrupted, as he was now to receive his education as heir to the throne at the palace.

[[File:Minnesmedalj Gustav V och Victoria, 25567.jpg|thumb|Wedding medal for Gustaf and Victoria in 1881]]
On 20 September 1881 in [[Karlsruhe]], Germany, he married Princess [[Victoria of Baden]], the only daughter of [[Frederick I, Grand Duke of Baden]] and [[Princess Louise of Prussia]].

[[File:Gustaf V of Sweden as Crown Prince 1893.jpg|thumb|left|Crown Prince Gustaf wears the [[Regalia of Sweden#Crown Prince coronet|Coronet of the Heir Apparent]] in 1893]]
[[File:Gustav the 5th., Swedish king, the son of Oscar the 2nd, king in1907 No-nb bldsa 1c050.jpg|thumb|Photograph of Crown Prince Gustaf, {{circa|1897}}]]
On 8 December 1907 King Oscar II died and the 49-year-old Gustaf succeeded his father as King of Sweden as the fifth monarch from the [[House of Bernadotte]].

==Public life==
[[Image:Meeting of Scandinavian kings.jpeg|thumb|right|200px|Meeting of the three kings in [[Malmö]], 18 December 1914: [[Haakon VII of Norway]], Gustaf V, and [[Christian X of Denmark]]]]
[[File:Kaiser Wilhelm II. begrüßt König Gustaf Adolf V.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Wilhelm II]] and Gustaf V during the opening of the ferry between Sassnitz and Trelleborg]]
When he ascended the throne, Gustaf V was, at least on paper, a [[Autocracy|near-autocrat]]. The [[1809 Instrument of Government]] made the King both head of state and head of government, and ministers were solely responsible to him. However, his father had been forced to accept a government chosen by the majority in Parliament in 1905. Since then, prime ministers had been ''de facto'' required to have the confidence of the Riksdag to stay in office.

Early in his reign, in 1910, Gustaf V refused to grant clemency to the convicted murderer [[Johan Alfred Ander]], who thus became the last person to be executed in Sweden.

At first Gustaf V seemed to be willing to accept [[Parliamentary system|parliamentary rule]]. After the [[Free-minded National Association|Liberals]] won a massive landslide victory in 1911, Gustaf appointed Liberal leader [[Karl Staaff]] as Prime Minister. However, during the run-up to World War I, the elites objected to Staaff's defence policy. In February 1914, [[Peasant armament support march|a large crowd of farmers gathered at the royal palace]] and demanded that the country's defences be strengthened. In his reply, the so-called [[Courtyard Speech]]—which was actually written by explorer [[Sven Hedin]], an ardent conservative—Gustaf promised to strengthen the country's defences. Staaff was outraged, telling the King that parliamentary rule called for the Crown to stay out of partisan politics. He was also angered that he had not been consulted in advance of the speech. However, Gustaf retorted that he still had the right to "communicate freely with the Swedish people". The Staaff government resigned in protest, and Gustaf appointed a government of civil servants headed by [[Hjalmar Hammarskjöld]] (father of future UN Secretary-General [[Dag Hammarskjöld]]) in its place.

[[File:Lauri Kristian Relander in Stockholm 1925 (2).jpg|thumb|Gustaf V and visiting [[Lauri Kristian Relander|L. K. Relander]], the [[President of Finland|2nd President of the Republic of Finland]], pass an honour guard in 1925 in [[Stockholm]]]]
[[File:Porträtt, kung Gustav V, av Bernhard Österman, 1937-38 - Sörmlands museum - SLM7036.jpg|thumb|Portrait of Gustaf V by [[Bernhard Österman]], 1937/38]]

The 1917 elections showed a heavy gain for the Liberals and [[Social Democratic Party (Sweden)|Social Democrats]], who between them held a decisive majority. Despite this, Gustaf initially tried to appoint a Conservative government headed by [[Johan Widén]]. However, Widén was unable to attract enough support for a coalition. It was now apparent that Gustaf could no longer appoint a government entirely of his own choosing, nor could he keep a government in office against the will of Parliament. With no choice but to appoint a Liberal as prime minister, he appointed a Liberal-Social Democratic coalition government headed by Staaff's successor as Liberal leader, [[Nils Edén]]. The Edén government promptly arrogated most of the king's political powers to itself and enacted numerous reforms, most notably the institution of complete (male and female) universal suffrage in 1918–1919. While Gustaf still formally appointed the ministers, they now had to have the confidence of Parliament. He was now also bound to act on the ministers' advice. Although the provision in the Instrument of Government stating that "the King alone shall govern the realm" remained unchanged, the king was now bound by convention to exercise his powers through the ministers. Thus, for all intents and purposes, the ministers did the actual governing. While ministers were already legally responsible to the Riksdag under the Instrument of Government, it was now understood that they were politically responsible to the Riksdag as well. Gustaf accepted his reduced role, and reigned for the rest of his life as a model limited constitutional monarch. Parliamentarianism had become a ''de facto'' reality in Sweden, even if it would not be formalised until 1974, when a new Instrument of Government stripped the monarchy of even nominal political power. Gustaf V was considered to have German sympathies during World War I. His political stance during the war was highly influenced by his wife, who felt a strong connection to her German homeland. On 18 December 1914, he sponsored a meeting in [[Malmö]] with the other two kings of Scandinavia to demonstrate unity. Another of Gustaf V's objectives was to dispel suspicions that he wanted to bring Sweden into the war on Germany's side.<ref>{{cite web |title=Kin Gustav V's No Nazi Sympathizer |url=https://www.realclearhistory.com/2016/12/07/king_gustav_v039s_no_nazi_sympathizer_3729.html |website=Real Clear History |date=7 December 2020 |access-date=26 April 2021}}</ref>

Although effectively stripped of political power, Gustaf was not completely without influence. In 1938, for instance, he personally summoned the German ambassador to Sweden and told him that if Hitler attacked [[Czechoslovakia]] over its refusal to give up the [[Sudetenland]], it would trigger a world war that Germany would almost certainly lose.<ref name="RiseFall">William Shirer, ''The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich'' (Touchstone Edition) (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1990)</ref> Additionally, his long reign gave him great [[moral authority]] as a symbol of the nation's unity.

==Nazi connections==
[[File:Gustavgoring1939.JPG|thumb|left|[[Prince Gustaf Adolf, Duke of Västerbotten|Prince Gustaf Adolf]], [[Hermann Göring]], and King Gustaf V in Berlin, February 1939]]
Both the King and his grandson [[Prince Gustaf Adolf, Duke of Västerbotten|Prince Gustaf Adolf]] socialised with [[Nazi]] leaders before World War II, though arguably for diplomatic purposes. During a visit to Berlin, according to historian Jörgen Weibull, Gustaf V attempted to convince [[Hitler]] to soften his persecution of the Jews. He was also noted for appealing to [[Miklós Horthy]], leader of the [[Kingdom of Hungary (1920–1946)|Kingdom of Hungary]], to save its Jews "in the name of humanity".

When Nazi Germany invaded the [[Soviet Union]] in June 1941, Gustaf V tried to write a private letter to Hitler thanking him for taking care of the "[[Bolshevik]]<ref>{{cite book |last=Hadenius |first=Stig |title=Gustaf V: en biografi |date=2005 |publisher=Historiska Media |isbn=978-91-85057-20-7 |location=Lund |pages=244 |language=sv |trans-title=}}</ref> pest" and congratulating him on his "already achieved victories".<ref>''[[Dagens Nyheter]]'' 070729 {{cite web |title=Churchill fick vredesutbrott över svenske kungens svek |url=http://www.dn.se/DNet/jsp/polopoly.jsp?d%3D572%26a%3D675044 |website=Debatt |date=29 July 2007 |access-date=29 July 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930222943/http://www.dn.se/DNet/jsp/polopoly.jsp?d=572&a=675044 |archive-date=30 September 2007 |language=sv}}</ref> He was stopped from doing so by Prime Minister [[Per Albin Hansson]].<ref>{{cite web |title=King Gustav V of Sweden: Nazi Sympathiser? |url=https://royaltyrobertwriter.home.blog/2020/06/15/king-gustav-v-of-sweden-nazi-sympathiser/ |website=RoyaltyRobert Blogger and writer |date=15 June 2020 |access-date=26 April 2021}}</ref>

During the war Gustaf V invited [[Nazism in Sweden|Swedish Nazi]] leader [[Sven Olov Lindholm]] to [[Stockholm Palace]]. The King had friends in Lindholm's movement.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.svd.se/karaktarsmord-pa-doda-svenskar |title=Karaktärsmord på döda svenskar |date=18 September 2002 |website=Svenska Dagbladet |access-date=26 April 2021 |language=sv}}</ref><ref>Gustaf V och andra Världskriget. Carlsson, Erik. 2007. {{ISBN|9789185057887}}</ref><ref>Operation Norrsken: Om Stasi och Sverige under kalla kriget, av Christoph Andersson</ref>

===Midsummer crisis 1941===
According to Prime Minister Hansson, during the [[Midsummer crisis]], the King in a private conversation had threatened to abdicate if the government did not approve a German request to transfer a German infantry division, the so-called [[163rd Infantry Division (Germany)|Engelbrecht Division]], through Swedish territory from southern Norway to northern Finland in June 1941, around [[Midsummer]]. The accuracy of the claim is debated, and the King's intention, if he really made the threat, is sometimes alleged to be his desire to avoid conflict with Germany. The event has received considerable attention from Swedish historians and is known as ''midsommarkrisen'', the Midsummer Crisis.<ref>Hansson (Wahlbäck, ''Regeringen och kriget. Ur statsrådens dagböcker 1939–41'')</ref>

Confirmation of the King's action is contained in German Foreign Policy documents captured at the end of the war. On 25 June 1941, the German Ambassador in Stockholm sent a "Most Urgent–Top Secret" message to Berlin in which he stated that the King had just informed him that the [[Transit of German troops through Scandinavia (WWII)|transit of German troops]] would be allowed. He added: <blockquote>The King's words conveyed the joyful emotion he felt. He had lived through anxious days and had gone far in giving his personal support to the matter. He added confidentially that he had found it necessary to go so far as to mention his abdication.<ref>Documents of German Foreign Policy 1918–1945 Series D Volume XIII The War Years 23 June 1941 – 11 December 1941, Published in UK by HMSO and in US By Government Printing Office.</ref></blockquote>

==Personal life==
[[File:Gustaf V of Sweden playing tennis.jpg|thumb|Gustaf V playing tennis at [[Real Club de la Puerta de Hierro]], 1927]]
[[File:Tennisskor - Livrustkammaren - 6299.tif|thumb|Tennis shoes worn by Gustaf V.]]
Gustaf V was thin, and known for his height. He wore [[pince-nez]] eyeglasses and sported a pointed mustache for most of his teen years.

Gustaf V was a devoted tennis player, appearing under the pseudonym ''Mr G''. As a player and promoter of the sport, he was elected to the [[International Tennis Hall of Fame]] in 1980. The King learned to play tennis during a visit in Britain in 1876 and founded Sweden's first tennis club on his return home. In 1936 he founded the King's Club. During his reign, Gustaf was often seen playing on the [[French Riviera|Riviera]]. On a visit to Berlin, Gustaf went straight from a meeting with Hitler to a tennis match with the Jewish player [[Daniel Prenn]]. During World War II, he interceded to obtain better treatment for Davis Cup star [[Jean Borotra]] of France, and in 1938 on behalf of his personal trainer and friend Baron [[Gottfried von Cramm]] of Germany, who had been imprisoned by the Nazi Government on the charge of a homosexual relationship with a Jew.

[[File:HMS Gustav V.jpg|thumb|Swedish coastal defence ship HM Pansarskepp Gustaf V (1922–1957).]]

===Haijby affair===
Allegations of a homosexual love affair between Gustaf V and [[Kurt Haijby]] led to the court paying 170,000 [[Swedish krona|kronor]] under the threat of blackmail by Haijby.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Gianoulis |first=Tina |date=November 16, 2006 |title=Gustav V, King of Sweden (1858-1950) |url=http://www.glbtq.com/social-sciences/gustav_v.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080803051005/http://www.glbtq.com/social-sciences/gustav_v.html |archive-date=August 3, 2008 |access-date=April 8, 2023 |website=GLBTQ - An Encyclopedia of Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual, Transgender, and Queer Culture}}</ref> That led to the so-called Haijby Affair and several controversial trials and convictions against Haijby, which spawned considerable controversy about Gustaf V's alleged [[homosexuality]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Rättsaffärerna Kejne och Haijby |last=Heumann |first=Maths |year=1978 |publisher=Norstedt |location=Stockholm |language=sv |isbn=91-1-787202-2}}</ref>

In 2021 the alleged events surrounding the Haijby Affair were adapted into a fictional miniseries for [[Sveriges Television]] called ''En Kunglig Affär (A Royal Secret)'', directed by [[Lisa James Larsson]] and written by [[Bengt Nilsson (actor)|Bengt Braskered]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=A Royal Secret: The intriguing true story of King Gustaf V, Sweden's first gay king|url=https://www.voguescandinavia.com/articles/en-kunglig-affar-the-intriguing-true-story-of-kurt-haijby|access-date=2022-01-08|website=www.voguescandinavia.com|date=2 December 2021 |language=en}}</ref>

==Death==
After a reign of nearly 43 years, Gustaf V died in [[Stockholm]] of [[acute bronchitis]] with [[bronchiectasis]] on 29 October 1950. His 67-year-old son Gustaf succeeded him as [[Gustaf VI Adolf]].

==Honours==
;National honours<ref name="438 (Sveriges statskalender / 1905)">{{citation|title=Sveriges statskalender|year=1905|page=438|url=https://runeberg.org/statskal/1905/0462.html|via=runeberg.org|access-date=2018-01-06|language=sv}}</ref>
* [[Order of the Seraphim|Knight and Commander of the Seraphim]], ''16 June 1858''
* Knight of the [[Order of Charles XIII]], ''16 June 1858''
* [[Order of the Sword|Commander Grand Cross of the Sword]], ''16 June 1858''
* [[Order of the Polar Star|Commander Grand Cross of the Polar Star]], ''16 June 1858''
* Commander Grand Cross of the [[Order of Vasa]], ''12 July 1886''<ref name="525 (Sveriges statskalender / 1905)">{{citation|title=Sveriges statskalender|year=1905|page=525|url=https://runeberg.org/statskal/1905/0549.html|via=runeberg.org|access-date=2018-01-06|language=sv}}</ref>
* Honorary Member of the [[Order of Saint John in Sweden|Johanniter Order]]

;Foreign military ranks<ref>{{cite book |title=Almanach de Gotha |date=1 January 1909 |publisher=Justus Perths Publishers |url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k34689s |access-date=5 January 2022 |language=French}}</ref>
* {{flagu|Denmark}}: General [[à la suite]] in the [[Royal Danish Army]], 1909
*{{flagu|Russian Empire|1858}}: Admiral à la suite in the [[Imperial Russian Navy]], 1909
* {{flagu|United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland}}: Honorary Admiral in the [[Royal Navy]], 3 November 1908.<ref>{{cite web |title=Supplement 28192 in the London Gazette |url=https://www.thegazette.co.uk/London/issue/28192/supplement/8023 |website=The Gazette |access-date=5 January 2022}}</ref>
* {{flagu|German Empire}}: General à la suite in the [[Imperial German Army]], 1909
* {{flagu|German Empire}}: Admiral à la suite in the [[Imperial German Navy]], 1909
* {{flagu|Restoration (Spain)}}: Admiral à la suite in the Spanish Navy, 1928
* {{flagu|German Empire}}: Honorary commander of the third Life Grenadier Regiment "Königin Elisabeth", 1909

;Foreign honours<ref name="5 (Sveriges statskalender / 1950)">{{citation|title=Sveriges statskalender|year=1950|volume=2|page=5|url=https://runeberg.org/statskal/1950bih/0005.html|via=runeberg.org|access-date=2018-01-06|language=sv}}</ref>
{{columns-list|colwidth=25em|
* {{flagu|Norway|1844}}:
** [[Order of St. Olav|Grand Cross of St. Olav]], with Collar, ''16 June 1858''<ref>{{citation|title=Sveriges och Norges statskalender|year=1870|page=690|url=https://runeberg.org/sonkal/1870/0732.html|via=runeberg.org|access-date=2018-01-06|language=sv}}</ref>
** [[Order of the Norwegian Lion|Knight of the Norwegian Lion]], ''21 January 1904''<ref>[http://www.royalcourt.no/artikkel.html?tid=33000&sek=32999 "The Order of the Norwegian Lion"], ''The Royal House of Norway''. Retrieved 10 August 2018.</ref>
** [[King Haakon VII Freedom Cross]]
* {{flagu|Denmark}}:
** [[Knight of the Elephant]], ''22 June 1874''<ref name="DanskStatskalender">{{cite book |year=1944 |orig-year=1st pub.:1801 |editor1-last=Bille-Hansen |editor1-first=A. C. |editor2-last=Holck |editor2-first=Harald |title=Statshaandbog for Kongeriget Danmark for Aaret 1944 |trans-title=State Manual of the Kingdom of Denmark for the Year 1944 |url=https://dis-danmark.dk/bibliotek/918033.pdf#page=34 |series=Kongelig Dansk Hof- og Statskalender |language=da |location=Copenhagen |publisher=J.H. Schultz A.-S. Universitetsbogtrykkeri |page=16 |access-date=1 May 2020 |via=[[:da:DIS Danmark]]}}</ref>
** [[Cross of Honour of the Order of the Dannebrog]], ''18 November 1912''<ref name="DanskStatskalender"/>
** [[Grand Commander of the Dannebrog]], in Diamonds, ''29 October 1950''<ref>{{cite web |url=https://tallinnmuseum.com/2018/06/15/order-of-the-dannebrog-dannebrogordenen-denmark/ |title=Order of the Dannebrog (Dannebrogordenen). Denmark |last=Levin |first=Sergey |date=15 June 2018 |website=Tallinn Museum of Orders of Knighthood |access-date=6 September 2019}}</ref>
* Hungary:
** {{flagu|Kingdom of Hungary|1878}}: [[Order of St. Stephen of Hungary|Grand Cross of the Royal Hungarian Order of St. Stephen]], ''1879''<ref>[http://tornai.com/rendtagok.htm "A Szent István Rend tagjai"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101222022855/http://tornai.com/rendtagok.htm|date=22 December 2010}}</ref>
** {{flagicon image|Flag of Hungary (1915-1918, 1919-1946).svg}} [[Regency Hungary]]: Grand Cross of the [[Order of Merit of the Kingdom of Hungary|Order of Merit]], with Holy Crown and Collar
* {{flagu|Kingdom of Italy}}:<ref name="dell'interno1898">{{cite book|author=Italia : Ministero dell'interno|title=Calendario generale del Regno d'Italia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0dnhcmSJ6FcC&pg=PP5|year=1898|publisher=Unione tipografico-editrice|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=0dnhcmSJ6FcC&pg=PA54 54]}}</ref>
** [[Supreme Order of the Most Holy Annunciation|Knight of the Annunciation]], ''24 February 1879''
** [[Order of Saints Maurice and Lazarus|Grand Cross of Saints Maurice and Lazarus]], ''24 February 1879''
* {{flagu|Restoration (Spain)}}: [[Order of the Golden Fleece|Knight of the Golden Fleece]], ''30 June 1881''<ref>{{citation|chapter-url=http://hemerotecadigital.bne.es/issue.vm?id=0000941464&search=&lang=es|chapter=Caballeros de la insigne orden del toisón de oro|title=Guía Oficial de España|date=1887|access-date=21 March 2019|page=147|language=es}}</ref>
* {{Flagicon|Thailand|1855}} [[Siam]]: Knight of the [[Order of the Royal House of Chakri]], ''13 July 1897''<ref name="Stockholm">{{cite web |author=Royal Thai Government Gazette |author-link=Royal Thai Government Gazette |date=9 March 1898 |url=http://www.ratchakitcha.soc.go.th/DATA/PDF/2441/049/523_3.PDF |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304215715/http://www.ratchakitcha.soc.go.th/DATA/PDF/2441/049/523_3.PDF |url-status=dead |archive-date=4 March 2016 |title=พระราชทานเครื่องราชอิสริยาภรณ์ ทีประเทศยุโรป |language=th |access-date=2019-05-08}}</ref>
* {{flagu|United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland}}:
** [[Order of the Bath|Honorary Grand Cross of the Bath]] (civil), ''19 February 1901''<ref>{{London Gazette |issue=27286 |date=19 February 1901 |page=1226}}</ref>
** [[Knight of the Garter]], ''13 June 1905''<ref>{{London Gazette |issue=27806 |date=13 June 1905 |page=4249 |supp=y}}</ref><ref>[https://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9A03E6D8173EE733A25756C2A9679D946797D6CF "Garter Knights Meet in Splendid Ceremony ... King Haakon is Invested"], ''The New York Times'', 25 November 1906</ref>
** Recipient of the [[Royal Victorian Chain]], ''27 April 1908''<ref>{{London Gazette |issue=28134 |date=5 May 1908 |page=3311}}</ref>
* {{flagu|Austria}}: Grand Cross of the [[Decoration of Honour for Services to the Republic of Austria]]
* {{flagu|Belgium}}: Grand Cordon of the [[Order of Leopold (Belgium)|Order of Leopold]]
* {{flagu|Brazil}}: [[Order of the Southern Cross|Grand Cross of the Southern Cross]]
* {{flagu|Chile}}: Collar of the [[Order of Merit (Chile)|Order of Merit]]
* {{flagicon image|Flag of the Republic of China.svg}} [[Republic of China (1912-1949)|China]]: [[Order of Propitious Clouds]], 1st Class
* {{flagu|Czechoslovakia}}: [[Order of the White Lion|Collar of the White Lion]], ''1937''<ref>[http://www.vyznamenani.net/?p=1053 "Kolana Řádu Bílého lva aneb hlavy států v řetězech"] (in Czech), ''Czech Medals and Orders Society''. Retrieved 2018-08-09.</ref>
* {{flagu|Kingdom of Egypt}}: Collar of the [[Order of Muhammad Ali]]
* {{flagu|Estonia}}:
** [[Cross of Liberty (Estonia)|Cross of Liberty]], Grade III Class I, ''29 April 1925''<ref>{{cite web|title=Cross of Liberty: Gustav V of Sweden|url=https://www.president.ee/en/estonia/decorations/bearer/14177/gustav-v|website=Estonian State Decorations|language=et|access-date=22 June 2020}}</ref>
** [[Order of the White Star|Collar of the White Star]], ''7 June 1938''<ref>{{cite web|title=Order of the White Star: Gustav V of Sweden|url=https://www.president.ee/en/estonia/decorations/bearer/18068/gustav-v|website=Estonian State Decorations|language=et|access-date=22 June 2020}}</ref>
* {{flagu|Ethiopian Empire}}: Collar of the [[Order of Solomon]], ''1945''<ref>"[http://www.ethiopiancrown.org/decorations.htm#TheOrderofSolomon The Imperial Orders and Decorations of Ethiopia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121226054014/http://www.ethiopiancrown.org/decorations.htm#TheOrderofSolomon |date=26 December 2012 }}", ''The Crown Council of Ethiopia''. Retrieved 7 September 2020.</ref>
* {{flagu|Finland}}: [[Order of the White Rose of Finland|Grand Cross of the White Rose]], with Collar, ''1919''<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ritarikunnat.fi/index.php/fi/64-ritarikunnat/palkitut/216-suomen-valkoisen-ruusun-ritarikunnan-suurristin-ketjuineen-saajat-ulkomaalaiset|title=Suomen Valkoisen Ruusun Suurristi Ketjuineen|website=ritarikunnat.fi|language=fi|access-date=7 May 2020}}</ref>
* {{flagu|German Empire}}:
** [[Order of the Black Eagle|Knight of the Black Eagle]], ''6 February 1873'';<ref name="prus">{{citation|title=Königlich Preussische Ordensliste|journal=Preussische Ordens-Liste|volume=1|url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015049878831&view=1up&seq=5&skin=2021|pages=[https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015049878831&view=1up&seq=15&skin=2021 7], [https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015049878831&view=1up&seq=1008&skin=2021 936]|language=German|location=Berlin|year=1886}}</ref> with Collar
** [[Order of the Red Eagle|Grand Cross of the Red Eagle]]
** Grand Commander's Cross of the [[House Order of Hohenzollern#Royal House Order|Royal House Order of Hohenzollern]], ''10 March 1881''<ref name="prus"/>
** {{flagu|Baden}}:<ref name="HandbuchBaden">''Hof- und Staats-Handbuch des Großherzogtum Baden'' (1896), "Großherzogliche Orden" [https://digital.blb-karlsruhe.de/blbihd/periodical/pageview/1878736 pp. 62], [https://digital.blb-karlsruhe.de/blbihd/periodical/pageview/1878750 76]</ref>
*** Knight of the [[House Order of Fidelity]], ''1881''
*** Knight of the [[Order of Berthold the First]], ''1881''
** {{flagu|Kingdom of Bavaria}}: [[Order of St. Hubert|Knight of St. Hubert]], ''1879''<ref>''Hof- und Staats-Handbuch des Königreich Bayern'' (1908), "Königliche Orden" [https://archive.org/details/hofundstaatshan00landgoog/page/n37/mode/2up p. 7]</ref>
** {{flagicon|Saxe-Coburg and Gotha}} {{flagicon|Saxe-Altenburg}} {{flagicon|Saxe-Meiningen}} [[Ernestine duchies]]: Grand Cross of the [[Saxe-Ernestine House Order]]
** {{flagicon|Grand Duchy of Hesse}} [[Hesse and by Rhine]]: Grand Cross of the [[Ludwig Order]], ''20 September 1881''<ref>''Hof- und Staats-Handbuch des Großherzogtum Hessen'' (1883), "Großherzogliche Orden und Ehrenzeichen", [https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uiug.30112032663715&view=1up&seq=42 p. 14]</ref>
** {{Flagicon image|Flagge Großherzogtümer Mecklenburg.svg}} [[Mecklenburg]]: [[House Order of the Wendish Crown|Grand Cross of the Wendish Crown]], with Crown in Ore and Collar
** {{flagicon|Nassau}} [[Duchy of Nassau|Nassau Ducal Family]]: [[Order of the Gold Lion of the House of Nassau|Knight of the Gold Lion of Nassau]]
** {{flagu|Oldenburg}}: [[House and Merit Order of Peter Frederick Louis|Grand Cross of the Order of Duke Peter Friedrich Ludwig]], with Golden Crown and Collar
** {{flagu|Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach}}: [[Order of the White Falcon|Grand Cross of the White Falcon]], ''1881''<ref>''Staatshandbuch für das Großherzogtum Sachsen / Sachsen-Weimar-Eisenach'' (1900), "Großherzogliche Hausorden" [https://zs.thulb.uni-jena.de/rsc/viewer/jportal_derivate_00185861/Staatshandbuch_Film_Nr_16_0245.tif p. 16] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200906150133/https://zs.thulb.uni-jena.de/rsc/viewer/jportal_derivate_00185861/Staatshandbuch_Film_Nr_16_0245.tif |date=6 September 2020 }}</ref>
** {{flagu|Kingdom of Saxony}}: [[Order of the Rue Crown|Knight of the Rue Crown]], ''1888''<ref name="Sachsen1901">{{cite book|author=Sachsen|title=Staatshandbuch für den Königreich Sachsen: 1901|year=1901|publisher=Heinrich|chapter=Königlich Orden|page=[https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015030492006&view=1up&seq=44&skin=2021 4]|location=Dresden|via=hathitrust.org}}</ref>
** {{flagu|Württemberg}}: [[Order of the Crown (Württemberg)|Grand Cross of the Württemberg Crown]], ''1879''<ref>''Hof- und Staats-Handbuch des Königreich Württemberg'' (1907), "Königliche Orden" [https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_Pc5CAAAAYAAJ/page/n63 p. 28]</ref>
* {{flagicon|Greece|royal}} [[Kingdom of Greece|Greece]]: [[Order of the Redeemer|Grand Cross of the Redeemer]]
* Iran:
** {{flagicon image|Early 20th Century Qajar Flag.svg}} [[Qajar dynasty]]: House Order of the Imperial Effigy, 1st Class
** {{flagicon image|State flag of the Imperial State of Iran (with standardized lion and sun).svg}} [[Pahlavi dynasty]]: Collar of the [[Order of Pahlavi]]
* {{flagu|Kingdom of Iraq}}: Grand Collar of the Order of the Hashimites
* {{flagu|Empire of Japan}}: Grand Cordon of the [[Order of the Chrysanthemum]], ''29 July 1881''<ref>{{cite book|author=刑部芳則|title=明治時代の勲章外交儀礼|url=http://meijiseitoku.org/pdf/f54-5.pdf|year=2017|publisher=明治聖徳記念学会紀要|language=ja|page=143}}</ref>
* {{flagu|Latvia}}: Commander Grand Cross of the [[Order of the Three Stars]], with Collar
* {{flagu|Monaco}}: [[Order of Saint-Charles|Grand Cross of St. Charles]], ''6 April 1875''<ref>[https://journaldemonaco.gouv.mc/var/jdm/storage/original/application/a96f66cf5783b1e5fcaf380305ac4b8d.pdf Sovereign Ordonnance of 6 April 1875]</ref>
* {{flagu|Netherlands}}: [[Order of the Netherlands Lion|Grand Cross of the Netherlands Lion]]
* {{flagu|Ottoman Empire}}:
** [[Order of Distinction (Ottoman Empire)|Order of Distinction]]
** [[Order of Osmanieh]], 1st Class
* {{flagu|Peru}}: [[Order of the Sun of Peru|Grand Cross of the Sun of Peru]], in Diamonds, ''1923''
* {{flagu|Poland}}: [[Order of the White Eagle (Poland)|Knight of the White Eagle]], ''15 June 1928''<ref>{{citation|title=Odznaczenie króla szwedzkiego|trans-title=Awards of the King of Sweden|language=pl|url=https://jbc.bj.uj.edu.pl/dlibra/plain-content?id=33196|publisher=Gazeta Lwowska|page=3|issue=136|date=15 June 1928|access-date=1 May 2020}}</ref>
* {{flagu|Kingdom of Portugal}}:
** [[Order of the Tower and Sword|Grand Cross of the Tower and Sword]]
** Grand Cross of the [[Sash of the Three Orders]]<ref>{{cite web|title=Gemensamt ordenstecken för de tre förnämsta portugisiska ordnarna, Kristus-, S:t Bento d'Aviz- och S:t Jakobsorden|url=http://emuseumplus.lsh.se/eMuseumPlus?service=ExternalInterface&module=collection&objectId=38101&viewType=detailView|language=sv}}</ref>
* {{flagu|Kingdom of Romania}}:
** [[Order of the Star of Romania|Grand Cross of the Star of Romania]]
** [[Grand Cross of the Crown of Romania]]
** Collar of the [[Order of Carol I]]
*{{flagu|Russian Empire|1858}}:
** [[Order of St. Andrew|Knight of St. Andrew]], ''1881''
** [[Order of St. Alexander Nevsky|Knight of St. Alexander Nevsky]]
** [[Order of the White Eagle (Russia)|Knight of the White Eagle]]
** [[Order of St. Anna|Knight of St. Anna]], 1st Class
** [[Order of Saint Stanislaus (House of Romanov)|Knight of St. Stanislaus]], 1st Class
* [[File:Flag of Venezuela (1863–1905).svg|25px]] Venezuela: Collar of the [[Order of the Liberator]]
* {{flagu|Kingdom of Yugoslavia}}: [[Order of Karađorđe's Star|Grand Cross of the Star of Karađorđe]]

}}

===Arms===
Upon his creation as Duke of Värmland, Gustaf V was granted a coat of arms with the Arms of Värmland in base. Upon his accession to the throne, he assumed the Arms of Dominion of Sweden.
<gallery class="center" widths="140px">
Coat of arms Prince héritier Gustave (V).svg|Arms as crown prince from 1872 to 1905
Coat of arms Crown Prince Gustav (V) of Sweden 1.svg|Arms as crown prince from 1905 to 1907
Great coat of arms of Sweden.svg|Greater Coat of Arms of Sweden
Royal Monogram of King Gustaf V of Sweden.svg|Royal Monogram of King Gustaf V of Sweden
</gallery>

==Issue==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
!width="16%"|Name!! width="14%"|Birth!! width="14%"|Death!! width="64%"|Notes
|-
| [[Gustaf VI Adolf of Sweden]] || 11 November 1882 || 15 September 1973 || Married 1) [[Princess Margaret of Connaught]] (1882–1920), had issue (including [[Ingrid of Sweden|Ingrid, Queen of Denmark]]);
Married 2) [[Lady Louise Mountbatten]] (1889–1965), had issue (a stillborn daughter)
|-
| [[Prince Wilhelm, Duke of Södermanland]] || 17 June 1884 || 5 June 1965 || Married [[Grand Duchess Maria Pavlovna of Russia (1890-1958)|Grand Duchess Maria Pavlovna of Russia]] (1890–1958), had issue
|-
| [[Prince Erik, Duke of Västmanland]]|| 20 April 1889 || 20 September 1918 || Died unmarried of the [[Spanish flu]], no issue
|-
|}
Swedish author Anders Lundebeck (1900–1976) allegedly was an extramarital son of King Gustaf V,<ref>[https://www.dixikon.se/karen-blixen-och-h-h-richardson/ Article 2009-10-02] ''Om två uteblivna Nobelpris'' by Ivo Holmqvist in ''Dixikon'' (sponsored by the [[Swedish Arts Council]])</ref> an allegation purported by Lundebeck himself<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hadenius |first=Stig |title=Gustaf V: en biografi |date=2005 |publisher=Historiska media |isbn=978-91-85057-20-7 |location=Lund |pages=18 |language=Swedish}}</ref> and to some extent supported by existing facts.<ref>Sir [[:sv:Gustaf von Platen|Gustaf von Platen]] in ''Bakom den gyllene fasaden'' [[Bonniers]] {{ISBN|91-0-058048-1}} p 35</ref>

==Ancestry==
{{Ahnentafel
|align=center|collapsed=yes
|boxstyle_1=background-color: #fcc;
|boxstyle_2=background-color: #fb9;
|boxstyle_3=background-color: #ffc;
|boxstyle_4=background-color: #bfc;
|1= 1. '''Gustaf V of Sweden'''
|2= 2. [[Oscar II of Sweden]]
|3= 3. [[Sophia of Nassau|Princess Sophia of Nassau]]
|4= 4. [[Oscar I of Sweden]]
|5= 5. [[Josephine of Leuchtenberg|Princess Josephine of Leuchtenberg]]
|6= 6. [[William, Duke of Nassau]]
|7= 7. [[Princess Pauline of Württemberg (1810–1856)|Princess Pauline of Württemberg]]
|8= 8. [[Charles XIV John of Sweden]]
|9= 9. [[Désirée Clary]]
|10= 10. [[Eugène de Beauharnais, Duke of Leuchtenberg]]
|11= 11. [[Princess Augusta of Bavaria]]
|12= 12. [[Frederick William, Prince of Nassau-Weilburg]]
|13= 13. [[Burgravine Louise Isabelle of Kirchberg]]
|14= 14. [[Prince Paul of Württemberg]]
|15= 15. [[Princess Charlotte of Saxe-Hildburghausen]]
}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Gustav V of Sweden}}
* [https://www.tennisfame.com/hall-of-famers/inductees/king-gustav-v Gustaf V profile at the International Tennis Hall of Fame website]
* {{Cite NSRW|wstitle=Gustavus V |short=x}}
* {{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Gustavus V. |short=x}}
* {{PM20|FID=pe/006764}}

{{s-start}}
{{s-hou|[[House of Bernadotte]]|16 June|1858|29 October|1950|name=Gustaf V}}
{{s-reg|}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Oscar II]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[King of Sweden]]|years=1907–1950}}
{{s-aft|after={{no wrap|[[Gustaf VI Adolf]]}}}}
{{s-roy}}
|-
{{s-vac|rows=2|last=[[Charles XV of Sweden|Charles]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Crown Prince of Sweden]]|years=1872–1907}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Gustaf VI Adolf of Sweden|Gustaf Adolf]]}}
|-
{{s-ttl|title=[[Crown Prince of Norway]]|years=1872–1905}}
{{s-vac|next=[[Olav V of Norway|Olav]]}}
|-
{{s-vac|last=Carl Adolf}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Duke of Värmland]]|years=1858–1907}}
{{s-vac|next=[[Carl Philip]]}}
{{s-off}}
|-
{{s-vac|last=[[Charles XV of Sweden|Carl]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Viceroy of Norway]]|years=1884}}
{{s-vac|next=}}
{{s-ach}}
{{s-bef|before={{no wrap|[[Sir Cyril Newall]]}}}}
{{s-ttl|title={{no wrap|[[List of people on the cover of Time magazine (1930s)|Cover of ''Time'' magazine]]}}|years=30 October 1939}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Tom Harmon]]}}
{{s-end}}

{{Navboxes
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{{House of Bernadotte}}
{{Swedish princes}}
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{{Portal bar|Biography|Christianity|Sweden|Tennis}}
{{Authority control}}

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[[Category:1858 births]]
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Cecil Roberts

2025-06-15T07:20:53Z

2A00:23C7:C8BC:C501:507C:445E:62F7:256D: /* Personal life */Added detail

{{Short description|English writer (1892–1976)}}
{{about|the journalist and novelist|the American miner and union leader|Cecil Roberts (labor unionist)|the Australian MP|Cecil Roberts (politician)}}
{{EngvarB|date=November 2017}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2017}}
{{Multiple issues|
{{more citations needed|date=April 2015}}
{{Citation style|date=February 2025}}
}}
[[File:Cecil Roberts in 1939.jpg|thumb|Roberts in 1939]]

'''Edric Cecil Mornington Roberts''' (18 May 1892 – 20 December 1976) was an English journalist, poet, dramatist and novelist. He was born and grew up in [[Nottingham]].<ref name="Papers">{{Cite web |title=Collection: The Papers of Cecil Roberts {{!}} ArchiveSearch |url=https://archivesearch.lib.cam.ac.uk/repositories/9/resources/1793 |access-date=2025-04-13 |website=archivesearch.lib.cam.ac.uk}}</ref>

==Working career==
Roberts published his first volume of poems, with a preface by [[John Masefield]], in 1913. He published his first novel, ''Scissors,'' in 1923. By the 1930s, Roberts was an established bestselling author. His work was translated into 12 languages.<ref>Times obituary 22 December 1976 </ref>

He worked as a journalist on the ''[[Liverpool Post]]'' during the [[World War I|First World War]], initially as literary editor, then as a [[war correspondent]]. For five years from 1920 he edited the daily ''[[Nottingham Journal]]''. In 1922 he stood for Parliament for the [[Liberal Party (UK)|Liberal Party]]. In the 1930s he reviewed books for [[The Sphere (newspaper)|The Sphere]].<ref>{{BNA |work=The Sphere |date=15 July 1933 |id=0001861/19330715/031/0034 |title=Books |first=Cecil |last=Roberts |author-link=Cecil Roberts}}</ref>

During the [[World War II|Second World War]], Roberts worked for [[E. F. L. Wood, 1st Earl of Halifax|Lord Halifax]], UK Ambassador to the United States.

Despite a prolific output and the popularity of his writings in his lifetime, they are almost wholly forgotten. His novels have been criticized for thin plots and cardboard characters, padded out with [[travel writing]].<ref name="Harrison">{{Cite web |last=Harrison |first=Graham |date=20 April 1999 |title=Rediscovering Cecil Roberts |url=https://www.brlsi.org/events-proceedings/proceedings/17741 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170411135149/https://www.brlsi.org/events-proceedings/proceedings/17741 |archive-date=11 April 2017 |website=Bath Royal Literary and Scientific Institution}}</ref>

==Personal life==
Roberts said that on coming of age he drew up a list of aims for his next 15 years, which included a solid career as a novelist, membership of Parliament, ownership of a [[country house]] and a London [[pied-à-terre]], and marriage with two sons and a daughter.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Thomas |first=Gilbert |title=A Vital Autobiography Half Way |journal=The Spectator |date=1 May 1931 |page=31 |url=http://archive.spectator.co.uk/article/2nd-may-1931/21/a-vital-autobiography-half-way-by-cecil-roberts-hu}}</ref> Some were achieved, but not the last. In private he claimed proudly to have been a lover of [[Laurence Olivier]], [[Ivor Novello]], Baron [[Gottfried von Cramm]], [[Somerset Maugham]], and [[Prince George, Duke of Kent]].<ref>Francis Henry King, ''Yesterday Came Suddenly'', Constable (London), 1993, p. 278.</ref> However, his autobiography is discreet: "I don't want any {{lang|fr|succès de scandale}}," he said, adding he was "nauseated by the striptease school of writers".<ref>Cecil Roberts, "The Pleasant Years", Hodder and Stoughton, 1974, pp. 350–351.</ref>

In later life Roberts's creative industry was impressive, but he gained repute as a name-dropping bore,<ref name="Harrison"/><ref>Francis Henry King, ''Yesterday Came Suddenly'', Constable (London), 1993, p. 278.</ref> the Canadian writer [[David Watmough]] dubbing him as "an irascible old fart".<ref>David Watmough, ''Myself Through Others: Memoirs'', Dundurn Press (Ontario) 2008, p. 85.</ref> According to an obituary, his main personal trait was "magnetic egocentricity" – so fascinated by himself and his doings as to succeed uncannily in conveying that fascination to others, even against their will. Roberts's life often resembled a 20th-century grand tour, strewn with places in the sun, grand seigneurs and charming hostesses, with him as a fastidious literary pilgrim.<ref>"Novelist Cecil Roberts dies aged 84", ''The Daily Telegraph'' (London), 22 December 1976.</ref>

Roberts settled in Italy in the early 1950s, living in [[Alassio]] near [[Genoa]], and then for many years in the Grand Hotel, Rome. He was awarded the Italian Gold Medal in 1966.<ref> New York Times obituary 23 December 1976</ref> He donated his papers to [[Churchill College]], Cambridge in 1975. He died in Rome in 1976.<ref name="Papers"/>

==Works==
*''Phyllistrata'' (1913)
*''Through the Eyes of Youth'' (1914)
*''The Youth of Beauty'' (1915)
*''Collected War Poems'' (1916)
*''The Chelsea Cherub'' (1917) novel
*''Twenty-Six'' (1917)
*''Charing Cross'' (1918)
*''Training the Airmen'' (1919)
*''Poems'' (1920)
*''A Tale of Young Lovers'' (1922) poetic drama
*''Scissors'' (1923) novel
*''Sails of Sunset'' (1924) novel
*''The Love Rack'' (1925) novel
*''Little Mrs. Manington'' (1926) novel
*''The Diary of Russell Beresford'' (1927) editor
*''Sagusto'' (1927) novel
*''David and Diana'' (1928) novel
*''Goose Fair'' (1928)
*''Indiana Jane'' (1929) novel
*''Pamela's Spring Song'' (1929) novel (@)
*''Goose Fair'' (1929)
*''Havana Bound'' (1930) novel
*''Spears Against Us'' (1930) novel (@)
*''Bargain Basement'' (1931) novel
*''Half Way: an autobiography'' (1931)
*''Alfred Fripp'' (1932) biography
*''Pilgrim Cottage'' (1933) trilogy: includes ''The Guests Arrive'' and ''Volcano'' (*)
*''The Pilgrim Cottage Omnibus'' (*)
*''Gone Rustic'' (1934) (*)
*''The Guests Arrive'' (1934) (*)
*''Volcano'' (1935) (*)
*''Gone Rambling'' (1935) (*)
*{{Cite book |title=Finale. Self-portrait of [[Nadja Malacrida]] |first=Cecil |last=Roberts |author-mask=0 |location=London |publisher=Hutchinson & Co |date=1935 |oclc=561516208}}
*''Gone Afield'' (1936) (*)
*''Gone Sunwards'' (1936) (*)
*''Victoria, Four-Thirty'' (1937) novel (@)
*''They Wanted to Live'' (1939) novel (@)
*''[[And So to Bath]]'' (1940) (*)
*''A Man Arose'' (1941) poem on [[Winston Churchill]]
*''Letters from Jim'' (1941) editor
*''One Small Candle'' (1942)
*''So Immortal a Flower'' (1944)
*''The Labyrinth'' (1944)
*''And So to America'' (1946)
*''Eight for Eternity'' (1947)
*''And So to Rome'' (1950)
*''A Terrace in the Sun'' (1951)
*''One Year of Life'' (1952) memoir
*''The Remarkable Young Man'' (1954)
*''Portal to Paradise: an Italian excursion'' (1955)
*''Love Is Like That'' (1957)
*''Selected Poems'' (1960)
*''Wide Is the Horizon'' (1962)
*''Grand Cruise'' (1963)
*''A Flight of Birds'' (1966)
*''The Growing Boy'' (1967) autobiography (i)
*''The Years of Promise'' autobiography (ii)
*''The Bright Twenties'' (1970) autobiography (iii)
*''Sunshine and Shadow'' (1972) autobiography (iv)
*''Pleasant Years'' (1974) autobiography (v)
*''Wings'' poem
(*)=The "Pilgrim Cottage" books
(@)=The "Inside Europe" novels

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Authority control}}

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Prince George, Duke of Kent

2025-06-15T07:15:49Z

2A00:23C7:C8BC:C501:507C:445E:62F7:256D: Added location

{{short description|British prince (1902–1942)}}
{{Use British English|date=June 2011}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2022}}
{{Infobox royalty
| name = Prince George
| title = [[Duke of Kent]] ([[#Honours and arms|more]])
| image = Prince George, Duke of Kent.jpg
| image_size =
| caption = George in 1934
| spouse = {{marriage|[[Princess Marina of Greece and Denmark]]|29 November 1934}}
| issue = {{plainlist|
* [[Prince Edward, Duke of Kent]]
* [[Princess Alexandra, The Hon. Lady Ogilvy]]
* [[Prince Michael of Kent]]}}
| full name = George Edward Alexander Edmund
| house = {{plainlist|
* [[House of Windsor|Windsor]] (from 1917)
* [[House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha|Saxe-Coburg and Gotha]] (until 1917)}}
| father = [[George V]]
| mother = [[Mary of Teck]]
| birth_name = Prince George of Wales
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1902|12|20|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[York Cottage]], [[Sandringham, Norfolk]], England
| death_date = {{Death date and age|1942|8|25|1902|12|20|df=y}}
| death_place = [[Morven, Caithness]], Scotland
{{Infobox person | embed = yes
| death_cause = [[Dunbeath air crash]]}}
| burial_date = 29 August 1942
| burial_place = {{Br separated entries|Royal Vault, [[St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle]] | 29 August 1968 |[[Royal Burial Ground, Frogmore]]}}
| signature = PrinceGeorgeSignature.svg
| module = {{Infobox person
| embed=yes
| education = {{plainlist|
* [[Royal Naval College, Osborne]]
* [[Britannia Royal Naval College]]}}
}}
{{Infobox military person
| embed=yes
| allegiance = {{flagu|United Kingdom}}
|branch= {{plainlist|
* {{navy|United Kingdom}}
* {{army|United Kingdom}}
* {{air force|United Kingdom}}}}
|serviceyears= 1916–1942
|serviceyears_label= Years of active service
|rank={{plainlist|
* [[Rear admiral (Royal Navy)|Rear-admiral]] (RN)
* [[Major-general (United Kingdom)|Major general]] (British Army)
* [[Air commodore]] (RAF)}}
|unit=
|commands=
|battles={{plainlist|
* [[First World War]]
* [[Second World War]]}}
}}
}}
'''Prince George, Duke of Kent''' (George Edward Alexander Edmund; 20 December 1902 – 25 August 1942) was a member of the [[British royal family]], the fourth son of King [[George V]] and [[Mary of Teck|Queen Mary]]. He was a younger brother of kings [[Edward VIII]] and [[George VI]]. Prince George served in the [[Royal Navy]] in the 1920s and then briefly as a civil servant. He became [[Duke of Kent]] in 1934. In the late 1930s he served as a [[Royal Air Force]] officer, initially as a staff officer at [[RAF Training Command]] and then, from July 1941, as a staff officer in the Welfare Section of the RAF Inspector General's Staff. He died in the [[Dunbeath air crash]] in Scotland on 25 August 1942, in which fourteen of the fifteen crew and passengers were killed.

==Early life==
[[File:Princejohnandfamily.jpg|thumb|left|Prince George (far right) with his siblings in 1910]]
Prince George was born on 20 December 1902 at [[York Cottage]] on the [[Sandringham House|Sandringham Estate]] in Norfolk, England.<ref name=ppg26aug>{{cite news|title=Duke of Kent once called sailor prince|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=dtkOAAAAIBAJ&pg=5896,1218980&dq=prince+george+duke+of+kent&hl=en|access-date=23 March 2013|newspaper=Pittsburgh Post-Gazette|date=26 August 1945}}</ref> His father was the Prince of Wales (later King [[George V]]), the only surviving son of King [[Edward VII]] and [[Alexandra of Denmark|Queen Alexandra]].

His mother was the Princess of Wales, later [[Mary of Teck|Queen Mary]], the only daughter and eldest child of the [[Francis, Duke of Teck|Duke]] and [[Princess Mary Adelaide of Cambridge|Duchess of Teck]]. At the time of his birth, he was fifth in the [[Succession to the British throne|line of succession to the throne]], behind his father and three older brothers: [[Edward VIII|Edward]], [[George VI|Albert]] and [[Prince Henry, Duke of Gloucester|Henry]].

George was baptised in the Private Chapel at [[Windsor Castle]] on 26 January 1903 by [[Francis Paget]], [[Bishop of Oxford]]. His godparents were King [[Edward VII]] (his paternal grandfather), [[Prince Valdemar of Denmark]] (his paternal granduncle, represented by [[Haakon VII of Norway|Prince Carl of Denmark]], his paternal uncle), [[Prince Louis of Battenberg]] (husband of his father's cousin), [[Alexandra of Denmark|Queen Alexandra]] (his paternal grandmother), [[Maria Feodorovna (Dagmar of Denmark)|Empress Dowager Maria Feodorovna]] (his paternal grandaunt, represented by [[Princess Victoria of the United Kingdom]], his paternal aunt), and [[Princess Helena of the United Kingdom|Princess Christian of Schleswig-Holstein]] (his paternal grandaunt).<ref>{{Cite newspaper The Times |title=Court Circular|date=27 January 1903 |page=8 |issue=36988}}</ref>

==Education and career==
[[File:Princes Edward, Henry, and George Time cover 1927.jpg|thumb|George (centre) with his brothers the [[Edward VIII|Prince of Wales]] and [[Prince Henry, Duke of Gloucester|Prince Henry]] on ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'' magazine's cover, 8 August 1927]]
Prince George received his early education from a tutor and then followed his elder brother, [[Prince Henry, Duke of Gloucester|Prince Henry]], to [[St Peter's Court]], a preparatory school at [[Broadstairs]], Kent. At the age of 13, like his brothers, the Prince of Wales, later King [[Edward VIII]] and Prince Albert, later King [[George VI]], before him, he went to naval college, first at [[Royal Naval College, Osborne|Osborne]] and later, at [[Britannia Royal Naval College|Dartmouth]].<ref name=ppg26aug/> He was promoted to sub-lieutenant on 15 February 1924,<ref>{{London Gazette |issue=33004 |date=23 December 1924 |page=9333 |nolink=y}}</ref> and was promoted to lieutenant on 15 February 1926.<ref>{{London Gazette |issue=33133 |date=16 February 1926 |page=1160 |nolink=y}}</ref> He remained on active service in the Royal Navy until March 1929, serving on {{HMS|Iron Duke|1912|6}} and later on the flagship of the Atlantic Fleet (renamed the [[Home Fleet]] in 1932), {{HMS|Nelson|28|6}}.<ref name=ppg26aug/> He served on the latter as a lieutenant on the admiral's staff before transferring in 1928 to {{HMS|Durban}} on the [[North America and West Indies Station|America and West Indies Station]], based at the [[Royal Naval Dockyard, Bermuda|Royal Naval Dockyard]] at [[Bermuda]]. His father had previously served at Bermuda on {{HMS|Canada|1881|6}} and {{HMS|Thrush|1889|6}}, as a watch-keeping lieutenant.<ref>"Our London Letter", ''The Gloucester Journal'', Gloucester, England. 21 July 1928, p. 13</ref>

After leaving the navy, he briefly held posts at the Foreign Office and later the Home Office, becoming the first member of the royal family to work as a civil servant.<ref name=ppg26aug/> He continued to receive promotions after leaving active service: to commander on 15 February 1934<ref>{{London Gazette |issue=34024 |date=16 February 1934 |page=1074 |nolink=y}}</ref> and to captain on 1 January 1937.<ref>{{London Gazette |issue=34356 |date=1 January 1937 |page=10 |nolink=y}}</ref>

From January to April 1931, Prince George and his elder brother the Prince of Wales travelled 18,000 miles on a tour of South America. Their outward voyage was on the ocean liner {{SS|Oropesa|1919|2}}.<ref>{{citation |url= http://www.ecsodus.com/PSNC/fleet/O-1920.html |last=Erskine |first=Barry |title=Oropesa (II) |work=Pacific Steam Navigation Company |access-date=15 December 2013}}</ref> In Buenos Aires they opened a British Empire Exhibition.<ref>{{cite book |last=Nicol |first=Stuart |year=2001 |title=MacQueen's Legacy; Ships of the Royal Mail Line |volume=Two |place=Brimscombe Port and Charleston, SC |publisher=[[The History Press|Tempus Publishing]] |isbn=0-7524-2119-0 |page=130}}</ref> They continued from Río de la Plata to Rio de Janeiro on the liner {{RMS|Alcantara|1926|2}} and returned from Brazil to Europe on the liner {{RMS|Arlanza|1912|2}}, landing at [[Lisbon]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Nicol |first=Stuart |year=2001 |title=MacQueen's Legacy; A History of the Royal Mail Line |volume=One |place=Brimscombe Port and Charleston, SC |publisher=[[The History Press|Tempus Publishing]] |isbn=0-7524-2118-2 |page=158}}</ref> The princes returned via Paris and an Imperial Airways flight from [[Paris–Le Bourget Airport]] that landed specially in Windsor Great Park.<ref>{{citation |url= http://newspapers.nl.sg/Digitised/Article/straitstimes19310430-1.2.53.aspx |title=Arrival at Windsor by Air |newspaper=[[The Straits Times]] |publisher=[[National Library, Singapore]] |date=30 April 1931 |access-date=18 December 2013}}</ref><ref>{{citation |url= http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article45763837 |title=Princes Home |newspaper=[[The Advertiser (Adelaide)|The Advertiser and Register]] |publisher=[[National Library of Australia]] |date=1 May 1931 |access-date=18 December 2013}}</ref>

On 23 June 1936, George was appointed a personal aide-de-camp to his eldest brother, the new king, Edward VIII.<ref>{{London Gazette |issue=34365 |date=19 June 1936 |page=4012 |supp=y |nolink=y}}</ref> Following the [[abdication of Edward VIII]], he was appointed a personal naval aide-de-camp to his elder brother, now George VI.<ref>{{London Gazette |issue=34365 |date=29 January 1937 |page=687 |supp=y |nolink=y}}</ref> On 12 March 1937, he was commissioned as a colonel in the British Army and in the equivalent rank of group captain in the Royal Air Force (RAF).<ref>{{London Gazette |issue=34379 |date=12 March 1937 |page=1646 |nolink=y}}</ref> He was also appointed as the Colonel-in-Chief of the [[Royal Fusiliers]] from the same date.<ref name="Fusiliers">{{London Gazette |issue=34379 |date=12 March 1937 |page=1642 |nolink=y}}</ref>

In October 1938 George was appointed [[Governor-General of Australia]] in succession to [[Alexander Hore-Ruthven, 1st Earl of Gowrie|Lord Gowrie]] with effect from November 1939.<ref>"The Duke of Kent: Appointment in Australia", ''The Times'' (26 October 1938): 14.</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Marina, a tragic but well-loved Princess|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=BLIpAAAAIBAJ&pg=3140,8817486&dq=princess+marina&hl=en|access-date=24 July 2013|newspaper=The Sydney Morning Herald|date=28 August 1968|location=London}}</ref> On 11 September 1939 it was announced that, owing to the outbreak of the Second World War, the appointment was postponed.<ref>"Duke of Kent and Australia", ''The Times'' (12 September 1939): 6.</ref>

On 8 June 1939, George was promoted to the ranks of [[Rear admiral (Royal Navy)|rear admiral]] in the Royal Navy, [[Major-general (United Kingdom)|major-general]] in the British Army and [[air vice-marshal]] in the Royal Air Force.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{London Gazette |issue=34633 |date=6 June 1939 |page=3851 |supp=y |nolink=y}}</ref> At the start of the Second World War, George returned to active naval service with the rank of rear admiral, briefly serving in the [[Naval Intelligence Division (United Kingdom)|Intelligence Division]] of the [[Admiralty (United Kingdom)|Admiralty]].

He was patron of the [[Society for Nautical Research]] between 1926 and 1942.<ref>Hugh Murphy & Derek J. Oddy (2010) ''The Mirror of the Seas; A Centenary History of the Society for Nautical Research'' London, Society for Nautical Research, p.191. {{ISBN|978-0-902387-01-0}}</ref>

==Personal life==
===Marriage and children===
[[File:The Duke and Duchess of Kent.jpg|thumb|The Duke and Duchess of Kent in 1934]]
On 9 October 1934, in anticipation of his forthcoming marriage to his second cousin, [[Princess Marina of Greece and Denmark]], he was created [[Duke of Kent]], [[Earl of St Andrews]], and [[Baron Downpatrick]].<ref>{{London Gazette|issue=34094|date=9 October 1934|page=6365|city=London}}</ref> The couple [[Wedding of Prince George and Princess Marina|married]] on 29 November 1934 at [[Westminster Abbey]].<ref>{{cite news|title=King and Queen|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=gBRkAAAAIBAJ&pg=1563,3406056&dq=prince+george+duke+of+kent&hl=en|access-date=23 March 2013|newspaper=The Calgary Daily Herald|date=29 November 1934}}</ref> This was followed by a Greek ceremony in the private chapel at [[Buckingham Palace]], which was converted into an Orthodox chapel for the liturgy.<ref>{{cite news|title=King and Queen see rehearsals|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=jOpUAAAAIBAJ&pg=7191,2539668&dq=princess+marina&hl=en|access-date=24 July 2013|newspaper=The Sydney Morning Herald|date=29 November 1934}}</ref> They had three children:
* [[Prince Edward, Duke of Kent]] (born 9 October 1935). He married [[Katharine, Duchess of Kent|Katharine Worsley]] on 8 June 1961. They have three children.
* [[Princess Alexandra, The Honourable Lady Ogilvy|Princess Alexandra, The Hon. Lady Ogilvy]] (born 25 December 1936). She married the Hon. [[Angus Ogilvy]], son of [[David Ogilvy, 12th Earl of Airlie]] and Lady Alexandra [[Earl of Leicester#Seventh creation (1837)|Coke]], on 24 April 1963. They have two children.
* [[Prince Michael of Kent]] (born 4 July 1942). He married [[Princess Michael of Kent|Baroness Marie Christine von Reibnitz]] on 30 June 1978. They have two children.

===Relationships===
George was rumored to have affairs with musical star [[Jessie Matthews]],<ref name="Panton">Kenneth J. Panton [https://books.google.com/books?id=BiyyueBTpaMC&pg=PA217&lpg=PA217 ''Historical Dictionary of the British Monarchy''], Lanham,MD: Scarecrow Press, 2011, p.217</ref> writer [[Cecil Roberts]],<ref>King, Francis Henry. ''Yesterday Came Suddenly'', Constable (London) 1993, p278</ref> and [[Noël Coward]],<ref>Barry Day, ed., ''The Letters of Noël Coward''. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2007. p. 691</ref> a relationship which Coward's long-term partner, [[Graham Payn]], denied.<ref>[[Gyles Brandreth|Brandreth, Gyles]] (2004). ''Philip and Elizabeth: Portrait of a Marriage''. London: Century. {{ISBN|0-7126-6103-4}}, p. 94</ref> While married, he had an affair with Margaret Whigham, later known as [[Margaret Campbell, Duchess of Argyll]].<ref name=londontimes>{{cite news|url=https://www.thetimes.com/comment/article/the-dirty-duchess-of-argyll-was-ahead-of-her-time-8zj2q7kjg|title=The Dirty Duchess of Argyll was ahead of her time|work=[[The Times]]|date=2 February 2019|access-date=2 February 2019|last1=MacIntyre|first1=Ben}}</ref>

George was also rumoured to have been addicted to drugs, especially [[morphine]] and [[cocaine]], an allegation which reputedly originated from his friendship with [[Kiki Preston]] (née Alice Gwynne, 1898–1946), whom he first met in the mid-1920s.<ref>Lynn Kear and John Rossman. ''Kay Francis: A Passionate Life and Career''. Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Company, 2006. [https://books.google.com/books?id=QWRWZu2EsKAC&pg=PA28 p. 28]</ref><ref name="Farrant">Farrant, Leda (1994). ''Diana, Lady Delamere and the Lord Erroll Murder'', p. 77. Publishers Distribution Services.</ref><ref>McLeod, Kirsty. ''Battle Royal: Edward VIII & George VI, Brother Against Brother''. Constable, 1999. p 122</ref> Known as "the girl with the silver syringe" due to her addiction to [[heroin]], Preston – a cousin of railroad heiress [[Gloria Vanderbilt]] – was married first to Horace R. B. Allen and then, in 1925, to banker Jerome Preston.<ref>Lynn Picknett, Clive Prince, Stephen Prior, and Robert Brydon. ''War of the Windsors: A Century of Unconstitutional Monarchy''. p. 58.</ref> She died after jumping out of a window of the [[Stanhope Hotel]] in New York City.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=hpggAAAAIBAJ&sjid=R2gFAAAAIBAJ&pg=4430,7809765&dq=lillian+turner+preston&hl=en | title=N. Y. Woman Leaps 5 Stories to Death | work=[[The Lewiston Daily Sun]] | location=[[Lewiston, Maine]] | date=24 December 1946 | agency=[[Associated Press]] | access-date=12 June 2024}}</ref>

His other alleged sexual liaisons include a ''[[ménage à trois]]'' with Preston and José Uriburu, bisexual son of [[Argentina|Argentine]] ambassador to the UK [[:es:José Evaristo Uriburu Tezanos Pinto|José Uriburu Tezanos]].<ref>Bazán, Osvaldo (2004). ''[https://books.google.com/books/about/Historia_de_la_homosexualidad_en_la_Arge.html Historia de la homosexualidad en la Argentina: de la conquista de América al siglo XXI].'' (in Spanish), p. 180. Marea Editorial.</ref>

In addition to his legitimate children, he was said to have had a son by Kiki Preston.<ref>Nicholson, Stuart (1999). ''Reminiscing in Tempo: A Portrait of Duke Ellington'', p. 146. Northeastern University Press.</ref> According to the memoirs of a friend, [[Loelia, Duchess of Westminster]], Prince George's brother [[Edward VIII]] believed that the son was [[Michael Temple Canfield]] (1926–1969), the adopted son of American publisher [[Cass Canfield]] – and the first husband of [[Lee Radziwill]], sister of [[First Lady of the United States|First Lady]] [[Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis]] (wife of President [[John F. Kennedy]]).<ref>Westminster, Loelia, Duchess of. ''Grace and Favour'', Weidenfeld Nicholson, 1961</ref>

In an article published in June of 2024, the ''[[Daily Telegraph]]'' provided a list of the Duke's known and suspected romantic partners, while casting doubt on others who have been named at times. The article specifically called into question the factual accuracy of some elements of the article about the Duke in the English language [[Wikipedia]] specifically relating to his private life and romantic relationships.<ref name="Telegraph">{{Cite news |date=2024-06-30 |title=The scandalous unseen letters of 'love rat' Prince George, Duke of Kent |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/royal-family/2024/06/10/scandalous-unseen-letters-prince-george-duke-of-kent/ |access-date=2024-07-01 |work=The Telegraph}}</ref>

==RAF career==
[[File:Royal Air Force Ferry Command, 1941-1943. CH3161.jpg|thumb|right|The Duke of Kent before he crossed the Atlantic by air]]

As a young man the Duke came to the opinion that the future lay in aviation. It became his passion, and in 1929, the Duke earned his pilot's licence. He was the first of the royal family to cross the Atlantic Ocean by air. Before his flying days, he entered the Royal Navy, and was trained in intelligence work while stationed at [[Rosyth]].<ref>Macwhirter, Robin, 'The Tragedy at Eagle's Rock', Scotsman, 24 August 1985</ref>

In March 1937, he was granted a commission in the Royal Air Force as a [[group captain]].<ref>{{London Gazette|issue=34379 |date=12 March 1937|page=1646}}</ref> He was also made the [[Honorary Air Commodore]] of [[No. 500 Squadron RAF|No. 500 (County of Kent) Squadron]] [[Royal Auxiliary Air Force|Auxiliary Air Force]] in August 1938.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hunt|1972|p=314.}}</ref><ref name="No. 500">{{London Gazette |issue=35342 |date=16 August 1938 |page=5294 |nolink=y}}</ref> He was promoted to air vice-marshal in June 1939, along with promotions to flag and general officer rank in the other two services.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>

In 1939 he returned to active service as a rear admiral in the Royal Navy, but in April 1940, transferred to the Royal Air Force. He temporarily relinquished his rank as an air officer to assume the post of staff officer at [[RAF Training Command]] in the rank of group captain,<ref>{{London Gazette |issue=34844 |date=7 May 1940 |page=2722 |nolink=y}}</ref> so that he would not be senior to more experienced officers. On 28 July 1941, he assumed the rank of [[air commodore]] in the Welfare Section of the RAF Inspector General's Staff.<ref>{{London Gazette |issue=35292 |date=30 September 1941 |page=5659 |nolink=y}}</ref> In this role, he went on official visits to RAF bases to help boost wartime morale.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1942/1942%20-%201829.html|title=Royal family; aircraft engineer; 1942|publisher=Flight Archive|access-date=23 March 2013}}</ref>

==Freemasonry==
Prince George was initiated into [[freemasonry]] on 12 April 1928 in Navy Lodge No. 2612. He subsequently served as master of Navy Lodge in 1931, and was also a member of Prince of Wales's Lodge No. 259, and Royal Alpha Lodge No. 16, of which he served as master in 1940. He was appointed senior grand warden of the [[United Grand Lodge of England]] in 1933, and served as provincial grand master of Wiltshire from 1934, until he was elected [[Grand Master (Masonic)|grand master]] of the United Grand Lodge of England in 1939; a position he held until his death in 1942.<ref>{{cite web|title=English Royal Freemasons|url=http://freemasonry.london.museum/it/wp-content/uploads/2010/08/English-Royal-Freemasons.pdf|access-date=21 January 2019|website=The Library & Museum of Freemasonry|archive-date=22 January 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190122003007/http://freemasonry.london.museum/it/wp-content/uploads/2010/08/English-Royal-Freemasons.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==Death==
{{further|Dunbeath air crash}}

On 25 August 1942, George and 14 others took off in a RAF [[Short Sunderland]] [[flying boat]] W4026 from [[Invergordon]], [[Ross and Cromarty]], to fly to [[Iceland]] on non-operational duties. The aircraft crashed on Eagle's Rock, a hillside near [[Dunbeath]], [[Caithness]], Scotland. George and all but one of those on board were killed. He was 39 years old.<ref>{{cite news |title=Duke of Kent Dies in an R.A.F. Crash on way to Iceland |url=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1942/08/26/85582803.pdf |access-date=11 September 2012 |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |date= 26 August 1942}}</ref>

[[Lynn Picknett]] and Clive Prince wrote about the crash in their book ''Double Standards'', which was criticised for its "implausible inaccuracy".<ref>
{{cite book
| last1 = Rubinstein
| first1 = William D.
| author-link1 = William D. Rubinstein
| chapter = 7: The Mysteries of Rudolf Hess
| title = Shadow Pasts: History's Mysteries
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=UPiYKsL25ZIC
| location = Harlow, England
| publisher = Pearson/Longman
| date = 2008
| page = 147
| isbn = 9780582505971
| access-date = 2017-02-18
| quote = ... probably the strangest book ever written on the Hess affair is ''Double Standards''... The thesis of ''Double Standards'' is that [[Rudolf Hess]] ... died in the plane crash in northern Scotland in August 1942 which also killed the Duke of Kent ... Hess was being transported to neutral Sweden (not Iceland, given in the official story as the plane's destination) to be handed over to the Germans as the first step in a settlement of the war between Britain and Germany. ... ''Double Standards'' seems breathtaking in its implausible inaccuracy.
}}</ref>
They alleged that Kent had a briefcase full of 100 [[Swedish krona]] notes, worthless in Iceland, handcuffed to his wrist, leading to speculation the flight was a military mission to Sweden, the only place where Swedish notes were of value.<ref>''Double Standards'' p. 424</ref>

His death in RAF service marked the first time in more than 450 years that a member of the royal family died on active service.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://newbattleatwar.wordpress.com/2013/04/09/the-death-of-lac-william-currie-newtongrange-and-sunderland-w4032/ |title=Aviation – Newbattle at war |website=newbattleatwar.wordpress.com|date=9 April 2013 }}</ref> The prince's body was transferred initially to [[St George's Chapel, Windsor]], and he was buried in the [[Royal Burial Ground, Frogmore]], directly behind [[Queen Victoria]]{{'}}s mausoleum.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.stgeorges-windsor.org/about-st-georges/royal-connection/royal-burials/royal-burials-chapel-since-1805/|title=Royal Burials in the Chapel since 1805|work=College of St George - Windsor Castle|accessdate=5 March 2023}}</ref> His elder son, six-year-old [[Prince Edward, Duke of Kent|Prince Edward]], succeeded him as Duke of Kent. Princess Marina, his wife, had given birth to their third child, [[Prince Michael of Kent|Prince Michael]], only seven weeks before Prince George's death. His will was sealed in [[Llandudno]] in 1943. His estate was valued at £157,735 (or £{{Format price|{{Inflation|UK-GDP|157735|1942|r=-5}}}} in {{Inflation/year|UK-GDP}} when adjusted for inflation).<ref>{{cite web |last1=Evans |first1=Rob |last2=Pegg |first2=David |title=£187m of Windsor family wealth hidden in secret royal wills |url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2022/jul/18/187m-pounds-of-windsor-family-wealth-hidden-in-secret-royal-wills |website=The Guardian |access-date=19 July 2022 |language=en |date=18 July 2022}}</ref>

One RAF crew member survived the crash: Flight Sergeant Andrew Jack, the Sunderland's rear gunner.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Ranter |first1=Harro |title=ASN Aircraft accident Short Sunderland III W4026 Dunbeath, Scotland |url=https://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id=19420825-1 |website=aviation-safety.net |access-date=22 June 2017}}</ref> Flight Sergeant Jack's niece has claimed that Jack told his brother that the Duke had been at the controls of the plane; that Jack had dragged him from the pilot's seat after the crash; and that there was an additional person on board the plane whose identity has never been revealed.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/wales/north_east/3342953.stm "Secret of Duke's plane death."] [[BBC News]], Wales, 23 December 2003. Retrieved 26 September 2017</ref>

==In popular culture==
[[File:Duke of Kent1934.jpg|thumb|upright|Portrait by [[Philip de László]], 1934]]
The Duke's early life is dramatised in [[Stephen Poliakoff]]'s television serial ''[[The Lost Prince]]'' (2003), a biography of the life of [[Prince John of the United Kingdom|the Duke's younger brother John]]. In the film, the teenage Prince 'Georgie' is portrayed as sensitive, intelligent, artistic and almost uniquely sympathetic to his brother's plight. He is shown as detesting his time at the Royal Naval College and as having a difficult relationship with his austere father.

In May 2008, the BBC aired its Radio 4 comedy ''[[Hut 33]]'', Series 2, Episode 1, titled "The Royal Visit". The main guest character for this episode was Duke of Kent, played by Michael Fenton-Stevens. The show is set at [[Bletchley Park]] with a team of code breakers. The Duke has been chosen to make an impromptu visit, and the code breakers have been told to hide all evidence of their real work and invent a story. "On no account should the Duke be told what really happens at Bletchley because he is a Nazi spy." He is also portrayed as promiscuous and bisexual, as he tries to gain sexual favours from one of the male staff, and one of the female characters recalls a previous liaison with the Duke.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b00vs38k|title = BBC Radio 4 Extra – Hut 33, Series 2, Royal Visit}}</ref>

Much of George's later life was outlined in the documentary film ''The Queen's Lost Uncle''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.channel4.com/programmes/the-queens-lost-uncle|title=The Queen's Lost Uncle|publisher=Channel 4|access-date=18 May 2015}}</ref> He is a recurring character in the revival of ''[[Upstairs Downstairs (2010 TV series)|Upstairs, Downstairs]]'' (2010/2012), played by [[Blake Ritson]].<ref name=dexp26feb>{{cite news|title=Upstairs life of a royal rogue|url=http://www.express.co.uk/posts/view/304572/Upstairs-life-of-a-royal-rogue/|access-date=23 March 2013|newspaper=Daily Express|date=26 February 2012}}</ref> He is portrayed as a caring brother, terrified of the mistakes that his family is making; later, he is portrayed as an appeaser of the German regime, but also as a supportive friend of Hallam Holland.<ref name=dexp26feb/>

George and his eldest brother the Prince of Wales, later Edward VIII, are shown in [[Stephen Poliakoff]]'s BBC television serial ''[[Dancing on the Edge (TV series)|Dancing on the Edge]]'' (2013), in which they are portrayed as supporters of jazz and encouragers of Louis Lester's Jazz Band. A sexual attraction to Louis on George's part is also insinuated.<ref name=fur1feb>{{cite news|last=Furness|first=Hannah|title=New BBC drama to show the scandalous stories of the playboy princes|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/tvandradio/bbc/9843404/New-BBC-drama-to-show-the-scandalous-stories-of-the-playboy-Princes.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/tvandradio/bbc/9843404/New-BBC-drama-to-show-the-scandalous-stories-of-the-playboy-Princes.html |archive-date=11 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|access-date=23 March 2013|newspaper=The Daily Telegraph|location=London|date=1 February 2013}}{{cbignore}}</ref>

==Honours and arms==
{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders"
! scope="col" |Country
! scope="col" |Date
! scope="col" |Appointment
! scope="col" |Ribbon
! scope="col" |Post-nominal
letters
!Other
|-
! rowspan="6" |{{Flagu|United Kingdom}}
|1923
|Royal Knight Companion of [[Order of the Garter]]
|[[File:Order of the Garter, ribbon bar (colour from 1950 onwards).svg|70x70px]]
|KG
|<ref>{{citation |title=List of the Knights of the Garter |url=https://www.heraldica.org/topics/orders/garterlist.htm |via=heraldica.org}}</ref>formally invested in 1924
|-
|1935
|Extra Knight of the [[Order of the Thistle]]
|[[File:UK Order of the Thistle ribbon.svg|70x70px]]
|KT
|
|-
|1934
|Knight Grand Cross of the [[Order of St Michael and St George]]
|[[File:UK Order St-Michael St-George ribbon.svg|70x70px]]
|GCMG
|<ref>{{London Gazette
| issue = 34045
| date = 27 April 1934
| page = 2703
}}</ref>
|-
|1924
|Knight Grand Cross of the [[Royal Victorian Order]]
|[[File:Royal Victorian Order UK ribbon.png|70x70px]]
|GCVO
|<ref>P. Galloway, D. Stanley, D. Martin (1996), [https://books.google.com/books?id=LHMYnwEACAAJ ''Royal Service''], volume 1, pp. 209–212 (London: Victorian Publishing, {{ISBN|0-9528527-0-5}})</ref>
|-
|1936
|Recipient of the [[Royal Victorian Chain]]
|
|
|<ref>{{London Gazette
| issue = 34238
| date = 31 December 1935
| page = 7
}}</ref>
|-
|23 June 1936
|[[Personal aide-de-camp]]
|
|ADC
|<ref>{{cite web |title=Personal Aide de Camp Appointments 23 June 1936 |url=https://www.thegazette.co.uk/London/issue/34296/supplement/4012 |access-date=11 June 2022 |website=The London Gazette |language=en}}</ref>
|-
!{{Flagu|Denmark}}
|20 September 1922
|Knight of the [[Order of the Elephant]]
|[[File:Order of the Elephant Ribbon bar.svg|70x70px]]
|
|<ref>{{cite book |url=https://dis-danmark.dk/bibliotek/918011.pdf#page=53 |title=Statshaandbog for Kongeriget Danmark for Aaret 1933 |publisher=J.H. Schultz A.-S. Universitetsbogtrykkeri |year=1933 |editor1-last=Bille-Hansen |editor1-first=A. C. |series=Kongelig Dansk Hof- og Statskalender |location=Copenhagen |page=17 |language=da |trans-title=State Manual of the Kingdom of Denmark for the Year 1933 |access-date=5 March 2020 |editor2-last=Holck |editor2-first=Harald |via=[[:da:DIS Danmark]] |orig-year=1st pub.:1801}}</ref>
|-
!{{Flagu|Norway}}
|20 December 1924
|Grand Cross with Collar of the [[Order of St. Olav]]
|[[File:St Olavs Orden storkors stripe.svg|70x70px]]
|
|<ref name="norges1">{{citation |title=Norges Statskalender for Aaret 1930 |pages=995–996 |year=1930 |chapter=Den kongelige norske Sanct Olavs Orden |chapter-url=https://runeberg.org/norkal/1930/0560.html |location=Oslo |publisher=Forlagt av H. Aschehoug & Co. (w. Nygaard) |language=Norwegian |via=runeberg.org}}</ref>
|-
!{{Flagu|Sweden}}
|1 October 1932
|Knight of the [[Order of the Seraphim]]
|[[File:Order of the Seraphim - Ribbon bar.svg|70x70px]]
|
|<ref>{{cite book |author=Per Nordenvall |title=Kungliga Serafimerorden: 1748–1998 |year=1998 |isbn=91-630-6744-7 |location=Stockholm |language=sv |chapter=Kungl. Maj:ts Orden}}</ref>
|-
!{{Flagu|Chile}}
|
|Knight Grand Cross of the [[Order of Merit (Chile)|Chilean Order of Merit]]
|[[File:CHL Order of Merit of Chile - Grand Cross BAR.svg|70x70px]]
|
|<ref>{{cite web |last1=Bortrick |first1=William |title=The Royal Family – HM Queen Elizabeth II |url=http://burkespeerage.com/articles/peerage/page62-6a.aspx |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091201030448/http://burkespeerage.com/articles/peerage/page62-6a.aspx |archive-date=1 December 2009 |access-date=7 January 2021 |website=Burke's Peerage and Gentry}}</ref>
|-
!{{Flagu|France}}
|March 1939
|Grand Cross of the [[Legion of Honour]]
|[[File:Legion Honour ribbon (II class).svg|70x70px]]
|
|<ref>{{cite book |author=M. & B. Wattel |title=Les Grand'Croix de la Légion d'honneur de 1805 à nos jours. Titulaires français et étrangers |date=2009 |publisher=Archives & Culture |isbn=978-2-35077-135-9 |location=Paris |page=463 |language=French |ref=M. et B. Wattel}}</ref>
|}

===Appointments===
====Military====
;Canada
* {{Flagicon|CAN|army}} Colonel-in-Chief, [[The Essex and Kent Scottish]] (1937 – 1942)<ref>{{citation| url=https://ekscot.org/army-reserve/key-appointments/| author=The Essex and Kent Scottish| title=Key Appointments| publisher=The Scottish Borderers Foundation| accessdate=15 November 2023}}</ref>

;New Zealand
* {{Flagicon|NZ|army}} Colonel-in-Chief, [[Corps of New Zealand Engineers]] (1938)<ref>{{cite book|first=P.|last=Cooke|title=Won by the Spade: How the Royal New Zealand Engineers Built a Nation|publisher=Exisle Publishing|location=Dunedin|isbn=9781775593645|year=2019|page=233}}</ref>

;United Kingdom
* {{Flagicon|UK|army}} [[Colonel-in-Chief]], [[Queen's Own Royal West Kent Regiment]] (1935)<ref>{{London Gazette|nolink=y|issue=34142|page=1807|date=15 March 1935}}</ref>
* {{Flagicon|UK|army}} Colonel-in-Chief, [[Royal Fusiliers]] (1937)<ref name="Fusiliers"/>
* {{Flagicon|UK|air force}} [[Honorary Air Commodore]], [[No. 500 Squadron RAF|No. 500 (County of Kent) Squadron]] [[Royal Auxiliary Air Force|Auxiliary Air Force]] (1938)<ref name="No. 500"/>

===Arms===
Around the time of his elder brother Prince Henry's twenty-first birthday, Prince George was granted the use of the Royal Arms, differenced by a label argent of three points, each bearing an anchor azure.

{| border="0" align="center" width="70%"
|-
!width=25% |[[Image:Coat of Arms of George, Duke of Kent.svg|200px|center]]
!width=25% |[[File:Royal Standard of Prince George, Duke of Kent.svg|200px|center]]
!width=25% |[[File:Royal Standard of Prince George, Duke of Kent (in Scotland).svg|200px|center]]
|-
|{{center|Prince George's [[coat of arms]]}}
|{{center|George's banner of arms}}
|{{center|George's personal banner of arms in Scotland}}
|}

{{Clear}}

==Ancestry==
{{See also|Descendants of Christian IX of Denmark}}

{{ahnentafel
|collapsed=yes |align=center
|boxstyle_1=background-color: #fcc;
|boxstyle_2=background-color: #fb9;
|boxstyle_3=background-color: #ffc;
|boxstyle_4=background-color: #bfc;
|1= 1. '''Prince George, Duke of Kent'''
|2= 2. [[George V|George V of the United Kingdom]]
|3= 3. [[Mary of Teck|Princess Victoria Mary of Teck]]
|4= 4. [[Edward VII|Edward VII of the United Kingdom]]
|5= 5. [[Alexandra of Denmark|Princess Alexandra of Denmark]]
|6= 6. [[Francis, Duke of Teck]]
|7= 7. [[Princess Mary Adelaide of Cambridge]]
|8= 8. [[Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha]]
|9= 9. [[Queen Victoria|Victoria of the United Kingdom]]
|10= 10. [[Christian IX|Christian IX, King of Denmark]]
|11= 11. [[Louise of Hesse-Kassel|Princess Louise of Hesse-Kassel]]
|12= 12. [[Duke Alexander of Württemberg (1804–1885)|Duke Alexander of Württemberg]]
|13= 13. [[Countess Claudine Rhédey von Kis-Rhéde]]
|14= 14. [[Prince Adolphus, Duke of Cambridge]]
|15= 15. [[Princess Augusta of Hesse-Kassel]]
}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite book|last=Hunt|first=Leslie|title=Twenty-one Squadrons: History of the Royal Auxiliary Air Force, 1925–57|location=London |publisher=Garnstone Press|year=1972|isbn=0-85511-110-0}}(New edition in 1992 by Crécy Publishing, {{ISBN|0-947554-26-2}}.)
* Millar, Peter. "The Other Prince". ''The Sunday Times'' (26 January 2003).
* Warwick, Christopher. ''George and Marina, Duke and Duchess of Kent''. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1988. {{ISBN|0-297-79453-1}}.

==External links==
{{commons category}}
* {{Hansard-contribs|mr-george-windsor-2|the Duke of Kent}}
* {{NPG name}}
* {{PM20|FID=pe/005982}}

{{S-start}}
{{S-hou | [[House of Windsor]] |20 December|1902|25 August|1942|[[House of Wettin]]}}
{{S-npo|mason}}
{{Succession box | title=Grand Master of the [[United Grand Lodge of England]] | before=[[Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught and Strathearn|The Duke of Connaught and Strathearn]] | after=[[Henry Lascelles, 6th Earl of Harewood|The Earl of Harewood]] | years=1939–1942}}
{{S-reg|uk}}
{{S-new}}
{{S-ttl|title=[[Duke of Kent]]|years=1934–1942}}
{{S-aft|after=[[Prince Edward, Duke of Kent|Prince Edward]]}}
{{S-end}}

{{British princes}}
{{Windsor family}}
{{Dukes of Kent}}
{{Princes of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha}}
{{UGLE}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Kent, Prince George, Duke Of}}
[[Category:1902 births]]
[[Category:1942 deaths]]
[[Category:Aviators killed in aviation accidents or incidents in Scotland]]
[[Category:Bailiffs Grand Cross of the Order of St John]]
[[Category:British Army generals of World War II]]
[[Category:British Empire in World War II]]
[[Category:British people of German descent]]
[[Category:British princes]]
[[Category:Burials at the Royal Burial Ground, Frogmore]]
[[Category:Children of George V]]
[[Category:Civil servants in the Home Office]]
[[Category:Civil servants in the Foreign Office]]
[[Category:Dukes of Kent]]
[[Category:Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour]]
[[Category:Grand masters of the United Grand Lodge of England]]
[[Category:Honorary air commodores]]
[[Category:House of Windsor|George, Duke of Kent]]
[[Category:Knights Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George]]
[[Category:Knights Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order]]
[[Category:Knights of the Garter]]
[[Category:Knights of the Thistle]]
[[Category:Lords High Commissioner to the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland]]
[[Category:Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Peers created by George V]]
[[Category:People educated at the Royal Naval College, Osborne]]
[[Category:People educated at St Peter's Court]]
[[Category:People from Sandringham, Norfolk]]
[[Category:Royal Air Force air marshals]]
[[Category:Royal Air Force personnel killed in World War II]]
[[Category:Royal Navy admirals of World War II]]
[[Category:Royal reburials]]
[[Category:Sons of emperors]]
[[Category:Sons of kings]]
[[Category:Victims of aviation accidents or incidents in 1942]]

LGBTQ rights in South Korea

2025-06-15T07:08:28Z

2A00:23C7:C8BC:C501:507C:445E:62F7:256D: Removed link

{{Short description|none}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2020}}
{{Infobox LGBT rights
| location_header = South Korea
| image = South Korea (orthographic projection).svg
| caption = [[South Korea]]
| legal_status = Legal
| gender_identity_expression = Transgender people allowed to change legal sex
| recognition_of_relationships = [[Recognition of same-sex unions in South Korea|No recognition of same-sex relationships]]
| recognition_of_relationships_restrictions = 
| adoption = No 
| military = Same-sex intercourse is illegal in the military, punishable by up to two years imprisonment.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Mitsanas |first=Michael |date=December 12, 2022 |title=South Korea's LGBTQ community confronts crushing headwinds in fight for equality |work=NBC News |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/nbc-out/out-news/south-koreas-lgbtq-community-confronts-crushing-headwinds-fight-equali-rcna57777}}</ref>
| discrimination_protections = 15 local governments have enacted anti-discrimination policies and provisions that include sexual orientation, though not nationally
}}

[[Lesbian]], [[gay]], [[bisexual]], [[transgender]], and [[queer]] ([[LGBTQ]]) people in South Korea face [[prejudice]], [[discrimination]], and other barriers to social inclusion not experienced by non-LGBTQ residents,<ref name="SK">{{Cite news |last=Mitsanas |first=Michael |date=December 12, 2022 |title=South Korea's LGBTQ community confronts crushing headwinds in fight for equality |work=[[NBC News]] |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/nbc-out/out-news/south-koreas-lgbtq-community-confronts-crushing-headwinds-fight-equali-rcna57777}}</ref> though there has been social improvements since the late 2010s. Same-sex intercourse is legal for civilians in [[South Korea]], but in the military, same-sex intercourse among soldiers is a crime, and all able-bodied men must complete about one year and half of military service under the [[Conscription in South Korea|conscript system]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Amnesty International |date=July 11, 2019 |title=Serving in silence: LGBTI people in South Korea's military |url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/asa25/0529/2019/en/}}</ref> South Korean national law does not recognize [[same-sex marriage]] or [[civil union]]s,<ref>{{Cite news |last=Kim |first=Min Joo |date=20 April 2023 |title=South Korea's gay couples fight for recognition, one law at a time |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2023/04/20/south-korea-lgbtq-rights-laws/}}</ref> nor does it protect against discrimination based on [[sexual orientation]] or [[gender identity]].<ref name="SK" /><ref name="CF" /> Same-sex couples cannot jointly adopt,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-02-01 |title=Same-Sex Couples Excluded from South Korea's New Definition of Families |url=https://www.voanews.com/a/east-asia-pacific_same-sex-couples-excluded-south-koreas-new-definition-families/6201455.html |access-date=2023-08-23 |website=VOA |language=en}}</ref> and a 2021 [[Human Rights Watch]] investigation found that LGBTQ students face "bullying and harassment, a lack of confidential mental health support, exclusion from school curricula, and gender identity discrimination" in South Korean schools.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=September 14, 2021 |title='I Thought of Myself as Defective:' Neglecting the Rights of LGBT Youth in South Korean Schools |url=https://www.hrw.org/report/2021/09/14/i-thought-myself-defective/neglecting-rights-lgbt-youth-south-korean-schools |journal=[[Human Rights Watch]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-09-14 |title=South Korea: LGBT Students Face Bullying, Discrimination |url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2021/09/14/south-korea-lgbt-students-face-bullying-discrimination |access-date=2023-08-23 |website=Human Rights Watch |language=en}}</ref>

On LGBTQ rights, [[South Korea]] is an outlier among other [[developed country|developed]] democracies, according to an [[NBC News]] analysis. On the 2019 Franklin & Marshall Global Barometer of Gay Rights, [[OECD]] nations averaged a grade of B. South Korea, however, was one of only three OECD countries to earn an F. Countries graded an F are characterized by the report as "persecuting" their LGBTQ communities.<ref name="SK" /><ref name="CF" />

Homosexuality remains quite [[taboo]] in South Korean society. Homosexuality is not specifically mentioned in either the [[Constitution of South Korea|South Korean Constitution]] or in the Civil Penal Code, although article 2 of the ''National Human Rights Commission Of Korea Act'' includes sexual orientation as one of the [[protected classes]]. [[Transgender]] or [[Non-binary gender|non-binary]] people are excluded from military service.

Transgender people are allowed to undergo gender affirming care in South Korea after the age of 20, and can change their gender identity on official documents.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gaynz.com/articles/publish/32/article_5801.php|title=Being gay in South Korea|publisher=GayNZ.com|access-date=2010-09-16|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110807015346/http://www.gaynz.com/articles/publish/32/article_5801.php|archive-date=7 August 2011|df=dmy-all}}</ref> [[Harisu]] is South Korea's first transgender entertainer, and in 2002 became the second person in South Korea to [[Transgender rights|legally change sex]].

Gay and lesbian Koreans still face difficulties at home and work, and many prefer not to reveal their sexual orientation to family, friends or co-workers out of fear of discrimination and being [[ostracized]].<ref>{{cite web|title=South Korea's 18th Queer festival starts today, but gay people still face discrimination and hate|url=https://www.pri.org/stories/2017-07-14/south-koreas-18th-queer-festival-starts-today-gay-people-still-face|website=Public Radio International|date=14 July 2017 }}</ref>

A survey by the Pew Research Center in 2023 found that a majority of South Koreans (56%) opposed same-sex marriage, below countries such as Japan (where 74% support same-sex marriage) and Vietnam (where 65% support same-sex marriage).<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Gubbala |first1=Sneha |last2=Miner |first2=William |title=Across Asia, views of same-sex marriage vary widely |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2023/11/27/across-asia-views-of-same-sex-marriage-vary-widely/ |access-date=2024-03-10 |website=Pew Research Center |date=27 November 2023 |language=en-US}}</ref>

According to a 2024 survey by [[Statista]], South Korea had the lowest share of people identifying as LGBT among 43 countries at only 3%, falling behind countries such as the Philippines (where 11% identify as LGBT) and Thailand (where 10% identify as LGBT).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.statista.com/chart/30142/respondents-who-identify-as-lgbt--in-selected-countries/|title=Where It's Most & Least Common To Be LGBT+|website=statista.com|date=16 May 2024 |access-date=2024-05-16}}</ref>

== Etymology ==
The Korean word for "homosexual" is ''dongseongaeja'' ({{ko-hhrm|hangul=동성애자|hanja=同性愛者}}, "same-sex lover"). A less considerate, but quite common, term is ''dongseongyeonaeja'' ({{ko-hhrm|hangul=동성연애자|hanja=同性戀愛者|labels=no}}). South Korean homosexuals, however, make frequent use of the term ''ibanin'' ({{ko-hhrm|hangul=이반인|hanja=異般人, 二般人|labels=no}}) which can be translated as "different type person", and is usually shortened to ''iban'' ({{ko-hhrm|hangul=이반|hanja=異般|labels=no}}).<ref>[http://www.kirikiri.org/bbs/zboard.php?id=fag_1&page=1&sn1=&divpage=1&sn=off&ss=on&sc=on&select_arrange=headnum&desc=asc&no=15 Kirikiri, the Lesbian Counseling Center in Korea] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070918112946/http://kirikiri.org/bbs/zboard.php?id=fag_1&page=1&sn1=&divpage=1&sn=off&ss=on&sc=on&select_arrange=headnum&desc=asc&no=15|date=18 September 2007}}; dead link as of 2009-01-17</ref>

The word is a direct play on the word ''ilban-in'' ({{ko-hhrm|hangul=일반인|hanja=一般人|labels=no}}) meaning "normal person" or "ordinary person". In addition, [[Konglish|English loanwords are used in South Korea]] to describe LGBT people. These words are simple transliterations of English words into [[hangul]]: lesbian (initially, a loanword from Greek to English) is ''lejeubieon'' or ''yeoseongae'' ({{lang|ko|레즈비언}} or {{ko-hhrm|hangul=여성애|hanja=女性愛|labels=no}}), gay is ''gei'' or ''namseongae'' ({{lang|ko|게이}} or {{ko-hhrm|hangul=남성애|hanja=男性愛|labels=no}}), queer is ''kwieo'' ({{lang|ko|퀴어}}), transgender is ''teuraenseujendeo'' ({{lang|ko|트랜스젠더}}), and bisexual is ''yangseongaeja'' ({{ko-hhrm|hangul=양성애자|hanja=兩性愛者|labels=no}}).<ref>{{cite web |title=Queer Identity and Sexuality in South Korea: A Critical Analysis via Male Bisexuality |url=http://dcollection.snu.ac.kr:80/jsp/common/DcLoOrgPer.jsp?sItemId=000000013281 |access-date=2013-08-01 |publisher=Seoul National University}}</ref>

==History==
{{main|LGBT history in South Korea}}
Although there is very little mention of homosexuality in [[Korean literature]] or traditional historical accounts, several members of the nobility and [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] [[Bhikkhu|monks]] have been known to either profess their attraction to members of the same sex or else be actively involved with them.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.utopia-asia.com/korlife2.htm |title=Korean Gay and Lesbian History |publisher=Utopia-asia.com |access-date=2011-01-20}}</ref>

During the [[Silla]] Dynasty, several noblemen and noblewomen are known to have engaged in homosexual activity and express their love for a person of the same sex. Among these is [[Hyegong of Silla|King Hyegong]]. In addition, the ''[[hwarang]]'' (Hangul: 화랑; Hanja: 花郞), also known as the Flowering Knights or the Flowering Boys, were an elite group of male Silla warriors, famous for their homoeroticism and femininity. The ''[[Samguk yusa]]'', a collection of Korean legends, folktales and historical accounts, contains verses that reveal the homosexual nature of the ''hwarang''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.theasian.asia/archives/91736|title=Homosexuality in ancient and modern Korea|date=12 August 2015}}</ref><ref name="thesis">{{Cite web|url=https://helda.helsinki.fi/bitstream/handle/10138/162883/Naaranoja_Kata_Pro+gradu_2016.pdf?sequence=2|website=helda.helsinki.fi|title=South Korean University Students' Attitudes toward Homosexuality and LGBT Issues|publisher=University of Helsinki|author=Kata R. Naaranoja|date=2 May 2016}}</ref>

During the [[Goryeo]] Dynasty, [[Mokjong of Goryeo|King Mokjong]] (980–1009) and [[Gongmin of Goryeo|King Gongmin]] (1325–1374) are both on record as having kept several ''wonchung'' ("male lovers") in their courts as "little-brother attendants" (''chajewhi'') who served as sexual partners. After the death of his wife, King Gongmin even went so far as to create a ministry whose sole purpose was to seek out and recruit young men from all over the country to serve in his court. Others including [[Chungseon of Goryeo|King Chungseon]] had long-term relationships with men. Those who were in same-sex relationships were referred to as ''yongyang jichong'', whose translation has been subject to argument, but is generally viewed as meaning the "dragon and the sun".<ref name="thesis"/>

In the [[Joseon Dynasty|Joseon Era]], several noblemen and noblewomen are known to have had same-sex sexual relations, including Royal Noble Consort [[Sun-bin Bong]] who was the second consort of [[Munjong of Joseon]] and [[Sejong the Great|King Sejong]]'s daughter-in-law who was banished after it was discovered that she was sleeping with one of her maids. During this period, there were travelling theater groups known as ''[[namsadang]]'' which included underaged males called ''midong'' ("beautiful boys"). The troupes provided "various types of entertainment, including band music, song, masked dance, circus, and puppet plays," sometimes with graphic representations of same-sex intercourse. The ''namsandang'' were further separated in two groups; the "butch" members (숫동모, ''sutdongmo'') and the "queens" (여동모, ''yeodongmo'', or 암동모, ''amdongmo'').<ref name="thesis"/>

The spread of [[Korean Confucianism|Neo-Confucianism]] in South Korea shaped the moral system, the way of life, and social relations of Korean society. Neo-Confucianism emphasizes strict obedience to the social order and the family unit, which referred to a husband and wife. Homosexuality and same-sex relationships were viewed as disturbing this system and thus were perceived as "deviant" or "immoral". Since the 1910s, Neo-Confucianism has lost a lot of influence, though still today Confucian ideas and practices significantly define South Korean culture and society.<ref name="thesis"/>

Homosexuality was officially declassified as "harmful and obscene" in 2003.<ref name="Nqapia"/><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.newspower.co.kr/336 |title=청소년 유해 매채 심의 기준에서‘동성애’삭제 |publisher=NewsPower, 107, Hauptgebäude, 17, Kim Sang-ok-ro, Jongno-gu, Seoul TEL 02-391-4945~6, www.newspower.co.kr/336 |access-date=2025-05-25}}</ref>

In August 2017, the [[Supreme Court of Korea|Supreme Court]] ordered the government to allow "Beyond the Rainbow" ({{langx|ko|비온뒤무지개재단}}), an LGBT rights foundation, to register as a charity with the [[Ministry of Justice (South Korea)|Ministry of Justice]]. Without official registration, the foundation was unable to receive tax-deductible donations and operate in full compliance with the law.<ref>{{cite web| url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2017/08/04/south-korea-supreme-court-affirms-lgbt-rights| title=South Korea: Supreme Court Affirms LGBT Rights| publisher=[[Human Rights Watch]]| date=4 August 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.hani.co.kr/arti/english_edition/e_national/689681.html| title=Government denies recognition to sexual minority rights group| date=4 May 2015| newspaper=[[The Hankyoreh]]}}</ref> In 2014, the South Korean Government voted in favor of a symbolic [[United Nations resolution]] aimed at combating discrimination against LGBT people.<ref name="Nqapia" />

=== COVID-19 related discrimination ===
In May 2020, the Government of Seoul relaxed [[COVID-19 lockdowns|COVID-19 lockdown]] restrictions and allowed bars and nightclubs to operate. In the days that followed a cluster new cases of [[COVID-19]] were reported in the inner-city area of [[Itaewon]] where an estimated 5700 people may have been exposed. These cases were eventually linked to bars and clubs that catered to gay men, fueling a backlash against the LGBTQ community that involved a marked increase of online harassment against members of the gay community as being immoral, and calls for LGBTQ events to close.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-05-13 |title=Covid-19 Backlash Targets LGBT People in South Korea {{!}} Human Rights Watch |url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2020/05/13/covid-19-backlash-targets-lgbt-people-south-korea |access-date=2023-12-25 |language=en}}</ref>

The situation also led to discussion about [[homophobia]] in South Korea, and the coronavirus contact surveillance program exposing personal details of LGBTQ people and accidentally [[outing]] them.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://items.ssrc.org/covid-19-and-the-social-sciences/covid-19-fieldnotes/pandemic-surveillance-and-homophobia-in-south-korea/|title=Pandemic Surveillance and Homophobia in South Korea|first1=Timothy|last1=Gitzen|first2=Wonkeun|last2=Chun|publisher=Social Science Research Council|date=September 23, 2021}}</ref> Foreigners and expats also reported increased harassment following the outbreak.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.scmp.com/week-asia/health-environment/article/3084262/coronavirus-south-korean-expats-teachers-face-scrutiny|title=South Korea's expats face scrutiny as nightclub outbreak worsens|date=14 May 2020|website=South China Morning Post}}</ref>

The period saw a rise in [[doxing]] and harassment amongst users of gay [[dating app]]s, whose personal information was shared "for spreading coronavirus".<ref>{{cite web |last=Maurice |first=Emma Powys |date=2020-05-11 |title=Gay men in South Korea are being hunted on dating apps after 'palpable homophobia' grows amid coronavirus resurgence |url=https://www.thepinknews.com/2020/05/11/south-korea-coronavirus-second-wave-gay-dating-doxxing-homophobia-itaewon/ |access-date=2023-12-25 |website=PinkNews }}</ref>

The [[Seoul Halloween crowd crush|Itaewon Crowd Crush]] had a negative effect on the numerous LGBTQ establishments catering for foreigners in the area, and prevented the revival of the district following the COVID lockdown.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/seoul-crush-hits-storied-itaewon-nightlife-district-verge-renewal-2022-10-30/|title=Seoul crush hits storied Itaewon nightlife district on verge of renewal | work=Reuters | first1=Ju-min | last1=Park | first2=Hyonhee | last2=Shin | first3=Soo-Hyang | last3=Choi | date=October 31, 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Beattie |first=Elizabeth |date=2023-10-27 |title=One year on, Itaewon's scars remain |url=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2023/10/27/asia-pacific/social-issues/itaewon-crush-anniversary-lgbtq/ |access-date=2023-12-27 |website=The Japan Times |language=en}}</ref>

==Recognition of same-sex relationships==
{{main|Recognition of same-sex unions in South Korea}}

Same-sex marriages and civil unions are not legally recognized in South Korea. In October 2019, the [[Government of South Korea]] announced it would recognize the same-sex spouses of foreign diplomats, but it would not recognize the same-sex spouses of South Korean diplomats who serve overseas.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.hankookilbo.com/News/Read/201910201790755799|title=[단독] 주한 외교관 '동성배우자' 지위 인정한 청와대|date=2019-10-21|website=[[Hankook Ilbo]]|language=ko|access-date=2019-10-21}}</ref>

In October 2014, some members of the [[Democratic Party (South Korea, 2015)|Democratic Party]] introduced a bill to recognize same-sex partnerships to the [[National Assembly (South Korea)|National Assembly]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://h21.hani.co.kr/arti/society/society_general/38162.html|title=연애 말고, 결혼 말고, 동반자!|website=h21.hani.co.kr}}</ref> However, the bill was never brought to a vote.

In July 2015, actor [[Kim Jho Gwangsoo]] and his partner Kim Seung-Hwan filed a lawsuit seeking legal status for their marriage. The lawsuit was rejected by the Seoul Western District Court in May 2016 and by an appeals court in December 2016. The couple subsequently announced that they would bring their case to the [[Supreme Court of Korea|Supreme Court]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://en.yna.co.kr/view/AEN20161206010400315|title=S. Korean court rejects gay couple's appeal over same-sex marriage|last=최수향|date=6 December 2016|website=[[Yonhap News Agency]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://english.hani.co.kr/arti/english_edition/e_national/773651.html|title=Same sex couple's marriage notice again rejected by court|website=Hano.co.kr|date=7 December 2016}}</ref>

In May 2019, Kim Gyu-Jin married her wife in [[New York City Marriage Bureau|a Manhattan marriage bureau, New York City]] to obtain a marriage registration. Then they had a factory wedding in [[Seoul]] in November. In May 2020, to celebrate the 1st wedding anniversary, Kim Gyu-Jin and her spouse filed a marriage registration with the [[Jongno-gu|Jongno-Gu]] Office but received the notice of non-repair.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-05-17|title="어차피 안될거 왜 혼인신고까지 하냐고요?"|url=https://m.khan.co.kr/national/national-general/article/202005171533001|access-date=2021-12-11|website=[[Kyunghyang Shinmun]]|language=ko}}</ref> She interviewed her experiences including [[Korean Broadcasting System|KBS]], a Korean national broadcaster on prime time. Another is on the main news page of [[KakaoTalk]], South Korea's leading messaging app. The article received about 10,000 comments, 80 percent of which were negative, she said. Some people told the couple to “Get out of Korea.” Others worried that society and families would fall apart on a tide of lesbian weddings. Some replies were intensely malicious and threatening. After consulting a lawyer, and pushing the police to talk to portal sites, she sued the 100 most malicious commentators.<ref>{{Cite news|title=These South Korean women went abroad to get married. Then one spoke out at home, and the backlash began.|language=en-US|newspaper=Washington Post|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/asia_pacific/south-korea-same-sex-marriage-gay-lesbian/2020/03/22/2890df14-61f6-11ea-912d-d98032ec8e25_story.html|access-date=2021-12-11|issn=0190-8286}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Gyu-Jin|first=Kim|title=Unnie, Will You Marry Me?|publisher=WISDOMHOUSE Inc.|year=2020|isbn=9791190908054|location=South Korea|language=Korean}}</ref>

In January 2021, Seoul's Ministry of Gender Equality and Family announced plans to propose changes to civil and welfare regulations, allowing single parents and unmarried, cohabitating partners to be recognized as legal families. However, a ministry official noted that the reform would apply only to heterosexual couples. "There hasn't been any discussion nor even a consideration about same-sex couples," the official, who was not authorized to speak with the media and asked for anonymity, wrote in an email.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-02-01|title=Same-sex couples excluded from South Korea's new definition of families|url=http://www.voanews.com/east-asia-pacific/2021/feb/01/same-sex-couples-excluded-south-koreas-new-definition-families|access-date=2021-02-01|website=Voice of America|language=en}}{{dead link|date=April 2025|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref>

===Supreme Court health insurance ruling===
In February 2020, a man in a same-sex relationship, Kim Yong-min, successfully registered his partner, So Seong-wook, as his spouse, allowing So to access his employer's [[health insurance]] plan. When the story became public a few months later, the [[Healthcare in South Korea|National Health Insurance Service]] (NHIS) reversed course and revoked the dependent status. In February 2021, So filed a lawsuit against the NHIS. He claimed that the NHIS had unfairly discriminated against the couple as the agency provides spousal coverage to common-law partners, and only canceled his coverage under the insurance program of his partner's employer after learning of his same-sex marriage. In January 2022, an administrative court ruled against him citing the lack of legal recognition of same-sex unions in South Korea.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2022/01/10/south-korean-court-declines-recognize-same-sex-partners|title=South Korean Court Declines to Recognize Same-Sex Partners|date=January 10, 2022|work=Human Rights Watch|last=Thoreson|first=Ryan}}</ref> So said he would [[appeal]], "We will appeal, and the world will change. I believe a world in which people can live equally is coming soon."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://m-en.yna.co.kr/view/AEN20220107006200315|work=[[Yonhap News Agency]]|title=Same sex couple loses suit against state health insurer over spousal coverage |date=January 7, 2022 |last1=Dong-Woo |first1=Chang }}</ref> The Seoul High Court ruled in favor of the couple on 21 February 2023, holding that government health insurance should offer spousal coverage to same-sex couples, the "first legal recognition of social benefits for same-sex couples" in South Korea.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.npr.org/2023/02/21/1158475301/south-korea-same-sex-partner-government-health-insurance|title=In a first, a South Korean court says same-sex partners should get government benefits|work=NPR|date=21 February 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/narrow-but-significant-win-for-lgbt-rights-in-south-korea/6975500.html|title=Narrow but Significant Win for LGBT Rights in South Korea|date=23 February 2023|work=Voice of America}}</ref> The National Health Insurance Service later announced it would appeal the ruling to the [[Supreme Court of Korea|Supreme Court]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/south-korean-court-recognises-spousal-coverage-state-insurance-same-sex-couple-2023-02-21/|title=South Korean court grants legal status for same-sex couple in landmark ruling|date=21 February 2023|work=Reuters}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2023/02/22/south-korea-court-recognizes-equal-benefits-same-sex-couple|title=South Korea Court Recognizes Equal Benefits for Same-Sex Couple|work=Human Rights Watch|date=22 February 2023|first=Lina|last=Yoon}}</ref> On 16 May 2024, [[Human Rights Watch]] filed an [[Amicus curiae|''amicus'' brief]] in support of the couple.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.miragenews.com/south-korea-urged-to-extend-health-benefits-to-1238343/|title=South Korea Urged to Extend Health Benefits to Same-Sex Partners|work=The Mirage News|date=20 May 2024}}</ref> On 18 July, the Supreme Court upheld the High Court ruling allowing same-sex partners equal NHIS spousal benefits.<ref name="sk-2023du36800">{{cite web |title=2023두36800 보험료부과처분취소 |url=https://www.scourt.go.kr/sjudge/1721305854504_213054.pdf |publisher=Supreme Court of South Korea |access-date=20 July 2024}}</ref><ref name="Reuters20240718"/><ref>{{cite web |url=https://m.koreaherald.com/view.php?ud=20240718050682 |title=Top court recognizes legal rights of same-sex couple for 1st time |date=July 18, 2024 |last1=Jung |first1=Min-kyung |publisher=[[The Korea Herald]] |quote=Supreme Court rules equal national health insurance coverage for same-sex couple}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2024/07/south-korea-supreme-court-ruling-a-historic-victory-for-same-sex-couples/ | title=South Korea: Supreme Court ruling a historic victory for same-sex couples |date=18 July 2024}}</ref> "I couldn't believe when I heard the ruling and I started crying," Kim told [[Reuters]] outside the court.<ref name="Reuters20240718">{{Cite web|url=https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/south-koreas-top-court-upholds-landmark-ruling-over-same-sex-spousal-state-2024-07-18/ | title=In landmark ruling, South Korea's top court confirms state benefits for gay couples |first1=Hyunsu |last1=Yim |date=July 18, 2024 |work=[[Reuters]]}}</ref> "While this decision is a major milestone, the case itself is a sobering reminder of the lengthy judicial processes that same-sex couples must endure to secure basic rights that should be universally guaranteed," [[Amnesty International]] said in a statement.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2024/7/18/s-korea-top-court-upholds-right-to-state-health-benefits-for-gay-couples | title=S. Korea top court upholds right to state health benefits for gay couples}}</ref> In the last week of September 2023, multiple media outlets reported that the National Health Insurance Service has rejected requests from same-sex couples to receive spousal coverage. The NHIS said that unlike cases related to heterosexual couples, there are no regulations stating which legal documents are required for same-sex couples.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://m.koreaherald.com/view.php?ud=20240927050456|title=Same-sex couple denied insurance clearance despite landmark ruling|website=koreaherald.com|date=27 September 2024 |access-date=2024-09-27}}</ref> Although the [[Constitutional Court of Korea|Constitutional Court]] and the Supreme Court are treated as coequal the two courts have persistently come into conflict with each other over which of them is the final arbiter of the meaning of the Constitution. In October 2023, the relationship between the two high courts came to a head when the Constitutional Court overturned a Supreme Court decision and uphold military anti-LGBT law.<ref name="theguardian.com">{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/oct/26/south-korea-upholds-controversial-military-sodomy-law-for-fourth-time|title=Dismay as South Korea upholds military 'sodomy law' for fourth time|newspaper=The Guardian|date=26 October 2023 |access-date=2023-10-26 |last1=Rashid |first1=Raphael }}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">{{Cite web|url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2023/10/30/south-korean-court-upholds-military-sodomy-law|title=South Korean Court Upholds Military 'Sodomy' Law|website=hrw.org|date=30 October 2023 |access-date=2023-10-30}}</ref> The Constitutional Court of Korea has yet to deliver a final verdict on the case.

==Discrimination protections==
The ''National Human Rights Commission Act'' ({{langx|ko|국가인권위원회법}}), enacted in 2001, established the [[National Human Rights Commission of Korea]] (NHRCK). Under South Korean law, the NHRCK is an independent commission for protecting, advocating, and promoting human rights. The ''National Human Rights Commission Act'' explicitly includes sexual orientation as an anti-discrimination ground. When discriminatory acts are found to have occurred, the National Human Rights Commission of Korea may conduct investigations on such acts and recommend non-binding relief measures, disciplinary actions or report them to the authorities.<ref name="korea">[http://annual.sogilaw.org/review/download_ko/1817 Human Rights Situation of LGBTI in South Korea 2016] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180729230811/http://annual.sogilaw.org/review/download_ko/1817 |date=29 July 2018 }}, SOGILAW Annual Report</ref><ref name="Nqapia">{{cite web|url=https://www.nqapia.org/wpp/lgbtq-rights-in-south-korea/|title=FACT SHEET: LGBTQ Rights in South Korea|last=NQAPIA|date=12 February 2018|access-date=9 May 2019|archive-date=25 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190725230357/https://www.nqapia.org/wpp/lgbtq-rights-in-south-korea/|url-status=dead}}</ref> Even so, the body does not have coercive powers.

South Korean national law does not prohibit discrimination based on [[sexual orientation]] or [[gender identity]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.law.go.kr/lsInfoP.do?lsiSeq=137285&efYd=20130323#0000|title=Human Rights Committee Law of South Korea |publisher=National Assembly of South Korea |date=19 May 2011 |access-date=27 December 2013}}</ref> Over the years, a repeated cycle of anti-discrimination legislation has been proposed and abandoned. An anti-discrimination bill was submitted in 2007 by the [[Ministry of Justice (South Korea)|Ministry of Justice]], but a movement of opposition arose and led to the bill being abandoned.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hani.co.kr/arti/society/rights/582010.html|title=동성애자도 떳떳하게 사우나 가고싶다|work=[[The Hankyoreh]]|date=9 April 2013|language=ko}}</ref> In 2013, a bill to include sexual orientation, religion and political ideology to the country's anti-discrimination law was introduced. It received fierce opposition from conservative groups.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.business-humanrights.org/en/south-korean-anti-discrimination-law-faces-conservative-pushback|title=South Korean Anti-Discrimination Law Faces Conservative Pushback – Business & Human Rights Resource Centre|website=www.business-humanrights.org}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://globalvoices.org/2013/04/13/south-korean-anti-discrimination-law-faces-conservative-pushback/|title=South Korean Anti-Discrimination Law Faces Conservative Pushback|work=GlobalVoices|date=13 April 2013}}</ref>

During the 17th National Assembly, an anti-discrimination bill was sponsored by the late [[Roh Hoe-chan]]. Another bill was sponsored by former lawmaker Kwon Young-gil during the 18th National Assembly. Both bills were dropped before any debate had taken place. During the [[List of members of the National Assembly (South Korea), 2012–2016|19th National Assembly]], former lawmakers [[Kim Han-gil]] and Choi Won-sik sponsored bills only to withdraw them after encountering objections. In 2019, the [[National Assembly (South Korea)|National Assembly]] failed to hold a debate on comprehensive anti-discrimination legislation. Objections to the anti-discrimination bills come chiefly from conservative Protestants.<ref name="rashid-2019"/>

During the [[List of members of the National Assembly (South Korea), 2016–2020|20th National Assembly]], lawmaker Kim Tae-heum ([[Liberty Korea Party]]) presented a bill that would have removed the category of sexual orientation from the ''National Human Rights Commission Act''. In 2019, politician [[Ahn Sang-soo (born May 1946)|Ahn Sang-soo]] introduced another bill to repeal the protection for sexual orientation in the ''National Human Rights Commission Act'' and to restrict legal recognition of gender to a biological basis.<ref name="rashid-2019">{{cite news |last1=Rashid |first1=Raphael |title=Korean Politicians Attempt to Delete LGBTQ From Law |url=https://medium.com/@koryodynasty/korean-politicians-attempt-to-delete-lgbtq-from-law-c2a38ba0ec15 |access-date=25 November 2019 |work=Medium |date=22 November 2019 |language=en}}</ref> The bill was supported by 40 of the Assembly's 300 MPs, drawing criticism and protests from LGBT advocates and [[Amnesty International]].<ref name="mccurry-2019">{{cite news |last1=McCurry |first1=Justin |title=Outcry as conservative South Korean MPs seek to curtail LGBT rights |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/nov/22/south-korean-mps-seek-to-exempt-lgbt-community-from-anti-discrimination-law |access-date=25 November 2019 |work=The Guardian |date=22 November 2019}}</ref>

As of 2019, the [[Justice Party (South Korea)|Justice Party]] planned to prepare a comprehensive anti-discrimination bill.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://english.hani.co.kr/arti/english_edition/e_national/896150.html|title=National Assembly fails to hold a debate on comprehensive anti-discrimination legislation|work=[[The Hankyoreh]]|date=31 May 2019}}</ref> A 2014 poll found that 85% of South Koreans believed gay people should be protected from discrimination.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.gallup.co.kr/gallupdb/reportContent.asp?seqNo=605|title=한국갤럽조사연구소|website=www.gallup.co.kr}}</ref> According to a more recent poll, conducted in 2017 by Gallup Korea, 90% of South Koreans said they supported equal employment opportunities for LGBT people.<ref name="Nqapia"/>

On 23 December, in a special report issued by the [[National Human Rights Commission of Korea|National Human Rights Commission]], President [[Moon Jae-in]] stressed the need for equality legislation. While acknowledging there is some opposition to the enactment of an anti-discrimination law, Moon said he expects the [[National Assembly (South Korea)|National Assembly]] to actively discuss such legislation in the near future. The [[United Nations|U.N.]] Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, the Committee on the Rights of the Child, the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination, and the Human Rights Committee have recommended the enactment of anti-discrimination legislation. As a presidential candidate in 2012, Moon cited a comprehensive anti-discrimination act as one of the top 10 priorities of his human rights policy. Since taking office in 2017, Moon has been reluctant to enact such legislation amid opposition from within his governing [[Democratic Party (South Korea, 2015)|Democratic Party of Korea]].<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-12-24|title=문재인 대통령도 인정한 평등법 제정의 필요성, 더불어민주당은 온전한 평등법 조속히 제정하라 – 국내연대|url=http://www.peoplepower21.org/Solidarity/1755009|access-date=2020-12-25|website=참여연대|language=ko}}</ref>

In 2022, [[NBC News]] spoke with [[Progressivism|progressive]] South Korean lawmakers and dozens of [[LGBTQ|LGBTQ+]] South Koreans across the country; [https://www.nbcnews.com/nbc-out/out-news/south-koreas-lgbtq-community-confronts-crushing-headwinds-fight-equali-rcna57777 most said] a comprehensive nondiscrimination bill that would outlaw discrimination against all minority groups, including the LGBTQ+ community, is key first step toward legal equality.<ref name="SK" /><ref name="CF">{{Cite news |last1=Mitsanas |first1=Michael |last2=Fitzgerald |first2=Meagan |title=Meet the activists calling for LGBTQ+ rights in South Korea |work=NBC News |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/now/video/meet-the-activists-calling-for-lgbtq-rights-in-south-korea-158876741797}}</ref> In the view of activists, the codification of a [[Non-discrimination law|nondiscrimination law]] could catalyze additional legal protections, like [[same-sex marriage]], [[domestic partnership]]s, and [[Same-sex adoption|joint adoption]] for [[same-sex couples]]. Some LGBTQ+ activists said the bill alone could still ease their everyday sense of danger. June Green, a trans-male bartender from [[Seoul]], told [[NBC News]] reporter Michael Mitsanas that "because we still don't have a nondiscrimination bill, I often feel threatened to just walk on the street."<ref name="SK" />

On LGBTQ+ rights, [[South Korea]] is an outlier among [[OECD]] nations, according to an [[NBC News]] analysis. On the 2019 Franklin & Marshall Global Barometer of Gay Rights, [[OECD]] nations averaged a grade of B. South Korea, however, was one of three OECD countries to earn an "F." Countries that receive an F are "persecuting" their LGBTQ+ communities.<ref name="SK" /><ref name="CF" />

===Province-level protections===
[[File:South Korean divisions with LGBT protections.svg|thumb|right|Map of provinces, cities, districts and counties in South Korea that have LGBT discrimination protections
{{legend|#800080|Bans discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation}}]]
Currently, 15 local governments in South Korea have enacted anti-discrimination policies and provisions (not laws) that include sexual orientation. This includes five first-level subdivisions: [[South Gyeongsang Province]], [[Seoul]], [[Jeju Province]], [[North Chungcheong Province]] and [[South Chungcheong Province]].<ref name="korea"/><ref name="korea2">{{cite web|url=http://annual.sogilaw.org/review/download_ko/2046|title=다운로드 – 2017년 한국 LGBTI 인권현황 (한국어/영어 합본)|website=annual.sogilaw.org}}</ref>

[[South Gyeongsang Province]] enacted anti-discrimination policies in March 2010. The policy states that "citizens shall not be discriminated, without reasonable grounds, on the grounds of sex, religion, disability, age, social status, region of origin, state of origin, ethnic origin, physical condition such as appearance, medical history, marital status, political opinion, and sexual orientation".<ref name="korea" />

[[Seoul]] passed regional policies aimed at combatting discrimination on the grounds mentioned in the ''National Human Rights Commission Act'' in September 2012. The passage of this policy received fierce and violent opposition from conservative groups.<ref name="korea"/>

Similarly, both [[Jeju Province]] and [[North Chungcheong Province]] passed similar policies in October 2015 banning discrimination on the grounds mentioned in the ''National Human Rights Commission Act''.<ref name="korea2"/> [[South Chungcheong Province]] followed suit in October 2018.<ref name="2018sogilaw">{{cite web|url=https://transliberationfront.com/158|title=20. 한국 LGBTI 인권현황 2018 (한국어판 발간 2019.5.17)|website=Transgender Liberation Front|date=17 May 2019|language=ko|access-date=25 June 2019|archive-date=20 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191220060538/https://transliberationfront.com/158|url-status=usurped}}</ref>

Several second-level jurisdictions have also enacted anti-discrimination provisions that cover sexual orientation. These are:<ref name="korea"/><ref name="korea2"/>

* [[Yeonje District|Yeonje District, Busan]] (November 2010)
* [[Suyeong District|Suyeong District, Busan]] (December 2010)
* [[Buk District, Ulsan]] (January 2011)
* [[Nam District, Busan]] (May 2011)
* [[Buk District, Busan]] (March 2012)
* [[Jung District, Ulsan]] (April 2013)
* [[Dong District, Daejeon]] (April 2015)
* [[Haeundae District|Haeundae District, Busan]] (July 2015)
* [[Eunpyeong District|Eunpyeong District, Seoul]] (October 2015)
* [[Hwasun County|Hwasun County, South Jeolla]] (December 2017)

===Anti-bullying and student ordinances===
[[Gyeonggi Province]] banned bullying against students on the basis of their sexual orientation in October 2010. [[Gwangju]] followed suit in October 2011, and [[Seoul]] in January 2012. Seoul's [[Seoul Ordinance of Student Rights|ordinance on the protection of children and youth]] also includes [[gender identity]], thereby protecting transgender students from discrimination. [[North Jeolla Province]] enacted an ordinance banning bullying against "sexual minorities" in January 2013.<ref name="korea"/>

There is growing debate and discussing in [[South Gyeongsang Province]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.yna.co.kr/view/AKR20180717148900052|title=경남 학생인권조례에 어떤 내용 담길까…찬반 갈등 봉합은 과제|last=김선경|date=18 July 2018|website=[[Yonhap News Agency]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ohmynews.com/NWS_Web/View/at_pg.aspx?CNTN_CD=A0002540759|title=경남학생인권조례안, 내년 4월 총선 이후 처리한다고?|website=[[OhmyNews]]|date=19 May 2019|language=ko}}</ref> [[Incheon]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ifm.kr/post/176765|title=도성훈 인천시교육감 공약 '학생인권조례 제정' 추진…반대 여론 극복이 숙제|last=강신일|date=6 July 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hani.co.kr/arti/area/capital/897750.html|title=인천시교육청, '학교인권조례' 제정 추진|website=[[The Hankyoreh]]|date=13 June 2019|language=ko}}</ref> and [[Busan]] for the passage of a similar law.<ref name="korea2" />

===Other anti-discrimination provisions===
In addition, other symbolic protections for "sexual minorities" exist. Police officers and Coast Guard personnel are forbidden from outing an LGBT person against their own will.<ref name="korea" />

In November 2017, the city of [[Geoje]] passed a policy that prohibits broadcasting agencies from spreading information encouraging discrimination against "sexual minorities".<ref name="korea2"/> [[Hongcheon County]] and [[Gangneung]] followed suit in November and December 2018, respectively.<ref name="2018sogilaw" />

Furthermore, several activist groups and coalitions have been created within the South Korean LGBT community to advocate for human rights for LGBT people. For example, the "Rainbow Action against Sexual Minority Discrimination," otherwise known as "Rainbow Action," is a coalition of several non-governmental organizations that work to promote and expand LGBT rights in Korea.<ref name="RA">{{Cite journal |author=Rainbow Action against Sexual Minority Discrimination |date=March 2017 |title=Human Rights Violations on the Basis of Sexual Orientation, Gender Identity, and HIV Status in the Republic of Korea |url=https://tbinternet.ohchr.org |journal=Committee Against Torture for State Compliance with the Convention Against Torture}}</ref> Rainbow Action works to address several issues within the Korean community including perspectives on conversion therapy, HIV-related stigma, hate crimes, intersex persons, and more.

===Constitutional rights===
The [[Constitution of South Korea]] prohibits discrimination on the basis of sex, religion, and social status. According to the Ministry of Justice, the term "social status" includes LGBT people. However, there are no remedies for LGBT victims of discrimination nor are these "protections" enforced.<ref name="Nqapia"/>

===Health care insurance benefits===
On 7 January 2022, a South Korean same-sex couple was refused health care insurance benefits by a lower court. In its ruling, the Seoul Administrative Court said matrimony in South Korea is still considered a union between a man and a woman.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |date=2022-01-07 |title=Same sex couple loses suit against state health insurer over spousal coverage |url=https://en.yna.co.kr/view/AEN20220107006200315 |access-date=2022-01-07 |website=[[Yonhap News Agency]] |language=en}}</ref> This ruling was overturned the following year, on 21 February 2023, when the Seoul High Court decided that the state's health insurer – the National Health Insurance Service – should provide spousal coverage to a same-sex couple.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Park |first=Boram |date=2023-02-21 |title=Court rules in favor of gay couple seeking spousal health insurance coverage |work=[[Yonhap News Agency]] |url=https://en.yna.co.kr/view/AEN20230221003151315}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Choi |first=Soo-Hyang |date=2023-02-21 |title=South Korean court grants legal status for same-sex couple in landmark ruling |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/south-korean-court-recognises-spousal-coverage-state-insurance-same-sex-couple-2023-02-21/ |access-date=2023-02-21}}</ref> This marked the first time any court recognized the rights of a same-sex couple in South Korea.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.advocate.com/voices/lgbtq-victories-did-happen-in-2023|title=LGBTQ+ Victories Did Happen in 2023|first1=Graeme|last1=Reid|date=June 22, 2023|publisher=The Advocate|website=www.advocate.com}}</ref> Then in 2024, the [[Supreme Court of South Korea]] ruled that same-sex couples are eligible to receive the same health insurance benefits as heterosexual couples.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://apnews.com/article/south-korea-supreme-court-same-sex-rights-a15a537133dcfaa0d7ffc753f798ca63|title=In landmark verdict, South Korea's top court recognizes some rights for same-sex couples|first1=Hyung-Jin|last1=Kim|date=18 July 2024|work=Associated Press News}}</ref>

==Military service==
{{Main|Sexual orientation and gender identity in the South Korean military}}

Consensual same-sex intercourse is a crime in the South Korean military.<ref name="SK" /><ref>{{Cite web |last1=Hancocks |first1=Paula |last2=Kwon |first2=Jake |last3=Griffiths |first3=James |date=2019-07-11 |title=Gay and trans soldiers say they were abused in South Korean military |url=https://www.cnn.com/2019/07/10/asia/south-korea-military-lgbt-intl-hnk/index.html |access-date=2023-01-26 |website=CNN |language=en}}</ref> [[Article 92-6 of South Korea Military Penal Code|Article 92-6 of the 1962 Military Criminal Act]] criminalizes “anal intercourse” or “any other indecent acts” between military personnel, and carries a punishment of up to two years in prison. In April 2022, the Supreme Court found that the law cannot be applied to consensual acts that occur off-base during off-duty hours.<ref name="hrw.org">{{Cite web |date=2022-04-25 |title=South Korean Court Limits Military 'Sodomy' Law |url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2022/04/25/south-korean-court-limits-military-sodomy-law |access-date=2022-04-26 |website=Human Rights Watch |language=en}}</ref> Activists have called for the Constitutional Court to rule the law unconstitutional.<ref name="hrw.org"/><ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-04-25 |title=South Korean Court Limits Military 'Sodomy' Law |url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2022/04/25/south-korean-court-limits-military-sodomy-law |access-date=2022-05-20 |website=Human Rights Watch |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=April 22, 2022 |title=South Korean court overturns conviction of soldiers for gay sex |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/south-korean-court-overturns-conviction-soldiers-gay-sex-rcna25524 |access-date=2023-01-26 |website=[[NBC News]] |language=en}}</ref>

Military service is [[Conscription in South Korea|mandatory for all male citizens]] in South Korea. Enlistees are drafted through the [[Military Manpower Administration]] (MMA; {{langx|ko|병무청}}) which administers a "psychology test" at the time of enlistment that includes several questions regarding the enlistee's sexual preferences. Homosexual military members in active duty are categorized as having a "[[personality disorder]]" or "behavioral disability" and can either be [[Psychiatric hospital|institutionalized]] or [[Military discharge|dishonorably discharged]].

In 2017, [[Amnesty International]] accused the military of engaging in a "gay witch hunt" to expose and punish gay personnel, by criminally charging 32 military personnel for "sodomy or other disgraceful conduct", including sentencing a gay soldier to six months imprisonment for having consensual sex with another gay soldier in a private place.<ref name="npr-uphill">{{cite news|title=For South Korea's LGBT Community, An Uphill Battle For Rights|url=https://www.npr.org/sections/parallels/2017/07/25/538464851/for-south-koreas-lgbt-community-an-uphill-battle-for-rights|access-date=7 October 2017|work=National Public Radio|date=25 July 2017|language=en}}</ref>

In January 2020, staff sergeant [[Byun Hui-su]], a transgender conscript, was dismissed from military after undergoing gender affirming care, and later committed suicide. In 2021, a South Korean district court posthumously reinstated her.<ref name="SK" /><ref name="TS">{{Cite web |title=Transgender soldier in South Korea wins posthumous court victory |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/south-korean-court-orders-posthumous-reinstatement-transgender-soldier-n1280990 |access-date=2023-01-26 |website=NBC News |date=7 October 2021 |language=en}}</ref>

In April 2022, the [[Supreme Court of Korea|Supreme Court]] ruled that this law cannot be applied to consensual acts that occur outside of military facilities during off-duty hours.<ref name="hrw.org"/> However, the [[Constitutional Court of Korea]] still upheld the constitutionality of the law on 26 October 2023, following petitions asking to declare it unconstitutional .<ref name="theguardian.com"/><ref name="ReferenceA"/>

==Transgender rights==
{{Main|Transgender people in South Korea}}

In South Korea, gender-affirming care is not currently covered by state health insurance.<ref name="Brown">{{cite web |last1=Brown |first1=Taylor |last2=Yi |first2=Horim |last3=Luhur |first3=Winston |title=Public Opinion of Transgender Rights in South Korea |url=https://williamsinstitute.law.ucla.edu/wp-content/uploads/Public-Opinion-Trans-South-Korea-English-Dec-2019.pdf |website=Williams Institute}}</ref> In a 2019 survey of 500 Korean people, Korean respondents are likely to have a positive or neutral view of transgender people. 12% of Koreans said that they knew a friend or family member who was transgender. Roughly 60% of the Korean respondents also said that transgender individuals should be protected from discrimination, and that they should be allowed gender-affirming healthcare. 45% said they should not be allowed in the military. A slight majority of Korean respondents agreed that South Korea is becoming more accepting of transgender people, and a significant majority agreed that transgender people are not violating traditional Korean cultural values.<ref name="Brown" />

Transgender and gender diverse South Koreans face discriminatory challenges unique to their communities.<ref name="SK" /> It said that employment is difficult to for transgender people because certain jobs are often gendered.<ref name="intolerant">{{cite web|url=https://www.scmp.com/week-asia/society/article/2164130/why-south-korea-so-intolerant-its-gay-community|title=Why is South Korea so intolerant of its gay community?|work=South China Morning Post|date=17 September 2018|last=Tai|first=Crystal}} "While transgender Koreans can now have their gender changed legally and most can be dishonourably discharged or exempted from military service, they still have a hard time in society. “It's really hard for trans people to find jobs because there are standards for what jobs are for men and what jobs are for women,” Natalie said."</ref> Koreans are less likely to support marriage equality for transgender people.<ref name="Brown" />

===Legal documents===

The seventh digit of the country's [[national identification number]], known as the National Pension Number, corresponds to one's sex assigned at birth,<ref>{{Cite web |title=SSA - POMS: GN 01742.315 - Facts About the Korean National Pension Number - 07/10/2001 |url=https://secure.ssa.gov/poms.nsf/lnx/0201742315#:~:text=The%20number%20consists%20of%2013,which%20the%20person%20was%20born. |access-date=2023-01-26 |website=secure.ssa.gov}}</ref> amounting to what some LGBTQ activists call "forced [[outing]]" in job interviews.<ref name="SK" /> In June 2006, however, the Supreme Court ruled that transgender individuals who had undergone successful sex reassignment surgery have the right to declare their new sex in all [[Legal instrument|legal documents]]. This includes the right to request a correction of their gender-on-file in all public and government records such as the census registry.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.naver.com/news/read.php?mode=LOD&office_id=143&article_id=0000030810&section_id=001&menu_id=001|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120714232901/http://news.naver.com/news/read.php?mode=LOD&office_id=143&article_id=0000030810&section_id=001&menu_id=001|url-status=dead|archive-date=14 July 2012|title=네이버 :: 페이지를 찾을 수 없습니다.|access-date=15 May 2016}}</ref>

In March 2013, the Seoul Western District Court ruled that five female-to-male transgender individuals can be registered as male without undergoing sex reassignment surgery.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://english.hani.co.kr/arti/english_edition/e_national/578323.html |title=Landmark legal ruling for South Korean transgenders |publisher=[[The Hankyoreh]] |date=2013-03-16}}</ref> In February 2017, the [[Cheongju]] District Court ruled that a male-to-female transgender individual could be registered as a female without undergoing surgery.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.khan.co.kr/kh_news/khan_art_view.html?artid=201702162224025|title=성기 제거 안 해도 '남 → 여' 성별 정정 첫 허가 |publisher=[[Kyunghyang Shinmun]] |date=2017-02-16}}</ref>

===Military service===

In March 2021, Byun Hui-su - South Korea's first transgender soldier, who was forcibly discharged after undergoing gender affirming care - died by suicide.<ref name="TS" /> The Defense Ministry classified her loss of male genitals as a mental or physical handicap, and a military panel ruled in early 2020 that she would be compulsorily discharged.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-03-04|title=South Koreas first-transgender soldier found dead|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/mar/04/south-koreas-first-transgender-soldier-found-dead|access-date=2021-03-04|website=The Guardian|language=en}}</ref> However, in October 7, 2021, the Daejeon District Court determined that the presence or absence of certain male physical traits could not be used as grounds for a mental or physical disability, and thus deemed the discharge decision unjust.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-10-07|title="군인으로 죽고 싶다"던 변희수 하사, 전역처분 ‘취소’ 판결 |url=https://www.hani.co.kr/arti/area/chungcheong/1014241.html#csidxbb259adcf4794ad8e64040ad507c920|website=한겨레|language=ko}}</ref> In March 29, 2024, the Ministry of National Defense recognized Staff Sergeant Byun Hui-su's death as being in the line of duty.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2024-04-04|title='성전환 후 강제 전역' 故 변희수 전 하사 순직 인정|url=https://www.yna.co.kr/view/AKR20240404108900504?input=1195m|website=연합뉴스|language=ko}}</ref>

===Access to healthcare===

In 2011, the [[Supreme Court of Korea]] ruled that in order for a person to be eligible for gender affirming care they must be over 20 years of age, single, and without children.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.queerkorea.org/board/zboard.php?id=news&page=1&sn1=&divpage=1&sn=off&ss=on&sc=on&select_arrange=headnum&desc=asc&no=299 |title=사람과사람 | People to People |publisher=Queerkorea.org |access-date=2011-01-20}}</ref> In the case of male-to-female [[Sex reassignment surgery|gender reassignment operations]], the person must prove issues related to draft resolved by either serving or being exempted. On November 24, 2022, the Supreme Court's en banc panel ruled that transgender individuals with minor children can have their gender legally recognized, provided they are not in a marital relationship. This decision overturned a precedent set 11 years earlier, which uniformly denied gender recognition for transgender individuals with minor children.<ref>{{cite web|date=2022-11-24|title=대법 "미성년 자녀 둔 트랜스젠더, 성별정정 가능"···11년만에 판례 변경|url=https://www.khan.co.kr/article/202211241429001|website=경향신문}}</ref>

Surveys indicate that healthcare professionals in South Korea tend to hold strongly negative opinions of transgender individuals. It has also been found that healthcare providers with higher knowledge of trans people and trans issues had more positive dispositions towards trans people, but that healthcare providers with negative views tended to involve themselves much more heavily with the collection of data regarding trans people.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Korean healthcare providers' attitude, knowledge, and behaviors regarding sexual orientation and gender identity: a cross-sectional survey |last1=An |first1=Yunhui |last2=Chung |first2=Chaewon |journal=Korean Journal of Women's Health Nursing |date=March 30, 2022 |volume=28 |issue=1 |pages=65–73 |doi=10.4069/kjwhn.2022.03.11|pmid=36312047 |pmc=9334205 }}</ref>

== Intersex people ==
In Korea, [[intersex]] people are largely ignored or marginalized because of the lack of familiarity with the term "intersex" itself and because of the general stigma that surrounds intersex people. As a result, intersex people are faced with a lack of access to medical services and some are even pushed to getting "genital normalizing surgery" without informed consent.<ref name="HR">{{Cite journal |author=SOGILAW Annual Report |title=Human Rights Situation of LGBTI in South Korea 2018 |journal=Sogilaw}}</ref> This concept of medicalizing intersex people is still very prevalent in Korea and perpetuates the social diagnosis of intersex people as "diseased" or having to receive surgical "normalization."<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Jenkins |first1=Tania M. |last2=Short |first2=Susan E. |date=February 2017 |title=Negotiating intersex: A case for revising the theory of social diagnosis |journal=Social Science & Medicine |volume=175 |pages=91–98 |doi=10.1016/j.socscimed.2016.12.047 |issn=1873-5347 |pmc=5293660 |pmid=28073070}}</ref> To mitigate these problems, in October 2015, South Korea joined the International Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans, and Intersex Association (ILGA) and have started increasing the number of articles and information on intersex people that are published nationwide to increase general knowledge about intersex people.<ref name="HR" />

==Conversion therapy==
In a 2016 survey, 16.1% of LGBT people who had come out were recommended to undergo [[conversion therapy]]. Of these, 65.4% said it had a harmful impact on their lives, with 94% experiencing [[psychological trauma]].<ref name="korea"/> A 2017 survey reported that 58% of LGBT individuals who experienced conversion therapy in the past are still negatively affected by it in the present.<ref>{{Cite journal |author=United Nations Human Rights Special Procedures |date=November 21, 2019 |title=Report of the Independent Expert on Protection against Violence and Discrimination based on Sexual Orientations and Gender Identity with Focus on Practices of so-called "Conversion Therapy" |journal=UN Human Rights Special Procedures}}</ref> Studies have shown that 40% of LGBT respondents have claimed to have experienced homophobic statements or discriminatory treatment by counselors for conversion therapy.<ref name="RA" />

==Blood donation==
South Korea forbids people who have had sex "with certain high-risk individuals" within the past one year to donate blood. These rules apply equally to all people, regardless of their sexual orientation or gender identity. The official guidelines urge people to not donate for the purposes of finding out if they have AIDS.<ref name="blood" />

== Living conditions ==
Homosexuality remains quite [[taboo]] in South Korean society. The World Values Survey of 2005 to 2009 had shown that Korea was the second most-hostile country towards homosexuals among 17 countries surveyed.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=World Values Survey Association |url=http://www.worldvaluessurvey.org/wvs.jsp |journal=World Values Survey 2005 Official Data File V. 20090901}}</ref>

In 2022, [[NBC News]] producer Michael Mitsanas spent "months" documenting the [[LGBTQ|LGBTQ+]] experience in South Korea, according to [[Hallie Jackson]].<ref name="CF" /> LGBTQ+ South Koreans who spoke to [[NBC News]] described a culture of "round-the-clock" discrimination and abuse.<ref name="SK" /> Rep. [[Jang Hye-young|Jang Hye-yeong]] told NBC News that "just telling somebody that you are LGBTQ will certainly subject you to discrimination." Jeon-il, a gay bartender in [[Itaewon]], told Mitsanas that holding hands with a partner in public is "basically impossible." Yoo - who asked that [[NBC News]] withhold his full name, citing a fear of retribution - said he must "erase the queer to act masculine" while working his [[Corporation|corporate]] job in [[Seoul]], adding that he's "afraid" of what his coworkers would do "if they find out I'm gay." June Green, a [[Transgender|trans]]-male bartender in Seoul, said he must make "a deeper voice whenever I leave my house, and even then, people still approach me to ask if I'm a guy or girl."<ref name="SK" />

=== Bullying and discrimination ===
{{Further|Suicidal ideation in South Korean LGBT youth}}

Young LGBT people in South Korea often face bullying and discrimination. A 2014 survey conducted by the GongGam Human Rights Law Foundation revealed that 54% of LGBT Korean youths reported being harassed previously by their classmates and fellow students.<ref name="NR">{{Cite journal |date=14 September 2021 |title="I Thought of Myself as Defective": Neglecting the Rights of LGBT Youth in South Korean Schools |journal=Human Rights Watch |url=https://www.hrw.org/report/2021/09/14/i-thought-myself-defective/neglecting-rights-lgbt-youth-south-korean-schools |last1=Thoreson |first1=Ryan }}</ref> Students interviewed by Human Rights Watch described being excluded and ostracized, being targeted online, or being physically harassed. A 22-year-old lesbian woman recalled that once her sexual orientation became known at her secondary school, she was singled out for harassment and the students criticized her saying: ‘You are homosexual, you're dirty.’ A 22-year-old gay man, recalled that classmates in middle school used “gay” as a slur, targeting boys who were perceived to be gay. A 17-year-old girl recalled classmates saying that homosexuals should die. Students were also targeted if they were seen to be socializing too closely or intimately with same-sex peers.<ref name="NR"/>

A 2017 study exploring the rates of [[Suicide ideation in South Korean LGBT youth|suicide ideation and attempts within Korean LGBT adolescents]] revealed that those youth who identified as homosexual or bisexual reported highest rates of suicidal ideation and medically serious attempts.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kwak |first1=Yeunhee |last2=Kim |first2=Ji-Su |date=April 2017 |title=Associations between Korean Adolescents' Sexual Orientation and Suicidal Ideation, Plans, Attempts, and Medically Serious Attempts |journal=Iranian Journal of Public Health |volume=46 |issue=4 |pages=475–484 |issn=2251-6085 |pmc=5439036 |pmid=28540263}}</ref> Additional studies of suicide risk among youth revealed that LGBT youth in Korea experience extreme forms of bullying and discrimination that gives rise to higher rates of suicide attempts and risks.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=di Giacomo |first1=Ester |last2=Krausz |first2=Micheal |last3=Colmegna |first3=Fabrizia |last4=Aspesi |first4=Flora |last5=Clerici |first5=Massimo |date=2018-12-01 |title=Estimating the Risk of Attempted Suicide Among Sexual Minority Youths: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis |journal=JAMA Pediatrics |language=en |volume=172 |issue=12 |pages=1145–1152 |doi=10.1001/jamapediatrics.2018.2731 |issn=2168-6203 |pmc=6583682 |pmid=30304350}}</ref>

Although many studies focus on discrimination that LGBT youths experience, discrimination based on sexual orientation or gender identity is not only faced by adolescents in Korea, but also by adults. A 2018 study revealed that 22.6% of LGB adults and 51.5% of transgender adults in Korea faced harsh discrimination and unfair treatment within the past year.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Yi |first1=Horim |last2=Lee |first2=Hyemin |last3=Park |first3=Jooyoung |last4=Choi |first4=Bokyung |last5=Kim |first5=Seung-Sup |date=2018 |title=Mental Health Disparities and Social Experiences of LGBT Individuals in South Korea: Rainbow Connection I & II |url=https://osf.io/xpse3/wiki/home |journal=Preaching to the Choir: International LGBTQ Psychology Pre-Conference of ICAP}}</ref> Similarly, surveys conducted on LGBT adults in Korea reveal that the proportion of bisexual and lesbian women who reported having depressive symptoms was significantly higher than heterosexual women in Korea.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lee |first1=Hyemin |last2=Park |first2=Jooyoung |last3=Choi |first3=Bokyoung |last4=Yi |first4=Horim |last5=Kim |first5=Seung-Sup |date=2021-01-02 |title=Association between Discrimination and Depressive Symptoms Among 2,162 Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Adults in South Korea: Does Community Connectedness Modify the Association? |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/10.1080/00918369.2019.1624456 |journal=Journal of Homosexuality |volume=68 |issue=1 |pages=70–87 |doi=10.1080/00918369.2019.1624456 |issn=0091-8369 |pmid=31194923 |s2cid=189817086|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

A 2022 study revealed that those who had past experience with bullying and discrimination because of their sexual identity had 1.65 times more occurrences of unrestful and poor sleep quality compared to those that have not faced discrimination against their sexual identity.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Choo |first1=Sungsub |last2=Kim |first2=Ranyeong |last3=Lee |first3=Hyemin |last4=Yi |first4=Horim |last5=Kim |first5=Rockli |last6=Kim |first6=Seung-Sup |date=2022-10-09 |title=Association between discrimination and poor sleep health outcomes among 2192 South Korean gay, lesbian, and bisexual adults: A nationwide cross-sectional survey |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352721822001619 |journal=Sleep Health |language=en |volume=8 |issue=6 |pages=587–592 |doi=10.1016/j.sleh.2022.09.006 |issn=2352-7218 |pmid=36220734 |s2cid=252844494|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Unhealthy sleep is known to perpetuate stress and depressive symptoms and thus it can be inferred that LGBT people who face discrimination are at higher risk of depression and stress/anxiety.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nutt |first1=David |last2=Wilson |first2=Sue |last3=Paterson |first3=Louise |date=2008 |title=Sleep disorders as core symptoms of depression |journal=Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=329–336 |doi=10.31887/DCNS.2008.10.3/dnutt |issn=1294-8322 |pmc=3181883 |pmid=18979946}}</ref>

=== Identity Affirming Spaces ===
In recent years, the combination of taboo, consumer capitalism, and gay-led gentrification (the so-called "gaytrification effect") of the [[Itaewon]] area has pushed new gay commercialization outside of [[Itaewon]], while isolating those places remaining.<ref>{{cite web |last=O'Sullivan |first=Feargus |date=13 January 2016 |title=The 'gaytrification' effect: why gay neighbourhoods are being priced out |url=https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2016/jan/13/end-of-gaytrification-cities-lgbt-communities-gentrification-gay-villages |work=The Guardian}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hamilton |first1=Robert |date=June 2016 |title=Gaytrification and the Re-orienting of Sexual Peripheries |url=http://www.dbpia.co.kr/Journal/ArticleDetail/NODE06716180 |journal=현대사회와다문화 |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=90–119}}</ref> This lack of visibility is also reflected in the low profile maintained by the few gay clubs in South Korea. There are a few in metropolitan areas, especially in the section known as "[[Homo Hill|Homo-hill]]".<ref>{{cite web |title=Gay Seoul Gay Resources and Travel Tips in Korea by Utopia |url=http://www.utopia-asia.com/korseoul.htm |access-date=2011-01-20 |publisher=Utopia-asia.com}}</ref>

[[Jongno District|Jong-no]] has various underground gay-friendly shops, cafés, and gay-focused NGOs. However, most of these establishments do not cater to foreign residents, [[transgender|trans]] people or women.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kazyak |first1=Emily |title=Geographies of Sexualities |date=31 March 2023 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-000-85119-9 |page=114 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-X-rEAAAQBAJ&dq=jongno+gay&pg=PT114 |language=en}}</ref> A recent 2017 study insinuated the growth of a "gay lifestyle" community in Jong-no, a popular area in Seoul, where LGBT individuals feel safe in relatively heteronormative places.<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://www.kci.go.kr/kciportal/ci/sereArticleSearch/ciSereArtiView.kci?sereArticleSearchBean.artiId=ART002205343 |title=Compromised Sexual Territoriality Under Reflexive Cosmopolitanism|journal=Journal of the Korean Association of Regional Geographers|volume=23|issue=1|pages=23–46|year=2017|last1=Hamilton|first1=Robert|doi=10.26863/JKARG.2017.02.23.1.23|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Though the study only looked at a well-known café, the famous Gay Bean, there are many other places in the Jong-no area that are considered straight but are growing increasingly welcoming of non-straight individuals.

===Media===
South Korea's first gay-themed magazine, ''Buddy'', launched in 1998,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.buddy79.com |title=버디마을 입구 |publisher=Buddy79.com |date=1998-02-20 |access-date=2011-01-20}}</ref> and several popular gay-themed commercials have also aired.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.naver.com/news/read.php?mode=LOD&office_id=108&article_id=0000039407&section_id=001&menu_id=001|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120715140859/http://news.naver.com/news/read.php?mode=LOD&office_id=108&article_id=0000039407&section_id=001&menu_id=001|url-status=dead|archive-date=15 July 2012|title=네이버 :: 페이지를 찾을 수 없습니다.|access-date=15 May 2016}}</ref>

In 1998, the film review authorities lifted a ban on portraying homosexual conduct in films.<ref>{{cite web|author=Short, Steven|url=http://www.time.com:80/time/asia/features/sex/sexfilm.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010413160750/http://www.time.com/time/asia/features/sex/sexfilm.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=13 April 2001|title=Dirty Movies|publisher=[[Time Asia]]|date=2001-03-19|access-date=2018-11-15}}</ref>

Paving the way for television was the 2005 South Korean film ''[[The King and the Clown]],'' a gay-themed movie based on a court affair between a king and his male jester. The movie became the highest-grossing in Korean film history, surpassing both ''[[Silmido (film)|Silmido]]'' and ''[[Taegukgi (film)|Taegukgi]]''. The Korean title for ''The King and the Clown'' is "왕의 남자" which translates as "''The King's Man''" with the implication that it refers to the man as being the King's lover. Other recent movies include the 2008 film ''[[A Frozen Flower]]'' ({{langx|ko|쌍화점}}) and ''[[No Regret (film)|No Regret]]'' ({{langx|ko|후회하지 않아}}) by celebrated director [[Leesong hee-il]], which starred at the [[Pusan International Film Festival|2006 Busan International Film Festival]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://movie.naver.com/movie/bi/mi/basic.nhn?code=50304 |title=네이버 영화 :: 영화와 처음 만나는 곳 |publisher=Movie.naver.com |access-date=2011-01-20}}</ref>

Mainstream Korean television shows have begun to feature gay characters and themes. In 2010, the soap opera ''[[Life Is Beautiful (2010 TV series)|Life Is Beautiful]]'' ({{langx|ko|인생은 아름다워}}) premiered on [[Seoul Broadcasting System|SBS]] broadcast TV, becoming the first prime-time drama to explore a gay male couple's relationship as their unwitting families set them up on dates with women.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/news/art/2010/07/248_67469.html |title=Saju and death of a transgender |work=The Korea Times|date=2010-06-11 }}</ref> That same year, ''[[Personal Taste]]'' ({{langx|ko|개인의 취향}}, also "Personal Preference") was broadcast on [[Munhwa Broadcasting Corporation|MBC]] and revolved around a straight man who pretends to be gay to become a woman's roommate.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/news/special/2010/01/178_58833.html| title=Lee Min-ho to Star in New MBC Drama |work=The Korea Times|access-date=2010-09-16| date=2010-01-11 }}</ref> Before these was ''Coming Out'', which debuted on cable channel [[TVN (South Korea)|tvN]] in late-night in 2008, in which a gay actor and straight actress counseled gays with publicly acknowledging their sexual orientation.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/news/art/2010/04/201_22429.html |title=Actor Hong Suk-Chun to Host 'Coming Out' |work=The Korea Times|date=2008-04-13 }}</ref>

''Man on High Heels'' ({{ko-hhrm|하이힐||Hai hil}}; lit. "High Heel") is a 2014 South Korean [[neo-noir|noir]] film written and directed by [[Jang Jin]],<ref>{{cite web|last=Jin|first=Eun-soo|title=Gender focus of noir film|url=http://koreajoongangdaily.joins.com/news/article/Article.aspx?aid=2989975|website=[[Korea JoongAng Daily]]|accessdate=2014-06-02|date=2 June 2014}}</ref> starring [[Cha Seung-won]] as a [[transgender]] homicide detective.<ref>{{cite web|last=Lee|first=Cory|title=Cha Seung-won to Turn Detective in New Movie|url=http://www.tenasia.com/cha-seung-won-to-turn-detective-in-new-movie/|work=TenAsia|accessdate=2014-05-29|date=6 March 2013|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140529085046/http://www.tenasia.com/cha-seung-won-to-turn-detective-in-new-movie/|archivedate=29 May 2014}}</ref>

In 2017, the film ''[[Method (2017 film)|Method]]'' was released. The film talks about a gay relationship between an actor and an [[Korean pop idol|idol]]. In 2020, the television series ''[[Itaewon Class]]'' began airing. The show prominently features a transgender supporting character played by actress [[Lee Joo-young (actress, born 1992)|Lee Joo-young]], as well as cameo appearances by [[Hong Seok-cheon]]. This film reflects the increasingly favorable attitudes among South Koreans towards LGBT.<ref>{{cite web | last=MacDonald | first=Joan | title=Transgender Character In 'Itaewon Class' Reflects Changing Attitudes In South Korea | website=[[Forbes]] | date=2020-03-11 | url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/joanmacdonald/2020/03/11/transgender-character-in-itaewon-class-reflects-changing-attitudes-in-south-korea/ | access-date=2023-06-08}}</ref>

Openly LGBT entertainment figures include model and actress [[Harisu]], a [[trans woman]] who makes frequent appearances on television.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.jenellerose.com/htmlpostings/harisu.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060909005849/http://www.jenellerose.com/htmlpostings/harisu.htm|url-status=dead|title=Harisu|archive-date=9 September 2006}}</ref> Actor [[Hong Seok-cheon]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://wk.koreaherald.co.kr/SITE/data/html_dir/2004/06/26/200406260002.asp|last=Hanson|first=Lisa|date=2004-06-26|access-date=2007-01-01|work=[[Korea Herald]]|title=Gay community at crossroads|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://archive.today/20040701031503/http://wk.koreaherald.co.kr/SITE/data/html_dir/2004/06/26/200406260002.asp|archive-date=1 July 2004|df=dmy-all}}</ref> after coming out in 2000 and being fired from his job,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://sports.donga.com/bbs/sports.php?id=enter_hotline&no=23416&p_page=1&p_choice=&p_item=&code=|access-date=2007-01-01|date=2006-09-07|script-title=ko:홍석천, 이성애자 마초 변신 "놀랍죠?"|language=ko|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071224224614/http://sports.donga.com/bbs/sports.php?id=enter_hotline&no=23416&p_page=1&p_choice=&p_item=&code=|archive-date=24 December 2007|df=dmy-all}}</ref> has since returned to his acting career. He has appeared in several debate programs in support of gay rights.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.naver.com/news/read.php?mode=LOD&office_id=213&article_id=0000001915&section_id=001&menu_id=001|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120713061547/http://news.naver.com/news/read.php?mode=LOD&office_id=213&article_id=0000001915&section_id=001&menu_id=001|url-status=dead|archive-date=13 July 2012|title=네이버 :: 페이지를 찾을 수 없습니다.|access-date=15 May 2016}}</ref>

Popular actor [[Kim Ji-hoo]], who was openly gay, died of suicide by hanging on 8 October 2008. Police attributed his suicide to public prejudice against homosexuality.<ref name="kimjihoo">Park, Si-soo. [https://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/news/nation/2008/10/117_32358.html Gay Actor Found Dead in Apparent Suicide], The Korea Times, 8 October 2008. Retrieved on 4 November 2010.</ref>

"The Daughters of Bilitis", a KBS Drama Special about the lives of lesbian women, aired on 7 August 2011. Immediately after it aired, internet message boards lit up with outraged protesters who threatened to boycott the network. The production crew eventually shut down the online re-run service four days after the broadcast.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.lezbelib.com/tv-movies/a-lesbian-drama-schocked-south-korea|title=A Lesbian Drama Series Shocked South Korea|last=E-Li|website=Lezbelib.com|access-date=9 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190509114746/https://www.lezbelib.com/tv-movies/a-lesbian-drama-schocked-south-korea|archive-date=9 May 2019|url-status=dead}}</ref>

''XY She'', a KBS Joy cable talk show about [[male-to-female]] (MTF) transgender individuals, was virtually cancelled after its first episode due to public opposition. The network cited concern over attacks on MCs and other cast-members as the official reason for cancellation.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://asiamedia.lmu.edu/2012/09/19/south-korea-kbs-xy-that-girl-gets-outed/|title=SOUTH KOREA: KBS' 'XY That Girl' Gets 'OUTed'!|date=19 September 2012|website=Asia Media}}</ref>

In 2013, movie director [[Kim Jho Kwang-soo]] and his partner Kim Seung-hwan became the first South Korean gay couple to publicly wed, although it was not a legally recognized marriage.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ontopmag.com/article/16507/First_South_Korean_Gay_Couple_To_Publicly_Wed_Plans_Challenge_To_Marriage_Law|title=First South Korean Gay Couple To Publicly Wed Plans Challenge To Marriage Law|website=On Top Magazine}}</ref>

In 2016, a Christian broadcasting company was sanctioned by the [[Korea Communications Standards Commission]] for broadcasting an anti-LGBTI interview on a radio program, in which the interviewee claimed that, if an "anti-discrimination law for LGBTI people" is passed, "pedophilia, bestiality, etc. will be legalized" and that South Korea "will become stricken with unspeakable diseases such as AIDS".<ref name="korea"/>

In March 2016, the [[K-pop]] girl group Mercury debuted with member [[Choi Han-bit]], a transgender model, actress, and now singer. In January 2018, singer [[Holland (singer)|Holland]] became the first openly gay K-pop idol in South Korea to debut, releasing his song "Neverland".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.teenvogue.com/story/k-pop-star-holland-forging-a-path-openly-gay-idol|title=K-Pop Star Holland Is Forging a Path as an Openly Gay Idol|website=Teen Vogue|date=23 October 2019}}</ref>

In May 2020, multiple media outlets linked a cluster of [[COVID-19 pandemic in South Korea|COVID-19 cases]] to a gay bar in Seoul.<ref>{{cite news |title=Covid-19 Backlash Targets LGBT People in South Korea |url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2020/05/13/covid-19-backlash-targets-lgbt-people-south-korea |work=Human Rights Watch |date=13 May 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Explained: Why South Korea's new Covid-19 outbreak has the LGBTQ community worried |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/south-korea-nightclub-coronavirus-lgbtq-6415370/ |work=[[The Indian Express]] |date=21 May 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=South Korea must fight the homophobia hindering coronavirus battle |url=https://asia.nikkei.com/Opinion/South-Korea-must-fight-the-homophobia-hindering-coronavirus-battle |work=[[The Nikkei]] |date=13 May 2020}}</ref>

In September 2021, South Korean series ''[[Squid Game]]'' was released. It is [[List of most-watched Netflix original programming|Netflix's most-watched series]], becoming the top-viewed program in 94 countries and attracting more than 142 million member households and amassing 1.65 billion viewing hours during its [[List of most-watched Netflix original programming|first four weeks from launch]]. The series received some criticism for its negative portrayal of homosexuality.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.digitalspy.com/tv/a37892177/squid-game-gay-lgbtq-queer-vips/ | title=Squid Game plays into a harmful homophobic trope | website=[[Digital Spy]] | date=7 October 2021 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://miscellanynews.org/2021/11/17/arts/analyzing-queer-representation-in-hit-show-squid-game/ | title=Analyzing queer representation in hit show 'Squid Game' – the Miscellany News | date=17 November 2021 }}</ref>

In September 2022, Squid Game actor [[Lee Jung-jae|Lee Jung-jae's]] homophobic comments resurfaced on the internet. The actor made history by becoming the first Asian to win [[Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series|Outstanding Lead Actor]] at the [[74th Primetime Emmy Awards|2022 Emmy Awards]].<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.sportskeeda.com/pop-culture/news-squid-game-actor-lee-jung-jae-s-past-assault-homophobic-comments-spreads-internet | title=Squid Game actor Lee Jung-jae's criminal record and homophobic comments resurface on the internet | date=11 September 2022 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.koreaboo.com/news/squid-game-veteran-actor-lee-jung-jaes-shocking-past-left-netizens-speechless/ | title="Squid Game" Fame Veteran Actor Lee Jung Jae's Shocking Past Has Left Netizens Speechless | date=9 September 2022 }}</ref>

===Pride parades===
[[File:GAY PRIDE (19224159635).jpg|thumb|right|Seoul Pride parade 2015]]
[[File:Korea Queer Culture Festival 2014 58.JPG|thumb|right|Participants at the 2014 [[Seoul Queer Culture Festival]]]]
[[File:2014-06-28 ROK Daegu LGBT Pride Parade.jpg|thumb|Daegu Pride parade 2014. On the right of the photograph are police officers. They were deployed to protect the participants as several protestors had tried to violently disrupt the event.]]

The [[Seoul Queer Culture Festival]], also known as the "Korea Queer Culture Festival" or simply "Seoul Pride", is the largest LGBT event in the country. It was first held in 2000 when only 50 attended and turnout has increased every year since then. In 2015, following protests by conservative Christian groups, the [[Seoul Metropolitan Police Agency]] banned the event citing public safety concerns and traffic disruption as the reasons.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2015/06/03/south-korea-at-behest-of-conservative-christians-bans-lgbt-march/?noredirect=on|title=South Korea, at behest of conservative Christians, bans LGBT march|newspaper=The Washington Post|date=3 June 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.upi.com/Top_News/World-News/2015/06/04/South-Korea-LGBT-activists-protest-ban-on-queer-pride-parade/7711433429531/|title=South Korea LGBT activists protest ban on queer pride parade|work=UPI|date=4 June 2015}}</ref> The decision was overturned by the Seoul Administrative Court, allowing the parade to take place, which saw around 20,000 people participating.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ucanews.com/news/south-korean-court-overturns-ban-on-gay-pride-parade/73797|title=South Korean court overturns ban on gay pride parade|work=UCA News|date=17 June 2015|last=Chan-Kyong|first=Park}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://gayexpress.co.nz/2015/06/south-korean-court-overturns-ban-on-seouls-pride-parade/|title=South Korean Court Overturns Ban on Seoul's Pride Parade|work=express Magazine|date=June 2015|last=Joule|first=Levi}}</ref>

In 2016, there were 50,000 attendees. In July 2017, an estimated 85,000 people (according to the organizers) marched in the streets of [[Seoul]] in support of LGBT rights.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.koreaherald.com/view.php?ud=20170715000077|title=[From the scene] Gay pride parade in Seoul draws record number|first=The Korea|last=Herald|date=15 July 2017|website=[[The Korea Herald]]}}</ref> Ahead of the 2018 event, around 220,000 people signed an online petition demanding that officials act to prevent the festival from taking place.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www1.president.go.kr/petitions/270921|title=대구 동성로/서울 시청광장 퀴어행사(동성애축제)개최를 반대합니다.|work=president.co.kr|date=14 June 2018|language=ko|access-date=9 August 2019|archive-date=9 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190809023838/https://www1.president.go.kr/petitions/270921|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2018/07/12/210000-sign-petition-against-south-korean-gay-pride-festival/|title=Over 210,000 sign petition against South Korean gay pride festival|work=The Telegraph|date=12 July 2018|last=Ryall|first=Julian|location=Tokyo}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.pinknews.co.uk/2018/07/12/anti-gay-pride-petition-signed-by-more-than-200000-people-in-south-korea/|title=Anti-gay pride petition signed by more than 200,000 people in South Korea|work=PinkNews|date=12 July 2018|last=Smith|first=Lydia}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.gaystarnews.com/article/more-than-210000-sign-petition-against-south-korea-gay-pride/|title=More than 200,000 sign petition against South Korea gay pride|work=Gay Star News|date=12 July 2018|last=Johnson|first=Mark|access-date=9 August 2019|archive-date=9 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190809025311/https://www.gaystarnews.com/article/more-than-210000-sign-petition-against-south-korea-gay-pride/|url-status=dead}}</ref> However, the 2018 Seoul Pride parade took place and was attended by an estimated 120,000 people.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://koreajoongangdaily.joins.com/news/article/article.aspx?aid=3050623 |title=Seoul LGBT festival sees record numbers|work=[[Korea JoongAng Daily]]|date=16 July 2018|access-date=29 July 2018}}</ref>

In July 2019, conservative Christian groups again tried to block the festival, arguing that it "would be harmful to children and it would infringe on their rights". A court rejected their application as nonsensical.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.gaystarnews.com/article/court-rejects-bid-to-stop-south-korea-pride/|title=Court rejects bid to stop South Korea pride|work=Gay Star News|date=31 May 2019|last=Glauert|first=Rik|access-date=9 August 2019|archive-date=9 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190809023646/https://www.gaystarnews.com/article/court-rejects-bid-to-stop-south-korea-pride/|url-status=dead}}</ref> Days later, the 20th edition of the festival was held with approximately 150,000 participants.<ref name="election">{{cite web|url=https://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/nation/2024/05/113_270289.html|title=Will LGBTQ issue become visible in 2020 general election?|work=The Korea Times|date=9 June 2019|first=Ji-won|last=Park}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.koreaherald.com/view.php?ud=20190601000070|title=[From the Scene] 'Proud to be who we are'|work=[[The Korea Herald]]|date=1 June 2019|first=Hyun-ju|last=Ock}}</ref>

[[Daegu]] has been holding annual pride marches since 2009, and [[Busan]] held its first pride event on 23 September 2017. In 2018, during the second gay pride in Busan, some 2,000 police officials were deployed to keep the event violence-free, and to protect the event's 15,000 attendees from violent anti-gay protesters.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.gaystarnews.com/article/it-took-thousands-of-police-to-keep-this-south-korea-pride-parade-violence-free/|title=It took thousands of police to keep this South Korea pride parade violence-free|work=Gay Star News|date=16 October 2018|last=Glauert|first=Rik|access-date=9 August 2019|archive-date=9 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190809025313/https://www.gaystarnews.com/article/it-took-thousands-of-police-to-keep-this-south-korea-pride-parade-violence-free/|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Gwangju]] and [[Jeju Province|Jeju]] also held their first LGBT events in 2017.{{citation needed|date=November 2024}} Gwangju's was a counter-protest to an anti-LGBT rally. The city organised its first official pride event the following year. Other cities, including [[Incheon]] and [[Jeonju]], held their first pride events in 2018.<ref name="SQCF">{{Cite web |title=[알림] 공식명칭을 변경합니다 ('퀴어문화축제조직위원회'➝'서울퀴어문화축제조직위원회', '퀴어문화축제'➝'서울퀴어문화축제') |url=http://sqcf.org/notice/173504 |website=[[SQCF]] |date=15 March 2018 |access-date=29 July 2018 |archive-date=29 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180729111954/http://sqcf.org/notice/173504 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Incheon officials initially denied permission to hold the LGBT event, citing a lack of parking. Organizers lodged an appeal and vowed to march irrespectively. The event took place and ended in violence after about 1,000 Christian protestors began violently attacking the participants.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://newsinfo.inquirer.net/1030331/queer-fest-badly-delayed-by-violent-anti-gay-protests-in-incheon|title=Queer fest badly delayed by violent anti-gay protests in Incheon|first=The Korea Herald/Asia News|last=Network|website=newsinfo.inquirer.net|date=10 September 2018}}</ref> In April 2019, organizers of the gay pride event in Incheon filed charges against several Christian pastors who violently disrupted the event. They also lodged complaints with South Korea's national human rights body accusing police of inaction.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.gaystarnews.com/article/pride-organizers-in-south-korea-press-charges-against-violent-protestors/|title=Pride organizers in South Korea press charges against violent protestors|work=Gay Star News|date=17 April 2019|last=Glauert|first=Rik|access-date=9 August 2019|archive-date=9 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190809023756/https://www.gaystarnews.com/article/pride-organizers-in-south-korea-press-charges-against-violent-protestors/|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.incheontoday.com/news/articleView.html?idxno=114092|title=Four opponents sued for Incheon Queer Festival and assault|work=Incheon Today|date=16 April 2019|last=Kang-hyun|first=Kim}}</ref>

In May 2018, the first drag parade in South Korea took place with dozens attending the incident-free protest march in the capital [[Seoul]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.pinknews.co.uk/2018/05/29/south-korea-first-drag-queen-parade-incredible/|title=South Korea held its first ever drag queen parade – and it was incredible|work=PinkNews|date=29 May 2018|last=Jackman|first=Josh}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://english.hani.co.kr/arti/english_edition/e_national/847398.html|title=[Photo] Korea's first drag parade of LGBT community|work=[[The Hankyoreh]]|date=2 June 2018}}</ref>

In 2020, three cities gave up holding Queer Culture Festival due to COVID-19.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-12-22|title=올해는 '퀴어축제'도 비대면, 12월엔 인천과 경남|url=http://www.hani.co.kr/arti/society/women/975422.html|access-date=2021-03-27|website=[[The Hankyoreh]]|language=ko}}</ref> The new media startup 'Dotface' held a queer parade online. People participated by making their avatars through dotface's homepage and uploading the avatars on Instagram with hashtag #우리는없던길도만들지 #온라인퀴퍼 (online Queer Parade).<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-06-24|title="우리는 없던 길도 만들지" 코로나19에 등장한 '온라인 퀴어 퍼레이드'|url=https://www.hankookilbo.com/News/Read/A202006241101000241?t=20210327035358|access-date=2021-03-27|website=[[Hankook Ilbo]]|language=ko-KR}}</ref>

In May 2023, Seoul's city government blocked South Korea's annual LGBT festival from taking place outside city hall and granted a permit for anti-LGBT Christian concert instead.<ref>{{cite web |last=Baska |first=Maggie |date=2023-05-07 |title=South Korea Pride event blocked in favour of Christian youth concert |url=https://www.thepinknews.com/2023/05/07/south-korea-lgbtq-pride-seoul-christian-event/ |access-date=2023-05-11 |website=PinkNews}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Yim |first=Hyunsu |date=2023-05-04 |title=Seoul's LGBT festival blocked by Christian concert outside city hall, organisers say |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/seouls-lgbt-festival-blocked-by-christian-concert-outside-city-hall-organisers-2023-05-04/ |access-date=2023-05-11}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-05-05 |title=Seoul queer festival loses out to Christian concert - Taipei Times |url=https://www.taipeitimes.com/News/world/archives/2023/05/05/2003799206 |access-date=2023-05-11 |website=www.taipeitimes.com}}</ref>

In June 2024, a protest against the Queer Culture Festival was held in central Seoul. Thousands of participants held blue flags and signs with phrases such as "No to homosexuality".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/seouls-lgbt-community-gathers-annual-festival-despite-protest-2024-06-01/|title=Seoul's LGBT community gathers for annual festival despite protest|website=reuters.com|access-date=2024-06-01}}</ref>

== Public opinion ==
{{Pie chart
| thumb = right
| caption = Public opinion on same-sex marriage (2023) based on [[Pew Research Center]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2023/06/13/how-people-in-24-countries-view-same-sex-marriage/|title=How people in 24 countries view same-sex marriage|website=PewResearchCenter|access-date=June 13, 2023}}</ref>
| label1 =Strongly favor
| value1 =10
| color1 = #025
| label2 =Somewhat favor
| value2 =30
| color2 = #06F
| label3 =Not sure
| value3 =1
| color3 =lightgrey
| label4 =Somewhat oppose
| value4 =21
| color4 =red
| label5 =Strongly oppose
| value5 =38
| color5 =darkred
}}

South Koreans have become significantly more accepting of homosexuality and LGBT rights since 2010 and the onward decade,<ref name="pew"/> even if conservative attitudes remain dominant. Public support for same-sex marriage is growing rapidly. In 2010, 31% and 21% of South Koreans in their 20s and 30s, respectively, supported the legalization of same-sex marriages. In 2014, these numbers had almost doubled to 60% and 40%. Support among people over 60, however, remained relatively unchanged (14% to 15%). These numbers were published by the [[Asan Institute for Policy Studies]].<ref>{{cite web | url=http://en.asaninst.org/contents/over-the-rainbow-public-attitude-toward-lgbt-in-south-korea/ | title=Over the Rainbow: Public Attitude Toward LGBT in South Korea | publisher=The Asian Institute for Policy Studies | last1=Kim | first1=Jiyoon | last2=Bong | first2=Youngshik | first3=John J. | last3=Lee | last4=Kang | first4=Chungku | date=April 17, 2015}}</ref>

A 2013 [[Gallup poll]] found that 39% of people believed homosexuality should be accepted by society, compared to only 18% who held this view in 2007. South Korea recorded the most significant shift towards greater acceptance of homosexuality among the 39 countries surveyed worldwide. Significantly, there was a very large age gap on this issue: in 2013, 71% of South Koreans aged between 18 and 29 believed that homosexuality should be accepted, compared to only 16% of South Koreans aged 50 and over.<ref name="pew">{{cite web|url=http://www.pewglobal.org/2013/06/04/the-global-divide-on-homosexuality/|title=The Global Divide on Homosexuality|date=4 June 2013|work=Pew Research Center's Global Attitudes Project|access-date=15 May 2016}}</ref>

In April 2013, a Gallup poll, which was commissioned by a conservative Christian group, found that 25% of South Koreans supported same-sex marriage, while 67% opposed it and 8% did not know or refused to answer.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.news.com.au/world-news/south-korea-easing-homophobic-views-on-news-of-gay-wedding/story-fndir2ev-1226655223769|title=South Korea easing homophobic views on news of gay 'wedding'|work=NewsComAu|access-date=15 May 2016|archive-date=13 September 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130913131648/http://www.news.com.au/world-news/south-korea-easing-homophobic-views-on-news-of-gay-wedding/story-fndir2ev-1226655223769|url-status=dead}}</ref> However, a May 2013 Ipsos poll found that 26% of respondents were in favor of same-sex marriage and another 31% supported other forms of recognition for same-sex couples.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ipsos-na.com/download/pr.aspx?id=12795 |title=Same-Sex Marriage |date=7–21 May 2013 |publisher=Ipsos |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160314051755/http://www.ipsos-na.com/download/pr.aspx?id=12795 |archive-date=14 March 2016 }}</ref>

A 2017 Gallup Korea poll found that 58% of Koreans were against same-sex marriage, while 34% supported it and 8% remained undecided.<ref name="intolerant"/> Another poll in December 2017 conducted by Gallup for [[Munhwa Broadcasting Corporation|MBC]] and the Speaker of the [[National Assembly (South Korea)|National Assembly]] reported that 41% of South Koreans thought that same-sex marriage should be allowed, 53% were against it.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://imnews.imbc.com/replay/2017/nwdesk/article/4482816_21408.html |title=특집 여론조사…국민 59.7% "적폐청산 수사 계속해야" |date=26 December 2017 |publisher=[[MBC News]]}}</ref>

In February 2019, the "2018 Korea Social Integration Survey", which was conducted by the [[Korea Institute of Public Administration]], revealed that those who said they "cannot accept homosexuals" fell below 50% for the first time in the survey's history. This percentage decreased from 62% in 2013 to 57% in 2017, to 49% in 2018. In 2018, the rest of those interviewed answered that they could accept them as either neighbors (31%), colleagues (15%), close friends (6%), or spouses (0.4%).<ref name="center">{{cite web|url=http://mengnews.joins.com/view.aspx?aid=3063515|title=Parade still at center of Korea's LGBTQ debate: The Seoul Queer Culture fest expects more support (and opposition) this year|work=[[Korea JoongAng Daily]]|date=27 May 2019|last=So-yeon|first=Yoon}}</ref>

A 2019 survey of 500 Korean respondents found that a majority had a favorable view of transgender people, and that they did not violate Korean traditional cultural values. Most supported gender-affirming care for trans people, however a majority still agreed that they should not be allowed to serve in the military.<ref name="Brown" />

A 2020 [[Pew Research Center]] poll showed that 44% of South Koreans believed society should accept homosexuality. South Korea recorded the largest generational gap of the 34 countries surveyed, with 79% of 18–29-year-olds agreeing but only 23% of those aged 50 and over. Women (51%), the more educated (51%), those on the left of the political spectrum (67%), and the religiously unaffiliated (60%) were also more likely to agree.<ref>{{cite web|url= https://www.pewresearch.org/global/2020/06/25/global-divide-on-homosexuality-persists/|title= The Global Divide on Homosexuality Persists|work=Pew Research|date=25 June 2020}}</ref>

According to a poll in May 2021, 81% of the respondents said no to the question "Is it fair to fire a worker based on their sexuality?" and 12% said yes.<ref name="한국갤럽조사연구소">{{Cite web|title=한국갤럽조사연구소|url=https://www.gallup.co.kr/gallupdb/reportContent.asp?seqNo=1210|access-date=2021-06-19|website=www.gallup.co.kr}}</ref> In terms of marriage equality, 38% were in favour of [[same-sex marriage]] while 52% were against it.<ref name="한국갤럽조사연구소"/>

According to a 2022 survey by the [[World Values Survey]], 79% of South Koreans "would not like to have homosexuals as neighbors".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.worldvaluessurvey.org/WVSOnline.jsp|title=WVS Database|website=worldvaluessurvey.org|access-date=2024-08-03}}</ref>

In a 2023 Pew Research Center survey, 40% of South Korean respondents supported same-sex marriage while 59% were opposed.<ref name="RussiaCollapsing2k23">{{Cite web |last1=Poushter |first1=Jacob |last2=Gubbala |first2=Sneha |last3=Huang |first3=Christine |title=How people in 24 countries view same-sex marriage |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2023/06/13/how-people-in-24-countries-view-same-sex-marriage/ |access-date=2023-06-18 |website=Pew Research Center |language=en-US}}</ref> There was an extreme difference in opinion based on the ages of the South Korean respondents. While only 32% of South Koreans over the age of 40 supported gay marriage, 58% of South Koreans aged 18–39 supported it.<ref name="RussiaCollapsing2k23" />

== Politics ==
In the [[2008 South Korean legislative election|2008 legislative election]], [[Choi Hyun-sook]] became the first openly LGBT parliamentary candidate in the country. As an openly lesbian candidate, she ran for the [[New Progressive Party (South Korea)|New Progressive Party]]. Her party did not win any seats during the election.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://andrejkoymasky.com/liv/fam/bioc3/choi01.html|title=Choi Hyun-sook|work=andrejkoymasky.com|date=9 July 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://pinks2017nyc.wordpress.com/2017/02/25/81/|title=The Times of Our Lives 레즈비언 정치 도전기 (2009)|work=Pinks Documentaries in NYC 2017|date=25 February 2017}}</ref>

The [[United Future Party]] is opposed to LGBT rights, the [[Seoul Queer Culture Festival]], anti-discrimination protections for LGBT people and [[same-sex marriage]]. Some of its members have made many public homophobic statements.<ref name="election"/><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/may/04/south-korea-must-end-gay-soldier-witch-hunt-campaigners-say|title=South Korea must end gay soldier 'witch-hunt', campaigners say|work=The Guardian|date=4 May 2017|location=Seoul|last=McCurry|first=Justin}}</ref><ref name="center"/>

Political support for LGBT rights is limited in South Korea due to the significant lobbying power exerted by conservative Christian groups.<ref name="npr-uphill" /><ref name="wp-march-2015">{{cite news|last1=Seo|first1=Yoonjung|last2=Fifield|first2=Anna|title=South Korea, at behest of conservative Christians, bans LGBT march|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2015/06/03/south-korea-at-behest-of-conservative-christians-bans-lgbt-march/|access-date=7 October 2017|newspaper=Washington Post|date=3 June 2015}}</ref> Support for LGBT rights is limited even from the otherwise [[Democratic Party (South Korea, 2015)|Democratic Party of Korea]] and its leader, former human rights lawyer and South Korean President [[Moon Jae-in]].<ref name="kt-moon-2012">{{cite news|last1=Tong-hyung|first1=Kim|title=Moon bashes gay rights for church votes|url=https://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/news/opinon/2012/12/264_126896.html|access-date=7 October 2017|work=Korea Times|date=14 December 2012|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=South Korea's presidential hopeful Moon Jae In under fire over anti-gay comment|url=http://www.straitstimes.com/asia/east-asia/south-koreas-presidential-hopeful-moon-jae-in-under-fire-over-anti-gay-comment|access-date=7 October 2017|work=The Straits Times|date=26 April 2017|language=en}}</ref> During the [[2017 South Korean presidential election|2017 presidential election]], in which he emerged victorious, Moon stated that he opposed homosexuality,<ref name="moon-opposed">{{cite news|title=South Korean presidential front runner says he opposes homosexuality|url=http://www.scmp.com/news/asia/east-asia/article/2090815/south-korean-presidential-front-runner-moon-jae-says-he-opposes|access-date=31 December 2017|work=South China Morning Post|date=26 April 2017|language=en}}</ref> and that gay soldiers could undermine the Korean military.<ref name="quartz-moon">{{cite news|last1=Steger|first1=Isabella|title=Being a progressive politician in Korea doesn't stop you from being homophobic|url=https://qz.com/970015/being-a-progressive-politician-in-korea-doesnt-stop-you-from-being-homophobic/|access-date=7 October 2017|work=Quartz|date=27 April 2017}}</ref>

Moon faced criticism from gay rights advocates for his inconsistent position on minority rights, given that he was prepared to backtrack on previous support for [[civil union]]s and sacrifice LGBT rights in order to win votes from conservative Christian voters.<ref name="KTMoonChurch">{{cite news|last1=Tong-hyung|first1=Kim|title=Moon bashes gay rights for church votes|url=https://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/news/opinon/2012/12/264_126896.html|access-date=31 December 2017|work=Korea Times|date=14 December 2012|language=en}}</ref> Moon later said that he opposed same-sex marriage while also opposing discrimination against homosexual people.<ref name="nbc-2017">{{cite news|title=South Korean Presidential Hopeful Accused of Anti-Gay Comments|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/feature/nbc-out/south-korean-presidential-hopeful-accused-anti-gay-comments-n751301|access-date=7 October 2017|work=NBC News|publisher=NBC|date=26 April 2017}}</ref> Only one of the 14 presidential candidates in 2017, the [[Justice Party (South Korea)|Justice Party's]] [[Sim Sang-jung]], expressed clear support for LGBT rights and introducing discrimination protections for LGBT people.<ref name="quartz-moon" />

During South Korea's 2018 elections, openly transgender candidate Kim Ki-hong (김기홍) ran for a seat in the [[National Assembly of South Korea]]. Kim ran again under the [[Green Party Korea]] in 2020 for the [[National Assembly of South Korea]]. Due to [[transphobia|transphobic]] abuse Kim endured during the campaign, they decided to end their life on February 24, 2021.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://english.khan.co.kr/khan_art_view.html?code=710100&artid=202103051712002 |title=Sexual Minorities Fought by "Being," While Discrimination and Hatred Drove Them to "Not Being"|publisher=Khan News |access-date=2021-06-20}}</ref>

During the 2019 [[Seoul Queer Culture Festival]], the [[Justice Party (South Korea)|Justice Party]] and the [[Green Party Korea|Green Party]] participated in the event. Some members of the ruling [[Democratic Party (South Korea, 2015)|Democratic Party of Korea]] (DPK) also participated, including [[Keum Tae-sup]]. This is believed to be the first participation of the DPK at the event.<ref name="election" />

In October 2019, speaking to Buddhist and Christian religious leaders, President Moon Jae-in said, "A national consensus should be the priority for same-sex marriage. However, regarding the human rights of sexual minorities, they should not be socially persecuted or discriminated against."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.upi.com/Top_News/World-News/2019/10/21/Moon-Jae-in-Anti-LGBT-discrimination-not-acceptable-in-South-Korea/1041571673042/|title=Moon Jae-in: Anti-LGBT discrimination not acceptable in South Korea|website=UPI.com|date=21 October 2019}}</ref>

On 12 September 2024, President [[Yoon Suk-yeol]] appointed Ahn Chang-ho as chairperson of the government’s National Human Rights Commission, despite strong opposition from civil society groups and his concerning confirmation hearing, bypassing the National Assembly’s approval process. A former Constitutional Court justice, Ahn has drawn widespread criticism for his opposition to antidiscrimination protections for LGBT people, claiming antidiscrimination protections spread [[HIV/AIDS]] and [[anal cancer]], and suggesting that homosexuality could lead to a communist revolution.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2024/09/23/dangerous-setback-minority-rights-south-korea|title=Dangerous Setback for Minority Rights in South Korea|website=hrw.org|date=23 September 2024 |access-date=2024-09-23}}</ref>

== Censorship issues ==
{{main|Internet censorship in South Korea}}
The [[Government of South Korea]] practiced censorship of gay content websites from 2001 to 2003, through its ''Information and Communications Ethics Committee'' (정보통신윤리위원회), an official organ of the [[Ministry of Information and Communication (South Korea)|Ministry of Information and Communication]]. That practice has since been ended.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.i-policy.org/2010/01/internet-censorship-in-south-korea.html |title=Internet Censorship in South Korea |publisher=Information Policy}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.newspower.co.kr/336 |title=청소년 유해 매채 심의 기준에서‘동성애’삭제 |publisher=NewsPower, 107, Hauptgebäude, 17, Kim Sang-ok-ro, Jongno-gu, Seoul TEL 02-391-4945~6, www.newspower.co.kr/336 |access-date=2025-05-25}}</ref>

The South Korean Government has been criticized for the lack of protection for LGBT people.<ref name="LG">{{Cite web|title=LGBTI inclusiveness – OECD|url=https://www.oecd.org/social/soc/lgbti.htm|access-date=2020-12-15|website=www.oecd.org}}</ref><ref name="KQ">{{Cite web|title=K-Quarantine: The Condemnation or Resurgence of LGBTQ Rights in South Korea|url=https://thediplomat.com/2020/05/k-quarantine-the-condemnation-or-resurgence-of-lgbtq-rights-in-south-korea/|access-date=2020-12-15|website=thediplomat.com|language=en-US}}</ref> As of 2020, South Korea has no national law preventing discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation, which places it at the bottom of the list of [[OECD]] countries in regard to LGBT rights.<ref name="LG" /> In addition, South Korea's aggressive track and test method to the [[COVID-19 pandemic in South Korea|COVID-19 pandemic]] resulted in several LGBT South Koreans being outed by either the press or by the public government records related to testing. A cluster of cases was linked to a gay bar in Seoul in May 2020, with all of those in attendance having their personal characteristics, and in some cases also their occupation, released to the public.<ref name="KQ" />

In a country with no protections, the idea of being listed in public government records as LGBT is "insurmountable" and can lead to "long-term negative social effects". Several LGBT people who had visited the bar decided not to report their positive COVID status. Government officials announced anonymous testing procedures later that month. Several COVID clusters were also linked to notoriously homophobic Christian churches or organizations.<ref name="KQ" />

==Meta fine==
In November 2024, Meta was fined $15 million for illegally selling and distributing [[sexual orientation]] information of users on [[Facebook]] - breaching their privacy.<ref>[https://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory/south-korea-fines-meta-15-million-illegally-collecting-115506748]</ref>

==Summary table==
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| Same-sex sexual activity legal (for the general public)
| [[File:Yes check.svg|15px|Yes]]<ref>{{Cite news |last=Mitsanas |first=Michael |date=December 12, 2022 |title=South Korea's LGBTQ Community Confronts Crushing Headwinds in Fight For Equality |work=NBC News |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/nbc-out/out-news/south-koreas-lgbtq-community-confronts-crushing-headwinds-fight-equali-rcna57777}}</ref>
|-
|Same-sex sexual activity legal (for military conscripts)
|[[File:X mark.svg|15px|No]] (Punishable by up to two years in prison)<ref name="SK" /><ref name="CF" />
|-
| Equal age of consent (16)
| [[File:Yes check.svg|15px|Yes]]
|-
| Anti-discrimination laws in employment
| [[File:X mark.svg|15px|No]]/[[File:Yes check.svg|15px|Yes]] (In some jurisdictions)<ref name="ilga">{{cite web|title=State-Sponsored Homophobia report 2020|url=https://ilga.org/downloads/ILGA_World_State_Sponsored_Homophobia_report_global_legislation_overview_update_December_2020.pdf|pages=206, 207, 228 |publisher=International Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans and Intersex Association |language=en}}</ref><ref name="ytn">{{Cite web|date=2020-06-14|title=정의당 "모든 원내 정당, 차별금지법 제정 함께 해야"|url=https://www.ytn.co.kr/_ln/0101_202006141857344094|access-date=2020-07-17|website=[[YTN]]|language=ko}}</ref>
|-
| Anti-discrimination laws in the provision of goods and services
|[[File:X mark.svg|15px|No]]/[[File:Yes check.svg|15px|Yes]] (In some jurisdictions)<ref name="ilga"/><ref name="ytn"/>
|-
| Anti-discrimination laws in all other areas (incl. indirect discrimination, hate speech)
|[[File:X mark.svg|15px|No]]
|-
| Hate crime laws include sexual orientation and gender identity
| [[Image:X mark.svg|15px|No]]
|-
| Same-sex marriages
| [[File:X mark.svg|15px|No]]
|-
| Recognition of same-sex couples
| [[File:X mark.svg|15px|No]]
|-
| Stepchild adoption by same-sex couples
| [[File:X mark.svg|15px|No]]
|-
| Joint adoption by same-sex couples
| [[File:X mark.svg|15px|No]]
|-
|Adoption by single people regardless of sexual orientation
| [[File:X mark.svg|15px|No]]
|-
| LGBT people allowed to serve openly in the military
| [[File:X mark.svg|15px|No]]
|-
| Right to change legal gender
| [[File:Yes check.svg|15px|Yes]] (Since 2006; requires medical transition)
|-
| [[Legal recognition of non-binary gender]]
| [[File:X mark.svg|15px|No]]
|-
| Third gender option
| [[File:X mark.svg|15px|No]]
|-
| [[Gender self-identification]]
| [[File:X mark.svg|15px|No]]
|-
| Intersex minors protected from invasive surgical procedures
| [[File:X mark.svg|15px|No]]
|-
| Conversion therapy banned by law
| [[File:X mark.svg|15px|No]]
|-
|Gay panic defense banned by law
| [[Image:X mark.svg|15px|No]]
|-
| Access to IVF for lesbians
| [[File:X mark.svg|15px|No]]
|-
| Automatic parenthood for both spouses after birth
| [[File:X mark.svg|15px|No]]
|-
| Altruistic surrogacy for gay male couples
| [[File:X mark.svg|15px|No]]
|-
| [[Men who have sex with men|MSM]] allowed to donate blood
| [[File:Yes check.svg|15px|Yes]]/[[File:X mark.svg|15px|No]] (One year deferral period for all regardless of sexual orientation)<ref name="blood">{{cite web|url=https://www.bloodinfo.net/faq.do?action=bloodDonation&brdclasscode=0103000000|title=자진배제가 무엇인가요?|publisher=대한적십자사|access-date=2018-07-09|archive-date=21 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190321132651/https://www.bloodinfo.net/faq.do?action=bloodDonation|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bloodinfo.net/tip_selfexclusion.do|title=자진배제신청(에이즈관련등록)|publisher=대한적십자사|access-date=2018-07-09|archive-date=22 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211022173419/https://www.bloodinfo.net/tip_selfexclusion.do|url-status=dead}}</ref>
|}

==See also==
{{Portal|LGBTQ|South Korea}}
*[[Chingusai]]
*[[LGBTQI health in South Korea]]
*[[Recognition of same-sex unions in South Korea]]
*[[Solidarity for LGBT Human Rights of Korea]]
*[[Yun Hyon-seok]]

'''General:'''
*[[Human rights in South Korea]]
*[[LGBT rights in Asia]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

* {{Cite news|date=2020-06-14|title=정의당 "모든 원내 정당, 차별금지법 제정 함께 해야"|language=ko|url=https://www.ytn.co.kr/_ln/0101_202006141857344094|access-date=2020-07-17}}

==Further reading==
*{{cite book |last1=Lee |first1=Hyun Jung |title=Discrimination Based on Sexual Orientation : Jurisprudence of the European Court of Human Rights and the Constitutional Court of Korea |date=2022 |publisher=Springer International Publishing |isbn=978-3-030-95423-9 |pages=187–209 |language=en |chapter=Case Analysis: Non-Criminalization of Same-Sex Relations}}

==External links==
* [http://buddy79.com/ Official website of Buddy, Korean LGBT Magazine]. (in Korean)
* [http://chingusai.net/ Official website of Chingusai, one of Korea's oldest gay men's organizations]. (in Korean)
* [http://www.kqcf.org/ Official website of the Korean Queer Culture Festival]. (in Korean)
* [http://kscrc.org/ Official website of the Korean Sexual-Minority Culture and Rights Center]. (in Korean)
* [http://cafe.daum.net/Rateen Official website of RAinbowTEEN (Rateen), LGBT youth group]. (in Korean)
* [http://www.lsangdam.org/ Official website of the Lesbian Counseling Center in South Korea]. (in Korean)

===Articles===
* [https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00918369.2016.1194122 Religion and Public Perceptions of Gays and Lesbians in South Korea] by Timothy S. Rich. July 2017
* [http://fridae.asia/gay-news/2009/06/16/8463.from-50-to-1500-korea-queer-culture-festival-turns-10 From 50 to 1,500: Korea Queer Culture Festival turns 10] by Matt Kelley. 16 June 2009
* [http://fridae.asia/gay-news/2009/05/29/8352.south-koreas-legal-trans-formation South Korea's legal trans-formation] by Matt Kelley and Mike Lee. 29 May 2009
* [http://fridae.asia/gay-news/2008/10/17/2140.the-deadly-reality-of-south-koreas-virtual-world The deadly reality of South Korea's virtual world] by Matt Kelley and Mike Lee. 17 October 2008
* [http://fridae.asia/gay-news/2008/10/09/2137.2-openly-gay-trans-south-korean-actors-commit-suicide 2 openly gay, trans South Korean actors commit suicide] by Matt Kelley. 9 October 2008
* [http://fridae.asia/gay-news/2008/06/03/2067.seouls-spring-forecast-more-visibility-for-koreas-queers Seoul's spring forecast: More visibility for Korea's queers] by Matt Kelley. 3 June 2008
* [http://fridae.asia/gay-news/2008/03/18/2029.south-korea-sees-first-openly-gay-politician-but-challenges-persist-for-the-nations-lesbians South Korea sees first openly gay politician, but challenges persist for the nation's lesbians] by Matt Kelley. 18 March 2008
* [http://fridae.asia/gay-news/2008/01/11/1987.seoul-policeman-comes-out-fights-prejudice Seoul policeman comes out, fights prejudice] by News Editor. 11 January 2008
* [http://fridae.asia/gay-news/2007/11/23/1947.exclusion-from-non-discrimination-bill-mobilises-koreas-lgbt-community Exclusion from non-discrimination bill mobilises Korea's LGBT community] by Matt Kelley. 23 November 2007
* [http://fridae.asia/gay-news/2007/06/06/1868.2007-seoul-lgbt-film-festival-june-6-to-10 2007 Seoul LGBT film festival, 6 to 10 June] by News Editor. 6 June 2007

{{LGBT in South Korea}}
{{Korea topics}}
{{Asia topic|LGBTQ rights in}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Lgbt Rights in South Korea}}
[[Category:LGBTQ rights in South Korea| ]]
[[Category:LGBTQ rights by country|{{Title country}}]]
[[Category:LGBTQ rights in Asia|{{Title country}}]]

Korea under Japanese rule

2025-06-15T07:06:08Z

2A00:23C7:C8BC:C501:507C:445E:62F7:256D: /* Japan–Korea Treaty of 1876 */Enlarged image

{{Short description|1910–1945 colony of the Empire of Japan}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2017}}
{{Infobox country
| native_name = {{lang|ja|朝鮮}} {{small|{{transliteration|ja|Chōsen}}}}<hr />{{lang|ko|조선}} {{small|{{transliteration|ko|Chosŏn}}}}
| conventional_long_name = Korea
| common_name =
| empire = Japan
| status = [[Japanese colonial empire#Korea|Colony]] of the [[Empire of Japan]]
| year_start = 1910
| year_end = 1945
| life_span = 1910–1945
| p1 = Korean Empire
| flag_p1 = Flag_of_Korea_(1899).svg
| s1 = Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea{{!}}'''1919:''' Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea
| flag_s1 = Flag of the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea.svg
| s2 = People's Republic of Korea{{!}}'''1945:''' People's Republic of Korea
| flag_s2 = Flag of the People's Committee of Korea.svg
| s3 = Soviet Civil Administration{{!}}Soviet Civil Administration
| flag_s3 = Flag of the Soviet Union.svg
| s4 = United States Army Military Government in Korea
| flag_s4 = US flag 48 stars.svg
| image_flag = Flag of Japan (1870–1999).svg
| flag = Flag of Japan
| flag_type = Flag
| image_coat = Seal of the Government-General of Korea.svg{{!}}class=skin-invert
| symbol = Governor-General of Chōsen
| coat_alt = Seal
| symbol_type = {{longitem|Seal of the Government-General of Chōsen}}
| national_anthem = "[[Kimigayo]]" <div style="display:inline-block;margin-top:0.4em;">[[File:kimi ga Yo 1930 instrumental.oga]]</div>
| image_map = Map of Japan and Korea (1945), National Geographic.jpg
| image_map_caption = 1945 [[National Geographic Maps|''National Geographic'']] map of Korea, showing Japanese placenames and provincial boundaries
| capital = [[Keijō]]{{sup|a}} (now [[Seoul]], South Korea)
| largest_city = capital
| official_languages = {{ubl|[[Japanese language|Japanese]]|[[Korean language|Korean]]}}
| religion = {{ublist
| ''De jure'': None<ref>Sarah Thal. "A Religion That Was Not a Religion: The Creation of Modern Shinto in Nineteenth-Century Japan". In ''The Invention of Religion''., eds. Peterson and Walhof (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2002). pp. 100–114.</ref><ref>Hitoshi Nitta. "Shintō as a 'Non-Religion': The Origins and Development of an Idea". In ''Shintō in History: Ways of the Kami'', eds. Breen and Teeuwen (Honolulu: University of Hawai'i, 2000).</ref><ref>John Breen, "Ideologues, Bureaucrats and Priests", in ''Shintō in History: Ways of the Kami''.</ref><ref>Hitoshi Nitta. ''The Illusion of "Arahitogami" "Kokkashintou"''. Tokyo: PHP Kenkyūjo, 2003.</ref>
| ''De facto'': {{hlist|[[State Shinto]]|[[Korean Confucianism|Confucianism]]|[[Korean Buddhism|Buddhism]]|[[Korean shamanism|Shamanism]]|[[Taoism in Korea|Taoism]]|[[Christianity in Korea|Christianity]]|[[Cheondoism]]{{sup|b}}}}
}}
| politics_link = Government
| title_leader = [[Emperor of Japan|Emperor]]
| leader1 = [[Emperor Meiji|Meiji]]
| year_leader1 = 1910–1912
| leader2 = [[Emperor Taishō|Taishō]]
| year_leader2 = 1912–1926
| leader3 = [[Hirohito|Shōwa]]
| year_leader3 = 1926–1945
| title_deputy = {{longitem| [[Governor-General of Korea|Governor-General]]}}
| deputy1 = [[Terauchi Masatake]]
| year_deputy1 = 1910–1916 (first)
| deputy2 = [[Nobuyuki Abe]]
| year_deputy2 = 1944–1945 (last)
| era = [[Empire of Japan]]
| event_pre = [[Japan–Korea Treaty of 1905|Japanese protectorate]]
| date_pre = 17 November 1905
| event_start = {{nowrap|[[Japan–Korea Treaty of 1910|Annexation treaty]] signed}}
| date_start = 22 August
| event1 = Annexation by Japan
| date_event1 = 29 August 1910
| event2 = [[March First Movement]]
| date_event2 = 1 March 1919
| event3 = [[Sōshi-kaimei]] order
| date_event3 = 10 November 1939
| event_end = [[Surrender of Japan]]
| date_end = 2 September
| event_post = [[Treaty of San Francisco|Japanese claim relinquished]]
| date_post = 28 April 1952
| title_representative =
| representative1 =
| year_representative1 =
| representative4 =
| year_representative4 =
| legislature =
| house1 =
| type_house1 =
| house2 =
| type_house2 =
| currency = [[Korean yen]]
| stat_year1 =
| stat_area1 =
| stat_pop1 =
| stat_year5 =
| stat_area5 =
| stat_pop5 =
| today = [[North Korea]] [[South Korea]]
| footnote_a = {{langx |ja|京城 |translit=Keijō}}; {{korean |hangul=경성 |mr=Kyŏngsŏng |rr=Gyeongseong}}
| footnote_b = According to Korean Christians<ref name="Wi Jo Kang 1997 62">{{cite book |author=Wi Jo Kang |title=Christ and Caesar in Modern Korea: A History of Christianity and Politics |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lYn4BKxNSCoC&pg=PA62 |year=1997 |publisher=SUNY Press |page=62 |isbn=978-0791432488 |access-date=29 October 2015 |archive-date=18 May 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160518184249/https://books.google.com/books?id=lYn4BKxNSCoC&pg=PA62 |url-status=live}}</ref>{{request quotation|date=January 2021}}
| demonym = [[Koreans|Korean]]
| area_km2 =
| area_rank =
| GDP_PPP =
| GDP_PPP_year =
| HDI =
| HDI_year =
}}
{{History of Korea |width=22.0em}}
From 1910 to 1945, [[Korea]] was ruled by the [[Empire of Japan]] under the name '''Chōsen''' ({{Langx|ja|朝鮮|label=none}}), the Japanese reading of "[[Joseon]]".{{efn|"Chōsen" was recognized as Korea's name internationally until the end of colonial period.<ref name="edict">{{cite web |title=Imperial Edict No. 318: National Name of Korea to be Changed to Chōsen |url=https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Imperial_Edict_No._318:_National_Name_of_Korea_to_be_Changed_to_Ch%C5%8Dsen |website=Wikisource |access-date=9 November 2021 |archive-date=19 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220519200824/https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Imperial_Edict_No._318:_National_Name_of_Korea_to_be_Changed_to_Ch%C5%8Dsen |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="WaPo">{{cite news |title=Yi-Syek Bids Farewell to Korea, Now Cho-Sen |url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/81844784/ |access-date=20 July 2021 |newspaper=Washington Post |date=29 August 1910 |archive-date=11 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220211024916/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/81844784/the-washington-post/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Brooklyn">{{cite news |title=News Jottings: Korea Now Cho-Sen |url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/81844750/ |access-date=20 July 2021 |work=Brooklyn Times Union |issue=29 August 1910 |archive-date=11 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220211024916/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/81844750/times-union/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="LA Times">{{cite news |title=Aero Meet for Fleet |url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/81844904/ |access-date=20 July 2021 |work=Los Angeles Times |date=29 October 1910 |archive-date=11 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220211024917/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/81844904/the-los-angeles-times/ |url-status=live}}</ref>}}

Japan first took Korea into its sphere of influence during the late 1800s. Both Korea ([[Joseon]]) and Japan had been under policies of [[isolationism]], with Joseon being a [[Tributary system of China|tributary state of Qing China]]. However, in 1854, [[Perry Expedition|Japan was forcibly opened by the United States]]. It then rapidly modernized under the [[Meiji Restoration]], while Joseon continued to resist foreign attempts to open it up. Japan eventually succeeded in opening Joseon with the unequal [[Japan–Korea Treaty of 1876]].

Afterwards, Japan embarked on a decades-long process of defeating its local rivals, securing alliances with Western powers, and asserting its influence in Korea. Japan [[Assassination of Empress Myeongseong|assassinated the defiant Korean queen]] and intervened in the [[Donghak Peasant Revolution]].<ref name=":03">Donald Keene, ''Emperor of Japan: Meiji and his World, 1852–1912'' (New York: Columbia University Press, 2002), [https://books.google.com/books?id=3YQpz9v8TjQC&q=unspeakably+barbaric&pg=PA517 p. 517.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230404025914/https://books.google.com/books?id=3YQpz9v8TjQC&q=unspeakably+barbaric&pg=PA517 |date=4 April 2023 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Mori |first=Mayuko |date=2012 |title=The Outbreak of the Sino-Japanese War and the Issue of Suzerain-Vassal as Viewed from the Standpoint of Chosŏn |url=https://ijkh.khistory.org/journal/view.php?number=405 |journal=International Journal of Korean History |language=English |volume=17 |issue=1 |pages=62–63 |access-date=28 September 2023 |archive-date=28 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230928103751/https://ijkh.khistory.org/journal/view.php?number=405 |url-status=live }}</ref> After Japan defeated China in the 1894–1895 [[First Sino-Japanese War|First Sino–Japanese War]], Joseon became nominally independent and declared the short-lived [[Korean Empire]]. Japan then defeated Russia in the 1904–1905 [[Russo-Japanese War]], making it the sole regional power. It then moved quickly to fully absorb Korea. It first made Korea a [[protectorate]] with the [[Japan–Korea Treaty of 1905]], and then [[Indirect rule|ruled the country indirectly]] through the [[Japanese Resident-General of Korea|Japanese resident-general of Korea]]. After forcing Emperor [[Gojong of Korea|Gojong]] to abdicate in 1907, Japan then formally colonized Korea with the [[Japan–Korea Treaty of 1910]]. The territory was then administered by the [[Governor-General of Chōsen|governor-general of Chōsen]], based in [[Keijō]] ([[Seoul]]), until the end of the colonial period.

Japan made sweeping changes in Korea. Under the pretext of the racial theory known as ''[[Nissen dōsoron]]'', it began a process of [[Japanization]], eventually [[Sōshi-kaimei|functionally banning the use of Korean names]] and the Korean language altogether. Tens of thousands of cultural artifacts were taken to Japan, and hundreds of historic buildings like the [[Gyeongbokgung]] and [[Deoksugung]] palaces were either partially or completely demolished. Japan also built infrastructure and industry. Railways, ports, and roads were constructed, although in numerous cases workers were subjected to extremely poor working circumstances and discriminatory pay. While Korea's economy grew under Japan, many argue that many of the infrastructure projects were designed to extract resources from the peninsula, and not to benefit its people.<ref name="economic" /><ref name="shocks" /> Most of Korea's infrastructure built during this time was destroyed during the 1950–1953 [[Korean War]].<ref>{{cite journal |last = Lee |first = Jong-won |date = 2001 |title = The Impact of the Korean War on the Korean Economy |journal = International Journal of Korean Studies |volume = 5 |issue = 1 |pages = 97–118 |url = https://ciaotest.cc.columbia.edu/journals/ijoks/v5i1/f_0013337_10833.pdf}}</ref>{{sfn|Robinson|2007|pp =119-120}}<ref>{{Cite web |last = Fisher |first = Max |date = 2015-08-03 |title = Americans have forgotten what we did to North Korea |url = https://www.vox.com/2015/8/3/9089913/north-korea-us-war-crime |access-date = 2021-10-18 |website = Vox |language = en |archive-date = 7 April 2022 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220407112255/https://www.vox.com/2015/8/3/9089913/north-korea-us-war-crime |url-status = live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last = Florick|first = Davis |date = 2017-06-18 |title = Strategic Bombing during the Korean War: The Good and the Bad |url = http://www.hscentre.org/asia-and-pacific/strategic-bombing-korean-war-good-bad/ |access-date = 2024-08-12 |website = Human Security Centre |language = en}}</ref>

These conditions led to the birth of the [[Korean independence movement]], which acted both politically and [[List of militant Korean independence activist organizations|militantly]] sometimes within the Japanese Empire, but mostly from outside of it. Koreans were also subjected to a number of mass murders, including the [[Gando Massacre]], [[Kantō Massacre]], [[Jeamni massacre]], and [[Shinano River incident]].

Beginning in 1939 and during [[World War II]], Japan mobilized around 5.4 million Koreans to support its war effort. Many were moved forcefully from their homes, and set to work in generally extremely poor working conditions, although there was a range in what people experienced. Women and girls were controversially forced into sexual slavery as "[[comfort women]]". After the [[surrender of Japan]] at the end of the war, Korea was liberated, although it [[Division of Korea|was immediately divided]] under the [[Soviet Civil Administration|rule of the Soviet Union]] and [[United States Army Military Government in Korea|of the United States]].

The legacy of Japanese colonization was hotly contested even just after its end, and is still extremely controversial. There is a significant range of opinions in both South Korea and Japan, and historical topics regularly cause diplomatic issues. Within South Korea, a particular focus is the role of the numerous ethnic [[Korean collaborators with Imperial Japan|Korean collaborators with Japan]], who have been variously punished or left alone. This controversy is exemplified in the legacy of [[Park Chung Hee]], South Korea's most influential and controversial president, who collaborated with the Japanese military and continued to praise it even after the colonial period. Until 1964, South Korea and Japan had no functional diplomatic relations, until they signed the [[Treaty on Basic Relations between Japan and the Republic of Korea|Treaty on Basic Relations]], which declared "already [[null and void]]"<ref>{{cite book |author=Hook, Glenn D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HZYARCHyP_AC |title=Japan's International Relations: Politics, Economics, and Security |year=2001 |isbn=978-0415240970 |page=491 |publisher=Psychology Press |quote=Article II. It is confirmed that all treaties or agreements concluded between the Empire of Japan and the Empire of Korea on or before August 22, 1910 are already null and void. |access-date=13 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803143451/https://books.google.com/books?id=HZYARCHyP_AC |archive-date=3 August 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> the past unequal treaties, especially those of 1905 and 1910.<ref name="AnnexTreaty">{{cite news |title=Treaty of Annexation |work=USC–UCLA Joint East Asian Studies Center |url=http://www.isop.ucla.edu/eas/documents/kore1910.htm |url-status=dead |access-date=19 February 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070211234114/http://www.isop.ucla.edu/eas/documents/kore1910.htm |archive-date=11 February 2007}}</ref> Despite this, [[Japan–South Korea relations|relations between Japan and South Korea]] have oscillated between warmer and colder periods, often due to conflicts over the historiography of this era.

==Terminology==
During the period of Japanese colonial rule, Korea was officially known as {{nihongo|Chōsen|朝鮮}},<ref name="WaPo" /><ref name="Brooklyn" /><ref name="LA Times" /> although the former name continued to be used internationally.<ref name="Reno">{{cite news |title=Old Time Miners Rally 'Round in Reno |url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/81852210/ |access-date=20 July 2021 |work=Reno Gazette-Journal |date=8 May 1940 |archive-date=11 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220211024920/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/81852210/reno-gazette-journal/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Montreal">{{cite news |title=Japan's Progress in China |url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/81852397/ |access-date=20 July 2021 |work=The Gazette (Montreal) |date=13 October 1937 |archive-date=11 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220211024917/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/81852397/the-gazette/ |url-status=live}}</ref>

In South Korea, the period is usually described as the "Imperial Japanese compulsive occupation period" ({{Korean|hangul=일제강점기|hanja=日帝强占期|rr=Ilje Gangjeomgi}}).<ref>{{cite web |last=신 |first=용하|url=https://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Article/E0047318 |script-title=ko:일제강점기 (日帝强占期) |publisher=[[Academy of Korean Studies]] |website=[[Encyclopedia of Korean Culture]] |access-date=5 March 2023 |archive-date=5 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230305103315/https://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Article/E0047318 |url-status=live }}</ref> Other terms, although often considered obsolete, include "Japanese Imperial Period" ({{Korean|hangul=일제시대|hanja=日帝時代|rr=Ilje Sidae|labels=no}}),<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cha.go.kr/cop/bbs/selectBoardArticle.do?nttId=5136&bbsId=BBSMSTR_1008&mn=NS_01_09_01 |script-title=ko:특집 – 일제시대 문화재 수난사를 되새기다 |website=[[Cultural Heritage Administration]] |access-date=5 March 2023 |archive-date=5 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230305103316/https://www.cha.go.kr/cop/bbs/selectBoardArticle.do?nttId=5136&bbsId=BBSMSTR_1008&mn=NS_01_09_01 |url-status=live }}</ref> "The dark Japanese Imperial Period" ({{Korean|hangul=일제암흑기|hanja=日帝暗黑期|rr=Ilje Amheukgi|labels=no}}),<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Young |first=Sek-won |date=November 2010 |url=https://www.dbpia.co.kr/journal/articleDetail?nodeId=NODE01644738 |script-title=ko:일제 암흑기 만보산사건과 소설적 재현 양상 연구 |trans-title=A Study on the Manbosan Affair under the Japanese Colonial Dark Ages and Novelistic Reproduction Aspects|journal=통일인문학|volume=50 |pages=147–173}}</ref> and "[[Wa (name of Japan)|Wae]] (Japanese) administration period" ({{Korean|hangul=왜정시대|hanja=倭政時代|rr=Wae-jeong Sidae|labels=no}}).<ref>Kim Jeong-in ed. (2005). [https://www.kci.go.kr/kciportal/ci/sereArticleSearch/ciSereArtiView.kci?sereArticleSearchBean.artiId=ART002679039 왜정시대, 일제식민지시대, 일제강점기] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306193102/https://www.kci.go.kr/kciportal/ci/sereArticleSearch/ciSereArtiView.kci?sereArticleSearchBean.artiId=ART002679039 |date=6 March 2023 }}. [[Korea Institute of Science and Technology Information]].</ref>

In Japan, the term {{nihongo|"Chōsen of the Japanese-Governed Period"|日本統治時代の朝鮮|Nippon Tōchi-jidai no Chōsen}} has been used.

==Background==
===Political turmoil in Korea===
====Japan–Korea Treaty of 1876====
{{Main|Japan–Korea Treaty of 1876}}
[[File:Soldiers from the Un'yō attacking the Yeongjong castle on a Korean island (woodblock print, 1876).jpg|400px|thumb|Japanese marines landing from the ''Unyo'' at [[Yeongjong Island]] which is near Ganghwa]]
On 27 February 1876, the [[Japan–Korea Treaty of 1876]] was signed. It was designed to open up Korea to Japanese trade, and the rights granted to Japan under the treaty were similar to those granted Western powers in Japan following the visit of [[Matthew C. Perry|Commodore Perry]] in 1854.<ref name=autogenerated1 /> The treaty ended Korea's status as [[Tributary system of China|a protectorate of China]], forced opening of three Korean ports to Japanese trade, granted [[Extraterritoriality|extraterritorial rights]] to Japanese citizens, and was an [[unequal treaty]] signed under duress ([[gunboat diplomacy]]) of the [[Ganghwa Island incident]] of 1875.<ref name=autogenerated1>[http://www.asahi.com/english/Herald-asahi/TKY200707220222.html A reckless adventure in Taiwan amid Meiji Restoration turmoil], ''The Asahi Shimbun'', Retrieved on 22 July 2007. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071031070532/http://www.asahi.com/english/Herald-asahi/TKY200707220222.html |date=31 October 2007 }}</ref>

====Imo Incident====
{{Main|Imo Incident|Japan–Korea Treaty of 1882}}
The regent [[Daewongun]], who remained opposed to any concessions to Japan or the West, helped organize the Mutiny of 1882, an anti-Japanese outbreak against [[Queen Min]] and her allies.<ref name="Marius B. Jansen">Marius B. Jansen (April 1989). ''The Cambridge History of Japan'' Volume 5 The Nineteenth Century. Cambridge University Press {{ISBN|0-521-22356-3}}.</ref> Motivated by resentment of the preferential treatment given to newly trained troops, the Daewongun's forces, or "old military", killed a Japanese training cadre, and attacked the Japanese [[legation]].<ref name="Marius B. Jansen"/> Japanese diplomats,<ref name="故広戸一等巡査外五名靖国神社ヘ合祀p.6 left">[http://www.jacar.go.jp/DAS/meta/listPhoto?IS_STYLE=default&REFCODE=A03023647000 Japanese Cabinet Meeting document Nov, 1882] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090413204452/http://www.jacar.go.jp/DAS/meta/listPhoto?IS_STYLE=default&REFCODE=A03023647000 |date=13 April 2009 }} p. 6 left 陸軍外務両者上申故陸軍工兵中尉堀本禮造外二名並朝鮮国二於テ戦死ノ巡査及公使館雇ノ者等靖国神社ヘ合祀ノ事</ref> policemen,<ref name="故広戸一等巡査外五名靖国神社ヘ合祀p.2 left">[http://www.jacar.go.jp/DAS/meta/listPhoto?IS_STYLE=default&REFCODE=A03023647000 Japanese Cabinet Meeting document Nov. 1882] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090413204452/http://www.jacar.go.jp/DAS/meta/listPhoto?IS_STYLE=default&REFCODE=A03023647000 |date=13 April 2009 }} p. 2 left</ref> students,<ref name="朝鮮国ニ於テ戦死セシ語学生靖国神社ヘ合祀ヲ許サス">{{cite web |url=http://www.jacar.go.jp/DAS/meta/listPhoto?IS_STYLE=default&REFCODE=A03023647100 |script-title=ja:国立公文書館アジア歴史資料センター |access-date=5 January 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150116192426/http://www.jacar.go.jp/DAS/meta/listPhoto?IS_STYLE=default&REFCODE=A03023647100 |archive-date=16 January 2015}}</ref> and some Min clan members were also killed during the incident. The Daewongun was briefly restored to power, only to be forcibly taken to China by Chinese troops dispatched to Seoul to prevent further disorder.<ref name="Marius B. Jansen"/>

In August 1882, the [[Japan–Korea Treaty of 1882]] indemnified the families of the Japanese victims, paid reparations to the Japanese government in the amount of 500,000 yen, and allowed a company of Japanese guards to be stationed at the Japanese legation in Seoul.<ref name="Marius B. Jansen"/>

====Kapsin Coup====
{{Main|Kapsin Coup|Gaehwa Party}}

The struggle between the Heungseon Daewongun's followers and those of Queen Min was further complicated by competition from a Korean independence faction known as the Progressive Party (''Gaehwa-dang''), as well as the Conservative faction. While the former sought Japan's support, the latter sought China's support.<ref name="Marius B. Jansen" />

On 4 December 1884, the Progressive Party, assisted by the Japanese, attempted the [[Kapsin Coup]], in which they attempted to maintain Gojong but replace the government with a pro-Japanese one. They also wished to liberate Korea from Chinese suzerainty.<ref name="Marius B. Jansen" /> However, this proved short-lived, as conservative Korean officials requested the help of Chinese forces stationed in Korea.<ref name="Marius B. Jansen" /> The coup was put down by Chinese troops, and a Korean mob killed both Japanese officers and Japanese residents in retaliation.<ref name="Marius B. Jansen" /> Some leaders of the Progressive Party, including [[Kim Okkyun]], fled to Japan, while others were executed.<ref name="Marius B. Jansen" /> For the next 10 years, Japanese expansion into the Korean economy was approximated only by the efforts of [[Russian Empire|tsarist Russia]], but eventually would be annexed by Japan in 1910 (See Prelude to annexation).

====Donghak Revolution and First Sino-Japanese War====
{{Main|Donghak Peasant Revolution|First Sino-Japanese War}}
[[File:First Sino-Japanese War.svg|300px|thumb|Major battles and troop movements during the [[First Sino-Japanese War]]]]
The outbreak of the [[Donghak Peasant Revolution]] in 1894 provided a seminal pretext for direct military intervention by Japan in the affairs of Korea. In April 1894, Joseon asked for Chinese assistance in ending the revolt. In response, Japanese leaders, citing a violation of the [[Convention of Tientsin]] as a pretext, decided upon military intervention to challenge China. On 3 May 1894, 1,500 Qing forces appeared in [[Incheon]]. On 23 July 1894, Japan attacked Seoul in defiance of the Korean government's demand for withdrawal, and then occupied it and started the Sino-Japanese War. Japan won the [[First Sino-Japanese War]], and China signed the [[Treaty of Shimonoseki]] in 1895. Among its many stipulations, the treaty recognized "the full and complete independence and autonomy of Korea", thus ending Joseon's [[Tributary state|tributary]] relationship with Qing, leading to the proclamation of the full independence of Joseon in 1895. At the same time, Japan suppressed the peasant revolt with Korean government forces.

====Assassination of Queen Min====
{{Main|Assassination of Empress Myeongseong}}

The Japanese minister to Korea, [[Miura Gorō]], orchestrated a plot against 43-year-old Queen Min (later given the title of "[[Empress Myeongseong]]"), and on 8 October 1895, she was assassinated by Japanese agents.<ref name="Dong-a 2002"/> The Korean military unit, [[Hullyŏndae]], participated in the assassination. With Korean aid, Japanese assassins were allowed to enter the palace Gyeongbokgung. In 2001, Russian reports on the assassination were found in the archives of the Foreign Ministry of the Russian Federation. The documents included the testimony of King Gojong, several witnesses of the assassination, and [[Karl Ivanovich Weber]]'s report to [[Aleksey Lobanov-Rostovsky]], the Foreign Minister of Russia, by Park Jonghyo. Weber was the ''[[chargé d'affaires]]'' at the Russian legation in Seoul at that time.<ref name="Dong-a 2002">{{cite journal |url=http://www.donga.com/docs/magazine/shin/2004/11/09/200411090500053/200411090500053_1.html |script-title=ko:일본인 폭도가 가슴을 세 번 짓밟고 일본도로 난자했다 |journal=[[The Dong-A Ilbo]] |author=Park Jong-hyo ({{lang|ko|박종효}}) former professor at [[Lomonosov Moscow State University]] |date=1 January 2002 |issue=508 |pages=472–485 |language=ko |access-date=25 October 2008 |archive-date=14 March 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090314035233/http://www.donga.com/docs/magazine/shin/2004/11/09/200411090500053/200411090500053_1.html |url-status=live}}</ref> According to a Russian eyewitness, Seredin-Sabatin, an employee of the king, a group of Japanese agents entered [[Gyeongbokgung]],<ref>See Russian eyewitness account of surrounding circumstances at {{cite web |url=http://koreanstudies.com/ks/ksr/queenmin.txt |title=Archived copy |access-date=2014-08-03 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160201010304/http://koreanstudies.com/ks/ksr/queenmin.txt |archive-date=1 February 2016 |df=dmy-all}} by [[Gari Ledyard]], Sejong Professor of Korean History Emeritus at [[Columbia University]]</ref> killed Queen Min, and desecrated her body in the north wing of the palace.

The Heungseon Daewongun returned to the royal palace the same day.<ref name="Dong-a 2002"/> On 11 February 1896, [[Gojong's internal exile to the Russian legation|Gojong and the crown prince fled for protection at the Russian legation]] in Seoul, from which he governed for about a year.<ref name=":04">{{Cite web |last=이|first=원순|script-title=ko:고종 (高宗) |url=https://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Article/E0003939 |access-date=2023-08-25 |publisher=[[Academy of Korean Studies]]|website=[[Encyclopedia of Korean Culture]]}}</ref>

=== Democracy protests and the proclamation of the Korean Empire ===
{{Main|Independence Club|Korean Empire}}
In 1896, various Korean activists formed the [[Independence Club]]. They advocated a number of societal reforms, including democracy and a constitutional monarchy, and pushed for closer ties to Western countries in order to counterbalance Japanese influence. It went on to be influential in Korean politics for the short time that it operated, to the chagrin of Gojong. Gojong eventually forcefully disbanded the organization in 1898.<ref>{{Cite web |script-title=ko:독립협회 (獨立協會) |url=https://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Article/E0015993 |access-date=2024-01-26 |website=[[Encyclopedia of Korean Culture]] |language=ko}}</ref>

In October 1897, Gojong returned to the palace [[Deoksugung]], and proclaimed the founding of the [[Korean Empire]] at the royal altar [[Hwangudan]]. This symbolicly asserted Korea's independence from China, especially as Gojong demolished a reception hall that was once used to entertain Chinese ambassadors in order to build the altar.<ref name=":05">{{Cite web |script-title=ko:환구단에서 황제에 오르다 |url=http://contents.history.go.kr/mobile/ht/view.do?levelId=ht_003_0020_0020_0020 |access-date=2023-08-25 |website=우리역사넷}}</ref><ref name=":9">{{Cite web |last=Neff |first=Robert |date=2022-10-15 |title=The emperor is crowned: Part 1 |url=https://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/opinion/2023/08/721_337895.html |access-date=2023-08-25 |website=[[The Korea Times]] |language=en}}</ref>

=== Prelude to annexation ===
{{Main|Russo-Japanese War|Taft–Katsura agreement|Japan–Korea Treaty of 1905|Hague Secret Emissary Affair}}
[[File:統監府の旗.svg|thumb|180px|Flag of the Japanese Resident General of Korea (1905–1910)]]
Having established economic and military dominance in Korea in October 1904, Japan reported that it had developed 25 reforms which it intended to introduce into Korea by gradual degrees. Among these was the intended acceptance by the Korean Financial Department of a Japanese Superintendent, the replacement of Korean Foreign Ministers and consuls by Japanese and the "union of military arms" in which the military of Korea would be modeled after the Japanese military.<ref>''Anglo-Japanese Gazette''; London, October 1904</ref> These reforms were forestalled by the prosecution of the [[Russo-Japanese War]] from 8 February 1904, to 5 September 1905, which Japan won, thus eliminating Japan's last rival to influence in Korea.<ref name="chosondy">{{cite web |url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+kr0017) |title=South Korea; The Choson Dynasty |access-date=20 February 2007 |last=Hadar |first=Oren |work=Library of Congress Country Studies |archive-date=21 September 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080921102052/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd%2Fcstdy%3A%40field%28DOCID+kr0017%29 |url-status=live}}</ref>

Frustrated by this, King Gojong invited [[Alice Roosevelt Longworth]], who was on a tour of Asian countries with [[William Howard Taft]], to the Imperial Palace on 20 September 1905, to seek political support from the United States despite her diplomatic rudeness. However, it was after exchanging opinions through the [[Taft–Katsura agreement]] on 27 July 1905, that America and Japan would not interfere with each other on colonial issues.<ref>[https://rmc.library.cornell.edu/Straight/aroosevelt.html Cornell University Library] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231113050832/https://rmc.library.cornell.edu/Straight/aroosevelt.html |date=13 November 2023 }}-[[Willard Dickerman Straight]]</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://10mag.com/alice-roosevelts-visit-to-joseon-korea/ |title=Alice Roosevelt's Visit to Joseon Korea In 1905 |date=2 July 2014 |access-date=23 October 2023 |archive-date=2 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231102165931/https://10mag.com/alice-roosevelts-visit-to-joseon-korea/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

Under the [[Treaty of Portsmouth]], signed in September 1905, Russia acknowledged Japan's "paramount political, military, and economic interest" in Korea.<ref name="chosondy"/>

Two months later, Korea was obliged to become a Japanese protectorate by the [[Japan–Korea Treaty of 1905]] and the "reforms" were enacted, including the reduction of the Korean Army from 20,000 to 1,000 men by disbanding all garrisons in the provinces, retaining only a single garrison in the precincts of Seoul.<ref name="chosondy"/> On 6 January 1905, Horace Allen, head of the American Legation in Seoul reported to his Secretary of State, John Hay, that the Korean government had been advised by the Japanese government "that hereafter the police matters of Seoul will be controlled by the Japanese gendarmerie" and "that a Japanese police inspector will be placed in each prefecture".<ref>Dept of State Correspondence #856 dtd 6 January 1905</ref> A large number of Koreans organized themselves in education and reform movements, but Japanese dominance in Korea had become a reality.<ref name="chosondy"/>

In June 1907, the [[Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907|Second Peace Conference]] was held in [[The Hague]]. Emperor Gojong secretly sent three representatives to bring the problems of Korea to the world's attention. The three envoys, who questioned the legality of the protectorate convention, were [[Hague Secret Emissary Affair|refused access]] to the public debates by the international delegates. One of these representatives was missionary and historian [[Homer Hulbert]]. Out of despair, one of the Korean representatives, [[Yi Tjoune]], committed suicide at The Hague.<ref>{{cite book |first=H. B. |last=Hulbert |title=History of Korea |publisher=Routledge |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-7007-0700-3}}</ref> In response, the Japanese government took stronger measures. On 19 July 1907, Emperor Gojong was forced to relinquish his imperial authority and appoint the Crown Prince as regent. Japanese officials used this concession to force the accession of the new Emperor Sunjong following abdication, which was never agreed to by Gojong. Neither Gojong nor Sunjong were present at the 'accession' ceremony. Sunjong was to be the last ruler of the Joseon dynasty, founded in 1392.<ref>{{cite book |first=D. |last=Keene |title=Emperor of Japan: Meiji and His World, 1852–1912 |publisher=Columbia University Press |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-231-12340-2 |url=https://archive.org/details/emperorofjapanme00keen}}</ref>

On 24 July 1907, a treaty was signed under the leadership of [[Lee Wan-yong]] and [[Itō Hirobumi|Ito Hirobumi]] to transfer all rights of [[Japan–Korea Treaty of 1907|Korea to Japan]]. This led to a large-scale righteous army movement among Koreans, and disbanded troops joined the resistance forces. Japan's response to this was a scorched earth tactic using division-sized troops, which resulted in the movement of armed resistance organizations in Korea to Manchuria. Amid this confusion, on 26 October 1909, [[Ahn Jung-geun]], a former volunteer soldier, assassinated [[Ito Hirobumi]] in [[Harbin]].<ref>統監府文書7 [https://db.history.go.kr/id/jh_097r_0010_1440 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF KOREAN HISTORY] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231006102940/https://db.history.go.kr/id/jh_097r_0010_1440 |date=6 October 2023 }}</ref>

Meanwhile, pro-Japanese populist groups such as the [[Iljinhoe]] helped Japan by being fascinated by Japan's [[pan-Asianism]], thinking that Korea would have autonomy like [[Austria-Hungary]].
It was adopted as a representative consultant for [[Ryōhei Uchida|Ryohei Uchida]], and was used for propaganda with the support of the Japanese government. On 3 December 1909, he and [[Lee Wan-yong]] will issue a statement demanding the annexation of Korea.<ref>[[Veritable Records of the Joseon Dynasty]][https://sillok.history.go.kr/id/kzb_10212004_001 Annals of King Sunjong3 4 December 1909] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231006102942/https://sillok.history.go.kr/id/kzb_10212004_001 |date=6 October 2023 }}</ref>

However, the merger took place in the form of Japan's annexation of Korean territory and was disbanded by [[Terauchi Masatake]] on 26 September 1910.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7591/j.ctt1xx4cs |title=Populist collaborators : the Ilchinhoe and the Japanese colonization of Korea, 1896-1910/Yumi Moon 2013 |jstor=10.7591/j.ctt1xx4cs |access-date=5 October 2023 |archive-date=6 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231006102940/https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7591/j.ctt1xx4cs |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>[http://www.riss.kr/search/detail/DetailView.do?p_mat_type=be54d9b8bc7cdb09&control_no=ff7c98c7d5c5d032ffe0bdc3ef48d419 (A) study on the Ilchinhoe[a pro-Japanese group<nowiki>]</nowiki> at the end of the Great Han Empire[1904–1910<nowiki>]</nowiki>]Jongjun Kim. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231006102942/http://www.riss.kr/search/detail/DetailView.do?p_mat_type=be54d9b8bc7cdb09&control_no=ff7c98c7d5c5d032ffe0bdc3ef48d419 |date=6 October 2023 }}</ref>

===Militant resistance===
{{Main|Righteous armies#During the Japanese colonial period (1910–1945)}}
[[File:Les Troubles de Coree.jpg|thumb|200px|Battle of Namdaemun in 1907 – [[Le Petit Journal (newspaper)|Le Petit Journal]]]]

During the prelude to the 1910 annexation, a number of irregular civilian militias called "righteous armies" arose. They consisted of tens of thousands of peasants engaged in anti-Japanese armed rebellion. After the Korean army was disbanded in 1907, former soldiers joined the armies and fought the Japanese army at [[Namdaemun]]. They were defeated, and largely fled into Manchuria, where they joined the guerrilla resistance movement that persisted until Korea's 1945 liberation.

=== Military police ===
As Korean resistance against Japanese rule intensified, Japanese replaced Korean police system with their military police. Infamous [[Akashi Motojiro]] was appointed for the commander of Japanese military police forces. Japanese finally replaced Imperial Korean police forces in June 1910, and they combined police forces and military police, firmly establishing the rule of military police. After the annexation, Akashi started to serve as the Chief of Police. These military police officers started to have great authority over Koreans. Not only Japanese but also Koreans served as police officers.<ref>{{Cite web |website=우리역사넷 |title=(1) 헌병경찰체제 |url=http://contents.history.go.kr/front/nh/view.do?levelId=nh_047_0020_0010_0020_0010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230516142459/http://contents.history.go.kr/front/nh/view.do?levelId=nh_047_0020_0010_0020_0010 |archive-date=16 May 2023 |access-date=16 May 2023}}</ref>

==Japan–Korea annexation treaty (1910)==
{{Main|Japan–Korea Treaty of 1910}}
[[File:General power of attorney to Lee Wan-Yong signed and sealed by Sunjong.jpg|200px|thumb|General power of attorney to [[Lee Wan-yong]] sealed and signed, by the last emperor, [[Sunjong of Korea|Sunjong]] on 22 August 1910 ({{Korean|hangul=융희4년|hanja=隆熙4年|labels=no}})]]
In May 1910, the [[Ministry of War of Japan|Minister of War of Japan]], [[Terauchi Masatake]], was given a mission to finalize Japanese control over Korea after the previous treaties (the [[Japan–Korea Treaty of February 1904]] and the [[Japan–Korea Treaty of 1907]]) had made Korea a protectorate of Japan and had established Japanese hegemony over Korean domestic politics. On 22 August 1910, Japan effectively [[annexation|annexed]] Korea with the [[Japan–Korea Treaty of 1910]] signed by [[Ye Wanyong]], Prime Minister of Korea, and Terauchi Masatake, who became the first [[Governor-General of Chōsen]].

The treaty became effective the same day and was published one week later. The treaty stipulated:
* Article 1: His Majesty the Emperor of Korea concedes completely and definitely his entire sovereignty over the whole Korean territory to His Majesty the Emperor of Japan.
* Article 2: His Majesty the Emperor of Japan accepts the concession stated in the previous article and consents to the annexation of Korea to the Empire of Japan.

Both the protectorate and the annexation treaties were declared already void in the 1965 [[Treaty on Basic Relations between Japan and the Republic of Korea]].

This period is also known as Military Police Reign Era (1910–19) in which Police had the authority to rule the entire country. Japan was in control of the media, law as well as government by physical power and regulations.

In March 2010, 109 Korean intellectuals and 105 Japanese intellectuals met in the 100th anniversary of [[Japan–Korea Treaty of 1910]] and they declared this annexation treaty null and void. They declared these statements in each of their capital cities (Seoul and Tōkyō) with a simultaneous press conference. They announced the "Japanese empire pressured the outcry of the Korean Empire and people and forced by Japan–Korea Treaty of 1910 and full text of a treaty was false and text of the agreement was also false". They also declared the "Process and formality of "Japan–Korea Treaty of 1910" had huge deficiencies and therefore the treaty was null and void. This implied the [[March First Movement]] was not an illegal movement.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://news.naver.com/main/read.nhn?mode=LSD&mid=sec&sid1=102&oid=014&aid=0002291898 |title=韓日 지식인 "1910년 한일병합조약 무효"..공동선언 |access-date=8 November 2019 |archive-date=9 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210309024737/https://news.naver.com/main/read.nhn?mode=LSD&mid=sec&sid1=102&oid=014&aid=0002291898 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://news.naver.com/main/read.nhn?mode=LSD&mid=sec&sid1=100&oid=001&aid=0004599216 |script-title=ko:'한일병합 무효' 입증 문건 처음으로 확인 |access-date=8 November 2019 |archive-date=8 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308160300/https://news.naver.com/main/read.nhn?mode=LSD&mid=sec&sid1=100&oid=001&aid=0004599216 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.seoul.co.kr/news/newsView.php?id=20100512002015 |script-title=ko:[인터뷰] '한일병합 무효' 근거 제공 이태진 서울대 명예교수 |date=12 May 2010 |access-date=8 November 2019 |archive-date=2 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200802074859/http://www.seoul.co.kr/news/newsView.php?id=20100512002015 |url-status=live}}</ref>

==Early years and expansion (1910–1941)==
===Japanese migration and land ownership===
From around the time of the First Sino-Japanese War of 1894–1895, Japanese merchants started settling in towns and cities in Korea seeking economic opportunity. By 1908 the number of Japanese settlers in Korea was somewhere below the figure of 500,000,<ref>{{cite journal | url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1011225 | jstor=1011225 | title=Japanese Immigration into Korea | last1=Millard | first1=Thomas F. | journal=The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science | date=26 March 2024 | volume=34 | issue=2 | pages=183–189 | doi=10.1177/000271620903400222 }}</ref> comprising one of the ''[[Japanese diaspora|nikkei]]'' communities in the world at the time.

[[File:Masatake Terauchi 2.jpg|150px|thumb|[[Terauchi Masatake]], the first Governor-General]]
[[File:Oriental Development Company.JPG|260px|thumb|Headquarters of the [[Oriental Development Company]] in Keijō]]

Many Japanese settlers showed interest in acquiring agricultural land in Korea even before Japanese land-ownership was officially legalized in 1906. Governor-General Terauchi Masatake facilitated settlement through [[land reform]]. The Korean land-ownership system featured absentee landlords, only partial owner-tenants and cultivators with traditional (but no legal proof of) ownership. By 1920, 90 percent of Korean land had proper ownership of Koreans.<ref>{{Cite web |script-title=ko:토지 조사 사업(土地調査事業) – 부산역사문화대전 |url=http://busan.grandculture.net/Contents?local=busan&dataType=01&contents_id=GC04200618 |access-date=2023-05-21 |website=[[Encyclopedia of Korean Local Culture]] |archive-date=21 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230521142241/http://busan.grandculture.net/Contents?local=busan&dataType=01&contents_id=GC04200618 |url-status=live }}</ref> Terauchi's new Land Survey Bureau conducted [[cadastral]] surveys that established ownership on the basis of written proof (deeds, titles, and similar documents). The system denied ownership to those who could not provide such written documentation; these turned out to be mostly high-class and impartial owners who had only traditional verbal cultivator-rights {{Citation needed|date=May 2022}}. Japanese landlords included both individuals and corporations (such as the [[Oriental Development Company]]). Because of these developments, Japanese landownership soared, as did the amount of land taken over by private Japanese companies.<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Historical Experience of Agrarian Reform in Our Country |year=1974 |location=Pyongyang |pages=6–7}}</ref> Many former Korean landowners, as well as agricultural workers, became [[tenant farmer]]s, having lost their [[Property|entitlements]] almost overnight because they could not pay for the land reclamation and irrigation improvements forced on them.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Korea's Heritage |last=McCune |first=Shannon |publisher=Charles Tuttle |year=1964 |location=Rutland |page=86}}</ref> Compounding the economic stresses imposed on the Korean peasantry, the authorities forced Korean peasants to do long days of compulsory labor to build irrigation works; Japanese imperial officials made peasants pay for these projects in the form of heavy taxes, impoverishing many of them and causing even more of them lose their land.<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Historical Experience of Agrarian Reform in Our Country |last=McCune |first=Shannon |year=1974 |location=Pyongyang |page=7}}</ref> Although many other subsequent developments placed ever greater strain on Korea's peasants, Japan's rice shortage in 1918 was the greatest catalyst for hardship. During that shortage, Japan looked to Korea for increased rice cultivation; as Korean peasants started producing more for Japan, however, the amount they took to eat dropped precipitously, causing much resentment among them.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Modern Korea |last=Grajdanzev |first=Andrew J. |year=1944 |location=New York |page=118}}</ref>

By 1910 an estimated 7 to 8% of all [[arable land]] in Korea had come under Japanese control. This ratio increased steadily; as of the years 1916, 1920, and 1932, the ratio of Japanese land ownership increased from 36.8 to 39.8 to 52.7%. The level of tenancy was similar to that of farmers in Japan itself; however, in Korea, the landowners were mostly Japanese, while the tenants were all Koreans. As often occurred in Japan itself, tenants had to pay over half their crop in rent.<ref name="Japan Focus">{{cite web |url=http://www.japanfocus.org/products/details/2220 |title=Legal Categories, Demographic Change and Japan's Korean Residents in the Long Twentieth Century |access-date=19 February 2007 |last=Nozaki |first=Yoshiko |author2=Hiromitsu Inokuchi |author3=Tae-young Kim |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070125052048/http://www.japanfocus.org/products/details/2220 |archive-date=25 January 2007 |df=dmy-all}}</ref>

By the 1930s the growth of the urban economy and the exodus of farmers to the cities had gradually weakened the hold of the landlords. With the growth of the wartime economy throughout the [[World War II|Second World War]], the government recognized [[landlordism]] as an impediment to increased agricultural productivity, and took steps to increase control over the rural sector through the formation in Japan in 1943 of the {{nihongo|Central Agricultural Association|中央農会|chūō nōkai}}, a compulsory organization under the wartime [[command economy]].{{citation needed|date= October 2013}}

The Japanese government had hoped emigration to its colonies would mitigate the population boom in the ''[[naichi]]''(内地),<ref name="kimura">{{cite journal |last1=Kimura |first1=Mitsuhiko |title=The Economics of Japanese Imperialism in Korea, 1910–1939 |journal=The Economic History Review |date=August 1995 |volume=48 |issue=3 |pages=564–566 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/2598181 |access-date=28 October 2021 |publisher=Wiley |doi=10.2307/2598181 |jstor=2598181 |archive-date=11 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220211024919/https://www.jstor.org/stable/2598181 |url-status=live|url-access=subscription }}</ref> but had largely failed to accomplish this by 1936.<ref name="porter">{{cite journal |last1=Porter |first1=Catherine |title=Korea and Formosa as Colonies of Japan |journal=Far Eastern Survey |date=22 April 1936 |volume=5 |issue=9 |pages=87–88 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3021667 |access-date=28 October 2021 |publisher=Institute of Pacific Relations |doi=10.2307/3021667 |jstor=3021667 |archive-date=28 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211028014301/https://www.jstor.org/stable/3021667 |url-status=live|url-access=subscription }}</ref> According to figures from 1934, Japanese in Chōsen numbered approximately 561,000 out of a total population of over 21 million, less than 3%. By 1939 the Japanese population increased to 651,000, mostly from Japan's western prefectures. During the same period, the population in Chōsen grew faster than that in the ''naichi''. Koreans also migrated to the ''naichi'' in large numbers, especially after 1930; by 1939 there were over 981,000 Koreans living in Japan. Challenges which deterred Japanese from migrating into Chōsen included lack of arable land and population density comparable to that of Japan.<ref name="porter"/><ref name="kimura"/>

===Anthropology and cultural heritage===
{{See also|Korean History Compilation Committee}}
[[File:Hyochangwon as Korea's first golf course.jpg|thumb|In 1921, Japan turned a Korean royal cemetery into a golf course, with the graves still directly on the course. This occurred at what is now [[Hyochang Park]].<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last1=Youn |first1=Hyun-Chul |last2=Ryoo |first2=Seong-Lyong |date=2021-11-20 |title=VR and AR Restoration of Urban Heritage: A Virtual Platform Mediating Disagreement from Spatial Conflicts in Korea |journal=Buildings |language=en |volume=11 |issue=11 |pages=561 |doi=10.3390/buildings11110561 |issn=2075-5309 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite web |last=노 |first=형석 |date=2018-05-31 |script-title=ko:왕실묘→골프장→유원지→독립투사 묘지 '영욕의 232년' |trans-title=Royal Tombs -> Golf Course -> Amusement Park -> Independence Activist Cemetery '232 Years of Honor and Disgrace' |url=https://www.hani.co.kr/arti/society/society_general/847064.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230717063311/https://www.hani.co.kr/arti/society/society_general/847064.html |archive-date=2023-07-17 |access-date=2023-07-17 |website=[[The Hankyoreh]] |language=ko}}</ref><ref name=":4">{{Cite web |last=신 |first=병주 |date=2023-02-08 |script-title=ko:'옷소매' 성덕임과 그의 아들의 묘가 '효창공원'에? |trans-title='Sleeves' Uibin Seong and Her Son Are Buried in 'Hyochang Park'? |url=https://mediahub.seoul.go.kr/archives/2006866 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230717055039/https://mediahub.seoul.go.kr/archives/2006866 |archive-date=2023-07-17 |access-date=2023-07-17 |website=mediahub.seoul.go.kr |publisher=[[Seoul Metropolitan Government]] |language=ko}}</ref>]]
Japan sent anthropologists to Korea who took photos of the traditional state of Korean villages, serving as evidence that Korea was "backwards" and needed to be modernized.<ref>{{cite book |last=Atkins |first=E. Taylor |title=Primitive Selves: Koreana in the Japanese Colonial Gaze, 1910–1945 |publisher=University of California Press |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-520-26674-2 |location=Berkeley}}</ref>

In 1925, the Japanese government established the [[Korean History Compilation Committee]], and it was administered by the Governor-General and engaged in collecting Korean historical materials and compiling Korean history.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hi.u-tokyo.ac.jp/personal/yokoyama/jpmem/2001/page2001_02.html |script-title=ja:韓国・国史編纂委員会所蔵 |publisher=Historiographical Institute of the University of Tokyo |language=ja |access-date=8 September 2008 |quote=第一条朝鮮史編修会ハ朝鮮総督ノ管理ニ属シ朝鮮史料ノ蒐集及編纂並朝鮮史ノ編修ヲ掌ル |title=Hakoishi report |archive-date=25 November 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061125011205/http://www.hi.u-tokyo.ac.jp/personal/yokoyama/jpmem/2001/page2001_02.html |url-status=live}}</ref> According to the ''[[Doosan Encyclopedia]]'', some mythology was incorporated.<ref name="Korean History Compilation Committee">{{cite encyclopedia |url=http://100.naver.com/100.nhn?docid=138719 |script-title=ko:조선사편수회 |encyclopedia=Naver/Doosan Encyclopedia |language=ko |access-date=4 August 2011 |archive-date=11 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220211024925/https://terms.naver.com/entry.naver?docId=1141830&cid=40942&categoryId=33384 |url-status=live}}</ref> The committee supported the theory of a Japanese colony on the Korean Peninsula called [[Mimana]],<ref name="Korean History Compilation Committee" /> which, according to E. Taylor Atkins, is "among the most disputed issues in East Asian historiography."<ref>{{cite book |author=E. Taylor Atkins |title=Primitive Selves: Koreana in the Japanese Colonial Gaze, 1910–1945 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wmdskbM_VgAC&pg=PT116 |date=10 July 2010 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-94768-9 |pages=115–116 |access-date=26 April 2025}}</ref>

Japan executed the first modern archaeological excavations in Korea.<ref>[[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] [http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/ht/11/eak/ht11eak.htm] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081203010825/http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/ht/11/eak/ht11eak.htm|date=3 December 2008}}</ref> The Japanese administration also relocated some artifacts; for instance, a stone monument (棕蟬縣神祠碑), which was originally located in the [[Liaodong Peninsula]], then under [[Kwantung Leased Territory|Japanese control]], was taken out of its context and moved to [[Pyongyang]].<ref>{{cite book |author=리순진 |script-title=ko:평양일대 락랑무덤에 대한 연구 |trans-title=A Research about the Tombs of Nangnang around Pyongyang |publisher=중심 |location=서울 |isbn=978-89-89524-05-2 |year=2001}}</ref> As of April 2020, 81,889 Korean cultural artifacts are in Japan. According to the Overseas Korean Cultural Heritage Foundation, not all the artifacts were moved illegally. Adding to the challenge of repatriating illegally exported Korean cultural properties is the lack of experts in Korean art at overseas museums and institutions, alterations made to artifacts that obscure their origin, and that moving Korean artifacts within what was previously internationally recognized Japanese territory was lawful at the time.<ref name="The Korea Times">{{cite journal |url=https://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/culture/2020/07/135_292925.html |title=Korea ramps up efforts to bring back looted treasures |journal=[[The Korea Times]] |date=16 July 2020 |access-date=2 October 2022 |archive-date=2 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221002200841/https://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/culture/2020/07/135_292925.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2010-dec-05-la-ca-cultural-exchange-korea-20101205-story.html |title=Recovering South Korea's Lost Treasures |journal=The Los Angeles Times |date=5 December 2010 |access-date=2 October 2022 |archive-date=2 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221002202758/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2010-dec-05-la-ca-cultural-exchange-korea-20101205-story.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="tussle">{{cite web |url=https://www.newsweek.com/korea-tussle-over-treasures-122061 |title=Korea: A Tussle Over Treasures |work=Newsweek |date=20 February 2005 |access-date=2 October 2022 |archive-date=2 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221002203114/https://www.newsweek.com/korea-tussle-over-treasures-122061 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44504065 |author=Christine Kim |title=Colonial Plunder and the Failure of Restitution in Postwar Korea |journal=Journal of Contemporary History |date=July 2017 |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=607–624 |doi=10.1177/0022009417692410 |jstor=44504065 |s2cid=159549648 |access-date=2 October 2022 |archive-date=2 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221002204018/https://www.jstor.org/stable/44504065 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref> The South Korean government has been continuing its efforts to repatriate Korean artifacts from museums and private collections overseas.<ref name="The Korea Times" />

The royal palace [[Gyeongbokgung]] was partially destroyed beginning in the 1910s, in order to make way for the [[Japanese General Government Building, Seoul|Japanese General Government Building]] as well as the colonial [[Chōsen Industrial Exhibition]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last1=Lee |first1=Yunah |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=plWHEAAAQBAJ&dq=gyeongbokgung+1915+destroyed+japanese&pg=PA90 |title=Design and Modernity in Asia: National Identity and Transnational Exchange 1945–1990 |last2=Rajguru |first2=Megha |date=2022-10-20 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=978-1-350-09146-7 |pages=90 |language=en}}</ref> Hundreds of historic buildings in [[Deoksugung]] were also destroyed to make way for the {{Ill|Yi Royal Family Museum of Fine Art|ko|이왕가미술관}}. The displays in the museum reportedly intentionally contrasted traditional Korean art with examples of modern Japanese art, in order to portray Japan as progressive and legitimize Japanese rule.<ref name=":1" /> The [[National Palace Museum of Korea]], originally built as the Korean Imperial Museum in 1908 to preserve the treasures in the [[Gyeongbokgung]], was retained under the Japanese administration but renamed Museum of the Yi Dynasty in 1938.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gogung.go.kr/introduce/history.jsp |title=history of the museum |language=ko |publisher=National Palace Museum of Korea website |access-date=24 April 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303184147/http://www.gogung.go.kr/introduce/history.jsp |archive-date=3 March 2016 |df=dmy-all}}</ref>

The Governor-General instituted a law in 1933 in order to preserve Korea's most important historical artifacts. The system established by this law, retained as the present-day [[National Treasures of South Korea]] and [[National Treasures of North Korea]], was intended to preserve Korean historical artifacts, including those not yet unearthed. Japan's 1871 Edict for the Preservation of Antiquities and Old Items could not be automatically applied to Korea due to Japanese law, which required an imperial ordinance to apply the edict in Korea. The 1933 law to protect Korean cultural heritages was based on the Japanese 1871 edict.<ref name="hamada.u-shimane.ac.jp">Ohashi Toshihiro. "[http://hamada.u-shimane.ac.jp/research/32kiyou/10sogo/seisaku08.data/seisaku0809.pdf A Study on the Development of the Cultural Properties Policy in Korea from 1902 until 1962] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131013112500/http://hamada.u-shimane.ac.jp/research/32kiyou/10sogo/seisaku08.data/seisaku0809.pdf|date=13 October 2013}}". ''Sogo Seisaku Ronso'' 8 (2004)</ref>

===Anti-Chinese riots of 1931===
{{Main|Wanpaoshan Incident}}
[[File:Chinese anti-Japanese poster published after the revenge by Koreans.jpg|thumb|Chinese anti-Japanese poster published after reprisals by Koreans]]
Due to a waterway construction permit, in the small town of Wanpaoshan in Manchuria near [[Changchun]], "violent clashes" broke out between the local Chinese and Korean immigrants on 2 July 1931. ''[[The Chosun Ilbo]]'', a major Korean newspaper, misreported that many Koreans had died in the clashes, sparking a Chinese exclusion movement in urban areas of the Korean Peninsula.<ref>日本外交文書デジタルアーカイブ昭和期I第1部第5巻 p248</ref> The worst of the rioting occurred in [[Pyongyang]] on 5 July. Approximately 127 Chinese people were killed, 393 wounded, and a considerable number of properties were destroyed by Korean residents.<ref name="Wanpaoshan" /> [[Republic of China (1912–1949)|Republic of China]] further alleged the Japanese authorities in Korea did not take adequate steps to protect the lives and property of the Chinese residents, and blamed the authorities for allowing inflammatory accounts to be published. As a result of this riot, the Minister of Foreign Affairs [[Kijūrō Shidehara]], who insisted on Japanese, Chinese, and Korean harmony, lost his position.<ref name="Wanpaoshan">{{cite book |last1=Em |first1=Henry |title=The Great Enterprise: Sovereignty and Historiography in Modern Korea, Part 2 |date=2013 |publisher=Duke University Press |location=Durham |isbn=978-0822353720 |page=125 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DxAd2Aw_jP0C |access-date=21 August 2017 |archive-date=11 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220211024917/https://books.google.com/books?id=DxAd2Aw_jP0C |url-status=live}}</ref>

===Order to change names===
{{Main|Sōshi-kaimei}}
In 1911, the proclamation "Matter Concerning the Changing of Korean Names" (''{{lang|ja|朝鮮人ノ姓名改称ニ関スル件}}'') was issued, barring ethnic Koreans from taking Japanese names and retroactively reverting the names of Koreans who had already registered under Japanese names back to the original Korean ones.<ref name="Mizuno1">{{citation |last=Mizuno |first=Naoki |script-title=ja:植民地支配と「人の支配」 |trans-title=Colonial control and "human control" |url=http://www.zinbun.kyoto-u.ac.jp/staff/youran/mizuno.pdf |url-status=dead |publisher=[[Kyoto University]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070103005827/http://www.zinbun.kyoto-u.ac.jp/staff/youran/mizuno.pdf |archive-date=3 January 2007 |access-date=20 February 2007}}</ref> By 1939, however, this position was reversed and Japan's focus had shifted towards [[cultural assimilation]] of the Korean people; Imperial Decree 19 and 20 on Korean Civil Affairs ([[創氏改名|Sōshi-kaimei]]) went into effect, whereby ethnic Koreans were forced to surrender their traditional use of clan-based [[Korean name#Family names|Korean family name]] system, in favor of a new surname to be used in the family register. The surname could be of their own choosing, including their native clan name, but in practice many Koreans received a Japanese surname. There is controversy over whether or not the adoption of a Japanese surname was effectively mandatory, or merely strongly encouraged.<ref>{{cite web |author={{lang|ko|윤해동}} |script-title=ko:황국신민화정책자료해설 |url=http://www.kstudy.com/japan/html/hwangkook_3.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928015412/http://www.kstudy.com/japan/html/hwangkook_3.htm |archive-date=28 September 2007 |access-date=19 February 2007 |language=ko |df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |script-title=ja:水野直樹「『創氏改名』の実施過程について」『朝鮮史研究会会報』154号、2004年 |url=http://www.zinbun.kyoto-u.ac.jp/~mizna/soushi.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304033127/http://www.zinbun.kyoto-u.ac.jp/~mizna/soushi.htm |archive-date=4 March 2016 |access-date=31 October 2019 |language=ja}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"
|+ Number of renaming applications in 1940<ref>朝鮮総督府法務局「第79回朝鮮総督府帝国議会説明資料」｣</ref>
! Month !! household !! % </tr>
| Feb. || 15,746 || 0.4% </tr>
| Mar. || 61,579 || 1.5% </tr>
| Apr. || 157,074 || 3.9% </tr>
| May. || 500,840 || 12.5% </tr>
| Jun. || 1,081,564 || 27.0% </tr>
| Jul. || 2,153,393 || 53.7% </tr>
| Aug. || 3,220,693 || 80.3%
|}

==World War II==

===National Mobilization Law===
{{See also|Koreans in Japan|Sakhalin Koreans}}

====Forcing of labor and migration====
[[File:Japan-Korea Cooperative Unity World Leader Postcard 1920s.png|219x219px|thumb|''Japan-Korea Cooperative Unity, World Leader.'' – The notion of racial and imperial unity of Korea and Japan gained widespread following among the literate minority of the middle and upper classes.<ref>{{cite book |last=Myers |first=Brian R. |title=The Cleanest Race: How North Koreans See Themselves – And Why It Matters |edition=Paperback |publisher=Melville House |year=2011 |pages=26–29}}</ref>]][[File:Kuniaki Koiso 2.jpg|160px|thumb|[[Kuniaki Koiso]], Governor-General of Chōsen from 1942 to 1944, implemented a draft of Koreans for wartime labor.]]
From 1939, [[Labour shortage|labor shortage]]s as a result of [[conscription]] of Japanese men for the military efforts of World War II led to organized official recruitment of Koreans to work in mainland Japan, initially through civilian agents, and later directly, often involving elements of coercion. As the labor shortage increased, by 1942, the Japanese authorities extended the provisions of the [[National Mobilization Law]] to include the conscription of Korean workers for factories and mines in Korea, [[Manchukuo]], and the involuntary relocation of workers to Japan itself as needed.

The combination of immigrants and forced laborers during World War II brought the total to over 2 million Koreans in Japan by the end of the war, according to estimates by the [[Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers]].<ref name="Ryang2000-Ch2">{{cite book |last=Ryang |first=Sonia |title=Koreans in Japan: Critical Voices from the Margin |publisher=Taylor & Francis |year=2000 |isbn=978-1-136-35312-3 |editor-last=Ryang |editor-first=Sonia |chapter=The North Korean homeland of Koreans in Japan |access-date=18 October 2016 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZUVGAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA32 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170224024930/https://books.google.com/books?id=ZUVGAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA32 |archive-date=24 February 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref>

Of the 5,400,000 Koreans conscripted, about 670,000 were taken to mainland Japan (including [[Karafuto Prefecture]], present-day [[Sakhalin]], now part of Russia) for civilian labor. Those who were brought to Japan were often forced to work under conditions that have been described as appalling and dangerous.<ref>Rummel, R. J., ''Death by Government'', pg.150</ref> Although Koreans were reportedly treated better than laborers from other countries, large numbers still died. In Japan, 60,000 of the 670,000 mobilized laborers died. In Korea and Manchuria, estimates of deaths range between 270,000 and 810,000.<ref name="Rummel 1999">{{cite book |last=Rummel |first=R. J. |title=Statistics of Democide: Genocide and Mass Murder Since 1990 |publisher=Lit Verlag |year=1999 |isbn=978-3-8258-4010-5}}
Available online: {{cite web |title=Statistics of Democide: Chapter 3 – Statistics Of Japanese Democide Estimates, Calculations, And Sources |url=http://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/SOD.CHAP3.HTM |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100323044733/http://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/SOD.CHAP3.HTM |archive-date=23 March 2010 |access-date=1 March 2006 |work=Freedom, Democracy, Peace; Power, Democide, and War}}</ref>

Korean laborers were also found as far as the [[Tarawa|Tarawa Atoll]], where during the [[Battle of Tarawa]] only 129 of the 1200 laborers survived.<ref>{{Cite web |title=HyperWar: The Battle for Tarawa [Appendix C: Japanese Casualties] |url=http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USMC/USMC-M-Tarawa/USMC-M-Tarawa-C.html |access-date=2022-11-21 |website=www.ibiblio.org |archive-date=12 April 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100412093624/http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USMC/USMC-M-Tarawa/USMC-M-Tarawa-C.html |url-status=live }}</ref> According to testimonies in Japanese records, Korean laborers on the [[Mili Atoll]] were given "whale meat" to consume, which was actually human flesh from other dead Koreans. They rebelled after learning the truth, and were killed by the dozens in the aftermath.<ref name=":32">{{Cite web |last=Lee |first=Hyeong-Ju |date=June 8, 2024 |title=218 victims of 'Mili Atoll incident' disclosed |url=https://www.donga.com/en/article/all/20240608/4991614/1 |access-date=2024-06-29 |website=[[The Dong-A Ilbo]] |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":14">{{Cite web |last=Choi |first=Jeong-yoon |date=2024-06-07 |title=Japanese researcher reveals 'massacre' of Koreans in Mili Atoll |url=https://www.koreaherald.com/view.php?ud=20240607050534 |access-date=2024-06-29 |website=[[The Korea Herald]] |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":23">{{Cite news |date=October 5, 2010 |title=Gov't report confirms Japan's massacre of forced Korean laborers at Marshall Islands |url=https://en.yna.co.kr/view/AEN20101005002600315 |access-date=June 29, 2024 |work=[[Yonhap News Agency]]}}</ref> Korean laborers also worked in Korea itself, notably in [[Jeju Island|Jeju]] where in the later stages of the [[Pacific War]], Korean laborers expanded airfields and built facilities at [[Altteureu Airfield]] in order to block a US invasion of the Japanese mainland and in 1945 laborers on [[Songaksan (Jeju)|Songaksan]] (where several airstrips were located) were ordered to smooth down the slope in order to prevent American tanks being able to go up.<ref>{{Cite web |title=[Reporter's notebook] Vestiges of forced labor still remain on Jeju Island |url=https://english.hani.co.kr/arti/english_edition/e_international/811245.html |access-date=2022-11-21 |website=[[The Hankyoreh]] |archive-date=21 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221121090528/https://english.hani.co.kr/arti/english_edition/e_international/811245.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

Most Korean atomic-bomb victims in Japan had been drafted for work at military industrial factories in Hiroshima and Nagasaki.<ref name="BBC News">{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/1364728.stm |title=Japan compensates Korean A-bomb victim |work=[[BBC News]] |date=1 June 2001 |access-date=26 September 2009 |archive-date=11 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220211024919/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/1364728.stm |url-status=live}}</ref> In the name of humanitarian assistance, Japan paid South Korea four billion yen (approx. thirty five million dollars) and built a welfare center for those suffering from the effects of the atomic bomb.<ref name="Andreas Hippin">{{cite news |url=http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/fl20050802zg.html |title=The end of silence: Korea's Hiroshima, Korean A-bomb victims seek redress |work=[[The Japan Times]] |date=2 August 2005 |author=Andreas Hippin |access-date=1 December 2008 |archive-date=19 December 2012 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20121219024113/http://www.japantimes.co.jp/text/fl20050802zg.html |url-status=live}}</ref>

====Korean service in the Japanese military====
{| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="float:left;"
|+ Korean military participation until 1943<ref>太平洋戦争下の朝鮮及び台湾、友邦協会､1961, p. 191.</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Asian Labor in the Wartime Japanese Empire |first=Paul H. |last=Kratoska |publisher=NUS Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-9971693336 |page=115 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-zvDJV3s6tAC&pg=PA115 |access-date=4 May 2020 |archive-date=3 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803172155/https://books.google.com/books?id=-zvDJV3s6tAC&pg=PA115 |url-status=live}}</ref>
! Year !! Applicants !! Applicants accepted !!Acceptance rate [%]</tr>
| 1938 || 2,946 || 406 || 13.8 </tr>
| 1939 || 12,348 || 613 || 5.0 </tr>
| 1940 || 84,443 || 3,060 || 3.6 </tr>
| 1941 || 144,743 || 3,208 || 2.2 </tr>
| 1942 || 254,273 || 4,077 || 1.6 </tr>
| 1943 || 303,294 || 6,300<ref>{{cite web |publisher=administrative bureau |title=Current state of Korea and Taiwan: Imperial Army Special volunteer system |date=October 1943 |page=13 |url=http://www.jacar.go.jp/DAS/meta/image_B02031284700?IS_KIND=RefSummary&IS_KEY_S1=b02031284700&IS_STYLE=default&IS_TAG_S1=reference_code& |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151018102836/http://www.jacar.go.jp/DAS/meta/image_B02031284700?IS_KIND=RefSummary&IS_KEY_S1=b02031284700&IS_STYLE=default&IS_TAG_S1=reference_code& |archive-date=18 October 2015 |df=dmy-all}}</ref> || 2.1 </tr>
|}
[[File:Japan & Korea Imperial family Yasukuni 1938-10 (cropped).jpg|thumb|right|Korean royalty of the [[House of Yi]] (front row, right to left): [[Yi Wu]], [[Yi Geon]] and [[Yi Un]] as officers of the Imperial Japanese Army, together with members of the Japanese imperial family at the [[Yasukuni Shrine]], 1938]]
Japan did not draft ethnic Koreans into its military until 1944 when the tide of World War II turned against it. Until 1944, enlistment in the [[Imperial Japanese Army]] by ethnic Koreans was voluntary, and highly competitive. From a 14% acceptance rate in 1938, it dropped to a 2% acceptance rate in 1943 while the raw number of applicants increased from 3000 per annum to 300,000 in just five years during World War II.<ref>[https://www.jacar.archives.go.jp/aj/meta/image_B02031288800?IS_KEY_S1=%E6%9C%9D%E9%AE%AE%20%E5%BF%97%E9%A1%98%E5%85%B5&IS_KIND=detail&IS_STYLE=default&IS_TAG_S1=InD& JACAR(Japan Center for Asian Historical Records)Ref.B02031288800、本邦内政関係雑纂/植民地関係第四巻(A-5-0-0-1_1_004)(外務省外交史料館)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220211024922/https://www.jacar.archives.go.jp/das/image/B02031288800?IS_KEY_S1=%E6%9C%9D%E9%AE%AE+%E5%BF%97%E9%A1%98%E5%85%B5&IS_KIND=detail&IS_STYLE=default&IS_TAG_S1=InD |date=11 February 2022 }}, July 1944.</ref>

{| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="float:right;"
|+ Motivation of Korean Applicants in 1941<ref>朝鮮總督府(1941.12), ｢第79回帝國議會說明資料｣</ref>
! age !! Applicants !! Compulsion !! Etc. !! Total</tr>
| 17 || 5,673 || 9,355 || 1,915 || 16,943 </tr>
| 18 || 6,943 || 11,089 || 2,012 || 20,044 </tr>
| 19 || 7,771 || 12,117 || 2,318 || 22,206 </tr>
| 20 || 7,591 || 11,844 || 2,125 || 21,560 </tr>
| 21 || 6,486 || 10,704 || 1,742 || 18,932 </tr>
| 22 || 5,357 || 8,722 || 1,610 || 15,689 </tr>
| 23 || 3,965 || 6,682 || 1,132 || 11,779 </tr>
| 24 || 2,694 || 4,347 || 1,146 || 8,187 </tr>
| 25+ || 3,704 || 4,812 || 1,190 || 9,706 </tr>
| Total || 50,184 || 79,672 ||15,190 || 145,046 </tr>
| % || 34.6% || 55.0% || 10.4% || 100% </tr>
|}

[[File:Park Japan.JPG|thumb|160px|[[Park Chung Hee]], future leader of South Korea, as a soldier of the Manchukuo Imperial Army]]

Other Korean officers who served Japan moved on to successful careers in post-colonial South Korea. Examples include [[Park Chung Hee]], who became president of South Korea; [[Chung Il-kwon]], prime minister from 1964 to 1970; [[Paik Sun-yup]], South Korea's youngest general who was famous for his command of the [[1st Infantry Division (South Korea)|1st Infantry Division]] during the [[Battle of Pusan Perimeter|defense of the Pusan Perimeter]], and [[Kim Suk-won (general)|Kim Suk-won]], a colonel of the Imperial Japanese Army who subsequently became a general of the South Korean army. The first ten of the Chiefs of Army Staff of South Korea graduated from the Imperial Japanese Army Academy and none from the [[Korean Liberation Army]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.army.mil.kr/intro/intro1_3_5b.htm |script-title=ko:육군 참모총장, The Republic of Korea Army |access-date=19 February 2007 |language=ko |title=K2WebWizard }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |script-title=ko:초기 육군 총장들은 일본 육사 출신, 여야 설전 |date=26 September 2005 |url=http://news.naver.com/news/read.php?mode=LSD&office_id=079&article_id=0000056180 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120712064844/http://news.naver.com/news/read.php?mode=LSD&office_id=079&article_id=0000056180 |url-status=dead |archive-date=12 July 2012 |work=CBS Nocut News/Naver |access-date=19 February 2007 |language=ko}}</ref>

Officer cadets had been joining the Japanese Army since before the annexation by attending the Imperial Japanese Army Academy. Enlisted Soldier recruitment began as early as 1938, when the Japanese [[Kwantung Army]] in Manchuria began accepting pro-Japanese Korean volunteers into the army of Manchukuo, and formed the [[Gando Special Force]]. Koreans in this unit specialized in counter-insurgency operations against communist guerillas in the region of [[Jiandao]]. The size of the unit grew considerably at an annual rate of 700 men, and included such notable Koreans as General [[Paik Sun-yup]], who served in the Korean War. Historian Philip Jowett noted that during the Japanese occupation of Manchuria, the [[Gando Special Force]] "earned a reputation for brutality and was reported to have laid waste to large areas which came under its rule".<ref>{{cite book |author=Philip S. Jowett |title=Rays of the Rising Sun |year=2004 |publisher=Helion & Company Limited |location=West Midlands |page=34}}</ref>

Starting in 1944, Japan started the [[conscription]] of Koreans into the armed forces. All Korean men were drafted to either join the Imperial Japanese Army, as of April 1944, or work in the military industrial sector, as of September 1944. Before 1944, 18,000 Koreans passed the examination for induction into the army. Koreans provided workers to mines and construction sites around Japan. The number of conscripted Koreans reached its peak in 1944 in preparation for war.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www1.korea-np.co.jp/pk/033rd_issue/98031103.htm |title=Archived copy |access-date=2015-08-20 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160413200013/http://www1.korea-np.co.jp/pk/033rd_issue/98031103.htm |archive-date=13 April 2016 |df=dmy-all}}</ref> From 1944, about 200,000 Korean men were inducted into the army.{{Citation needed|date=January 2024}}

During World War II, American soldiers frequently encountered Korean soldiers within the ranks of the Imperial Japanese Army. Most notably was in the [[Battle of Tarawa]], which was considered during that time to be one of the bloodiest battles in U.S. military history. A fifth of the Japanese garrison during this battle consisted of Korean laborers, where on the last night of the battle a combined 300 Japanese soldiers and Korean laborers did a last ditch charge. Like their Japanese counterparts, many of them were killed.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.stamfordhistory.org/ww2_tarawa.htm |title=Pride and Patriotism: Stamford's Role in World War II: The Battle of Tarawa |access-date=9 July 2008 |archive-date=16 May 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080516085435/http://www.stamfordhistory.org/ww2_tarawa.htm |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://worldwar2database.com/node/995 |title=The Battle of Tarawa, November 20–24, 1943 |work=World War II Multimedia Database |access-date=31 March 2016 |archive-date=12 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412155451/http://worldwar2database.com/node/995 |url-status=live}}</ref>

The Japanese, however, did not always believe they could rely on Korean laborers to fight alongside them. In ''Prisoners of the Japanese'', author Gaven Daws wrote, "[O]n [[Tinian]] there were five thousand Korean laborers and so as not to have hostiles ''at their back'' when the Americans invaded, the Japanese killed them."<ref>{{cite book |author=Gavan Daws |title=Prisoners of the Japanese: POWs of World War II in the Pacific |year=1994 |publisher=William Morrow & Company |location=New York |page=278 |isbn=978-0-688-11812-9}}</ref>

After the war, 148 Koreans were convicted of Class B and C [[Japanese war crimes]], 23 of whom were sentenced to death (compared to 920 Japanese who were sentenced to death), including Korean prison guards who were particularly notorious for their brutality during the war. The figure is relatively high considering that ethnic Koreans made up a small percentage of the Japanese military. Judge [[Bert Röling]], who represented the Netherlands at the [[International Military Tribunal for the Far East]], noted that "many of the commanders and guards in POW camps were Koreans – the Japanese apparently did not trust them as soldiers – and it is said that they were sometimes far more cruel than the Japanese."<ref>{{cite book |author=B. V. A Roling and Antonio Cassese |title=The Tokyo Trial and Beyond |year=1993 |publisher=Polity Press |location=Oxford, UK |page=76}}</ref> In his memoirs, Colonel Eugene C. Jacobs wrote that during the [[Bataan Death March]], "the Korean guards were the most abusive. The Japanese didn't trust them in battle, so used them as service troops; the Koreans were anxious to get blood on their bayonets; and then they thought they were veterans."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://infomotions.com/etexts/gutenberg/dirs/etext05/blbro10.htm |title=Blood Brothers A Medic's Sketch Book / Jacobs, Colonel Eugene C. |publisher=Project Gutenberg |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080506093620/http://infomotions.com/etexts/gutenberg/dirs/etext05/blbro10.htm |archive-date=6 May 2008 |df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Blood brothers: a medic's sketch book |first=Eugene C. |last=Jacobs |publisher=Carlton Press |year=1985 |isbn=978-0-8062-2300-1}}</ref>

Korean guards were sent to the remote jungles of [[Burma]], where Lt. Col. William A. (Bill) Henderson wrote from his own experience that some of the guards overseeing the construction of the [[Burma Railway]] "were moronic and at times almost bestial in their treatment of prisoners. This applied particularly to Korean private soldiers, conscripted only for guard and sentry duties in many parts of the Japanese empire. Regrettably, they were appointed as guards for the prisoners throughout the camps of Burma and Siam."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mekongexpress.com/thailand/photoalbum/bridgechapt8.htm |title=Bridge Over the River Kwai – Chapter 8 |publisher=Mekong Express |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080828015402/http://www.mekongexpress.com/thailand/photoalbum/bridgechapt8.htm |archive-date=28 August 2008 |df=dmy-all}}</ref> The highest-ranking Korean to be prosecuted after the war was Lieutenant General [[Hong Sa-ik]], who was in command of all the Japanese prisoner-of-war camps in the Philippines.

===Comfort women===
{{main|Comfort women}}
[[File:Korean Comfort Women recorded by U.S. Marine Corps.png|thumb|Korean comfort women on Okinawa being interviewed by U.S. marines after liberation]]
During [[World War II]], many ethnic Korean girls and women (mostly aged 12–17) were forced by the Japanese military to become sex slaves on the pretext of being hired for jobs, such as a seamstresses or factory workers, and were forced to provide sexual service for Japanese soldiers by agencies or their families against their wishes.<ref>The Dong-a Ilbo 5 May 1933 "民籍을僞造醜業을强制 악마 길은 유팍업자의 소행 犯人은警察 에被逮"</ref><ref>The Dong-a Ilbo 30 June 1933 "路上에少女掠取醜業[[Chungin|中人]]에賣渡金神通 팔아먹은 男女檢擧判明 된誘引魔手段"</ref><ref>The Dong-a Ilbo 16 July 1934 "팔린養女 눈물로 呼称十一歳少女賣春强要"</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Morgan |first=Jason |title=How Beijing weaponizes 'comfort women' as propaganda tool |newspaper=[[Asia Times]] |language=en |date=24 March 2018 |url=https://asiatimes.com/2018/03/beijing-weaponizes-comfort-women-propaganda-tool/ |access-date=15 September 2020 |archive-date=28 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201028150016/https://asiatimes.com/2018/03/beijing-weaponizes-comfort-women-propaganda-tool/ |url-status=live}}</ref> These women were euphemistically called "[[comfort women]]".

According to an interrogation report by [[U.S. Army]] in 1944, comfort women were in good physical health. They were able to have a periodic checkup once a week and to receive treatment in case of spreading disease to the Japanese soldiers, but not for their own health.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Japanese_Prisoner_of_War_Interrogation_Report_49 |title=Japanese Prisoner of War Interrogation Report 49 |access-date=15 September 2020 |archive-date=12 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201012083101/https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Japanese_Prisoner_of_War_Interrogation_Report_49 |url-status=live}}</ref> However, a 1996 [[United Nations]] Report detailed that "large numbers of women were forced to submit to prolonged prostitution under conditions which were frequently indescribably traumatic". Documents which survived the war revealed "beyond doubt the extent to which the Japanese forces took direct responsibility for the comfort stations" and that the published practices were "in stark contrast with the brutality and cruelty of the practice".<ref>{{cite web |title=UN Commission on Human Rights – Report on mission to the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (Jan 96) |url=http://hrlibrary.umn.edu/commission/country52/53-add1.htm |access-date=2021-02-10 |website=hrlibrary.umn.edu |archive-date=6 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210206033948/http://hrlibrary.umn.edu/commission/country52/53-add1.htm |url-status=live}}</ref> [[Chizuko Ueno]] at [[Kyoto University]] cautions against the claim that women were not forced as the fact that "no positive sources exist supporting claims that comfort women were forced labor" must be treated with doubt, as "it is well known that the great majority of potentially damaging official documents were destroyed in anticipation of the Allied occupation".<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Chizuko |first1=Ueno |last2=Sand |first2=Jordan |date=1999 |title=The Politics of Memory: Nation, Individual and Self |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2979/his.1999.11.2.129 |journal=History and Memory |volume=11 |issue=2 |pages=129–152 |doi=10.2979/his.1999.11.2.129 |jstor=10.2979/his.1999.11.2.129 |pmid=21268430 |s2cid=1765052 |issn=0935-560X |access-date=10 February 2021 |archive-date=13 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231113050828/https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2979/his.1999.11.2.129 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref>

The [[Asian Women's Fund]] claimed that during World War II, the Imperial Japanese Army recruited anywhere from tens of thousands to hundreds of thousands of women from occupied territories to be used as sex slaves.<ref>The "Comfort Women" Issue and the Asian Women's Fund https://www.awf.or.jp/pdf/0170.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210109152657/https://www.awf.or.jp/pdf/0170.pdf |date=9 January 2021 }}</ref> [[Yoshimi Yoshiaki]] asserted that possibly hundreds of thousands of girls and women, mainly from China and the Korean Peninsula but also Southeast Asian countries occupied by the Imperial Japanese Army, as well as Australia and the Netherlands, were forced to serve as comfort women. According to testimonies, young women were abducted from their homes in countries under Imperial Japanese rule. In many cases, women were lured with promises of work in factories or restaurants. In some cases propaganda advocated equity and the sponsorship of women in higher education. Other enticements were false advertising for nursing jobs at outposts or Japanese army bases; once recruited, they were incarcerated in comfort stations both inside their nations and abroad.<ref>Yoshimi, Yoshiaki (2000), Comfort Women. Sexual Slavery in the Japanese Military During World War II, Asia Perspectives, translation: Suzanne O'Brien, New York: Columbia University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-231-12033-3}}</ref><ref>"An estimated 200,000 to 300,000 women across Asia, predominantly Korean and Chinese, are believed to have been forced to work as sex slaves in Japanese military brothels", BBC 2000-12-08;"Historians say thousands of women; as many as 200,000 by some accounts; mostly from Korea, China and Japan worked in the Japanese military brothels", Irish Examiner 2007-03-08;AP 2007-03-07;CNN 2001-03-29.</ref>

From the early nineties onward, former Korean comfort women have continued to protest against the Japanese government for apparent historical negationism of crimes committed by the [[Imperial Japanese Army]], and have sought compensation for their sufferings during the war.<ref>[http://archives.cnn.com/2001/WORLD/asiapcf/east/03/29/japan.comfort.women/index.html Japan court rules against 'comfort women'] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060922051632/http://archives.cnn.com/2001/WORLD/asiapcf/east/03/29/japan.comfort.women/index.html |date=2006-09-22 }}, CNN, 2001-03-29.</ref><ref>[https://www.boston.com/news/nation/washington/articles/2006/10/15/congress_backs_off_of_wartime_japan_rebuke/ Congress backs off of wartime Japan rebuke] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303182502/http://www.boston.com/news/nation/washington/articles/2006/10/15/congress_backs_off_of_wartime_japan_rebuke/ |date=2016-03-03 }}, The Boston Globe, 2006-10-15.</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.comfort-women.org/ |title=Washington Coalition for Comfort Women Issues, Inc |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091103220622/http://www.comfort-women.org/ |archive-date=2009-11-03 |access-date=2006-08-05}}</ref> There has also been international support for compensation, such as from the [[European Union]],<ref>{{cite web |title=Texts adopted – Thursday, 13 December 2007 – Comfort women – P6_TA(2007)0632 |url=https://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?pubRef=-//EP//TEXT+TA+P6-TA-2007-0632+0+DOC+XML+V0//EN |access-date=2021-02-10 |website=www.europarl.europa.eu |archive-date=15 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210615113606/https://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?pubRef=-%2F%2FEP%2F%2FTEXT+TA+P6-TA-2007-0632+0+DOC+XML+V0%2F%2FEN |url-status=live}}</ref> the Netherlands, Canada and the Philippines.<ref>[https://www.amnesty.org/download/Documents/52000/asa350012008eng.pdf Open Letter: House Resolution 124 Calling on the Government of Japan to Apologize for the System of Military Sexual Slavery Before and During World War I ] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210509223827/https://www.amnesty.org/download/Documents/52000/asa350012008eng.pdf |date=9 May 2021 }}</ref> The United States passed [[United States House of Representatives House Resolution 121|House of Representatives House Resolution 121]] on 30 July 2007, asking the Japanese government to redress the situation and to incorporate comfort women into school curriculum.<ref>{{cite web |title=Passage of H.Res. 121 on "Comfort Women", the US Congress and Historical Memory in Japan |url=https://apjjf.org/-Kinue-TOKUDOME/2510/article.html |access-date=2021-02-10 |website=The Asia-Pacific Journal: Japan Focus |date=August 2007 |archive-date=26 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201126190423/https://apjjf.org/-Kinue-TOKUDOME/2510/article.html |url-status=live}}</ref> [[Hirofumi Hayashi]] at the [[University of Manchester]] argues that the resolution has helped to counter the "arguments of ultrarightists flooding the mainstream mass media" and warned against the rationalization of the comfort women system.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hayashi |first=Hirofumi |date=2008 |title=Disputes in Japan over the Japanese Military "Comfort Women" System and Its Perception in History |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/25098017 |journal=The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science |volume=617 |pages=123–132 |doi=10.1177/0002716208314191 |jstor=25098017 |s2cid=145678875 |issn=0002-7162 |access-date=10 February 2021 |archive-date=9 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210209101413/https://www.jstor.org/stable/25098017 |url-status=live|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

===Religion and ideology===

Protestant Christian missionary efforts in Asia were quite successful in Korea. American Presbyterians and Methodists arrived in the 1880s and were well received. They served as medical and educational missionaries, establishing schools and hospitals in numerous cities. In the years when Korea was under Japanese control, some Koreans adopted Christianity as an expression of nationalism in opposition to the Japan's efforts to promote the Japanese language and the Shinto religion.<ref name="Danielle Kane 2009 pp 365">Danielle Kane, and Jung Mee Park, "The Puzzle of Korean Christianity: Geopolitical Networks and Religious Conversion in Early Twentieth-Century East Asia", ''American Journal of Sociology'' (2009) 115#2 pp 365–404</ref>
In 1914 of 16 million Koreans, there were 86,000 Protestants and 79,000 Catholics. By 1934 the numbers were 168,000 and 147,000, respectively. Presbyterian missionaries were especially successful. Harmonizing with traditional practices became an issue. The Protestants developed a substitute for Confucian ancestral rites by merging Confucian-based and Christian death and funerary rituals.<ref>Kenneth Scott Latourette, ''A History of the Expansion of Christianity: Volume VII: Advance through Storm: A.D. 1914 and after, with concluding generalizations'' (1945) 7:401–407</ref>

==Korean independence movement==
{{Main|Korean independence movement}}

=== Guerrilla resistance in Manchuria and Russia ===
Since the early 1900s, Koreans in [[Manchuria]] and [[Primorsky Krai]] in Russia waged a guerrilla war against the Japanese occupation. At this time, [[Hong Beom-do|Beom-do Hong]]'s unit ambushed and annihilated the Imperial Japanese Army that was advancing in [[Battle of Fengwudong|Battle of Bongodong]](Fengwudong), [[Jilin]], [[Manchuria]](June [[1920]]). Also, the combined forces of the independence army commanded by [[Kim Chwajin]] and [[Hong Beom-do]], while repeatedly retreating operationally, ambushed and killed about 1,500 Imperial Japanese soldiers in [[Battle of Qingshanli|Battle of Cheongsanri]](Qīngshānlǐ), [[Jílín]], [[Manchuria]]. In retaliation to loss at [[Battle of Qingshanli|Battle of Cheongsanri]], the [[Imperial Japanese Army]] committed the [[Gando Massacre]], massacring between 5,000 and tens of thousands of Korean civilians in [[Jiandao|Gando]]. The [[Japanese invasion of Manchuria]] in 1932 and subsequent [[Pacification of Manchukuo]] deprived many of these groups of their bases of operation and supplies. Many were forced to either flee elsewhere in China, or to join the [[Red Army]]-backed forces in eastern Russia. One of the guerrilla leaders in this region was the future dictator of North Korea, [[Kim Il Sung]]. These experiences served as a base for Kim's legitimacy after the liberation of Korea.<ref>French, Paul. ''North Korea: The Paranoid Peninsula – A Modern History.'' 2nd ed. New York: Zed Books, 2007. 50–51. Print.</ref>

=== March First Movement ===
{{Main|March First Movement}}
[[File:(Red_Cross_pamphlet_on_March_1st_Movement)_(KADA-shyun15-012~20)_(cropped).jpg|thumb|Korean Christians were [[Crucifixion|crucified]] in the aftermath of the March 1st Movement protests (1919).|178x178px]]
In January 1919, Emperor Gojong died suddenly, which led to widespread {{Ill|Gojong poisoning conspiracy theories|lt=theories that he had been poisoned by Japan|ko|고종 독살설}}. Anti-Japanese sentiment flared amongst Koreans. In Tokyo, Korean students issued a [[February 8 Declaration of Independence]] that declared Korea independent from Japan.<ref name=":24">{{Cite web |last=박|first=성수|title=2·8독립선언 (二八獨立宣言) |trans-title=February 8 Declaration of Independence |url=https://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Article/E0046354 |access-date=2023-09-28 |publisher=[[Academy of Korean Studies]]|website=[[Encyclopedia of Korean Culture]] |language=ko}}</ref> Inspired by this, Koreans in Seoul issued their own [[Korean Declaration of Independence|declaration of independence]], which was prominently read aloud in [[Tapgol Park]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=김|first=진봉 |title=3·1운동 (三一運動) |url=https://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Article/E0026772 |access-date=2024-01-28 |website=[[Encyclopedia of Korean Culture]] |publisher=[[Academy of Korean Studies]]|language=ko}}</ref> This gave rise to the nation-wide March 1 Movement peaceful protests; it is estimated that 2 million people took part in these rallies. However, they were violently suppressed by Japan; according to Korean records, over a year of demonstrations, 46,948 were arrested, 7,509 killed and 15,961 wounded.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=March First Movement |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Premium Service |url=https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9050797?query=march%20first%20movement&ct= |access-date=1 March 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071211125737/https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9050797?query=march%20first%20movement&ct= |archive-date=11 December 2007 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":0" /> According to Japanese figures, 8,437 were arrested, 553 killed and 1,409 wounded.<ref name=":0">{{cite book |last=Lee |first=Ki-Baik |translator-first=Edward W. |translator-last=Wagner |others=with Edwar J. Shultz |title=A New History of Korea (韓国史新論) |publisher=Ilchorak/Harvard University Press |year=1999 |pages=344 [https://archive.org/details/newhistoryofkore0000leek/page/1080 1080] |isbn=978-0-674-61575-5 |url=https://archive.org/details/newhistoryofkore0000leek/page/1080}}</ref>

=== Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea ===
[[File:Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea.jpg|thumb|Early members of the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea (1919)]]
{{Main|Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea}}
After the repression of the March 1st Movement protests, Koreans fled the peninsula. A number of them congregated in Shanghai a month after the protests and founded a government-in-exile: the Korean Provisional Government (KPG).{{Sfnp|Robinson|2007|pp=52–53}} The government was highly diverse, with both left- and right-leaning members, and engaged in a range of political and militant efforts that advocated for Korea's independence.<ref name=":42">{{Citation |script-title=ko:김구[金九] |work=Historynet |trans-title=Kim Ku |url=http://contents.history.go.kr/mobile/kc/view.do?levelId=kc_n400245&code=kc_age_40 |access-date=2023-06-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230625013042/http://contents.history.go.kr/mobile/kc/view.do?levelId=kc_n400245&code=kc_age_40 |archive-date=25 June 2023 |url-status=live |publisher=[[National Institute of Korean History]] |ref={{SfnRef|Historynet Kim Ku}} |language=ko}}</ref> In 1931, member [[Kim Ku]] founded the [[Korean Patriotic Organization]] (KPO), a militant arm of the KPG. The KPO planned a number of attacks on Japanese government and colonial officials, including a [[Sakuradamon incident (1932)|1932 assassination attempt on Emperor Hirohito]] and a bombing at a [[Hongkou Park Incident|military rally in Shanghai]].<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |last=윤|first=상원|script-title=ko:한인애국단 (韓人愛國團) |url=https://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Article/E0061905 |access-date=2024-01-28 |publisher=[[Academy of Korean Studies]]|website=[[Encyclopedia of Korean Culture]] |language=ko}}</ref> After the Shanghai bombing, they were forced to flee the city, and eventually settled in Chongqing,<ref name="Encyclopedia KLA">{{Citation |last=박|first=성수|script-title=ko:한국광복군 (韓國光復軍) |trans-title=Korea Liberation Army |url=https://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Article/E0005134 |access-date=March 29, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230404095003/https://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Article/E0005134 |archive-date=April 4, 2023 |url-status=live |language=ko |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopedia of Korean Culture]]|publisher=[[Academy of Korean Studies]]}}</ref><ref name=":3" /> where they received support from the [[Republic of China (1912–1949)|Chinese government]].<ref name=":3" /> There, Kim Ku, then the leader of the KPG, founded the [[Korean Liberation Army]] (KLA). The army fought in China and Burma, and prepared for its return to Korea as the tide of World War II turned against Japan.<ref name="Encyclopedia KLA" /> This culminated in the [[Eagle Project]], a mission for the KPG and KLA to return to the peninsula and fight the Japanese. Ultimately, with the surprise of the [[Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki|atomic bomb droppings on Nagasaki and Hiroshima]] and the sudden end of the war, the mission did not come to pass.<ref>{{Cite web |last=윤 |first=시원 |script-title=ko:독수리작전 (禿수리作戰) |url=https://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Article/E0073488 |access-date=2024-01-28 |publisher=[[Academy of Korean Studies]]|website=[[Encyclopedia of Korean Culture]] |language=ko}}</ref>

=== Resistance within Korea ===
Within Korea itself, anti-Imperialism rallies continued on occasion. Most notably, the [[Gwangju Student Independence Movement|Gwangju(Kōshū) Students Independence Movement]] on 3 November 1929 led to the strengthening of Japanese military rule in 1931, after which freedom of the press and freedom of expression were curbed. Many witnesses, including Catholic priests, reported that Japanese authorities dealt with insurgency severely. When villagers were suspected of hiding rebels, entire village populations are said to have been herded into public buildings (especially churches) and massacred when the buildings were set on fire.<ref>{{cite book |last=Wells |first=Kenneth M. |title=Background to the March First Movement: Koreans in Japan, 1905–1919. |publisher=[[Korean Studies (journal)|Korean Studies]], V. 13, 1989 |year=1989 |pages=1–21}}</ref> In the village of Teigan, Suigen District, Keiki Prefecture (now Jeam-ri, [[Hwaseong City|Hwaseong]], Gyeonggi Province) for example, a group of 29 people were gathered inside a church which was then set afire.([[Jeamni massacre]])<ref>{{cite book |last=Lee |first=Ki-Baik |translator-last=Wagner |others=with Edwar J. Shultz |title=A New History of Korea (韓国史新論) |publisher=Ilchorak/Harvard University Press |year=1999 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/newhistoryofkore0000leek/page/344 344] |isbn=978-0-674-61575-5 |url=https://archive.org/details/newhistoryofkore0000leek/page/344}}</ref>

On 10 December 1941, the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea, under the presidency of [[Kim Ku]], declared war on Japan and Germany.<ref>{{Cite web |script-title=ko:우리역사넷 :: 한국 근ㆍ현대사 사진 모음 |url=http://contents.history.go.kr/mphoto/imsi/imsi_period03_01.do?lang=en |access-date=2024-01-24 |website=contents.history.go.kr}}</ref>

==Independence and division of Korea==
{{Main|Division of Korea}}

Following the [[Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki|dropping of atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki]], [[Soviet invasion of Manchuria]], and the impending overrun of the Korean Peninsula by U.S. and Soviet forces, Japan [[surrender of Japan|surrendered]] to the Allied forces on 15 August 1945, ending 35 years of Japanese colonial rule, though Japanese troops remained in Southern Korea for several more weeks until fully withdrawing by mid-September.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://sthelepress.com/index.php/2023/12/16/ccc/|quote=Assertion that the emperor's surrender 'abruptly' ended Japan's occupation of the peninsula, which in fact continued in the southern part for more than three weeks?|last=Myers|first=Brian Reynolds|title=The Power to Mystify|work=Sthele Press|date=16 December 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.history.navy.mil/content/history/museums/nmusn/explore/photography/korean-war/surrender-japan-korea.html | title=Surrender of Japan in Korea }}</ref>

American forces under General [[John R. Hodge]] arrived at the southern part of the Korean Peninsula on 8 September 1945, while the Soviet Army and some Korean Communists had stationed themselves in the northern part of the Korean Peninsula. U.S. Colonel [[Dean Rusk]] proposed to Chischakov, the Soviet military administrator of northern Korea, that Korea should be split at the [[38th parallel north|38th parallel]]. This proposal was made at an emergency meeting to determine postwar [[Sphere of influence|spheres of influence]], which led to the [[division of Korea]].

After the liberation of Korea from Japanese rule, the "Name Restoration Order" was issued on 23 October 1946 by the [[United States Army Military Government in Korea]] south of the [[38th parallel north|38th parallel]], enabling Koreans to restore their names if they wished. Many [[Koreans in Japan]] chose to retain their Japanese names, either to avoid discrimination, or later, to meet the requirements for naturalization as Japanese citizens.<ref name="Han">{{cite journal |last=Fukuoka |first=Yasunori |year=1996 |title=Beyond Assimilation and Dissimilation: Diverse Resolutions to Identity Crises among Younger Generation Koreans in Japan |url=http://www.han.org/a/fukuoka96b.html |url-status=dead |journal=Saitama University Review |volume=31 |pages=13–30 |publisher=[[Saitama University]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061123113014/http://www.han.org/a/fukuoka96b.html |archive-date=23 November 2006 |access-date=27 November 2006}}</ref>

==Administrative divisions==
{{Main|Provinces of Korea#Provinces of Chōsen}}
{{expand section|date=April 2022}}
[[File:Provinces of Chosen Korea.png|thumb|Provinces of Korea during Japanese rule]]
There were 13 provinces in Korea during Japanese rule: [[Keiki Province]], [[Kōgen Province]], [[Chūseihoku Province]], [[Chūseinan Province]], [[Zenrahoku Province]], [[Zenranan Province]], [[Keishōhoku Province]], [[Keishōnan Province]], [[Heian'nan Province]], [[Heianhoku Province]], [[Kōkai Province]], [[Kankyōnan Province]], and [[Kankyōhoku Province]]. The administrative capital Keijō was in Keiki Province.

==Economy==
[[File:Groundbreaking ceremony of Gyeongbu Line at Busan, 1901.jpg|thumb|Groundbreaking ceremony for the [[Keijō]]–[[Busan|Fuzan]] railway]]
[[File:Production in Korea under Japanese rule.png|thumb|Production in Korea under Japanese rule]]
[[File:Industrialization of Korea under Japanese rule.svg|thumb|Industrialization of Korea under Japanese rule]]
[[File:Population of Korea under Japanese rule.png|thumb|Population of Korea under Japanese rule]]
[[File:Railway in Korea under Japanese rule.svg|thumb|Km of railway in Korea under Japanese rule]]
[[File:Telephone subscribers in Korea under Japanese rule.svg|thumb|Telephone subscribers in Korea under Japanese rule]]
Japan encouraged an inflow of Japanese capital to Korea's less developed economy.<ref name=":022">{{Cite book |last=Li |first=Xiaobing |title=The Cold War in East Asia |date=2018 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-1-138-65179-1 |location=Abingdon, Oxon}}</ref>{{Rp|page=24}} A large majority of major firms in Korea became Japanese owned and operated as a result, with key positions reserved for Japanese.<ref name=":022" />{{Rp|page=24}} Koreans were permitted to work in menial roles under harsh labor conditions.<ref name=":022" />{{Rp|page=24}} Most of Korea's coal, iron, and crop production was shipped to Japan.<ref name=":022" />{{Rp|page=24}}

Economic output in terms of agriculture, fishery, forestry and industry increased by tenfold from 1910 to 1945 as illustrated on the chart to the right.<ref name="GGK1942">{{cite web |title=朝鮮総督府統計年報昭和17年 [Governor-General of Korea Statistical Yearbook 1942] |publisher=Governor-General of Korea |date=March 1944 |url=http://kindai.ndl.go.jp/info:ndljp/pid/1454691 |access-date=4 December 2014 |archive-date=16 January 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150116173452/http://kindai.ndl.go.jp/info:ndljp/pid/1454691 |url-status=live}}</ref> [[Princeton University|Princeton]]'s [[Atul Kohli]] concluded that the economic development model the Japanese instituted played the crucial role in Korean economic development, a model that was maintained by the Koreans in the post-[[World War II]] era.<ref>{{cite book |last=Kohli |first=Atul |year=2004 |title=State-Directed Development: Political Power and Industrialization in the Global Periphery |location=Cambridge |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=w_r7wLD--VoC&pg=PA27&dq=%22extensive+use%22 27], [https://books.google.com/books?id=w_r7wLD--VoC&pg=PA56&dq=%22highly+cohesive%22 56] |quote=[T]he Japanese made extensive use of state power for their own economic development and then used the same state power to pry open and transform Korea in a relatively short period of time. . . . The highly cohesive and disciplining state that the Japanese helped to construct in colonial Korea turned out to be an efficacious economic actor. The state utilised its bureaucratic capacities to undertake numerous economic tasks: collecting more taxes, building infrastructure, and undertaking production directly. More important, this highly purposive state made increasing production one of its priorities and incorporated property-owning classes into production-oriented alliances.}}</ref>

Randall S. Jones wrote that "economic development during the colonial period can be said to have laid the foundation for future growth in several respects".<ref>Randall S. Jones. ''The economic development of colonial Korea''. University of Michigan, 1984. p. 168.</ref>

A 2017 study found that the gradual removal of trade barriers (almost fully completed by 1923) after Japan's annexation of Korea "increased population growth rates more in the regions close to the former border between Japan and Korea than in the other regions. Furthermore, after integration, the regions close to Korea that specialized in the fabric industry, whose products were the primary goods exported from Japan to Korea, experienced more population growth than other regions close to Korea did."<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nakajima |first1=Kentaro |last2=Okazaki |first2=Tetsuji |title=The expanding Empire and spatial distribution of economic activity: the case of Japan's colonization of Korea during the prewar period |journal=The Economic History Review |volume=71 |issue=2 |pages=593–616 |doi=10.1111/ehr.12535 |issn=1468-0289 |year=2018 |s2cid=157334108}}</ref>

There were some modernization efforts by the late 19th century prior to annexation. Seoul became the first city in East Asia to have electricity, trolley cars, water, telephone, and telegraph systems all at the same time,<ref name="Summer Institute Summaries">{{cite web |title=Summer Institute Summaries |url=http://orias.berkeley.edu/summer2007/Summer2007Summaries.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130812195235/http://orias.berkeley.edu/summer2007/Summer2007Summaries.htm |archive-date=12 August 2013 |access-date=5 January 2015 |df=dmy-all}}</ref> but Korea remained a largely backward agricultural economy around the start of the 20th century.<ref name="LoC Economic Development"/> "Japan's initial colonial policy was to increase agricultural production in Korea to meet Japan's growing need for rice. Japan also began to build large-scale industries in Korea in the 1930s as part of the empire-wide program of economic self-sufficiency and war preparation."<ref name="LoC Japanese rule">{{cite web |title=Korea Under Japanese Rule |editor1-first=Andrea Matles |editor1-last=Savada |editor2-first=William |editor2-last=Shaw |publisher=Federal Research Division, Library of Congress |year=1990 |url=http://countrystudies.us/south-korea/7.htm |access-date=2 October 2004 |archive-date=3 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161103013022/http://countrystudies.us/south-korea/7.htm |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kimura |first=Mitsuhiko |year=1995 |title=The Economics of Japanese Imperialism in Korea, 1910–1939 |journal=[[The Economic History Review]] |volume=48 |issue=3 |pages=555–574 |jstor=2598181 |doi=10.2307/2598181}} See p. 558: "Japan faced shortages of rice as domestic production lagged behind demand. The government had three alternatives to deal with this problem: (a) increasing productivity of domestic agriculture, (b) importing foreign rice (''gaimai'') from south-east Asia, and (c) importing colonial rice. The first was most costly and its success was not assured. The second implied loss of foreign exchange and also dependence on foreign producers for the imperial staple, which would seriously weaken the political power of the empire vis-à-vis the West. It also involved a quality problem in that foreign rice of the indica variety did not suit Japanese taste. The third alternative seemed best to the Japanese administration."</ref> In terms of exports, "Japanese industry as a whole gained little ... and this is certainly true for the most important manufacturing sector, cotton textiles. This export trade had little impact, positive or negative, on the welfare of Japanese consumer."<ref>Kimura (1995), p. 557.</ref> Likewise in terms of the profitability of Japanese investors: colonial Korea made no significant impact.<ref>Kimura (1995), p. 564.</ref>

According to scholar [[Donald Stone Macdonald|Donald S. Macdonald]], "for centuries most Koreans lived as subsistence farmers of rice and other grains and satisfied most of their basic needs through their own labor or through barter. The manufactures of traditional Korea – principally cloth, cooking and eating utensils, furniture, jewelry, and paper – were produced by artisans in a few population centers."<ref name="LoC Economic Development">{{cite web |title=A Country Study: South Korea, The Japanese Role in Korea's Economic Development |editor1-first=Andrea Matles |editor1-last=Savada |editor2-first=William |editor2-last=Shaw |publisher=Federal Research Division, Library of Congress |year=1990 |url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/krtoc.html#kr0086 |access-date=17 December 2009 |archive-date=11 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131211124442/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/krtoc.html#kr0086 |url-status=live}}</ref>

{{cquote|During the early period of Japanese rule, the Japanese government attempted to completely integrate the Korean economy with Japan, and thus introduced many modern economic and social institutions and invested heavily in infrastructure, including schools, railroads and utilities. Most of these physical facilities remained in Korea after the Liberation. The Japanese government played an even more active role in developing Korea than it had played in developing the Japanese economy in the late nineteenth century. Many programs drafted in Korea in the 1920s and 1930s originated in policies drafted in Japan during the Meiji period (1868–1912). The Japanese government helped to mobilize resources for development and provided entrepreneurial leadership for these new enterprises. Colonial economic growth was initiated through powerful government efforts to expand the economic infrastructure, to increase investment in human capital through health and education and to raise productivity.<ref name="LoC Economic Development"/>}}

However, under Japanese rule, many Korean resources were only used for Japan.<ref name="economic">{{cite web |url=http://smesindia.net/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/Korea.pdf |title=Economic Growth and human Production in the Republic of Korea, 1945–1992 |access-date=19 February 2007 |last=Lee |first=J ong-Wha |work=United Nations Development Programme |archive-date=24 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181024211226/http://smesindia.net/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/Korea.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> Economist [[Suh Sang-chul]] points out that the nature of industrialization during the period was as an "imposed enclave", so the impact of colonialism was trivial. Another scholar, Song Byung-nak, states that the economic condition of average Koreans deteriorated during the period despite the economic growth. Cha primarily attributed this deterioration to global economic shocks and [[laissez-faire]] policies, as well as Chōsen's rapid population growth; the colonial government's attempts to mitigate this problem were inadequate.<ref name="shocks">{{cite journal |last1=Cha |first1=Myung Soo |title=Imperial Policy or World Price Shocks? Explaining Interwar Korean Consumption Trend |journal=The Journal of Economic History |date=September 1998 |volume=58 |issue=3 |page=751 |doi=10.1017/S0022050700021148 |jstor=2566622 |s2cid=154798459 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2566622 |access-date=27 October 2021 |archive-date=27 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211027070654/https://www.jstor.org/stable/2566622 |url-status=live|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Most Koreans at the time could access only a primary school education under restriction by the Japanese, and this prevented the growth of an indigenous entrepreneurial class. A 1939 statistic shows that among the total capital recorded by factories, about 94 percent was Japanese-owned. While Koreans owned about 61 percent of small-scale firms that had 5 to 49 employees, about 92 percent of large-scale enterprises with more than 200 employees were Japanese-owned.<ref name="Jin W. Cyhn">{{cite book |last=Cyhn |first=Jin W. |year=2002 |title=Technology Transfer and International Production: The Development of the Electronics Industry in Korea |location=Cheltenham |publisher=Edward Elgar Publishing |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=5KQlbJWrh3IC&pg=PA78 78]}}</ref><ref>Suh, Sang-Chul (1978), ''Growth and Structural Changes in the Korean Economy, 1910–1940: The Korean. Economy under the Japanese Occupation'', Harvard University Press, {{ISBN|0-674-36439-2}}</ref><ref>Song, Byung-Nak (1997) ''The Rise of the Korean Economy''. 2nd ed. Hong Kong; Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-590049-9}}</ref>

{{cquote|Virtually all industries were owned either by Japan-based corporations or by Japanese corporations in Korea. As of 1942, indigenous capital constituted only 1.5 percent of the total capital invested in Korean industries. Korean entrepreneurs were charged interest rates 25 percent higher than their Japanese counterparts, so it was difficult for large Korean enterprises to emerge. More and more farmland was taken over by the Japanese, and an increasing proportion of Korean farmers either became sharecroppers or migrated to Japan or Manchuria as laborers. As greater quantities of Korean rice were exported to Japan, per capita consumption of rice among the Koreans declined; between 1932 and 1936, per capita consumption of rice declined to half the level consumed between 1912 and 1916. Although the government imported coarse grains from Manchuria to augment the Korean food supply, per capita consumption of food grains in 1944 was 35 percent below that of 1912 to 1916.<ref name="LoC Japanese rule" />}}

In addition, 70% of the agricultural workers who made up most of Korea's population at the time were reduced to tenants of Japanese and Korean landlords who purchased land at low prices, and they had to pay high rents of 50–70%. As a result, many Koreans left for Manchuria and settled down, becoming the foundation of [[Korean in China]].<ref>Kim, yong-dalment, The Korean peasants movement and agriculture policies of the Japanese govern(2007)</ref>

The Japanese government created a system of [[Colonialism|colonial]] [[mercantilism]], requiring construction of significant [[transportation infrastructure]] on the Korean Peninsula for the purpose of extracting and exploiting resources such as raw materials (timber), foodstuff (mostly rice and fish), and mineral resources (coal and iron ore). The Japanese developed port facilities and an extensive railway system which included a main trunk railway from the southern port city of [[Busan|Pusan]] through the capital of Seoul and north to the Chinese border. This infrastructure was intended not only to facilitate a colonial mercantilist economy, but was also viewed as a strategic necessity for the Japanese military to control Korea and to move large numbers of troops and materials to the Chinese border at short notice.

From the late 1920s and into the 1930s, particularly during the tenure of Japanese Governor-General [[Kazushige Ugaki]], concentrated efforts were made to build up the industrial base in Korea. This was especially true in the areas of [[heavy industry]], such as chemical plants and steel mills, and [[munition]]s production. The Japanese military felt it would be beneficial to have production closer to the source of raw materials and closer to potential front lines for a future war with China.<ref>{{cite book |last=Pratt |first=Keith |year=2007 |title=Everlasting Flower: A History of Korea |publisher=Reaktion Books |isbn=978-1-86189-335-2}}</ref>

[[Lee Young-hoon]], a professor at [[Seoul National University]] states that less than 10% of arable land actually came under Japanese control and rice was normally traded, not robbed. He also insists that Koreans' knowledge about the era under Japanese rule is mostly made up by later educators.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.chosunonline.com/svc/auth/index_login.html?contid=2004112063000&code=news |title=ソウル大教授「日本による収奪論は作られた神話」["It is a Myth Made up afterward that Japan Deprived Korea of Land and Food" Professor at Seoul University] |last=Lee |first=Yong Hoon |access-date=8 January 2013 |archive-date=3 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130603012115/http://www.chosunonline.com/svc/auth/index_login.html?contid=2004112063000&code=news |url-status=live}} Registration required.</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://news.hankooki.com/lpage/society/200411/h2004111817411822040.htm |date=18 November 2004 |script-title=ko:일제 토지ㆍ식량 수탈론은 상상된 신화 |publisher=Hankooki.com |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130618223905/http://news.hankooki.com/lpage/society/200411/h2004111817411822040.htm |archive-date=18 June 2013 |df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.chosunonline.com/svc/auth/index_login.html?contid=2007060363016&code=news |title=李栄薫教授「厳格なジャッジなき学界が歴史を歪曲」["Congress without Strict Judgment Distorts History" Lee Yong Hoon Professor] |last=Lee |first=Yong Hoon |access-date=8 January 2013 |archive-date=3 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130603004654/http://www.chosunonline.com/svc/auth/index_login.html?contid=2007060363016&code=news |url-status=live}} Registration required.</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://news.chosun.com/site/data/html_dir/2007/05/31/2007053100061.html |script-title=ko:정치 지도자의 잘못된 역사관이 나라 망치고있다 |date=31 May 2007 |publisher=[[The Chosun Ilbo]] |access-date=8 January 2013 |archive-date=31 August 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120831012640/http://news.chosun.com/site/data/html_dir/2007/05/31/2007053100061.html |url-status=live}}</ref> Many of Lee's arguments, however, have been contested.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/content/economic-growth-and-human-development-republic-korea-1945-1992 |title=Economic Growth and Human Development in the Republic of Korea, 1945–1992 – Human Development Reports |website=hdr.undp.org |date=January 1997 |access-date=30 March 2018 |archive-date=30 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180330213630/http://hdr.undp.org/en/content/economic-growth-and-human-development-republic-korea-1945-1992 |url-status=live}}</ref>

[[Alleyne Ireland]], a British author, referred to conditions in Korea under Japanese rule in 1926. He wrote in his book ''The New Korea'', "looking forward from 1910, one thing was clear where many things were obscure, namely that Japan, having decided to make Korea part of her Empire, would deem the permanence of her occupation to be a major element of her national policy, to be held intact, at whatever cost, against internal revolt or foreign intrigue.<ref name="Alleyne">[[Alleyne Ireland]] ''The New Korea'' E. P. Dutton. 1926 Chapter I Introductory pp. 2</ref> The Japanese refer with pride to their effective protection of life and property throughout a country but recently overrun by bandits, to the enormous increase during the past fifteen years in every branch of production, with its connotation of increased employment for Koreans, to the constantly mounting number of Koreans appointed to the government service are facts, that cannot be gainsaid. However, the Korean nationalists attribute to them a sinister significance."<ref>Alleyne Ireland ''The New Korea'' E. P. Dutton. 1926 Chapter I Introductory pp. 6</ref>

=== Drug trade ===
[[File:Commemorative stamps released by Japan's colonial rule of Korea.jpg|thumb|241x241px|1946 saw the issue of commemorative stamps bearing the dove of peace celebrating the end of Japanese rule.]]
Korea produced a small amount of opium during the earlier years of the colonial period, but by the 1930s, Korea became a major exporter of both opium and narcotics, becoming a significant supplier to the illicit drug trade, specifically to the opium monopoly created by the Japanese-sponsored Manchukuo government.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/312805 |jstor=312805 |title=The Forgotten Plague: Opium and Narcotics in Korea under Japanese Rule, 1910–1945 |last1=Jennings |first1=John M. |journal=Modern Asian Studies |year=1995 |volume=29 |issue=4 |pages=795–815 |doi=10.1017/S0026749X00016188 |s2cid=145267716 |access-date=25 March 2022 |archive-date=23 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220223000328/https://www.jstor.org/stable/312805 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref>{{Page needed|date=March 2024}} The Government-General developed facilities dedicated to the production of morphine and heroin.<ref name=":6" />{{Page needed|date=March 2024}} Emigrant Koreans played an extensive role in drug trafficking in China, especially in [[Manchuria]], where they were employed as poppy farmers, drug peddlers, or proprietors of opium dens — disreputable jobs that were at the bottom rung of the drug trafficking ladder.<ref name=":6" />{{Page needed|date=March 2024}} The initiation of opium and narcotic production in Korea was motivated by the worldwide shortage of opium and Japan's unfavorable environment for poppy cultivation, making the Japanese entirely dependent on foreign imports to meet domestic demand for medical opium.<ref name=":6" />{{Page needed|date=March 2024}} The Japanese discovered that Korea provided favorable climate and soil conditions for poppy cultivation; not only were the climate and soil conditions more suitable, but land and labor costs were lower than in Japan.<ref name=":6" />{{Page needed|date=March 2024}} Farmers in Korea were aware of the global demand for opium, and welcomed the idea of increasing the amount of land for poppy cultivation, an idea that was introduced to them by Japanese pharmaceutical companies.<ref name=":6" />{{Page needed|date=March 2024}} The sale and consumption of drugs were pervasive in Korea, where the country faced a substantial domestic drug abuse problem, appearing in the form of opium-smoking and morphine addiction.<ref name=":6" />{{Page needed|date=March 2024}} Within Korea, most illicit narcotics were supplied by Japanese druggists.<ref name=":6" />{{Page needed|date=March 2024}}

==Policies==

=== Motivation behind Japanese colonial policy ===
In Japan, attitudes toward Koreans were deeply shaped by the [[Nissen dōsoron]] (日鮮同祖論, "Theory of Japanese-Korean Common Ancestry"), which claimed Koreans and Japanese shared mythological ancestors: [[Susanoo-no-Mikoto|Susanoo]] (Koreans) and [[Amaterasu]] (Japanese). According to this theory, Koreans were inherently Japanese. This idea served as the ideological foundation for the colonial government's assimilation policies, which aimed to fully incorporate Koreans as "racial Japanese."

In a speech in February 1944, Governor-General Koiso used the [[Nihon Shoki]] to justify the campaign to erase Korean language, culture, and ethnic identity. He asserted that Koreans were descendants of Susanoo-no-Mikoto, younger brother of Amaterasu, the sun goddess and ancestral figure of the Japanese emperor and nation. According to the Nihon Shoki, Susanoo had been sent to Korea to rule, a narrative Koiso used to suggest Susanoo was the same figure as [[Dangun]], Korea's mythical founder. He further argued that Korea's annexation in 1910 mirrored the "divine land transfer" ([[Kuni-yuzuri]]), where Susanoo's descendant, [[Ōkuninushi]], submitted to [[Ninigi-no-Mikoto|Ninigi]], Amaterasu's grandson, establishing a precedent for the subordination of Koreans (Susanoo's descendants) to Japanese (Amaterasu's descendants). Koiso frequently made use of wording that hoped for the colonial policy to help "awaken" Koreans to their "true nature" as Japanese.<ref>{{Cite book |last=京城日報社 |url=https://archive.org/details/kjnp-1944-02-16 |title=京城日報 1944-02-16 |date=1944-02-16}}</ref>

Assimilation, however, did not mean equality. Koreans were to remain subordinate, as theorized by [[Imaizumi Teisuke]], who compared the Japanese-Korean relationship to hierarchical bonds like man and woman, rider and horse. This religious ideology also explained the construction of Shinto shrines across Korea during wartime, seen as completing a divine ritual to secure Japan's destiny.

As opposed to other occupied countries, Koreans were nominally granted Japanese citizenship, including passports, but they were denied basic rights like freedom of speech, assembly, and an independent press. By 1910, all Korean publications were banned, leaving only censored outlets run by the colonial government. Japan's ultimate goal was to erase Korean identity entirely, making Koreans indistinguishable from the Japanese, much like the assimilation policies directed at the Ainu and Okinawans. However, modern research confirms that Korean remains distinct and unrelated to Japanese or other languages.

===Newspaper censorship===
{{See also|History of newspapers in Korea#Japanese colonial period}}
In 1907, the Resident-General of Korea passed the Newspaper Act,<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |last=최 |first=준 |script-title=ko:대한매일신보 (大韓每日申報) |url=https://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Article/E0014992 |access-date=26 January 2024 |website=[[Encyclopedia of Korean Culture]] |publisher=[[Academy of Korean Studies]] |language=ko}}</ref> which effectively prevented the publication of local papers. Only the English-language ''[[The Korea Daily News]]'' and its Korean-language counterpart ''Daehan Maeil Sinbo'' continued their publication, because they were run by the foreigner [[Ernest Bethell]].<ref name=":12">{{Cite web |last=Neff |first=Robert |date=2 May 2010 |title=UK journalist Bethell established newspapers in 1904 |url=https://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/nation/2024/01/113_65191.html |access-date=26 January 2024 |website=[[The Korea Times]] |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":06">{{Cite web |last=Han |first=Jeon |date=June 2019 |title=Fighting Injustice with the Pen |url=http://www.kocis.go.kr/eng/webzine/201906/sub05.html |access-date=26 January 2024 |website=[[Korean Culture and Information Service]] |language=en}}</ref> However, after continued Japanese pressure on the paper's staff and Bethell's death in 1909, even these papers became owned by the Japanese government.<ref name=":12" /> The newspaper's Korean-language successor, ''[[Maeil Sinbo]]'', was subordinated to the Japanese-language ''[[Keijō Nippō]].'' These two papers, along with the English-language newspaper ''[[The Seoul Press]]'', were effectively backed by the colonial government.<ref name=":13">{{Cite web |last1=정 |first1=진석 |last2=최 |first2=진우 |script-title=ko:신문 (新聞) |url=https://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Article/E0032944 |access-date=2024-02-11 |website=[[Encyclopedia of Korean Culture]] |publisher=[[Academy of Korean Studies]] |language=ko}}</ref><ref name=":22">{{Cite web |title=京城日報 |trans-title=Keijo Nippo |url=http://archive.history.go.kr/catalog/view.do?arrangement_cd=ARRANGEMENT-0-A&arrangement_subcode=HOLD_NATION-0-JP&provenanace_ids=000000000077&displaySort=&displaySize=50&currentNumber=1&system_id=000000346029&catalog_level=&catalog_position=-1&search_position=3&lowYn= |access-date=2024-01-26 |website=The Archives of Korean History}}</ref> Concurrently, the colonial government published an [[Government gazette|official gazette]], entitled the ''[[Government-General of Chōsen Gazette]]''.<ref name=":07">{{Cite web |script-title=ko:조선총독부 관보: 일자별 보기 |url=https://db.history.go.kr/modern/gb/level.do?itemId=gb |access-date=March 22, 2024 |website=db.history.go.kr |publisher=[[National Institute of Korean History]]}}</ref>

By 1910, the only major privately owned Korean newspaper allowed to publish was the ''[[Gyeongnam Ilbo]]''. However, this paper was pressured to close by 1915, leaving only the ''Maeil Sinbo'' left. However, restrictions were eased upon the 1919 March First Movement and the {{Ill|Cultural rule|lt=cultural rule|ja|文化政治|ko|문화 통치}} policy, which led to the establishment of the historic Korean papers ''[[The Chosun Ilbo]]'' and ''[[The Dong-A Ilbo]]''.<ref name=":13" />

In 1932, Japan relaxed restrictions on the publication of Korean newspapers. Despite this, the government continued to seize newspapers without warning; there are over a thousand recorded seizures between 1920 and 1939. Revocation of publishing rights was relatively rare, and only three magazines had their rights revoked over the entire colonial period. In 1940, as the Pacific War increased in intensity, Japan shut down all Korean language newspapers again.<ref name="robinson">{{cite book |last=Robinson |first=Michael E. |title=The Japanese Colonial Empire, 1895–1945 |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |year=1987 |editor=Ramon H. Myers and Mark R. Peattie}}</ref>

===Education===
[[File:Keijo Imperial University-old1.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Keijō Imperial University]]]]
[[File:Public primary school in Korea under Japanese rule-en.svg|thumb|250px|Number of public regular schools (公立普通学校) and students under Japanese rule<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://dl.ndl.go.jp/info:ndljp/pid/1443598/343 |title=朝鮮総督府統計年報昭和2年 |date=31 March 1929 |publisher=Governor-General of Korea |isbn= |location= |pages=654–655 |language=Japanese |trans-title=Governor-General of Korea Statistical Yearbook 1936 |doi=10.11501/1443598 |last1=朝鮮総督府 |access-date=24 January 2021 |archive-date=13 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231113050902/https://dl.ndl.go.jp/info:ndljp/pid/1443598/343 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://dl.ndl.go.jp/info:ndljp/pid/1452382/180 |title=朝鮮総督府統計年報昭和11年 |date=31 March 1938 |publisher=Governor-General of Korea |isbn= |location= |pages=296–297 |language=Japanese |trans-title=Governor-General of Korea Statistical Yearbook 1936 |doi=10.11501/1452382 |last1=朝鮮総督府 |access-date=24 January 2021 |archive-date=13 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231113051405/https://dl.ndl.go.jp/info:ndljp/pid/1452382/180 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://dl.ndl.go.jp/info:ndljp/pid/1454691/113 |title=朝鮮総督府統計年報昭和17年 |date=31 March 1944 |publisher=Governor-General of Korea |isbn= |location= |pages=264–265 |language=Japanese |trans-title=Governor-General of Korea Statistical Yearbook 1942 |doi=10.11501/1454691 |last1=朝鮮総督府 |access-date=24 January 2021 |archive-date=13 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231113051324/https://dl.ndl.go.jp/info:ndljp/pid/1454691/113 |url-status=live }}</ref>]]
[[File:Public regular school enrollment rate.svg|thumb|250px|Enrollment rate of public regular schools (公立普通学校) under Japanese rule<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Inoue |first=Kaoru |date=June 1997 |title=日本統治下末期の朝鮮における日本語普及・強制政策 : 徴兵制度導入に至るまでの日本語常用・全解運動への動員 |trans-title=Language Policy in Korea under the Last Stage of Japanese Occupation: The Mobilization to the Movement for Daily Use and Understanding of Japanese before the Introduction of a Draft System |url=http://hdl.handle.net/2115/29532 |journal=The Annual Reports on Educational Science |language=Japanese |publisher=[[Hokkaido University]] |volume=73 |page=111 |hdl=2115/29532 |via= |access-date=24 January 2021 |archive-date=13 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231113051328/https://eprints.lib.hokudai.ac.jp/dspace/handle/2115/29532 |url-status=live }}</ref>]]
Following the annexation of Korea, the Japanese administration introduced a public education system modeled after the [[Education in the Empire of Japan|Japanese school system]] with a pyramidal hierarchy of elementary, middle and high schools, culminating at the [[Keijō Imperial University]] in [[Keijō]]. As in Japan itself, education was viewed primarily as an instrument of "the Formation of the Imperial Citizen" (황민화; 皇民化; ''Kōminka'') with a heavy emphasis on moral and political instruction.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=ABE |first=Hiroshi |title=Higher Learning in Korea Under Japanese Rule |journal=The Developing Economies |publication-date=1971 |volume=9 |issue=2 |pages=175 |doi=10.1111/j.1746-1049.1971.tb00468.x |doi-access=free}}</ref> Japanese religious groups such as Protestant Christians willingly supported the Japanese authorities in their effort to assimilate Koreans through education.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Assimilating Korea: Japanese Protestants, "East Asian Christianity" and the education of Koreans in Japan, 1905–1920 |first1=Dolf-Alexander |last1=Neuhaus |journal=Paedagogica Historica |volume=52 |issue=6 |pages=614–628 |doi=10.1080/00309230.2016.1224262 |year=2016 |s2cid=151584389}}</ref>

During colonial times, [[Primary education|elementary schools]] were known as "Citizen Schools" ({{lang|ko|국민학교}}; {{lang|ja|国民学校}}; ''kokumin gakkō'') as in Japan, as a means of forming proper "Imperial Citizens" (황국민; 皇国民; ''kōkokumin'') from early childhood. Elementary schools in South Korea today are known by the name ''chodeung hakgyo'' ({{Korean|hangul=초등학교|hanja=初等學校|labels=no}}) ("elementary school") as the term ''gukmin hakgyo/kokumin gakkō'' has recently become a [[Political correctness|politically incorrect]] term.

During the colonial period, Japan established an officially equal educational system in Korea, but it strictly limited the rate of coed education. After the Korean Educational Ordinance was published in 1938, this situation changed slightly. "Primary education consisted of a mandated four years of primary school (''futsu gakkō''). Secondary education included four years of middle school for boys (''koto'' ''futsu'' ''gakkō'') and three years for girls (''joshi'' koto ''futsu gakko'') or two to three years of vocational school (''jitsugyo gakkō''). 1915, the Japanese announced the Regulations for Technical Schools (s''enmon gakko kisoku''), which legalized technical schools (''senmon gakkō'') as post-secondary educational institutions."<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Solomon |first=Deborah B. |editor1-last=Lee |editor1-first=Hong Yung |editor2-last=Ha|editor2-first=Yong-Chool |editor3-last=Sorensen|editor3-first=Clark W.|date=August 2014 |title=Colonial Rule and Social Change in Korea, 1910–1945 |place=Seattle University of Washington Press, 2013. 350 pp. |journal=[[The Journal of Asian Studies]] |volume=73 |issue=3 |pages=827–829 |doi=10.1017/s0021911814000837 |s2cid=162206825 |issn=0021-9118}}</ref>

In addition, modernized (for the time) Korean educational institutions were excluded from the colonial system. 1911, Japanese government set The Regulations for Private Schools (''Shiritsu gakko kisoku'') aimed at undermining these facilities which were believed to breed Korean patriotism.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lee |first=Jeong-Kyu |date=2002-03-07 |title=Japanese Higher Education Policy in Korea (1910–1945) |journal=Education Policy Analysis Archives |volume=10 |page=14 |doi=10.14507/epaa.v10n14.2002 |issn=1068-2341 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

The public curriculum for most of the period was taught by Korean educators under a hybrid system focused on assimilating Koreans into the Japanese Empire while emphasizing Korean cultural education. This focused on the history of the Japanese Empire as well as inculcating reverence for the [[Imperial House of Japan]] and instruction in the ''[[Imperial Rescript on Education]]''.

Integration of Korean students into Japanese-language schools and Japanese students in Korean-language schools was discouraged but steadily increased over time. While official policy promoted equality between ethnic Koreans and ethnic Japanese, in practice this was rarely the case.<ref>{{cite book |last=Caprio |first=Mark E |title=Japanese Assimilation Policies in Colonial Korea, 1910–1945 |year=2009 |publisher=University of Washington Press |isbn=978-0-295-98900-6 |pages=129–130 |chapter=Post-March First Policy Reform and Assimilation}}</ref> Korean history and language studies would be taught side by side with Japanese history and language studies until the early 1940s under a new education ordinance that saw wartime efforts increased and the hybrid system slowly weakened.<ref>{{cite book |last=Caprio |first=Mark E |title=Japanese Assimilation Policies in Colonial Korea, 1910–1945 |year=2009 |publisher=University of Washington Press |isbn=978-0-295-98900-6 |page=153 |chapter=Radical Assimilation under Wartime Conditions}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable"style="float:right;"
|+ Academic Status of under Japanese rule in 1944<ref>1944 人口調査結果報告其ノ二, ｢第79回帝國議會說明資料｣</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://kosis.kr/statHtml/statHtml.do?orgId=101&tblId=DT_1IN4406&conn_path=I2 |title=Statistics Korea |access-date=6 October 2023 |archive-date=6 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231006102942/https://kosis.kr/statHtml/statHtml.do?orgId=101&tblId=DT_1IN4406&conn_path=I2 |url-status=live }}</ref>
! Academic ability !! Population !! % </tr>
| University || 7,374 || 0.03% </tr>
| Vocational school || 22,064 || 0.1% </tr>
| Middle & high school || 199,642 || 0.9% </tr>
| elementary school || 1,941,789 || 8.5% </tr>
| temporary school & [[Seodang]] || 980,122 || 4.3% </tr>
| Uneducated|| 19,642,775 || 86.2% </tr>
| Total || 22,793,766 || 100% </tr>
|}

One point of view is that, although the Japanese education system in Korea was detrimental towards Korea's cultural identity, its introduction of public education as universal was a step in the right direction to improve Korea's [[human capital]]. Towards the end of Japanese rule, Korea saw elementary school attendance at 38 percent. Children of elite families were able to advance to higher education, while others were able to attend technical schools, allowing for "the emergence of a small but important class of well-educated white collar and technical workers ... who possessed skills required to run a modern industrial economy." The Japanese education system ultimately produced hundreds of thousands of educated South Koreans who later became "the core of the postwar political and economic elite".<ref>ed. Duus, Peter, Ramon H. Myers, and Mark R. Peattie, ''The Japanese Wartime Empire, 1931–1945'', Princeton University Press (1996), p. 326</ref>

Another point of view is that it was only after the end of Japanese rule with World War II that Korea saw true, democratic rise in public education as evidenced by the rise of adult literacy rate from 22 percent in 1945 to 87.6 percent by 1970 and 93% by the late 1980s. Though public education was made available for elementary schools during Japanese rule, Korea as a country did not experience secondary-school enrollment rates comparable to those of Japan prior to the end of World War II.<ref>Andrea Matles Savada and William Shaw, editors. ''South Korea: A Country Study''. Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress, 1990.</ref>

For example, according to the statistics of the Japanese Government-General of Korea in 1944, which was prepared just before independence, only 8.5% of the total population entered elementary school, and the middle school enrollment rate was only 0.9%. The literacy rate was also very low, so only 30% of the population could read letters, compared to a sharp rise to 90% in 1955, 10 years after independence.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://kosis.kr/statHtml/statHtml.do?orgId=101&tblId=DT_1IN3015&conn_path=I2 |title=KOSIS |access-date=18 August 2023 |archive-date=18 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230818140610/https://kosis.kr/statHtml/statHtml.do?orgId=101&tblId=DT_1IN3015&conn_path=I2 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>Huh, Soo-Youl, Some issues on the theory of colonial modernization(2007)</ref>

===Korean language===
In the initial phase of Japanese rule, students were taught in Korean in public schools established by ethnic Korean officials who worked for the colonial government. Prior to this period, Korean education relied heavily on [[Hanja]], Chinese characters, for written communication. However, during this time the Korean language transitioned to a [[Korean mixed script|mixed Hanja–Korean script]] influenced by the [[Japanese writing system]], where most lexical roots were written in Hanja and grammatical forms in Korean script.<ref name=Pratt>Pratt, Rutt, Hoare, 1999. ''Korea: A Historical and Cultural Dictionary.'' Routledge.</ref> Korean textbooks from this era included excerpts from traditional Korean stories such as {{ill|Heungbujeon|ko|흥부전}} (興夫伝; Kōfuden).<ref>Hyŏng-gyu Pak. [https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/665069316 "Na ŭi midŭm ŭn kil wi e itta : Pak Hyŏng-gyu hoegorok"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140114020432/http://www.worldcat.org/title/na-ui-midum-un-kil-wi-e-itta-pak-hyong-gyu-hoegorok/oclc/665069316 |date=14 January 2014 }}. Seoul: Ch'angbi, 2010. {{ISBN|978-8936471866}}</ref>

In 1921, government efforts were strengthened to promote Korean media and literature throughout Korea and also in Japan. The Japanese government also created incentives to educate ethnic Japanese students in the Korean language.<ref>{{cite book |last=Caprio |first=Mark E |title=Japanese Assimilation Policies in Colonial Korea, 1910–1945 |year=2009 |publisher=University of Washington Press |isbn=978-0-295-98900-6 |pages=128–129 |chapter=Post-March First Policy Reform and Assimilation}}</ref> In 1928, the [[Korean Language Society]] inaugurated [[Hangul Day]] (9 October), which was meant to celebrate the [[Korean alphabet]] in the face of accelerating Japanization of Korean culture.<ref>{{cite book |last=Shin |first=Gi-Wook |title=Ethnic Nationalism in Korea: Genealogy, Politics, and Legacy |year=2006 |publisher=Stanford University Press |isbn=978-0-8047-5408-8 |page=51 |chapter=Colonial Racism and Nationalism}}</ref>

Koreans were obliged to take Japanese names by 1932.<ref name=":022" />{{Rp|page=24}}

In 1933, the foundation of modern South and North Korean spelling was completed.

The Japanese administrative policy shifted more aggressively towards cultural assimilation in 1938 (''Naisen ittai'') with a new government report advising reform to strengthen the war effort. Under this influence, in 1940, all Korean newspapers except the Japanese government's official newspaper were eliminated. In 1942, Japanese authorities caused the [[Korean Language Society Incident]] and closed the society by applying suspicion of rebellion to scholars.

This left less room for Korean language studies and by 1943 all Korean language courses had been phased out. Teaching and speaking of Korean was prohibited.<ref name="Hopfner">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EhXrBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT35 |title=Moon Living Abroad in South Korea |last=Hopfner |first=Jonathan |publisher=[[Moon Publications]] |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-59880-250-4 |location=Berkeley, CA |page=25 |access-date=4 May 2020 |archive-date=20 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201120130247/https://books.google.com/books?id=EhXrBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT35 |url-status=live}}</ref> Although the government report advised further, more radical reform, the 10-year plan would never fully go into effect.<ref>{{cite book |last=Caprio |first=Mark E |title=Japanese Assimilation Policies in Colonial Korea, 1910–1945 |year=2009 |publisher=University of Washington Press |isbn=978-0-295-98900-6 |page=155 |chapter=Radical Assimilation under Wartime Conditions}}</ref>

===Taking of historical artifacts===
The Japanese rule of Korea also resulted in the relocation of tens of thousands of [[cultural artifact]]s to Japan. This removal of Korean cultural property was against a long tradition of such actions dating at least since the sixteenth century wars between Korea and Japan , though in the 20th century colonial period it was a systematised and regulated activity covered by rules issued 1916–1933.<ref>Kim, Jongsok (2018). ''Museums and cultural heritage: to examine the loss of cultural heritage during colonial and military occupations with special reference to the Japanese occupation of Korea, and the possibilities for return and restitution.''

https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/161512289.pdf Retrieved 3 December 2023</ref>

The issue over where these artifacts should be located began during the U.S. [[occupation of Japan]].<ref name="TIME">{{cite magazine |last=Macintyre |first=Donald |date=28 January 2002 |title=A Legacy Lost |magazine=[[Time (magazine)|TIME]] |issn=0040-781X |url=http://www.time.com/time/arts/article/0,8599,197704,00.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070126170109/http://www.time.com/time/arts/article/0,8599,197704,00.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=26 January 2007 |access-date=27 June 2009}}</ref> In 1965, as part of the [[Treaty on Basic Relations between Japan and the Republic of Korea]], Japan returned roughly 1,400 artifacts to Korea, and considered the diplomatic matter to have been resolved.<ref>[http://www.upi.com/Top_News/World-News/2010/11/14/Japan-Seoul-sign-deal-on-artifact-returns/UPI-21911289751032/ Japan, Seoul sign deal on artifact returns] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121112200414/http://www.upi.com/Top_News/World-News/2010/11/14/Japan-Seoul-sign-deal-on-artifact-returns/UPI-21911289751032/ |date=12 November 2012 }} 14 November 2010</ref> Korean artifacts are retained in the [[Tokyo National Museum|Tōkyō National Museum]] and in the hands of many private collectors.<ref name="newsweek">{{cite journal |last=Itoi |first=Kay |author2=Lee, B.J. |date=21 February 2005 |title=Korea: A Tussle Over Treasures |journal=[[Newsweek]] |issn=0028-9604 |url=http://www.newsweek.com/2005/02/20/korea-a-tussle-over-treasures.html |access-date=14 May 2011 |archive-date=23 January 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110123065157/http://www.newsweek.com/2005/02/20/korea-a-tussle-over-treasures.html |url-status=live}}</ref>

The primary building of [[Gyeongbokgung]] Palace was demolished and the [[Japanese General Government Building, Seoul|Japanese General Government Building]] was built in its exact location. The Japanese colonial authorities destroyed 85 percent of all the buildings in Gyeongbokgung.<ref>Peter Bartholomew, 'Choson Dynasty Royal Compounds: Windows to a Lost Culture', in ''Transactions: Royal Asiatic Society, Korea Branch'' Vol. 68 (Seoul: RAS, 1993)</ref> [[Sungnyemun]], the gate in Gyeongsong that was a symbol of Korea, was altered by the addition of large, Shinto-style golden horns near the roofs, later removed by the South Korean government after independence.

According to the South Korean government, there are 75,311 cultural artifacts that were taken from Korea. Japan has 34,369, the United States has 17,803,<ref name="Chosun Ilbo 2006-10-17">{{cite news |script-title=ko:해외 유출된 한국문화재 총 75,311점...문화재가 조국의 눈길한번 받지 못해 |url=http://press.chosun.com/newsRead.php?md=A01&tm=1&no=194733&cat=1200&cat1=1211 |author=Kim Hak-won (김학원) |work=[[The Chosun Ilbo]] / newswire |language=ko |date=17 October 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110708145940/http://press.chosun.com/newsRead.php?md=A01&tm=1&no=194733&cat=1200&cat1=1211 |archive-date=8 July 2011}}</ref> and France had several hundred, which were seized in the [[French campaign against Korea (1866)|French campaign against Korea]] and loaned back to Korea in 2010 without an apology.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2010-dec-05-la-ca-cultural-exchange-korea-20101205-story.html |title=Recovering South Korea's lost treasures |newspaper=Los Angeles Times |access-date=5 January 2015 |date=2010-12-05 |last1=Glionna |first1=John M. |archive-date=16 January 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150116183025/http://articles.latimes.com/2010/dec/05/entertainment/la-ca-cultural-exchange-korea-20101205 |url-status=live}}</ref> In 2010, Prime Minister of Japan [[Naoto Kan]] expressed "deep remorse" for the removal of artifacts,<ref>[http://www.businessweek.com/news/2010-08-10/japan-to-return-korea-artifacts-in-occupation-apology.html Japan to Return Korea Artifacts in Occupation Apology] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110915141800/http://www.businessweek.com/news/2010-08-10/japan-to-return-korea-artifacts-in-occupation-apology.html |date=15 September 2011 }} ''Business Week'' 2010 08 10,</ref> and arranged an initial plan to return the Royal Protocols of the Joseon Dynasty and over 1,200 other books, which was carried out in 2011.<ref>Yoshihiro Makino. "[http://ajw.asahi.com/article/asia/korean_peninsula/AJ201112080019a Japan returns Korean royal archives after a century] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121021160551/http://ajw.asahi.com/article/asia/korean_peninsula/AJ201112080019a |date=21 October 2012 }}". ''[[Asahi Shimbun]]''. 8 December 2011.</ref>

===Religion===
As Japan established the puppet state of [[Manchukuo]], Korea became more vital to the internal communications and defense of the Japanese empire against the Soviet Union. Japan decided in the 1930s to make the Koreans become more loyal to the Emperor by requiring Korean participation in the [[Shinto in Korea|State Shinto]] devotions, and by weakening the influences of both Christianity and traditional religion.<ref name="Wi Jo Kang 1997 62" /><ref>Kenneth Scott Latourette, ''Christianity in a revolutionary age: A history of Christianity in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries'', volume 5: The 20th Century Outside Europe (1962) pp 415–417</ref>

Shinto shrines were established throughout the peninsula, including [[Chōsen Shrine]] on the mountain Namsan in Seoul and [[Heijō Shrine]] in Pyongyang.<ref name=":02">{{Cite journal |last1=Kōji |first1=Suga |last2=𳜳𨀉𠄈 |date=2010 |title=A Concept of "Overseas Shinto Shrines": A Pantheistic Attempt by Ogasawara Shōzō and Its Limitations |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/27822899 |journal=Japanese Journal of Religious Studies |volume=37 |issue=1 |pages=47–74 |jstor=27822899 |issn=0304-1042 |access-date=27 September 2023 |archive-date=3 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231003021152/https://www.jstor.org/stable/27822899 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="神社참배 거부 18개교 日帝, 가차 없이 폐교{{pipe}}주간동아">{{Cite web |title=神社참배 거부 18개교 日帝, 가차 없이 폐교{{pipe}}주간동아 |url=https://weekly.donga.com/society/3/05/11/77546/1 |access-date=2023-09-17 |website=주간동아 |date=26 October 2005 |language=ko |archive-date=18 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230918071800/https://weekly.donga.com/society/3/05/11/77546/1 |url-status=live }}</ref> Shrines such as these were destroyed shortly after Korea was liberated in 1945.<ref name="神社참배 거부 18개교 日帝, 가차 없이 폐교{{pipe}}주간동아"/>

====Christianity and Communism====
{{See also|Evangelicalism#Korea}}
Nowhere else were Protestant missionary efforts in Asia more successful than in Korea. American Presbyterians and Methodists arrived in the 1880s and were well received. During the Japanese colonial period, Christianity became an expression of Korean nationalist opposition to Japan and its assimilation policies.<ref name="Danielle Kane 2009 pp 365"/><ref name = Grayson>{{cite journal |last = Grayson |first = James H |title = Christianity and State Shinto in Colonial Korea: A Clash of Nationalisms and Religious Beliefs |date = 1993 |journal = Diskus |volume = 1 |issue = 2 |pages = 13–30 |url = https://jbasr.com/basr/diskus/diskus1-6/GRAYSON.TXT |access-date = 2024-08-12}}</ref> In 1914, out of 16 million people, there were 86,000 Protestants and 79,000 Catholics; by 1934 the numbers were 168,000 and 147,000. Presbyterian missionaries were especially successful. Harmonizing with traditional practices became an issue. Catholics tolerated Shinto rites; Protestants developed a substitute for Confucian ancestral rites by merging Confucian-based and Christian death and funerary rituals.<ref>Kenneth Scott Latourette, ''A history of the expansion of Christianity'' Volume VII: Advance through Storm: A.D. 1914 and after, with concluding generalizations (1945) 7:401–407</ref>

In 1937, Japan began requiring the worship of the Emperor at the numerous Shinto shrines set up across the peninsula to bolster patriotism and national unity. The Presbyterian Church in Korea decided to support the Emperor worship as a denomination in 1938. Other denominations followed. Fewer than a dozen Protestant pastors refused to worship the Emperor and were imprisoned. In total, around 2000 Christian were imprisoned and 50 were martyred. The vast majority of Korean Christians followed the national guidance, and worshipped the Japanese Emperor.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopedia of Korean Culture]] |publisher=[[Academy of Korean Studies]] |lang=ko |url=https://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Article/E0033042 |title=신사참배 거부운동 (神社參拜拒否運動) }}</ref> Missionaries expressed alarm at the rise in communist activity during the 1920s. With the enactment of the [[Peace Preservation Law]] in 1925, communist literature was banned throughout the Empire of Japan, including Chōsen; in order to avoid suspicion and permit dissemination, it was often disguised as Christian literature addressed to missionaries. Communist concepts, such as class struggle, and its partner nationalist movement were resonating well with some of the peasants and lower-class citizens of Chōsen; this was worrying to some missionaries because of communism's [[Marxist–Leninist atheism|atheist components]].<ref>{{cite journal |last = Shin |first = Seung-yop |date = 2022-09-05 |title = Living with the Enemies: Japanese Imperialism, Protestant Christianity, and Marxist Socialism in Colonial Korea, 1919–1945 |journal = Religions |volume = 13 |issue = 9 |pages = 824 |doi = 10.3390/rel13090824 |doi-access = free }}</ref> At one point, communist students in Keijō held an "anti-Sunday School conference" and loudly protested religion in front of churches. This protest renewed Japanese governmental interest in censorship of communist ideas and language.<ref>{{Citation |first=Dae-sook |last=Suh |title=The Korean Communist Movement 1918–1948 |place=Princeton, New Jersey |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |year=1967 |pages=66–68}}</ref>

==Legacy==

=== Korean diaspora ===
{{Main|Zainichi Koreans|Sakhalin Koreans|Koryo-saram}}
A number of groups in the [[Korean diaspora]] formed because of the Japanese colonial period. Zainichi Koreans descend from the population of around 600,000 Koreans who remained in Japan, often not by choice.<ref name=":142">{{Cite web |last=Moon |first=Rennie |date=2010 |title=Koreans in Japan |url=http://spice.fsi.stanford.edu/docs/koreans_in_japan |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230623194324/https://spice.fsi.stanford.edu/docs/koreans_in_japan |archive-date=2023-06-23 |access-date=2023-09-23 |website=Stanford Program on International and Cross-Cultural Education |language=en}}</ref> After Sakhalin was transferred from Japan to the Soviet Union, most of the 43,000 ethnic Koreans there were refused permission to repatriate back to Japan or Korea, and were thus trapped in Sakhalin. Many remained stateless. They now form the Sakhalin Korean population.<ref name="Lankov">{{cite news |last=Lankov |first=Andrei |date=5 January 2006 |title=Stateless in Sakhalin |url=http://times.hankooki.com/lpage/opinion/200601/kt2006010516434554130.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060221144952/http://times.hankooki.com/lpage/opinion/200601/kt2006010516434554130.htm |archive-date=21 February 2006 |access-date=26 November 2006 |work=[[The Korea Times]]}}</ref> Many Koreans had also escaped to Russia and the Soviet Union because of Japanese activities, and were eventually [[Deportation of Koreans in the Soviet Union|forced to move to Central Asia]] in 1937.<ref>{{citation |last=Pohl |first=J. Otto |title=Ethnic Cleansing in the USSR, 1937–1949 |pages=10, 13 |year=1999 |publisher=Greenwood |isbn=0-313-30921-3}}</ref> They became a part of the population of Koryo-saram throughout the [[Post-Soviet states|former Soviet Union]].<ref name=":52">{{cite web |last=Lankov |first=Andrei |author-link=Andrei Lankov |date=21 August 2012 |title=Korean carrot |url=http://via.sawd.ch/index.php?q=aHR0cDovL3JidGguYXNpYS9hcnRpY2xlcy8yMDEyLzA4LzIxL2tvcmVhbl9jYXJyb3RfMTY0MDUuaHRtbA%3D%3D |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130928142343/http://via.sawd.ch/index.php?q=aHR0cDovL3JidGguYXNpYS9hcnRpY2xlcy8yMDEyLzA4LzIxL2tvcmVhbl9jYXJyb3RfMTY0MDUuaHRtbA%3D%3D |archive-date=28 September 2013 |access-date=22 December 2016 |publisher=Russia Beyond the Headlines}}</ref>

===Forced laborers, comfort women, and Unit 731===
{{See also|Comfort women#Legacy in South Korea}}
During [[World War II]], about 450,000 Korean male laborers were involuntarily sent to Japan.<ref>{{cite book |author=Kim Seong-hwan |script-title=ko:일제의 침략 전쟁과 병참기지화 |publisher=SaKyejul |year=2004 |isbn=978-89-5828-032-3 |page=173}}</ref> [[Comfort women]], who served in Japanese military brothels as a form of [[sexual slavery]], came from all over the Japanese empire. Historical estimates range from 10,000 to 200,000, including an unknown number of Koreans. However, 200,000 is considered to be a conservative number by modern historians, and up to 500,000 comfort women are estimated to be taken.<ref>{{cite web |title=U.S. playwright takes up 'comfort women' cause |work=[[The Japan Times]] |year=2005 |url=http://search.japantimes.co.jp/print/news/nn02-2005/nn20050228a6.htm |access-date=1 March 2006 |archive-date=21 April 2005 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050421183515/http://search.japantimes.co.jp/print/news/nn02-2005/nn20050228a6.htm |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Japan court rules against 'comfort women' |work=CNN.com |url=http://archives.cnn.com/2001/WORLD/asiapcf/east/03/29/japan.comfort.women/index.html |access-date=1 March 2006 |date=29 March 2001 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060922051632/http://archives.cnn.com/2001/WORLD/asiapcf/east/03/29/japan.comfort.women/index.html |archive-date=22 September 2006}}</ref> These women faced an average of 29 men and up to 40 men per day, according to one surviving comfort woman.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.vox.com/2015/12/29/10682830/comfort-women-japan-survivors |title=Life as a "comfort woman": Survivors remember a WWII atrocity that was ignored for decades |date=29 December 2015 |access-date=13 June 2017 |archive-date=22 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170822220830/https://www.vox.com/2015/12/29/10682830/comfort-women-japan-survivors |url-status=live}}</ref> However, of the 500,000, less than 50 are alive {{as of|2018|alt=today}}. Comfort women were often recruited from rural locales with the promise of factory employment; business records, often from Korean subcontractees of Japanese companies, showed them falsely classified as nurses or secretaries.<ref>{{cite news |first=Kim |last=Yun-deok |title=Military Record of 'Comfort Woman' Unearthed |date=11 January 2005 |url=http://english.chosun.com/w21data/html/news/200501/200501110028.html |work=[[The Chosun Ilbo]] |access-date=19 February 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061017182428/http://english.chosun.com/w21data/html/news/200501/200501110028.html |archive-date=17 October 2006}}</ref> There is evidence that the Japanese government intentionally destroyed official records regarding comfort women.<ref name="BBC slaves">{{cite news |first=William |last=Horsley |title=Korean World War II sex slaves fight on |date=9 August 2005 |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/4749467.stm |work=BBC News |access-date=19 February 2007 |archive-date=15 January 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070115032249/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/4749467.stm |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Seoul Times">{{cite news |title=Japan Boiled Comfort Woman to Make Soup |url=http://theseoultimes.com/ST/?url=/ST/db/read.php?idx=1846 |work=The Seoul Times |access-date=19 February 2007 |archive-date=28 September 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928041645/http://theseoultimes.com/ST/?url=%2FST%2Fdb%2Fread.php%3Fidx%3D1846 |url-status=live}}</ref>

Koreans, along with many other Asians, were experimented on in [[Unit 731]], a secret military medical experimentation unit in World War II. The victims who died in the camp included at least 25 victims from the former Soviet Union and Korea.<ref name="People's daily">{{cite web |title=Archives give up secrets of Japan's Unit 731 |url=http://english.people.com.cn/200508/03/eng20050803_200004.html |publisher=China Daily (published by People's Daily Online) |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090213061242/http://english.people.com.cn/200508/03/eng20050803_200004.html |archive-date=2009-02-13 |date=2005-08-03 |quote=The files include full descriptions of 318 cases, including at least 25 people from the former Soviet Union and Korea.}}</ref> Some historians estimate up to 250,000 total people were subjected to human experiments.<ref name="The Guardian">{{Cite news |last=McCurry |first=Justin |date=2011-02-21 |title=Japan unearths site linked to human experiments |language=en-GB |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/feb/21/japan-excavates-site-human-experiments |access-date=2023-08-09 |issn=0261-3077 |archive-date=5 March 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170305042608/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/feb/21/japan-excavates-site-human-experiments |url-status=live }}</ref> A Unit 731 veteran attested that most that were experimented on were Chinese, Koreans, and Mongolians.<ref name="New York Times">{{Cite news |date=1995-03-17 |title=Unmasking Horror – A special report.; Japan Confronting Gruesome War Atrocity |work=The New York Times |language=en |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1995/03/17/world/unmasking-horror-a-special-report-japan-confronting-gruesome-war-atrocity.html?pagewanted=1 |access-date=2023-08-09 |last1=Kristof |first1=Nicholas D. |archive-date=10 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161210063516/http://www.nytimes.com/1995/03/17/world/unmasking-horror-a-special-report-japan-confronting-gruesome-war-atrocity.html?pagewanted=1 |url-status=live }}</ref>

The Tokyo trials convened on 29 April 1946 to try Japanese personnel on Class A, B, and C charges for [[Crime of aggression|crimes against peace]], conventional [[war crimes]], and [[crimes against humanity]] respectively. Class C was created mainly to address atrocities committed by Japan against its nationals or allied citizens in times of peace or war since the [[law of war]] only covers enemy and neutral nationals in interstate armed conflicts.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WQ0HCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA548 |title=The Handbook of the International Law of Military Operations |editor=Dieter Fleck, Terry D. Gill |pages=548–549 |date=2015 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-1987-4462-7 |access-date=30 October 2023 |archive-date=1 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231101160624/https://books.google.com/books?id=WQ0HCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA548 |url-status=live }}</ref> However, the principal Allied powers realized they had colonies themselves and never pressed on the Class C charges as they did not want to risk their own colonial atrocities being subject to prosecution. This left the Korean and Taiwanese victims of Japanese colonial atrocities without any recourse in the international legal system.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tZt8AgAAQBAJ&pg=PT116 |title=War Crimes Tribunals and Transitional Justice: The Tokyo Trial and the Nuremberg Legacy |author=Madoka Futamura |page=116 |date=11 October 2007 |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] |isbn=9-7811-3409-1317 |access-date=30 October 2023 |archive-date=1 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231101160547/https://books.google.com/books?id=tZt8AgAAQBAJ&pg=PT116 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YWUSAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA169 |title=Trials and Tribulations of International Prosecution |editor=Henry F. Carey, Stacey M. Mitchell |page=169 |date=14 February 2013 |publisher=Lexington Books |isbn=9-7807-3916-9414 |access-date=30 October 2023 |archive-date=1 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231101160548/https://books.google.com/books?id=YWUSAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA169 |url-status=live }}</ref>

In 2002, South Korea started an investigation of Japanese collaborators. Part of the investigation was completed in 2006 and a list of names of individuals who profited from exploitation of fellow Koreans were posted.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/news/nation/nation_view.asp?newsIdx=23332&categoryCode=117 |title=List of Japanese Collaborators Released |access-date=4 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121004181952/https://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/news/nation/nation_view.asp?newsIdx=23332&categoryCode=117 |archive-date=4 October 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref> The collaborators not only benefited from exploiting their countrymen, but the children of these collaborators benefited further by acquiring higher education with the exploitation money they had amassed.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/news/nation/nation_view.asp?newsIdx=2202&categoryCode=117 |title=Government to Seize Assets of Collaborators in Colonial Era |access-date=4 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121004182014/https://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/news/nation/nation_view.asp?newsIdx=2202&categoryCode=117 |archive-date=4 October 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

The "Truth Commission on Forced Mobilization under the Japanese Imperialism Republic of Korea" investigated the received reports of damage from 86 people among the 148 Koreans who were accused of being Class B and C criminals while serving as prison guards for the Japanese military during World War II. The commission, which was organized by the South Korean government, announced that they acknowledged 83 people among them as victims. The commission said that although the people reluctantly served as guards to avoid the draft, they took responsibility for the mistreatment by the Japanese against prisoners of war. Lee Se-il, leader of the investigation, said that examination of the military prosecution reports for 15 Korean prison guards, obtained from [[The National Archives (United Kingdom)|The National Archives]] of the United Kingdom, confirmed that they were convicted without explicit evidence.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.naver.com/main/read.nhn?mode=LSD&mid=sec&sid1=101&oid=081&aid=0000110388 |script-title=ko:강제동원 '조선인 전범' 오명 벗었다 |trans-title=The forcefully mobilized Koreans cleared their disgrace as the war criminals. |publisher=[[Naver]] / Seoul Sinmun |author=Choe, Gwang-Suk (최광숙) |date=13 November 2006 |access-date=1 December 2009 |language=ko |archive-date=18 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151018102836/http://news.naver.com/main/read.nhn?mode=LSD&mid=sec&sid1=101&oid=081&aid=0000110388 |url-status=live}}</ref>

===Korean to Japanese name change order===
Although officially voluntary, and initially resisted by the Japanese Colonial Government, 80% of Koreans voluntarily changed their name to Japanese in 1940. Many community leaders urged the adoption of Japanese names to make it easy for their children to succeed in society and overcome discrimination.<ref>[[Carter J. Eckert|Eckert, Carter J.]], Ki-baik Lee, Young Ick Lew, Michael Robinson, Edward W. Wagner, ''Korea Old and New: A History'', p. 318</ref>

A study conducted by the United States [[Library of Congress]] states that "the Korean culture was quashed, and Koreans were required to speak Japanese and take Japanese names".<ref>{{cite web |date=June 1993 |title=North Korea; The Rise of Korean Nationalism and Communism |url=http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+kp0022) |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511031617/http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd%2Fcstdy%3A%40field%28DOCID+kp0022%29 |archive-date=11 May 2011 |access-date=19 February 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Part III: The problem from a historical perspective |url=http://daga.dhs.org/daga/press/urm/fingerprinting/chap03.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041231073548/http://daga.dhs.org/daga/press/urm/fingerprinting/chap03.htm |archive-date=31 December 2004 |access-date=19 February 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Fukuoka |first=Yasunori |title=Koreans in Japan: Past and Present |url=http://www.han.org/a/fukuoka96a.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190606063047/http://www.han.org/a/fukuoka96a.html |archive-date=6 June 2019 |access-date=19 February 2007 |work=Saitama University Review |volume=31 |issue=1}}</ref> This name change policy, called [[sōshi-kaimei]] ({{lang|ko|창씨개명}}; {{lang|ja|創氏改名}}), was part of Japan's assimilation efforts.<ref>{{cite web |title=Japan's minorities yet to find their place in the sun. |url=http://www.hrdc.net/sahrdc/hrfeatures/HRF56.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070415033925/http://www.hrdc.net/sahrdc/hrfeatures/HRF56.htm |archive-date=15 April 2007 |access-date=19 February 2007 |work=SAHRDC}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Stearns |first=Peter N. |title=The Encyclopedia of World History. 2001. |url=http://www.bartleby.com/67/2493.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070204211608/http://www.bartleby.com/67/2493.html |archive-date=4 February 2007 |access-date=19 February 2007 |publisher=Houghton Mifflin Company |df=dmy-all}}</ref> This was heavily resisted by the Korean people. Those Koreans who retained their Korean names were not allowed to enroll at school, were refused service at government offices, and were excluded from the lists for food rations and other supplies. Faced
with such compulsion, many Koreans ended up complying with the name change order. Such a radical policy was deemed to be symbolically significant in the war effort, binding the fate of Korea with that of the empire.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pak |first1=Soon-Yong |last2=Hwang |first2=Keumjoong |year=2011 |title=Assimilation and segregation of imperial subjects: "educating" the colonised during the 1910–1945 Japanese colonial rule of Korea |journal=Paedagogica Historica |volume=47 |issue=3 |pages=377–397 |doi=10.1080/00309230.2010.534104 |s2cid=145280988}}</ref>

===Discrimination against Korean leprosy patients by Japan===
Colonial Korea was subject to the same ''[[Leprosy]] Prevention Laws'' of 1907 and 1931 as the Japanese home islands. These laws directly and indirectly permitted the [[quarantine]] of patients in sanitariums, where forced [[abortion]]s and sterilization were common. The laws authorized punishment of patients "disturbing the peace", as most Japanese leprologists believed that vulnerability to the disease was inheritable.<ref>Michio Miyasaka, ''A Historical and Ethical Analysis of Leprosy Control Policy in Japan'', {{cite web |url=http://www.clg.niigata-u.ac.jp/~miyasaka/hansen/leprosypolicy.html |title=Leprosy Control Policy in Japan |access-date=28 November 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111113060946/http://www.clg.niigata-u.ac.jp/~miyasaka/hansen/leprosypolicy.html |archive-date=13 November 2011}}</ref> In Korea, many leprosy patients were also subjected to hard labor.<ref>''Korean Hansens patients seek redress'', http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/nn20040226a4.html {{Webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20120605020715/http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/nn20040226a4.html |date=5 June 2012 }}</ref>
The Japanese government compensated inpatients.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.yna.co.kr/view/AKR20160512154500004 |script-title=ko:일제강점기 소록도 수용 한센인 590명, 日정부서 보상받아 |date=12 May 2016 |access-date=13 July 2019 |archive-date=13 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190713182110/https://www.yna.co.kr/view/AKR20160512154500004 |url-status=live}}</ref>

===Atomic bomb casualties===
{{Main|Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki}}
Many Koreans were drafted for work at military industrial factories in [[Hiroshima]] and [[Nagasaki]].<ref name="BBC News"/> According to the secretary-general of a group named Peace Project Network, "there were a total of 70,000 Korean victims in both cities". Japan paid South Korea 4 billion yen and built a welfare center in the name of humanitarian assistance, not as compensation to the victims.<ref name="Andreas Hippin"/>

===South Korean presidential investigation commission on pro-Japanese collaborators===
Collaborators of the Imperial Japanese Army were prosecuted in the postwar period as [[Chinilpa]], or "friendly to Japanese".<ref>Ko Wŏn-Sŏp. ''Panminnja Choesanggi'' (A record of charges against the anti-nationalists). Seoul: Paegyŏp Munhwasa, 1949.</ref> In 2006 [[President of South Korea|South Korean president]] [[Roh Moo-hyun]] appointed an investigation commission into the issue of locating descendants of pro-Japanese collaborators from the times of the 1890s until the collapse of Japanese rule in 1945.

In 2010, the commission concluded its five-volume report. As a result, the land property of 168 South Korean citizens has been confiscated by the government, these citizens being descendants of pro-Japanese collaborators.<ref>[https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/southkorea/7890316/South-Korea-targets-Japanese-collaborators-descendants.html "South Korea targets Japanese collaborators' descendants"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180428103630/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/southkorea/7890316/South-Korea-targets-Japanese-collaborators-descendants.html |date=28 April 2018 }} ''The Telegraph'', 14 July 2010</ref>

=== Memorials ===
A number of memorials cover the legacy of the Japanese colonial period. The [[Independence Hall of Korea]] in Cheonan,<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Independence Hall of Korea (독립기념관) |url=https://english.visitkorea.or.kr/svc/whereToGo/locIntrdn/rgnContentsView.do?vcontsId=106450 |access-date=2025-01-10 |website=[[VisitKorea.or.kr]] |language=en}}</ref> [[Museum of Japanese Colonial History in Korea]] in Seoul,<ref name=":15">{{Cite web |last=Kim |first=Seung-yeon |date=2018-08-27 |title=(Yonhap Feature) First civic museum on Korea's colonial past looks beyond showing history |url=https://en.yna.co.kr/view/AEN20180824004100315 |access-date=2023-07-09 |website=[[Yonhap News Agency]] |language=en}}</ref> and the [[National Memorial Museum of Forced Mobilization under Japanese Occupation]] in Busan all cover the subject.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kang |first=Yoon-seung |date=2019-10-12 |title=Former Japanese PM pays respects to Korean victims of forced labor |url=https://en.yna.co.kr/view/AEN20191012002400320 |access-date=2023-09-20 |website=[[Yonhap News Agency]] |language=en}}</ref> The [[Trail of National Humiliation]] in Seoul passes by a number of the former sites of colonial-era buildings.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Lim |first=Sun-young |date=2017-06-19 |title=Tourist paths map colonial history |url=https://koreajoongangdaily.joins.com/2017/06/19/socialAffairs/Tourist-paths-map-colonial-history/3034834.html |access-date=2025-01-10 |website=[[Korea JoongAng Daily]] |language=en}}</ref>

=== Modern justification of the colonization ===
{{See also|Japanese history textbook controversies}}
Some conservative Japanese nationalists have since attempted to more positively portray the colonization and Japan's intentions. Claims such as "Japan did not want to annex Korea" and "Koreans came to Japan and asked to be annexed" have been forwarded, and efforts are made to highlight Korea's economic development during this period. However, the scholar Mark Caprio writes skeptically of such viewpoints:<ref name="Caprio Interpretations">{{Cite journal |last=Caprio |first=Mark |date=November 1, 2010 |title=Neo-Nationalist Interpretations Of Japan's Annexation Of Korea: The Colonization Debate In Japan And South Korea |url=https://apjjf.org/mark-caprio/3438/article |journal=The Asia-Pacific Journal: Japan Focus |volume=8 |issue=44}}</ref>

{{Blockquote|text=While acknowledging that Japanese policy benefited pockets of Korean society, a responsible argument must also acknowledge that Japan's colonial policies systematically excluded the majority of Koreans from these institutions of modernity. Reliance on a minority sample to explain the entirety of Japan's colonial rule grossly neglects the fact that Japan's administrative decisions forced a large number of participants to act against their volition... [N]eo-conservatives neglect to consider that Japan's history of expansion in East Asia did not end with the emperor's declaration on August 15, 1945, nor did it end with treaties of normalization. This history lives within the people it affected. Denial and beautification of this history disturbs the efforts of its surviving victims to distance themselves from this past, and serves as a painful reminder of Japan's unwillingness to accept responsibility for the injustices that Japanese rule inflicted upon them.<ref name="Caprio Interpretations" />}}

== List of governors-general of Korea ==
{{Main|List of Japanese governors-general of Korea}}
* [[Terauchi Masatake]] (1910–1916)
* [[Hasegawa Yoshimichi]] (1916–1919)
* [[Saitō Makoto]] (1929–1931)
* [[Kazushige Ugaki]] (1931–1936)
* [[Yamanashi Hanzō]] (1927–1929)
* [[Jirō Minami]] (1936–1942)
* [[Kuniaki Koiso]] (1942–1944)
* [[Nobuyuki Abe]] (1944–1945)

==In popular culture==
* ''[[Madam Oh]]'', 1965 South Korean film
* ''[[Sea of Blood]]'', 1971 North Korean opera
* ''[[The Flower Girl]]'', 1972 North Korean film
*''[[Tell O' The Forest!]]'', 1972 North Korean opera
* ''[[Femme Fatale: Bae Jeong-ja]]'', 1973 South Korean film
* ''[[Mulberry (film)|Mulberry]]'', 1986 South Korean film
* ''[[Modern Boy]]'', 2008 South Korean film
* ''[[Capital Scandal]]'', 2008 South Korea TV drama
* ''[[The Good, the Bad, the Weird]]'', 2008 South Korea film
* ''[[My Way (2011 film)|My Way]]'', 2011 South Korean film
* ''[[Bridal Mask]]'', 2012 South Korean TV drama
* ''[[Assassination (2015 film)|Assassination]]'', 2015 South Korean film
* ''[[The Silenced]]'', 2015 South Korean film
* [[The Tiger (2015 film)]], 2015 South Korean Film
* ''[[Spirits' Homecoming]]'', 2016 South Korean film
* ''[[The Handmaiden]]'', 2016 South Korean film
* ''[[The Last Princess (film)|The Last Princess]]'', 2016 South Korean film
* ''[[The Age of Shadows]]'', 2016 South Korean film
* ''[[Love, Lies (2016 film)|Love Lies]]'', 2016 South Korean film
* ''[[Chicago Typewriter (TV series)|Chicago Typewriter]]'', 2017 South Korean TV show
* ''[[Battleship Island (2017 film)|Battleship Island]]'', 2017 South Korean film
* ''[[Anarchist from Colony]]'', 2017 South Korean film
* ''[[Mr. Sunshine (2018 TV series)|Mr. Sunshine]]'', 2018 South Korean TV show
* ''[[Pachinko (novel)|Pachinko]]'', 2017 novel by [[Min Jin Lee]]
* ''[[The Hymn of Death]]'', 2018 South Korean TV show
* ''[[Different Dreams]]'', 2019 South Korean TV show
* ''[[The Battle: Roar to Victory]]'', 2019 South Korean film
* ''[[A Resistance]]'', 2019 South Korean film
* ''[[Whale Star: The Gyeongseong Mermaid]]'', 2019 webtoon by Na Yoonhee
* ''Beasts of a Little Land'', 2021 novel by Juhea Kim
* ''[[Pachinko (TV series)|Pachinko]]'', 2022 Apple TV+ drama
* ''[[Tale of the Nine-Tailed 1938]]'', 2023

==See also==
{{Portal|Japan|South Korea}}
* [[Sōshi-kaimei]]
* [[Japanese war crimes]]
* [[Hashima Island]]
* [[Comfort women]]
* [[Japan–Korea disputes]]
* [[Taiwan under Japanese rule]]
* [[History of Korea]]

== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}

==References==
* {{Country study|url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/krtoc.html}}
{{reflist}}

=== Sources ===

* {{Citation |last=Robinson |first=Michael E. |title=Korea's Twentieth-Century Odyssey: A Short History |date=2007-04-30 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FZlhkifQOksC |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |language=en |isbn=978-0-8248-3174-5}}

==Further reading==
* Brudnoy, David. "Japan's experiment in Korea." ''Monumenta Nipponica'' 25.1/2 (1970): 155–195. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2383744 online]
* {{Citation |last=Eckert |first=Carter J. |author-link=Carter Eckert |year=1996 |title=Offspring of Empire: The Koch'ang Kims and the Colonial Origins of Korean Capitalism, 1876–1945 |publisher=University of Washington Press |location=Seattle |edition=Paperback |series=Korean Studies of the Henry M. Jackson School of International Studies |isbn=978-0-295-97533-7 |url=http://www.washington.edu/uwpress/search/books/ECKOFF.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130730173939/http://www.washington.edu/uwpress/search/books/ECKOFF.html |archive-date=30 July 2013 |df=dmy-all}}
* {{Cite book |title=The New Korea |date=1926 |first=Alleyne |last=Ireland}}
* {{Citation |last=Hildi |first=Kang |year=2001 |title=Under the Black Umbrella: Voices from Colonial Korea, 1910–1945 |publisher=Cornell University Press |isbn=978-0-8014-7270-1}}
* {{Cite book |first=F.A. |last=McKenzie |title=Korea's Fight for Freedom |year=1920 |publisher=New York, Chicago [etc.] Fleming H. Revell company |url=https://archive.org/details/cu31924023276326/page/n6}}
* {{Cite book |first=Walter |last=Stucke |title=The Direct and Indirect Contributions of Western Missionaries to Korean Nationalism During the Late Choson and Early Japanese Annexation Periods, 1884–1920 |year=2011}}
* {{Cite book |last=Uchida |first=Jun |year=2011 |title=Brokers of Empire: Japanese Settler Colonialism in Korea, 1876–1945 |series=Harvard East Asian Monographs |location=Cambridge, MA |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |isbn=978-0-674-06253-5}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
{{Wikiquote}}
{{Library resources box|onlinebooks=yes}}
* [[Isabella Lucy Bird]] (1898), [https://archive.org/details/koreaandherneig00birdgoog ''Korea and Her Neighbours: A Narrative of Travel, with an Account of the Recent Vicissitudes and Present Position of the Country'']
* [[Horace Newton Allen]] (1908), [https://archive.org/details/thingskoreanaco00allegoog ''Things Korean: A Collection of Sketches and Anecdotes, Missionary and Diplomatic'']
* [http://hermes-ir.lib.hit-u.ac.jp/rs/bitstream/10086/8017/1/HJeco0130100400.pdf Toshiyuki Mizoguchi, "Consumer Prices and Real Wages in Taiwan and Korea under Japanese Rule" ''Hitotsubashi Journal of Economics'', 13(1): 40–56]
* [http://hermes-ir.lib.hit-u.ac.jp/rs/bitstream/10086/7960/1/HJeco0200100010.pdf Toshiyuki Mizoguchi, "Economic Growth of Korea under the Japanese Occupation – Background of Industrialization of Korea 1911–1940" ''Hitotsubashi Journal of Economics'', 20(1): 1–19]
* [http://hermes-ir.lib.hit-u.ac.jp/rs/bitstream/10086/8007/1/HJeco0140200370.pdf Toshiyuki Mizoguchi, "Foreign Trade in Taiwan and Korea under Japanese Rule" ''Hitotsubashi Journal of Economics'', 14(2): 37–53]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110604231526/http://works.bepress.com/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1002&context=young_kim Kim, Young-Koo, The Validity of Some Coerced Treaties in the Early 20th Century: A Reconsideration of the Japanese Annexation of Korea in Legal Perspective]
* [http://www.sdh-fact.com/CL02_1/76_S4.pdf Matsuki Kunitoshi, "Japan's Annexation of Korea"] ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20121231163512/http://www.sdh-fact.com/index.html Society the Dissemination of Historical Fact]''
* Walter Stucke (2011), [http://dc.etsu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2529&context=etd ''The Direct and Indirect Contributions of Western Missionaries to Korean Nationalism During the Late Choson and Early Japanese Annexation Periods, 1884–1920'']

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{{Korea under Japanese rule}}
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David Rumsey

2025-06-15T01:54:38Z

2A00:23C7:C8BC:C501:507C:445E:62F7:256D: Improved link

{{Short description|American map collector (born 1944)}}
{{Other people|David Rumsey}}
{{BLP sources|date=June 2023}}
[[Image:David Rumsey.jpg|thumb|right|250px|David Rumsey at the 2005 Where 2.0 Conference]]
'''David Rumsey''' (born 1944)<ref>[https://id.loc.gov/authorities/names/no2001019089.html "Rumsey, David, 1944-"], Library of Congress Name Authority File.</ref> is an American map collector and the founder of the [[David Rumsey Historical Map Collection|David Rumsey Map Collection]]. He is also the president of [[Cartography]] Associates. In 2023, he starred in the documentary ''A Stranger Quest'' by the Italian director Andrea Gatopoulos, presented at [[Torino Film Festival]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Torino Film Festival |title=A Stranger Quest |url=https://www.torinofilmfest.org/it/41-torino-film-festival/film/a-stranger-quest/51022/}}</ref>

==Education and research==
Rumsey has a [[Bachelor of Arts]] and a [[Master of Fine Arts]] from [[Yale University]]. Rumsey was a founding member of Yale Research Associates in the Arts (also known as PULSA), a group of artists working with electronic technologies. He was also a 1966 initiate into the [[Skull and Bones]] Society,<ref>{{cite book|last=Millegan|first=Kris|title=The Skeleton Crew". Fleshing Out Skull and Bones: Investigations into America's Most Powerful Secret Society|year=2003|publisher=Trine Day|location=Walterville, OR|isbn=0-9720207-2-1|pages=597–690}}</ref> before becoming associate director of the American Society for Eastern Arts in [[San Francisco]].

==Real estate and finance career==
Later, he entered a 20-year career in real estate development and finance during which he had a long association with Charles Feeney's [[General Atlantic]] Holding Company of New York and served as president and director of several of its real estate subsidiaries; General Atlantic eventually became the [[Atlantic Philanthropies]], a Bermuda-based philanthropic foundation that is one of the world's largest charities.

==Art lecturer==
Rumsey was a [[lecturer]] in art at the [[Yale School of Art]] for several years. He has lectured widely regarding his online library work, including talks at the [[Library of Congress]], [[New York Public Library]], [[Digital Library Federation]], [[Stanford University]], [[Harvard University]], Where 2.0, [[O'Reilly Open Source Convention]], and at conferences in Hong Kong, Mexico, Japan, the United Kingdom, and Germany.

==Collection==
From the early 1980s, Rumsey has collected more than 150,000 maps dating from the 16th to the 21st century that feature areas from around the world. The collection includes separate maps, [[atlas]]es, [[globe]]s, school geographies, books of travel and exploration, and [[sea|maritime]] charts. The collection is available on his website for free viewing.

The entire collection has been gifted to the David Rumsey Map Center that opened on April 19, 2016, in the Bing Wing of Green Library, [[Stanford University]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://library.stanford.edu/rumsey|title=David Rumsey Map Center|last=University|first=© Stanford|last2=Stanford|website=Stanford Libraries|language=en|access-date=2019-07-09|last3=Complaints|first3=California 94305 Copyright}}</ref> The center houses most of Rumsey's collection, including maps and atlases and interactive, high-resolution screens for viewing digital cartography. The davidrumsey.com website continues as a separate public resource.

==Awards, associations and books==
For making his map collection public, Rumsey was given an honors award in 2002 by [[Special Libraries Association]]. The website, developed in conjunction with Luna Imaging and TechEmpower, won the [[Webby Award]] for Technical Achievement in 2002.

On May 18, 2012, Rumsey received the Warren R. Howell Award from the [[Stanford University Libraries]] in recognition of his service to Stanford.

As of January 2008, following are some of the institutions where Rumsey serves as a board member:
* [[John Carter Brown Library]]
* [[Internet Archive]]
* Samuel H. Kress Foundation
* Stanford University Library Advisory Board
* Yale Library Associates (as a trustee)
* [[The Long Now Foundation]]
* Council on Library and Information Resources (CLIR)
* [[American Antiquarian Society]]

He is the author of the following books:
* ''Cartographica Extraordinaire: The Historical Map Transformed'' - with Edith M. Punt - {{ISBN|1-58948-044-9}}
* "Historical Maps in GIS" - with Meredith Williams, a chapter in ''Past Time, Past Place: GIS for History'' - {{ISBN|1-58948-032-5}}

==See also==
* [[GIS|Geographic information system (GIS)]]
* [[Cartography]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Internet Archive navbox}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Rumsey, David}}
[[Category:American book and manuscript collectors]]
[[Category:Yale School of Art alumni]]
[[Category:Yale School of Art]]
[[Category:Skull and Bones Society]]
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[[Category:Members of Skull and Bones]]

LGBTQ rights in Spain

2025-06-14T18:20:47Z

2A00:23C7:C8BC:C501:507C:445E:62F7:256D: /* Roman Empire */Added link

{{Short description|none}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2021}}
{{Infobox LGBT rights
| location_header = [[Spain]]
| image = EU-Spain.svg
| caption = {{map_caption|location_color=dark green|country='''Spain'''|region=Europe |region_color=dark grey |subregion=the European Union |subregion_color=light green |legend=EU-Spain.svg}}
| legal_status = Legal from 1822 to 1928, from 1932 to 1954 and since 1979, age of consent equalized

| gender_identity_expression = Transgender persons allowed to change legal gender without prior sex reassignment surgery and sterilisation
| recognition_of_relationships = [[Same-sex marriage in Spain|Same-sex marriage since 2005]]
| adoption = Full adoption rights since 2005
| military = LGBT people allowed to serve
| discrimination_protections = Sexual orientation and gender identity protections
}}
[[Lesbian]], [[gay]], [[bisexual]], [[transgender]], and queer ([[LGBTQ]]) rights in Spain rank [[Equaldex#LGBT Equality Index|among the highest in the world]], having undergone significant advancements within recent decades.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Staff |date=January 1, 2023 |title=LGBT Equality Index: The Most LGBT-Friendly Countries in the World |url=https://www.equaldex.com/equality-index |access-date=March 6, 2023 |website=[[Equaldex]] |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=5 June 2023 |title=The 203 Worst (& Safest) Countries for LGBTQ+ Travel in 2023 |url=https://www.asherfergusson.com/lgbtq-travel-safety/ |access-date=20 August 2023 |website=Asher & Lyric}}</ref> Among [[ancient Romans]] in Spain, sexual interaction between men was viewed as commonplace,<ref name="glbtq roma"/> but a law against homosexuality was promulgated by Christian emperors [[Constantius II]] and [[Constans]], and Roman moral norms underwent significant changes leading up to the 4th century. Laws against sodomy were later established during the legislative period. They were first repealed from the Spanish Code in 1822, but changed again along with societal attitudes towards homosexuality during the [[Spanish Civil War]] and [[Francisco Franco]]'s [[Francoist Spain|regime]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Melero Salvador |first=Alejandro |title=Placeres Ocultos: Gays y lesbianas en el cine Español de la Trancisión |publisher=Notorious Ediciones |year=2008 |isbn=9788493714888 |edition=1st |location=Spain |pages=18–37 |language=Spanish}}</ref>

Throughout the late-20th century, the rights of the [[LGBTQ]] community received more awareness and same-sex sexual activity became legal once again in 1979 with an equal [[age of consent]] to heterosexual intercourse. After recognising [[unregistered cohabitation]] between same-sex couples countrywide and [[registered partnership]]s in certain cities and communities since 1998 and 2003, Spain legalised both [[same-sex marriage]] and [[Same-sex adoption|adoption]] rights for same-sex couples in 2005. Transgender individuals can change their legal gender without the need for [[sex reassignment surgery]] or sterilisation. Discrimination in employment regarding [[sexual orientation]] has been banned nationwide since 1995. A broader law prohibiting discrimination based on sexual orientation and gender identity in employment and provision of goods and services nationwide was passed in 2022. LGBT people are allowed to serve in the military and [[Men who have sex with men|MSMs]] can donate blood since 2005.

Spain has been recognised as one of the most [[cultural liberalism|culturally liberal]] and LGBT-friendly countries in the world and [[LGBT culture]] has had a significant role in [[Spanish literature]], [[Music of Spain|music]], [[Cinema of Spain|cinema]] and other forms of entertainment as well as social issues and politics. Public opinion on homosexuality is noted by pollsters as being overwhelmingly positive, with a study conducted by the [[Pew Research Center]] in 2013 indicating that more than 88 percent of Spanish citizens accepted homosexuality, making it the most LGBT-friendly of the 39 countries polled. LGBT visibility has also increased in several layers of society such as the [[Civil Guard (Spain)|Guardia Civil]], army, judicial, and clergy. However, in other areas such as sports, the LGBT community remains marginalised.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.pinknews.co.uk/2016/05/11/spains-first-openly-gay-referee-quits-due-to-homophobic-abuse/|title=Spain's first openly gay referee quits due to homophobic abuse|date=11 May 2016}}</ref> Spanish film directors such as [[Pedro Almodóvar]] have increased awareness regarding LGBT tolerance in Spain among international audiences. In 2007, [[Madrid]] hosted the annual [[Europride]] celebration and hosted [[WorldPride]] in 2017. The cities of [[Barcelona]] and [[Madrid]] also have a reputation as two of the most LGBT-friendly cities in the world.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ucityguides.com/cities/top-10-gay-cities-and-gayest-destinations.html|title=Top 10 Gay Cities in the World|website=www.ucityguides.com}}</ref> [[Gran Canaria]] is also known worldwide as an LGBT tourist destination.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.lonelyplanet.com/canary-islands/gay-and-lesbian-travellers |title=Lonely Planet Gran Canaria |access-date=15 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180701222336/https://www.lonelyplanet.com/canary-islands/gay-and-lesbian-travellers |archive-date=1 July 2018 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

==LGBT history in Spain==
{{See also|LGBT history in Spain}}
===Roman Empire===
{{See also|Homosexuality in ancient Rome}}

[[File:Bust Hadrian Musei Capitolini MC817.jpg|thumb|200px|This bust of [[Roman emperor|Roman Emperor]] [[Hadrian]], a native of what is today Spain, and lover of the boy [[Antinous]], can be found today in the [[Palazzo dei Conservatori]] in Rome.]]
The Romans brought, as with other aspects of their culture, their sexual morality to Spain.<ref name="glbtq roma">{{Cite web | year = 2004 | url = http://www.glbtq.com/social-sciences/rome_ancient.html | title = Rome: Ancient | publisher = glbtq | access-date = 14 April 2007 | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070419064311/http://www.glbtq.com/social-sciences/rome_ancient.html | archive-date = 19 April 2007 | df = dmy-all }}</ref> Romans were open-minded about their relationships, and sexuality among men was commonplace. Among the Romans, bisexuality seems to have been perceived as the ideal. Eighteenth-century English historian [[Edward Gibbon]] wrote, of the first fifteen emperors, "Claudius was the only one whose taste in love was entirely correct" by his cultural standards – the implication being that he was the only one not to take [[Homosexuality|men]] or [[Pederasty|boys]] as lovers. Gibbon based this on Suetonius' factual statement that "He had a great passion for women, but had no interest in men."<ref>Suet. ''Claud''. 33.</ref> Suetonius and the other ancient authors actually used this against Claudius. They accused him of being dominated by these same women and wives, of being [[wikt:uxorious|uxorious]], and of being a [[womanizing|womaniser]].

Marriages between men occurred during the early Roman Empire. These marriages were condemned by law in the [[Theodosian Code]] of Christian emperors Constantius and Constans on 16 December 342.<ref>Theodosian Code 9.7.3: ''"When a man marries and is about to offer himself to men in womanly fashion (quum vir nubit in feminam viris porrecturam), what does he wish, when sex has lost all its significance; when the crime is one which it is not profitable to know; when Venus is changed to another form; when love is sought and not found? We order the statutes to arise, the laws to be armed with an avenging sword, that those infamous persons who are now, or who hereafter may be, guilty may be subjected to exquisite punishment.''</ref> [[Martial]], a first-century poet, born and educated in Bílbilis (now [[Calatayud]] in Aragon, Spain), but spent most of his life in Rome, attests to same-sex marriages between men during the early Roman Empire.<ref>Martial ''Epigrams'' 1.24, 12.42</ref> He also characterised Roman life in [[epigram]]s and poems. In a fictitious first person, he talks about anal and vaginal penetration, and about receiving [[fellatio]] from both men and women. He also attests to adult men who played passive roles with other men. He describes, for example, the case of an older man who played the passive role and let a younger slave occupy the active role.<ref>Martial, [[s:la:Epigrammaton liber III#LXXI|3.71]].</ref>

The first recorded marriage between two men occurred during the reign of Emperor [[Nero]], who is reported to have married two other men on different occasions.<ref>Suetonius ''Life of Nero'' 28–29</ref> Roman Emperor [[Elagabalus]] is also reported to have done the same. Emperors who were universally praised and lauded by the Romans, such as [[Hadrian]] and [[Trajan]], openly had male lovers, although it is not recorded whether or not they ever married their lovers. Hadrian's lover, [[Antinous]], received deification upon his death and numerous statues exist of him today, more than any other non-imperial person.

Among the conservative upper Senatorial classes, status was more important than the person in any sexual relationship. Roman citizens could penetrate non-citizen males, plebeian (or low class) males, male slaves, boys, [[eunuch]]s, and male prostitutes just as easily as young female slaves, concubines, and female prostitutes. However, no upper class citizen would allow himself to be penetrated by another man, regardless of age or status. He would have to play the active role in any sexual relationship with a man.<ref name="Priapo">{{Cite web | year = 2006 | url = http://www.identidades.org/literatura/priapeos.htm | title = Priapeos romanos. Antología bilingüe latín-castellano | access-date = 27 May 2007 | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070709010415/http://www.identidades.org/literatura/priapeos.htm | archive-date = 9 July 2007 | df = dmy-all }}</ref> There was a strict distinction between an active homosexual (who would have sex with men and women) and a passive homosexual (who was regarded as servile and effeminate). This morality was in fact used against [[Julius Caesar]], whose allegedly passive sexual interactions with the King of [[Bithynia]], [[Nicomedes IV of Bithynia|Nicomedes]], were commented everywhere in Rome.<ref name="glbtq romlit">{{Cite web | author = Louis Crompton| year = 2004 | url = http://www.glbtq.com/literature/roman_lit.html | title = Roman literature | publisher = glbtq | access-date = 18 April 2007 | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070304135824/http://www.glbtq.com/literature/roman_lit.html | archive-date = 4 March 2007 | df = dmy-all }}</ref> However, many people in the upper classes ignored such negative ideas about playing a passive role, as is proved by the actions of the Roman emperors [[Nero]] and [[Elagabalus]].

In contrast to the Greeks, evidence for homosexual relationships between men of the same age exists for the Romans. These sources are diverse and include such things as the Roman novel ''[[Satyricon]]'', graffiti and paintings found at [[Pompeii]], as well as inscriptions left on tombs and papyri found in Egypt. Generally speaking, however, a kind of [[pederasty]] (not unlike the one that can be found among the Greeks) was dominant in Rome. It is important to note, though, that even among heterosexual relationships, men tended to marry women much younger than themselves, usually in their early teens.

Lesbianism was also known,<ref name="glbtq roma"/> in two forms. Feminine women would have sex with adolescent girls: a kind of female pederasty, and masculine women followed male pursuits, including fighting, hunting, and relationships with other women.

The first law against same-sex marriage was promulgated by the Christian emperors [[Constantius II]] and [[Constans]].<ref>Theodosian Code 9.7.3:</ref> Nevertheless, the Christian emperors continued to collect taxes on male prostitutes until the reign of [[Anastasius I (emperor)|Anastasius]] (491–581). In the year 390, Christian emperors [[Valentinian II]], [[Theodosius I]], and [[Arcadius]] declared homosexual sex to be illegal and those who were guilty of it were condemned to be burned alive in front of the public.<ref>(Theodosian Code 9.7.6): All persons who have the shameful custom of condemning a man's body, acting the part of a woman's to the sufferance of alien sex (for they appear not to be different from women), shall expiate a crime of this kind in avenging flames in the sight of the people.</ref> Christian Emperor [[Justinian I]] (527–565) made homosexuals a scapegoat for problems such as "famines, earthquakes, and pestilences".<ref>Justinian ''Novels'' 77, 144</ref>

As a result of this, Roman morality changed by the 4th century. For example, [[Ammianus Marcellinus]] harshly condemned the sexual behaviour of the [[Taifali]], a tribe located between the [[Carpathian Mountains]] and the [[Black Sea]] which practiced the Greek-style [[pederasty]].<ref name="Spencer">{{Cite book | author=Spencer, Colin | title = Homosexuality: A History. | url=https://archive.org/details/homosexualityhis0000spen | url-access=registration | year = 1996 | publisher=Londres: Fourth Estate | isbn = 1-85702-447-8 }}</ref> In 342, emperors Constans and Constantius II introduced a law to punish passive homosexuality (possibly by castration), to which later in 390 Theodosius I would add death by fire to all passive homosexuals that worked in [[brothel]]s. In 438, this law was expanded to include all passive homosexuals, in 533 Justinian punished any homosexual act with castration and death by fire, and in 559 this law became even more strict.<ref name="Aldrich">{{Cite book| editor=Aldrich, Robert | title = Gleich und anders | year = 2007| publisher=Hamburgo: Murmann | isbn = 978-3-938017-81-4 }}</ref>

Three reasons have been given for this change of attitude. [[Procopius]], historian at Justinian's court, considered that behind the laws were political motivations, as they allowed Justinian to destroy his enemies and confiscate their properties, and were hardly efficient stopping homosexuality between ordinary citizens.<ref name="Spencer"/> The second reason, and perhaps the more important one, was the rising influence of Christianity in the Roman society, including the Christian paradigm about sex serving solely for reproduction purposes.<ref name="Aldrich"/> Colin Spencer, in his book ''Homosexuality: A History'', suggests the possibility that a certain sense of self-preservation in the Roman society after suffering some epidemic such as the Black fever increased the reproductive pressure in individuals. This phenomenon would be combined with the rising influence of [[Stoicism]] in the Empire.<ref name="Spencer"/>

Until the year 313, there was no common doctrine about homosexuality in Christianity,<ref name="Spencer"/> but it is the mistaken belief that [[Paul the Apostle|Paul]] had already condemned it as ''contra natura'', though he had no exegetical reason for doing so:{{blockquote|''And likewise also the men, leaving the natural use of the woman, burned in their lust one toward another; men with men working that which is unseemly, and receiving in themselves that recompence of their error which was meet.''
[[s:Bible (King James)/Romans#Chapter 1|Bible King James. Romans 1:27.]]}}

Eventually, the [[Church Fathers]] created a literary ''corpus'' in which homosexuality and sex were condemned most energetically, fighting against a common practice in that epoch's society.<ref>The poet [[Ausonius]] (310–395) maintained a passionate relationship with [[Paulinus of Nola|Paulinus]], bishop of [[Nola]]. It is not known if that love was physical, but their passion was reflected in the correspondence they kept. The letters from Ausonius, 43 years the senior of Paulinus, also show his sadness regarding their separation when the latter intensified his Christian life. Even [[Augustine of Hippo|Saint Augustíne]] confessed to having homosexual lovers in his youth, although he would later reject that lust as sinful (''Homosexuality: A history'', Colin Spencer, {{ISBN|1-85702-447-8}}).</ref> On the other hand, homosexuality was identified with heresy, not only because of the pagan traditions, but also due to the rites of some [[Gnosticism|gnostic sects]] or [[Manichaeism]], which, according to [[Augustine of Hippo]], practised homosexual rites.<ref name="Spencer"/>

===Kingdom of the Visigoths (418–718)===
The [[Germanic peoples]] had little tolerance for homosexuals, whom they considered on the same level as "imbeciles" and slaves, and glorified the warrior camaraderie between men. However, there are reports in Scandinavian countries of feminine and transvestite pastors, and the Nordic gods, the [[Æsir]], including [[Thor]] and [[Odin]], obtained arcane recognition [[drinking semen]].<ref name="Spencer"/>

In the [[Early Middle Ages]], attitudes toward homosexuality remained constant. There are known cases of homosexual behaviour which did not receive punishment, even if they were not accepted. For example, King [[Clovis I]] on his baptism day confessed to having relationships with other men; or [[Alcuin]], an Anglo-Saxon poet whose verses and letters contain homoerotism.<ref name="Spencer"/>

One of the first legal corpus that considered male homosexuality a crime in Europe was the ''[[Liber Iudiciorum]]'' (or ''Lex Visigothorum'').<ref name="glbtq españa">{{Cite web | author = Cristian Berco| year = 2004 | url = http://www.glbtq.com/social-sciences/spain.html | title = Spain | access-date = 14 April 2007 | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070418132036/http://www.glbtq.com/social-sciences/spain.html | archive-date = 18 April 2007 | df = dmy-all }}</ref> The Visigoth law included in that code (L. 3,5,6) punished [[sodomy]] with [[banishment]] and [[castration]]. Within the term "castration" were included all ''sexual crimes'' considered ''unnatural'', such as male homosexuality, [[anal sex]] (heterosexual and homosexual) and [[zoophilia]]. Lesbianism was considered sodomy only if it included phallic aids.<ref name="glbtq españa"/>

It was King [[Chindasuinth]] (642–653) who dictated that the punishment for homosexuality should be castration. Such a harsh measure was unheard of in Visigoth laws, except for the cases of Jews practising [[circumcision]]. After being castrated, the culprit was given to the care of the local bishop, who would then banish him. If he was married, the marriage was [[annulment|declared void]], the [[dowry]] was returned to the woman and any possessions distributed among his heirs.<ref name=Thompson>
{{Cite book
| author=Thompson, E.A
| title = Los Godos en España
| year = 2007
| publisher=Alianza Editorial
| isbn = 978-84-206-6169-8
| page = 307
}}
</ref>

===Islamic Spain (718–1492)===
The Muslims who invaded and successfully conquered the peninsula in the early 8th century had a noticeably more open attitude to homosexuality than their Visigothic predecessors. In the book ''Medieval Iberia: An Encyclopedia'', Daniel Eisenberg describes homosexuality as "a key symbolic issue throughout the Middle Ages in Iberia", stating that in al-Andalus, homosexual pleasures were indulged in by the intellectual and political elite. There is significant evidence for this. Rulers, such as [[Abd-ar-Rahman III]], [[Al-Hakam II]], [[Hisham II]], and [[Al-Mu'tamid ibn Abbad|Al Mu'tamid ibn Abbad]], openly kept male harems, to the point that, to ensure an offspring, a girl had to be disguised as a boy to seduce Al-Hakam II.<ref>Charles-Emmanuel Dufourcq, ''La vie quotidienne dans l'europe médiévale sous domination arabe, París, Hachette, 1978, pp. 134–135: "le deuxième calife de Cordoue, al-Hakam [II], avait un harem bien rempli et, cependant, il arriva à l'âge de quarente-six ans sans avoir encore eu d'enfants; peut-être s'intéressait-il davantage aux hommes qu'aux femmes; une esclave basque chrétienne réussit pourtant à le rendre père: très jeune, intelligente et belle, elle avait adopté une mode en usage à Bagdad: abandonnant toute toilette féminine, elle s'était travestie en s'habillant comme un éphèbe. Le calife prit d'ailleurs l'habitude de l'appeler par le nom d'homme qu'elle avait choisi: Chafar.'' Hay traducción española, ''Vida cotidiana de los árabes en la Europa medieval'', Madrid, Temas de Hoy, 1990.</ref> It was said that male prostitutes charged higher fees and had a higher class of clientele than did their female counterparts. Evidence can also be found in the repeated criticisms of Christians and especially the abundant poetry of homosexual nature. References to both pederasty and love between adult males have been found. Although homosexual practices were never officially condoned, prohibitions against them were rarely enforced, and usually there was not even a pretense of doing so. Sexual activity between men was not seen as a form of identity. Very little is known about lesbian sexual activity during this period.

===Kingdom of Spain (1492–1812)===
By 1492, the last Islamic kingdom in the Iberian Peninsula, the [[Emirate of Granada]], was invaded and conquered by the [[Crown of Castile]] and the [[Crown of Aragon]]. This marked the Christian unification of the Iberian peninsula and the return of Catholic morality. By the early sixteenth century, royal codes decreed death by burning for [[sodomy]] and was punished by civil authorities. It fell under the jurisdiction of the Inquisition only in [[Kingdom of Aragon|the territories of Aragon]], when, in 1524, [[Clement VII]], in a papal brief, granted jurisdiction over sodomy to the Inquisition of Aragon, whether or not it was related to [[Christian heresy|heresy]]. In Castile, cases of sodomy were not adjudicated, unless related to [[Christian heresy|heresy]]. The tribunal of [[Zaragoza]] distinguished itself for its severity in judging these offences: between 1571 and 1579 more than 100 men accused of [[sodomy]] were prosecuted and at least 36 were executed; in total, between 1570 and 1630 there were 534 trials and 102 executions.<ref>Kamen, Henry, The Spanish Inquisition, p. 259.</ref> This does not include, however, those normally executed by the secular authorities.

===First French Empire===
In 1812, Barcelona was [[Annexation|annexed]] into the [[First French Empire]] and incorporated into the [[First French Empire]] as part of the department [[Montserrat (department)|Montserrat]] (later ''Bouches-de-l'Èbre–Montserrat''), where it remained until it was returned to Spain in 1814. During that time same-sex sexual intercourse was legal in Barcelona.<ref name="Semler2004">{{cite book|author=George Semler|title=Visible Cities Barcelona: A City Guide|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-I7sjHLNXVoC&q=%22department%20of%20Montserrat%22|date=1 February 2004|publisher=Somerset, Limited|isbn=978-963-206-323-2|page=19}}</ref><ref name="Oman1980">{{cite book|author=Charles William Chadwick Oman|title=A history of the Peninsular War: Oct. 1811 – Aug. 31, 1812, Valencia, Ciudad Rodrigo, Badajoz, Salamanca, Madrid|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H3UOAQAAMAAJ&q=%22Montserrat%20|year=1980|publisher=AMS Press|isbn=978-0-404-16965-7|page=97}}</ref>

===Kingdom of Spain (1814–1931)===
[[File:Marcela y Elisa.jpg|thumb|150px|[[First same-sex marriage in Spain|Marcela and Elisa]] got married in 1901 in [[A Coruña]], with Elisa adopting a male name and appearance to pass as a man. Their marriage certificate was never annulled.]]
In 1822, the [[History of Spain (1814–73)|Kingdom of Spain's]] first penal code was adopted and same-sex sexual intercourse was legalised. In 1928, under the dictatorship of [[Miguel Primo de Rivera]], the offense of "habitual homosexual acts" was recriminalised in Spain.<ref name="angloinfo.com">{{Cite web|url=http://www.angloinfo.com/how-to/spain/barcelona/family/lgbt|title=Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender Community in Spain – Barcelona|website=Angloinfo}}</ref>

===Second Spanish Republic===
[[File:Barcelona - Barrio Chino - La Criolla.png|thumb|left|«La Criolla» Cabaret Barcelona 1933 with «Flor de Otoño», «la Asturiana», Sarah, «Trotski» y Luz.]]
In 1932, same-sex sexual intercourse was again legalised in [[Second Spanish Republic|Spain]].<ref name="angloinfo.com" />

===Francoist Spain===
[[File:Victorina duran.jpg|thumb|[[Victorina Durán]] created the first lesbian association in Spain, the [[Sapphic Circle of Madrid]]. She went into exile during the dictatorship.]]
Between 1936 and 1939, right-wing, Catholic forces led by [[General Francisco Franco]] took over Spain, and Franco was dictator of the country until his death in 1975. Legal reforms in 1944 and 1963 punished same-sex sexual intercourse as "scandalous public behavior". In 1954, vagrancy laws were modified to declare that homosexuals are "a danger", equating homosexuality with [[wikt:proxenetism|proxenetism]] ([[procuring (prostitution)|procuring]]). The text of the law declared that the measures "are not proper punishments, but mere security measures, set with a doubly preventive end, with the purpose of collective guarantee and the aspiration of correcting those subjects fallen to the lowest levels of morality. This law is not intended to punish, but to correct and reform". However, the way the law was applied was clearly punitive and arbitrary: police would often use the vagrancy laws against suspected political dissenters, using homosexuality (actual or perceived) as a way to go around the judicial guarantees.<ref>{{cite book|author1=George Haggerty|author2=George E. Haggerty|author3=Bonnie Zimmerman|title=Encyclopedia of Lesbian and Gay Histories and Cultures: An Encyclopedia. Gay histories and cultures. Vol. 2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nvt8el4QtPwC&pg=PA723|year=1999|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-0-8153-3354-8|page=723}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.tesisenxarxa.net/TESIS_UB/AVAILABLE/TDX-0528107-122248//02.CSV_PARTE_2.pdf |title=La junta de protección a la infancia de Barcelona: Aproximación histórica y guía de su archivo |access-date=20 January 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150119024825/http://www.tesisenxarxa.net/TESIS_UB/AVAILABLE/TDX-0528107-122248//02.CSV_PARTE_2.pdf |archive-date=19 January 2015 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

However, in other cases, the harassment of gay, bisexual and transgender people was clearly directed at their sexual mores, and homosexuals (mostly men) were sent to special prisons called ''galerías de invertidos'' ("galleries of inverts"). Thousands of homosexual men and women were jailed, put in camps, or locked up in mental institutions under [[Franco's dictatorship]], which lasted for 36 years until his death in 1975.<ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/world/2001/dec/13/gayrights.gilestremlett Gays persecuted by Franco lose criminal status at last], ''[[The Guardian]]'', Giles Tremlett, Madrid, 13 December 2001</ref> The year Franco died, his regime began to give way to the current constitutional democracy, but in the early 1970s gay prisoners were overlooked by political activism in favour of more "traditional" political dissenters. Some gay activists deplored the fact that reparations were not made until 2008.<ref name="reparations">{{Cite web|author=BOE |url=http://www.boe.es/buscar/doc.php?id=BOE-A-2008-20744 |title=Disposición Adicional Decimoctava de la Ley 2/2008, de 23 de diciembre, de Presupuestos Generales del Estado para el año 2009 |publisher=BOE |access-date=20 June 2015}}</ref>
[[File:Pasaje.begoña.jpg|thumb|[[Pasaje Begoña]] in [[Torremolinos]].]]
However, in the 1960s, a clandestine gay scene began to emerge in [[Barcelona]], and in the [[counterculture|countercultural]] centers of [[Ibiza]] and [[Sitges]] (a town in the province of Barcelona, [[Catalonia]], that remains a highly popular gay tourist destination). In the late 1960s and the 1970s, a body of gay literature emerged in [[Catalan language|Catalan]].<ref>Josep-Anton Fernàndez: Another Country: Sexuality and National Identity in Catalan Gay Fiction, Volume 50./Modern Humanities Research Association: Texts and dissertations, p. 1., MHRA, 2000, {{ISBN|1902653262}}</ref> Attitudes in greater Spain began to change with the return to democracy after Franco's death through a cultural movement known as [[La Movida Madrileña]]. This movement, along with growth of the [[gay rights movement]] in the rest of Europe and the Western world, was a large factor in making Spain today one of Europe's most socially tolerant places.

In 1970, Spanish law provided for a three-year prison sentence for those accused of same-sex sexual intercourse.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L9Mj7oHEwVoC&q=spanish+public+scandal+minors+gay&pg=PA836|title=Gay Histories and Cultures: An Encyclopedia|first=George E.|last=Haggerty|date=19 May 2000|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=9780815318804|via=Google Books}}</ref> That same year, the [[Spanish Movement for Homosexual Liberation]](Movimiento Español de Liberación Homosexual) was founded.

===Kingdom of Spain (1975–present)===
[[File:Pedro Zerolo 2013.png|thumb|200px|Politician [[Pedro Zerolo]] was one of the most important LGBT activists in the history of Spain and one of the biggest promoters of extending the right to marriage and adoption to same-sex couples in the country.<ref>[http://hipertextual.com/2015/06/pedro-zerolo El legado de Pedro Zerolo]</ref>]]
Same-sex sexual intercourse was again legalised in Spain in 1979, and this remains its legal status today.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://old.ilga.org/Statehomophobia/ILGA_SSHR_2014_Eng.pdf |title=STATE-SPONSORED HOMOPHOBIA |access-date=7 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161020202330/http://old.ilga.org/Statehomophobia/ILGA_SSHR_2014_Eng.pdf |archive-date=20 October 2016 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

In December 2001, the Spanish Parliament pledged to wipe clean the criminal records of thousands of gay and bisexual men and women who were jailed during Franco's regime. The decision meant that sentences for homosexuality and bisexuality were taken off police files.<ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/world/2001/dec/13/gayrights.gilestremlett Gays persecuted by Franco lose criminal status at last] The Guardian</ref> Further reparations were made in 2008.<ref name="reparations"/>

==Law regarding same-sex sexual activity==
[[File:FrenteLiberaciónHomosexualCastilla.png|thumb|Frente de Liberación Homosexual de Castilla demonstration, Madrid 1978]]
Same-sex sexual acts were technically lawful in Spain from 1822 to 1954, with the exception of the offence of "unusual or outrageous indecent acts with same-sex persons" between the years 1928 and 1932. However, some homosexuals were arrested under the ''Ley de Vagos y Maleantes'' ("Vagrants and Common Delinquents Law"). Homosexual acts were made unlawful during [[Francisco Franco]]'s time in power, first by an amendment to the aforementioned law in 1954, and later by the ''Ley de Peligrosidad y Rehabilitación Social'' ("Law on Danger and Social Rehabilitation") in 1970. In 1979, the [[Adolfo Suárez]] Government reversed the prohibition of homosexual acts.

A new penal code was introduced in Spain in 1995 which specified an [[age of consent]] of 12 for all sexual acts, but this was raised to 13 in 1999 and to 16 in 2015.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.abc.es/videos-espana/20150630/entra-vigor-llamada-mordaza-4330498762001.html|title=Entra en vigor la llamada ley mordaza|date=30 June 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.boe.es/boe/dias/2015/03/31/pdfs/BOE-A-2015-3439.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=25 August 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160730054950/http://boe.es/boe/dias/2015/03/31/pdfs/BOE-A-2015-3439.pdf |archive-date=30 July 2016 }}</ref><ref name="radiointereconomia.com">{{cite web|url=http://radiointereconomia.com/2015/07/01/las-20-claves-del-nuevo-codigo-penal/|title=Las 20 claves del nuevo Código Penal|date=1 July 2015|access-date=25 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161025235807/http://radiointereconomia.com/2015/07/01/las-20-claves-del-nuevo-codigo-penal/|archive-date=25 October 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==Recognition of same-sex relationships==
[[File:Gay March celebrating 2005 Pride Day and Same-Sex Marriage Law in Spain.jpg|thumb|upright|Gay Pride 2005 celebrating the legalisation of same-sex marriage in Spain]]{{Main|Same-sex marriage in Spain}}

In 1994, the ''Ley de Arrendamientos Urbanos'' was passed, giving same-sex couples some recognition rights.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Levels of recognition of different-sex and same-sex partnerships|url=https://www.lsvd.de/bund/lpartg/uebersicht.html|access-date=7 February 2016}}</ref> Registries for same-sex couples were created in all of Spain's 17 autonomous communities: [[Catalonia]] (1998), [[Aragon]] (1999), [[Navarre]] (2000), [[Castile-La Mancha]] (2000), [[Valencian Community|Valencia]] (2001), the [[Balearic Islands]] (2001), [[Community of Madrid|Madrid]] (2001), [[Asturias]] (2002), [[Andalusia]] (2002), [[Castile and León]] (2002), [[Extremadura]] (2003), the [[Basque Country (autonomous community)|Basque Country]] (2003), the [[Canary Islands]] (2003), [[Cantabria]] (2005), [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]] (2008), [[La Rioja (Spain)|La Rioja]] (2010) and [[Region of Murcia|Murcia]] (2018),<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.asambleamurcia.es/iniciativas/9lppl-0018?language=en|title=9L/PPL-0018 | Asamblea Regional de Murcia|website=www.asambleamurcia.es}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.laverdad.es/murcia/murcia-junio-ultima-20180525023102-ntvo.html|title=Murcia será en junio la última comunidad en regular por ley las parejas de hecho|date=25 May 2018|website=La Verdad}}</ref> and in both autonomous cities; [[Ceuta]] (1998) and [[Melilla]] (2008).<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www-same-sex.ined.fr/WWW/04Doc124Ignacio.pdf|title=Same-sex couples in Spain. Historical, contextual and symbolic factors}}</ref> These registries grant unmarried couples some benefits, but the effect is mainly symbolic.

[[Same-sex marriage]] and adoption were legalised by the [[Cortes Generales]] under the administration of [[Spanish Socialist Workers' Party|Socialist]] Prime Minister [[José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero]] in 2005, making [[Same-sex marriage#Timeline|Spain the third country in the world]] to do so.<ref>[https://www.nytimes.com/2005/06/30/world/europe/30iht-spain.html?_r=0 Spain gives approval to gay unions], ''[[The New York Times]]'', Renwick McLean, 1 July 2005</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.boe.es/boe/dias/2005/07/02/pdfs/A23632-23634.pdf |title=Disposiciones generales – Jefatura del estado |access-date=20 January 2011}}</ref>

Soon after the same-sex marriage bill became law, a member of the Guardia Civil, a military-police force, married his lifelong partner, prompting the organisation to allow same-sex partners to cohabitate in the barracks, the first police force in Europe to accommodate a same-sex partner in a military installation.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.buddybuddy.com/mar-spai.html |title=Spain Offers Legal Marriage |publisher=Buddybuddy.com |access-date=20 January 2011}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.diariodeleon.es/noticias/noticia.asp?pkid=63591 |title=El guardia civil gay ya puede vivir con su pareja en una casa cuartel |publisher=Diariodeleon.es |date=28 January 2003 |access-date=20 January 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110605124255/http://www.diariodeleon.es/noticias/noticia.asp?pkid=63591 |archive-date=5 June 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

==Adoption and parenting==
[[LGBT adoption|Adoption by same-sex couples]] has been legal nationwide in Spain since July 2005. Some of [[Autonomous communities of Spain|Spain's autonomous communities]] had already legalised such adoptions beforehand, notably [[Navarre]] in 2000, the [[Basque Country (autonomous community)|Basque Country]] in 2003, [[Aragon]] in 2004, [[Catalonia]] in 2005 and [[Cantabria]] in 2005.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ciimu.org/webs/wellchi/working_papers/wp6_roca.pdf |title=Homosexual Families: Adoption and Foster Care |publisher=Institute of Childhood and Urban World |date=6 November 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110914125130/http://www.ciimu.org/webs/wellchi/working_papers/wp6_roca.pdf |archive-date=14 September 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=CATALONIA OKs GAY ADOPTION |journal=Just Out |volume=22 |issue=12 |date=April 2005 |page=21 }}</ref> Furthermore, in [[Asturias]], Andalusia and [[Extremadura]], same-sex couples could jointly begin procedures to temporarily or permanently take children in care.

Since 2015, married lesbian couples can register both their names on their child(ren)'s certificates. This does not apply to cohabiting couples or couples in de facto unions, where the non-biological mother must normally go through an adoption process to be legally recognized as the child's mother.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://elpais.com/economia/2019/04/05/mis_derechos/1554465687_049095.html|title=El laberinto legal que sufren las parejas homosexuales para inscribir a sus hijos|work=El País|date=8 April 2019|language=es|last=Esteban|first=Patricia}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://m.eldiario.es/nidos/hombre-reproduccion-asistida-balance-exclusion_0_792320891.html?_ga=2.92344927.393774348.1556092276-994204289.1556092276|title=Cuatro años de discriminación: así han franqueado las lesbianas y mujeres solas su exclusión de la reprodución asistida|work=eldiario.es|date=14 July 2018|language=es|last=Borraz|first=Marta}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://m.eldiario.es/sociedad/PP-discrimina-funcionarias-militares-reproduccion_0_889611256.html|title=Las funcionarias con mutua pagan hasta 36 veces más por los fármacos de la reproducción asistida si son lesbianas o no tienen pareja|work=eldiario.es|date=19 April 2019|language=es|last=Borraz|first=Martha}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mirales.es/reproduccion-asistida-lesbianas-mujeres-solas-gobierno-espana/|title=Reprodución asistida gratuita para mujeres solas y lesbianas en España|language=es|work=mirales.es|date=22 January 2019|last=Marques|first=Marta}}</ref>

Lesbian couples and single women may access [[in vitro fertilisation]] (IVF) and assisted reproductive treatments. Prior to 2019, this was mostly in the private sector, where such treatments were much more expensive (around 7,500 [[euro]]s for IVF). In 2018, following reports that Spain had one of the lowest birth rates in Europe (with reportedly more deaths than births in 2017), measures extending free reproductive treatments for lesbians and single women to public hospitals were announced. The measures took effect in January 2019.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.thelocal.es/20180709/lesbians-and-single-women-in-spain-get-free-fertility-treatment-back|title=Spain's lesbians and single women get free fertility treatment back|work=thelocal.es|date=9 July 2018|last=Dunham|first=Alex}}</ref> [[Surrogacy]] is prohibited in Spain regardless of sexual orientation, though surrogacy arrangements undertaken overseas are usually recognized.<ref>[http://gestacionsubrogadaenespaña.es/index.php/sobre-la-gestacion-subrogada/que-es-y-cual-es-su-situacion-en-espana Asociación por la gestación subrogada en España – ¿Cuál es la situación?] (In Spanish) Retrieved 18 August 2014</ref>

In November 2021, an [[executive order]] was signed to allow free IVF treatment for single women and women in same-sex relationships throughout Spain. The right of single women and women in same-sex relationships to access IVF was enshrined in law as part of the "Trans Law" passed by congress on 16 February 2023.<ref name="Valdés">{{Cite web |last=Valdés |first=Isabel |date=2023-02-16 |title=Preguntas y respuestas sobre la 'ley trans' |url=https://elpais.com/sociedad/2023-02-16/preguntas-y-respuestas-sobre-la-ley-trans.html |access-date=2023-02-16 |website=El País |language=es}}</ref>

==Discrimination protections==
[[File:Anti-discrimination laws covering sexual orientation and gender identity in Spain.svg|thumb|right|400px|Map indicating the implementation of anti-discrimination laws based on sexual orientation and gender identity across different autonomous communities in Spain.
{{legend|#c4d1e6|Ban on discrimination based on sexual orientation and gender identity under both Spain's national law and autonomous community laws}}
{{legend|#e2e8f3|Ban on discrimination based on sexual orientation and gender identity through Spain's nationwide law}}]]

Spanish law prohibits discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation, gender identity, HIV status, and "any other personal or social condition or circumstance.” in employment and provision of goods and services. A comprehensive anti-discrimination bill, called the Zerolo Law, was passed by the [[Cortes Generales]] on 30 June 2022.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-06-30 |title=Aprobada la Ley Zerolo, la primera ley contra toda forma de discriminación |url=https://www.newtral.es/aprobada-ley-zerolo-ley-contra-discriminacion/20220630/ |access-date=2022-06-30 |website=Newtral |language=es}}</ref>

Prior to the Zerolo law, employment discrimination on the basis of [[sexual orientation]] had been illegal in the country since 1995 but employment discrimination on the basis of gender identity was not banned nationwide. The first autonomous community to ban such discrimination was [[Navarre]] in 2009.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.navarra.es/home_es/Actualidad/BON/Boletines/2009/147/Anuncio-0/|title=Ley foral 12/2009, de 19 de noviembre, de no discriminación por motivos de identidad de género y de reconocimiento de los derechos de las personas transexuales}}</ref> The [[Basque Country (autonomous community)|Basque Country]] followed suit in 2012,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.boe.es/buscar/doc.php?id=BOE-A-2012-9664|title=Ley 14/2012, de 28 de junio, de no discriminación por motivos de identidad de género y de reconocimiento de los derechos de las personas transexuales.|work=www.boe.es|pages=51730–51739 |access-date=30 May 2020|language=es}}</ref> [[Andalusia]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.juntadeandalucia.es/boja/2014/139/1|title=Ley 2/2014, de 8 de julio, integral para la no discriminación por motivos de identidad de género y reconocimiento de los derechos de las personas transexuales de Andalucía|work=Junta de Andalucía|access-date=30 May 2020|language=es}}</ref> the [[Canary Islands]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.boe.es/buscar/pdf/2014/BOE-A-2014-11995-consolidado.pdf|title=Ley 8/2014, de 28 de octubre, de no discriminación por motivos de identidad de género y de reconocimiento de los derechos de las personas transexuales.|work=www.boe.es|access-date=30 May 2020|language=es}}</ref> [[Catalonia]],<ref name="catalonia">{{cite web|url=https://www.boe.es/buscar/pdf/2014/BOE-A-2014-11990-consolidado.pdf|title=Ley 11/2014, de 10 de octubre, para garantizar los derechos de lesbianas, gays, bisexuales, transgéneros e intersexuales y para erradicar la homofobia, la bifobia y la transfobia.|work=www.boe.es|access-date=30 May 2020|language=es}}</ref> and [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]] in 2014,<ref name="galicia">{{cite web|url=https://www.xunta.gal/dog/Publicados/2014/20140425/AnuncioC3B0-220414-0001_es.html|title=LEY 2/2014, de 14 de abril, por la igualdad de trato y la no discriminación de lesbianas, gays, transexuales, bisexuales e intersexuales en Galicia.|work=xunta.gal|access-date=30 May 2020|language=es}}</ref> [[Extremadura]] in 2015,<ref name="extremadura" /><ref name="rainbow">{{Cite web|url=https://rainbow-europe.org/#8661/0/0|title=Rainbow Europe|website=rainbow-europe.org}}</ref><ref name="ohchr">{{Cite web|url=http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/Discrimination/LGBT/Res_27_32/Spain.pdf|title=SPAIN LGBT GOOD PRACTICES}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.boe.es/buscar/doc.php?id=BOE-A-2016-6728|title=Ley 2/2016, de 29 de marzo, de Identidad y Expresión de Género e Igualdad Social y no Discriminación de la Comunidad de Madrid.|work=www.boe.es|pages=49217–49248 |access-date=30 May 2020|language=es}}</ref> [[Region of Murcia|Murcia]],<ref name="murcia" /><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.dosmanzanas.com/2016/05/baleares-y-murcia-aprueban-avanzadas-leyes-contra-la-discriminacion-de-las-personas-lgtbi.html|title=Baleares y Murcia aprueban avanzadas leyes contra la discriminación de las personas LGTBI|website=dosmanzanas – La web de noticias LGTB}}</ref> and the [[Balearic Islands]] in 2016,<ref name="balearic">{{cite web|url=https://www.boe.es/buscar/pdf/2016/BOE-A-2016-6310-consolidado.pdf|title=Ley 8/2016, de 30 de mayo, para garantizar los derechos de lesbianas, gays, trans, bisexuales e intersexuales y para erradicar la LGTBI fobia.|work=www.boe.es|access-date=30 May 2020|language=es}}</ref> [[Valencian Community|Valencia]] in April 2017,<ref name="valencia">{{Cite web|url=http://noticias.juridicas.com/base_datos/CCAA/595124-l-8-2017-de-7-abr-ca-valenciana-integral-del-reconocimiento-del-derecho-a.html|title=Ley 8/2017, de 7 de abril, de la Generalitat, integral del reconocimiento del derecho a la identidad y a la expresión de género en la Comunitat Valenciana|website=Noticias Jurídicas}}</ref> and [[Aragon]] in January 2019.,<ref name="aragon" /> [[Cantabria]]<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.europapress.es/cantabria/noticia-cantabria-aprueba-ley-lgtbi-respaldo-todos-partidos-vox-ve-innecesaria-20201102150423.html | title=Cantabria aprueba su ley LGTBI con el respaldo de todos los partidos salvo Vox, que la ve "innecesaria" | date=2 November 2020 }}</ref> in November 2020 [[La Rioja]]<ref>{{cite web | url=https://felgtb.org/blog/2022/02/18/los-derechos-trans-ya-son-ley-en-la-rioja/ | title=Los derechos trans ya son ley en la Rioja | date=18 February 2022 }}</ref> in February 2022 and [[Castilla-La Mancha]]<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.eldiario.es/castilla-la-mancha/castilla-mancha-aprueba-unanimidad-ley-diversidad-sexual-derechos-lgtbi-entran-sensibilidades_1_8968042.html | title=Castilla-La Mancha aprueba por unanimidad su ley de Diversidad Sexual y Derechos LGTBI en la que entran "todas las sensibilidades" | date=5 May 2022 }}</ref> in May 2022.

From April 27, 2016, to December 21, 2023, the [[Community of Madrid]] prohibited discrimination based on gender identity in education, employment, family and youth services, healthcare, public administration, and social services.<ref>{{cite web |title=Law 2/2016, of 29 March, on Gender Identity and Expression and Social Equality and Non-Discrimination of the Community of Madrid |url=https://www.boe.es/eli/es-m/l/2016/03/29/2/con |website=Boletín Oficial del Estado |access-date=2 May 2025}}</ref> From August 11, 2016, to December 21, 2023, the Community of Madrid prohibited discrimination based on sexual orientation in education, employment, family rights, healthcare, law enforcement and justice, media and advertising, public services, social services, and sports and culture.<ref>{{cite web |title=Law 3/2016, of 22 July, on Comprehensive Protection against LGBTI-phobia and Discrimination based on Sexual Orientation and Identity in the Community of Madrid |url=https://www.boe.es/eli/es-m/l/2016/07/22/3/con |website=Boletín Oficial del Estado |access-date=2 May 2025}}</ref>

On 22 December 2023, the Community of Madrid amended its regional LGBT laws by removing penalties for discrimination based on sexual orientation and gender identity, becoming the first jurisdiction in Europe to do so.<ref name="ElPais2023">[https://elpais.com/espana/madrid/2023-12-15/el-pp-y-vox-consuman-en-la-asamblea-de-madrid-el-desmantelamiento-de-las-leyes-trans-y-lgtbi.html ''El País'': "El PP y Vox consuman en la Asamblea de Madrid el desmantelamiento de las leyes trans y LGTBI"], 15 December 2023.</ref> Although the formal prohibition of discrimination remains in the text of the law, the removal of enforcement mechanisms renders it largely symbolic at the regional level. As a result, individuals who experience employment discrimination on these grounds in Madrid must now rely exclusively on national legislation, such as the Workers’ Statute and the ''Ley 15/2022, de igualdad de trato y no discriminación'' (Zerolo Law), to pursue remedies.<ref name="UCLPIMedia2023">[https://uclpimedia.com/online/community-of-madrid-partially-revokes-trans-and-lgbtq-rights-laws/ UCLPI Media: "Community of Madrid partially revokes Trans and LGBTQ+ Rights Laws"], accessed April 2025.</ref>

Article 4(2) of the ''Workers' Statute'' ({{langx|es|link=no|Estatuto de los trabajadores}}){{efn|{{langx|ca|Estatut dels treballadors}}; {{langx|gl|Estatuto dos traballadores}}; {{langx|eu|Langileen Estatutua}}; {{langx|ast|Estatutu de los trabayadores}}}} reads as follows:<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.boe.es/buscar/act.php?id=BOE-A-2015-11430|title=Real Decreto Legislativo 2/2015, de 23 de octubre, por el que se aprueba el texto refundido de la Ley del Estatuto de los Trabajadores.|work=Agencia Estatal Boletín Oficial del Estado|language=es}}</ref>

{{cquote|In labour relations, workers have the right: ... not to be directly or indirectly discriminated in employment, or, once employed, discriminated by reason of sex, civil status, age within the limits set forth by this Law, racial or ethnic origin, social status, religion or convictions, political ideas, sexual orientation, membership or non-membership in a union, or for reasons of language within the Spanish State.}}

Discrimination in the provisions of goods and services based on sexual orientation and gender identity was not banned nationwide either. The aforementioned autonomous communities all ban such discrimination within their anti-discrimination laws.<ref name="rainbow"/> Discrimination in health services and education based on sexual orientation and gender identity has been banned in Spain since 2011 and 2013, respectively.<ref name="rainbow"/>

Ten autonomous communities also ban discrimination based on sex characteristics, thereby protecting [[intersex]] people from discrimination. These autonomous communities are Galicia (2014),<ref name="galicia"/> Catalonia (2014),<ref name="catalonia"/> Extremadura (2015),<ref name="extremadura">{{cite web|url=https://www.boe.es/buscar/pdf/2015/BOE-A-2015-5015-consolidado.pdf|title=Ley 12/2015, de 8 d abril, de igualdad social de lesbianas, gais, bisexuales, transexuales, transgénero e intersexuales y de políticas públicas contra la discriminación por orientación sexual e identidad de género en la Comunidad Autónoma de Extremadura|work=www.boe.es|language=es|access-date=30 May 2020}}</ref> the Balearic Islands (2016),<ref name="balearic"/> Madrid (2016),<ref name="madrid"/> Murcia (2016),<ref name="murcia"/> Valencia (2017),<ref name="valencia"/> Navarre (2017),<ref name="navarre">{{Cite web|url=http://noticias.juridicas.com/base_datos/CCAA/600443-ley-foral-8-2017-de-19-jun-cf-navarra-para-la-igualdad-social-de-las-personas.html|title=Ley foral 8/2017, de 19 de junio, para la igualdad social de las personas LGBTI+|website=Noticias Jurídicas}}</ref> Andalusia (2018),<ref name="andalusia"/> and Aragon (2019).<ref name="aragon"/>

===Bias-motivated speech and violence===
Hate speech on the basis of both sexual orientation and gender identity has been banned since 1995.<ref name="rainbow"/> Additionally, under the country's [[hate crime]] law, crimes motivated by the victim's sexual orientation or gender identity, amongst other categories, result in additional legal penalties.

The [[Secretary of State for Security]] reported that instances of violence against LGBT people decreased 4% in 2018.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.interior.gob.es/documents/642012/3479677/informe+2018/ab86b6d9-090b-465b-bd14-cfcafccdfebc|title=Informe sobre la evolución de los delitos de odio en España|work=Secretary of State for Security|language=es|access-date=30 May 2020|archive-date=31 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200531124500/http://www.interior.gob.es/documents/642012/3479677/informe+2018/ab86b6d9-090b-465b-bd14-cfcafccdfebc|url-status=dead}}</ref> This contrasted with figures from other sources. The ''Observatorio Madrileño'' reported a 7% increase in anti-LGBT violence in Madrid,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.contraelodio.org/informes/2018/informe_obsmad_comunidad_madrid_2018.pdf|title=Informe de incidentes de odio motivados por LGBTfobia en la Comunidad de Madrid|work=Madrid Observatory|access-date=30 May 2020|language=es}}</ref> while the Observatory Against Homophobia of Catalonia ({{lang|ca|Observatori contra l'Homofòbia}}) reported a 30% increase in the first few months of 2019.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.elnacional.cat/es/politica/observatorio-homofobia-aumento-agresiones-2019_390619_102.html|title=El Observatorio Contra la Homofobia alerta de un aunmento de las agresiomes este 2019|work=El Nacional|date=2 June 2019|language=es|location=Barcelona}}</ref>

Since January 2019, teachers and students in Madrid are obliged to report cases of bullying, including against LGBT students.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.elmundo.es/madrid/2019/01/08/5c2e562b21efa016588b45f1.html|title=Los profesores y los alumnos de Madrid tendrán la obligación de denunciar el acoso escolar|work=El Mundo|date=8 January 2019|language=es|location=Madrid|last=Belver|first=Marta}}</ref>

==Military service==
{{Expand section|date=October 2021}}
Lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender people may serve openly in the [[Spanish Armed Forces]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.lgbtmoney.co.uk/|title=LGBT Money|website=lgbt-money}}</ref>

==Transgender and intersex rights==
{{Main|Intersex rights in Spain}}
[[File:En memoria de ‘La Veneno’ 02.jpg|thumb|Commemorative plaque in Madrid to [[La Veneno]], a transgender woman visible on Spanish television in the 1990s]]
In November 2006, the Zapatero Government passed a law that allows [[transgender]] people to register under their preferred sex in public documents such as birth certificates, identity cards and passports without undergoing prior [[sex reassignment surgery|surgical change]]. However a professional diagnosis is still required.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.advocate.com/news_detail_ektid39287.asp |title=Spanish lawmakers approve bill to let transsexuals change gender without surgery |publisher=Advocate.com |access-date=20 January 2011}}</ref> The law came into effect on 17 March 2007.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://sociedad.elpais.com/sociedad/2007/03/17/actualidad/1174086001_850215.html |title=Entra en vigor la Ley de Identidad de Géneroy |newspaper=[[El País]] |access-date=4 February 2017}}</ref> In July 2019, the [[Constitutional Court of Spain]] declared that prohibiting transgender minors from accessing legal gender changes is unconstitutional. The court ruled that transgender minors who are "mature enough" may register their new sex on their identity cards, and struck down the article of the 2007 legislation that limited this possibility only to those over 18.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://chrysallis.org.es/excluir-a-menores-trans-es-inconstitucional/|title=Excluir a menores trans es inconstitucional|work=Chrysallis.org|date=20 July 2019|language=es|access-date=31 July 2019|archive-date=31 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190731110517/https://chrysallis.org.es/excluir-a-menores-trans-es-inconstitucional/|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.dosmanzanas.com/2019/07/el-tribunal-constitucional-declara-inconstitucional-la-prohibicion-de-que-los-menores-trans-puedan-acceder-a-la-rectificacion-registral-del-sexo.html|title=El Tribunal Constitucional delcara inconstitucional la prohición de que los menores trans puedan acceder a la rectificación registral del sexo|work=dosmanzanas.com|date=21 July 2019|language=es}}</ref> The first minor to change his legal gender did so in December 2019.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://elpais.com/sociedad/2019/12/18/actualidad/1576677732_024518.html?ssm=TW_CM|title=Patrick deberá mostrar su madurez ante el juez para cambiar su sexo en el DNI|work=El País|date=18 December 2019|language=es|location=Madrid|last1=Rincón|first1=Reyes}}</ref>

A new bill was approved in June 2022 by the Spanish government that would allow trans people to "self-identify" their gender on national birth certificates and grant permission for people above 16 to change their gender without restrictions and without needing to undergo psychological and medical evaluations, and for people between 12 and 16 under certain conditions.<ref group="note">Teenagers between 14 and 16 could do so by requesting approval from their parents (or from a judge if they cannot agree); teenagers between 12 and 14 would require judicial authorisation.</ref><ref name="APJune2022">{{Cite news |date=27 June 2022 |title=Spanish government approves new bill on transgender rights |work=[[AP News]] |url=https://apnews.com/article/spain-gay-rights-madrid-government-and-politics-0eeb5b9fba7c78a458326bcfbe871222 |url-status=live |access-date=28 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220627152702/https://apnews.com/article/spain-gay-rights-madrid-government-and-politics-0eeb5b9fba7c78a458326bcfbe871222 |archive-date=27 June 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Chudy |first=Emily |date=27 June 2022 |title=Spain takes first step towards letting trans people self-determine legal gender |work=[[PinkNews]] |url=https://www.pinknews.co.uk/2022/06/27/spain-trans-self-determine-law/ |url-status=live |access-date=28 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220628022304/https://www.pinknews.co.uk/2022/06/27/spain-trans-self-determine-law/ |archive-date=28 June 2022}}</ref><ref name="EWJune2022">{{Cite news |last=McLaren-Kennedy |first=Peter |date=27 June 2022 |title=Spain gives the green light to self-determination of sex |work=[[EuroWeekly News]] |url=https://euroweeklynews.com/2022/06/27/spain-gives-the-green-light-to-self-determination-of-sex/ |url-status=live |access-date=28 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220627190915/https://euroweeklynews.com/2022/06/27/spain-gives-the-green-light-to-self-determination-of-sex/ |archive-date=27 June 2022}}</ref> The bill was promoted by the left-wing [[Unidas Podemos]] party,<ref name="APJune2022" /> but its approval was initially delayed because the [[Spanish Socialist Workers' Party]] opposed, questioning the bill's treatment of transgender teenagers and expressing concerns that it may cause gender inequality. The dispute was resolved when [[Carmen Calvo]], the then Vice President of the government, left the Executive.<ref name="EWJune2022" /><ref name="APJune2022" /> Congress gave final approval to the bill on 16 February 2023 by a vote of 191–60 with 91 abstentions.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-02-16 |title=España aprueba la "ley trans" mientras otros países reculan |url=https://www.eluniversal.com.mx/mundo/espana-aprueba-la-ley-trans-mientras-otros-paises-reculan |access-date=2023-02-16 |website=El Universal |language=es}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-02-16 |title=Spain Allows Legal Gender Change Without a Medical Evaluation |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2023/02/16/world/europe/spain-gender-change.html |access-date=2024-10-08 |website=New York Times |language=es}}</ref>
[[File:Gender identity spain.svg|thumb|Map of gender identity laws in Spain's autonomous communities. ■ '''Purple:''' Law allows self-determination of gender identity ■ '''Blue:''' Law requires medical diagnosis to change gender identity ■ '''Grey:''' Law does not recognize trans identity]]
Many of Spain's autonomous communities have their own laws which allow trans people to change their legal gender identity. Catalonia (since 2014), Andalucía (since 2014), Valencia (since 2014), Extremadura (since 2015), Balearic Islands (since 2016), Madrid (2016–2023), Murcia (since 2016), Navarre (since 2017), Aragón (since 2018), Basque Country (since 2019), Cantabria (since 2020), Canary Islands (since 2021), La Rioja (since 2022), and Castilla-La Mancha (since 2022) allow trans people to self-declare their gender identity. In Galicia, a gender change requires a medical diagnosis.<ref>{{Cite web |last=20minutos |date=2022-10-24 |title=Catorce comunidades ya reconocían la libre autodeterminación de género antes del debate de la ley trans |url=https://www.20minutos.es/noticia/5070541/0/ochenta-por-ciento-comunidades-autonomas-reconoce-autodeterminacion-genero-ley-trans/ |access-date=2022-10-25 |website=www.20minutos.es - Últimas Noticias |language=es}}</ref>

In 2023, a new right-wing government in Madrid repealed several legal protections and recognitions for trans people. Trans people may now only have their legal gender updated on ID after it has been recognized on national documents.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/spains-madrid-region-partially-revokes-trans-lgbtq-rights-laws-2023-12-22}}</ref>

[[Intersex]] infants in Spain may not be given unnecessary medical interventions to have their sex characteristics altered after the passage of the Trans Law on 16 February 2023.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Trujillo |first=Noemí López |date=2023-02-16 |title=Qué regula y qué ha dejado fuera la ley trans y LGTBI aprobada definitivamente |url=https://www.newtral.es/aprobada-ley-trans-lgtbi/20230216/ |access-date=2023-02-16 |website=Newtral |language=es}}</ref> Previous to that, it had been banned in several autonomous communities: [[Andalusia]],<ref name="andalusia" /> [[Aragon]],<ref name="aragon" /> the [[Balearic Islands]],<ref name="balearic" /> [[Extremadura]],<ref name="extremadura" /> [[Community of Madrid|Madrid]],<ref name="madrid" /> [[Region of Murcia|Murcia]],<ref name="murcia" /> [[Navarre]],<ref name="navarre" /> and [[Valencian Community|Valencia]].<ref name="valencia" /><ref>{{cite web |last=Enguix |first=Salvador |date=21 November 2018 |title=Valencia aprueba la Ley LGTBI más avanzada de España |url=https://www.lavanguardia.com/local/valencia/20181121/453079795473/valencia-ley-lgtbi-mas-avanzada-espana.html |work=La Vanguardia |language=es}}</ref> Human rights groups consider these surgeries unnecessary and, they argue, should only be performed if the applicant consents to the operation (i.e. has reached the age of 18). In April 2019, the Catalan Department of Labor, Social Affairs and Families announced that official documents in Catalonia would include the option "non-binary" alongside male and female.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://treballiaferssocials.gencat.cat/ca/inici/nota-premsa/?id=350022|title=Treball, Afers Socials i Famílies adapta tots els seus formularis i comunicació administrativa a la diversitat sexual, d'expressió de gènere i familiar|work=Catalan Department of Work, Social Affairs and Families|language=ca|access-date=30 May 2019}}</ref>

==Blood donation==
Gay and bisexual men are allowed to donate blood in Spain. For anyone regardless of sexual orientation, the deferral period is six months following the start of a new sexual partnership.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/health-14844413|title=Gay men blood donor ban lifted|first=Fergus|last=Walsh|work=BBC News|date=8 September 2011}}</ref>

==Conversion therapy==
[[File:Conversion therapy spain.svg|thumb|Map of Conversion Therapy bans by autonomous community in Spain. '''■ (Dark Blue)''' Comprehensive conversion therapy ban '''■ (Light Blue)''' Only medical professionals are banned from performing conversion therapy]]
Congress passed a nationwide ban on conversion therapy as part of the "Trans Law" on 16 February 2023.<ref name="Valdés"/> Previously, conversion therapy had been banned or restricted in several autonomous communities.

The autonomous [[community of Madrid]] approved a [[conversion therapy]] ban in July 2016.<ref name="madrid">{{Cite web|url=https://www.boe.es/buscar/pdf/2016/BOE-A-2016-11096-consolidado.pdf|title=Ley 3/2016, de 22 de julio, de Protección Integral contra LGTBIfobia y la Discriminación por Razón de Orientación e Identidad Sexual en la Comunidad de Madrid}}</ref> The ban went into effect on 1 January 2017, and applies to medical, psychiatric, psychological and religious groups. In August 2016, an LGBT advocacy group brought charges under the new law against a Madrid woman who offered conversion therapy.<ref>[https://www.thelocal.es/20160829/madrid-lgbt-group-takes-action-over-gay-cure-therapy Madrid LGBT group takes action over ‘gay cure therapy’]</ref> In September 2019, the woman was fined 20,000 [[euro]]s.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://shangay.com/2019/09/18/multa-historica-lgtbcifobia/|title=La multa histórica de la Comunidad de Madrid a la 'coach' que ofrecía terapias para curar la homosexualidad|work=Shangay|date=18 September 2019|last=Reboso|first=Iván|language=es}}</ref> In December 2023, a newly elected right-wing government repealed Madrid's conversion therapy ban in so far as it applies to trans people, and removed any penalties for conversion therapy.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |last=Trujillo |first=Noemí López |date=2024-01-13 |title=Siete leyes autonómicas y una estatal prohíben las terapias de conversión, pero todavía no ha habido ninguna sanción |url=https://www.newtral.es/terapias-de-conversion-espana-leyes/20240113/ |access-date=2024-01-13 |website=Newtral |language=es}}</ref>

[[Region of Murcia|Murcia]] approved a conversion therapy ban in May 2016, which came into effect on 1 June 2016. Unlike the other bans, the Murcia ban only applies to [[health professional]]s.<ref name="murcia">{{Cite web|url=http://noticias.juridicas.com/base_datos/CCAA/576023-l-8-2016-de-27-may-ca-murcia-igualdad-social-de-lesbianas-gais-bisexuales.html|title=Ley 8/2016, de 27 de mayo, de igualdad social de lesbianas, gais, bisexuales, transexuales, transgénero e intersexuales, y de políticas públicas contra la discriminación por orientación sexual e identidad de género en la Comunidad Autónoma de la Región de Murcia|website=Noticias Jurídicas}}</ref> Navarre, the Balearic Islands, and Catalonia have also passed similarly limited conversion therapy bans.<ref name=":1" />

[[Valencian Community|Valencia]] banned the use of conversion therapies in April 2017.<ref name="valencia"/> [[Andalusia]] followed suit in December 2017, with the law coming into force on 4 February 2018.<ref name="andalusia">{{in lang|es}} [https://www.boe.es/buscar/pdf/2018/BOE-A-2018-1549-consolidado.pdf Ley 8/2017, de 28 de diciembre, para garantizar los derechos, la igualdad de trato y no discriminación de las personas LGTBI y sus familiares en Andalucía]</ref> In January 2019, [[Aragon]] made it an offense to promote and/or perform conversion therapy.<ref name="aragon">{{cite web|url=http://www.boa.aragon.es/cgi-bin/EBOA/BRSCGI?CMD=VEROBJ&MLKOB=1055478702424|title=LEY 18/2018, de 20 de diciembre, de igualdad y protección integral contra la discrimina- ción por razón de orientación sexual, expresión e identidad de género en la Comunidad Autónoma de Aragón|work=boa.aragon.es|language=es|date=11 January 2019}}</ref> The autonomous communities of Canary Islands, Cantabria, Castilla-La Mancha and La Rioja also have conversion therapy bans.<ref name=":1" />

In April 2019, the [[Government of the Community of Madrid]] announced it was investigating the [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Alcalá de Henares]] for violating conversion therapy laws. This followed reports that a journalist named Ángel Villascusa posed as a gay man and attended a counselling service provided by the diocese. Villascusa alleged the bishop was running illegal conversion therapy sessions. The bishop was defended by the [[Catholic Church in Spain]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thelocal.es/20190406/spanish-church-defends-bishop-in-gay-cure-controversy|title=Spanish Church defends bishop in 'gay cure' controversy|work=TheLocal.es|date=6 April 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.gaystarnews.com/article/spanish-church-defends-bishop-accused-of-providing-conversion-therapy/|title=Spanish church defends bishop accused of providing conversion therapy|work=Gay Star News|date=7 April 2019|last=Capon|first=Tom|access-date=16 April 2019|archive-date=30 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190730204557/https://www.gaystarnews.com/article/spanish-church-defends-bishop-accused-of-providing-conversion-therapy/|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Ministry of Health (Spain)|Minister of Health, Consumer Affairs and Social Welfare]] [[María Luisa Carcedo]] called for a nationwide ban on [[conversion therapy]]. She said, "they [the Church] are breaking the law therefore, in the first instance, these courses have to be completely abolished. I thought that, in Spain, accepting the various sexual orientations was assumed in all areas, but unfortunately we see that there are still pockets where people are told what their sexual orientation should be".<ref>{{cite news|title=Spain's Health Minister Calls for End to Gay 'Conversion Therapy'|url=https://www.voanews.com/a/spain-s-health-minister-calls-for-end-to-gay-conversion-therapy-/4860732.html|work=[[Voice of America]]|date=3 April 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.gaystarnews.com/article/spain-health-minister-conversion-therapy-completely-abolished/|title=Spain's health minister wants conversion therapy 'completely abolished'|work=Gay Star News|date=4 April 2019|last=Besanvalle|first=James|access-date=16 April 2019|archive-date=30 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190730212042/https://www.gaystarnews.com/article/spain-health-minister-conversion-therapy-completely-abolished/|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==LGBT rights movement in Spain==
[[File:Europride 2007 Madrid.JPG|thumb|230px|[[Europride]] 2007 in [[Madrid]]]]
[[File:ValladolidPride2024.jpg|thumb|[[Valladolid]] LGBTQ+ Pride 2024.]]
[[File:Gay Pride in Valencia 06.jpg|thumb|right|230px|Gay Pride in [[Valencia]], 2019]]

The first gay organisation in Spain was the Spanish Homosexual Liberation Movement (MELH, ''[[:es:Movimiento Español de Liberación Homosexual|Movimiento Español de Liberación Homosexual]]'', ''[[:ca:Moviment Espanyol d'Alliberament Homosexual|Moviment Espanyol d'Alliberament Homosexual]]''), which was founded in 1970 in [[Barcelona]]. The group also established centers in [[Madrid]] and [[Bilbao]]. It disbanded in 1973 because of police pressure, but following Franco's death, several members of the group formed the ''Front d'Alliberament Gai de Catalunya'' (FAGC) in 1975 to continue campaigning for LGBT rights. Several more groups were established, including the ''Euskal Herriko Gay-Les Askapen Mugimendua'' in the Basque Country, the ''Frente Homosexual de Acción Revolucionaria'' in Madrid, and the ''Coordinadora de Frentes de Liberación Homosexual de Estado Español'' (COFLHEE), all three in 1977. On 28 June 1977, the FAGC organised the [[1977 Barcelona gay pride demonstration|first gay demonstration in Spain]] in the city of Barcelona with about 4,000 to 5,000 participants. Police repressed the event, with several arrests and injuries. Exactly one year later, the ''Frente de Liberación Homosexual de Castilla'' held a demonstration in Madrid with about 10,000 people. Disagreement within these groups caused many to shut down; many members advocated a more "radical" movement with public demonstrations and many felt the organizations had failed to properly address or campaign for the rights of lesbians and bisexuals. LGBT groups saw an important landmark moment in 1979 with the decriminalisation of homosexuality.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://fundaciontriangulo.es/informes/e_Historia.htm|title=Historia del movimiento lésbico y gai|work=Fundación Triángulo|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070424082247/http://fundaciontriangulo.es/informes/e_Historia.htm|archive-date=24 April 2007|language=es}}</ref>

During the 1980s, several LGBT groups and magazines were launched in various cities. The ''[[Federación Estatal de Lesbianas, Gays, Transexuales y Bisexuales]]'' (FELGTB), today Spain's largest LGBT organization, was founded in 1992 from members of the then-former COFLHEE. The groups campaign for legal rights for same-sex couples and LGBT people, societal acceptance, operate counseling centers about topics such as coming out, sex, relationships or health issues, and organize various events and festivals. Several [[gay villages]] exist in Spain, including [[Chueca, Madrid|Chueca]] in Madrid, "[[Gaixample]]" in Barcelona, [[Ibiza]], [[Maspalomas]] in [[Gran Canaria]], and [[Sitges]].

Nowadays, numerous [[pride parade]]s and other LGBT festivals are held throughout Spain, including [[Madrid Pride]], whose 2019 edition had 400,000 participants according to police,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thelocal.es/20190707/in-images-400000-march-through-madrid-for-gay-pride|title=In pics: 400,000 march through Madrid for Gay Pride|work=TheLocal.es|date=7 July 2019}}</ref> Barcelona, Gran Canaria, [[Seville]], Bilbao, [[A Coruña]], [[Valencia]], [[Zaragoza]], [[Murcia]], [[Palma de Mallorca]], [[Cartagena, Spain|Cartagena]], [[Valladolid]], [[Benidorm]], Ibiza, Sitges, Maspalomas, [[Torremolinos]], and many more.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.misterbandb.com/gay-events/spain/gay-pride|title=Gay Pride Events in Spain}}</ref>

==Political parties==
In December 2024, Spain's ruling [[Spanish Socialist Workers' Party]] (PSOE) announced its intention to introduce restrictions on the participation of transgender women in female sports during its 40th Federal Congress in Seville. The proposal aimed to limit participation in women's sports to individuals assigned female at birth, citing concerns over fairness in competition. The announcement sparked significant backlash from LGBTQ+ rights organizations, PSOE coalition partners, and activist groups, who viewed the measure as discriminatory and a reversal of the party's prior commitments to gender self-determination. The party also proposed the removal of the letter "Q"—representing "queer"—from official usage in references to the LGBTQ+ community, arguing that the term lacked legal definition and clarity.<ref name="pinknews-sports">{{cite web |last=Gillen |first=Jack |title=Spain's Socialist Party to ban trans women in sport and drop 'Q' from LGBTQ+ |url=https://www.thepinknews.com/2024/12/03/spain-psoe-trans-lgbtq-sport-ban/ |website=PinkNews |date=3 December 2024 |access-date=4 May 2025}}</ref>

As of May 2025, no legislation has been passed to enact the proposed sports restrictions or terminology changes, and the government has not introduced a formal bill to Spain's parliament.

==Public opinion==
Homosexuality and [[bisexuality]] today are greatly accepted all around the country and intensely in larger and medium cities. That being said, a certain level of discrimination can still be encountered in small villages and among some parts of society.
A [[Eurobarometer]] survey published December 2006 showed that 66 percent of Spanish people surveyed supported same-sex marriage and 43 percent supported same-sex couples' right to adopt (EU-wide averages were 44 percent and 33 percent, respectively).<ref name="EU">{{Cite news
|title=Eight EU Countries Back Same-Sex Marriage
|publisher=Angus Reid Global Monitor
|date=24 December 2006 |url=http://www.angus-reid.com/polls/view/14203
|access-date=16 March 2008 |url-status=usurped
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080315091017/http://www.angus-reid.com/polls/view/14203
|archive-date=15 March 2008 }}</ref>

On 4 March 2013, Interior Minister [[Jorge Fernández Díaz]] said that due to same-sex marriages the survival of the human species is not guaranteed.<ref name=Govan>[https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/spain/9908038/Spanish-interior-minister-says-survival-of-species-at-stake-in-gay-marriage-row.html Spanish interior minister says 'survival of species' at stake in gay marriage row], Fiona Govan, Madrid; 4 March 2013; ''[[The Daily Telegraph]]''</ref> He also stated that same-sex marriages should not have the same protection under the law as opposite-sex ones,<ref name=Govan/> eight years after same-sex marriage was legalized.<ref>[http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/world_now/2012/06/spanish-dictionary.html Gay marriage, long legal in Spain, now in its dictionary], ''[[Los Angeles Times]]'', 25 June 2012, Emily Alpert</ref>

Among the countries studied by the [[Pew Research Center]] in 2013, Spain was rated first in acceptance of homosexuality, with 88% of Spaniards believing that homosexuality should be accepted by society, compared to 11% who disagreed.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pewglobal.org/2013/06/04/global-acceptance-of-homosexuality/|title=Global Acceptance of Homosexuality|date=4 June 2013|publisher=[[Pew Research Center]]}}</ref>

In May 2015, [[PlanetRomeo]], an LGBT social network, published its first Gay Happiness Index (GHI). Gay men from over 120 countries were asked about how they feel about society's view on homosexuality, how do they experience the way they are treated by other people and how satisfied are they with their lives. Spain was ranked 13th with a GHI score of 68.<ref>[https://www.romeo.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/GAY_HAPPINESS_MONITOR_2015.pdf The Gay Happiness Index. The very first worldwide country ranking, based on the input of 115,000 gay men] Planet Romeo</ref>
[[File:DragCon2024 @DVSROSS (20) (53871469512).jpg|thumb|[[Drag Sethlas]], winner in 2017 and 2020 of the Drag Contest in [[Carnival of Las Palmas]] and winner of [[Drag Race España All Stars]] Season 1.]]

[[BuzzFeed]] conducted a poll in December 2016 across several countries on the acceptance of transgender individuals. Spain ranked the most accepting in most categories, with 87% of those polled believing transgender people should be protected from discrimination, and only 8% believing there is something mentally or physically wrong with them. In addition, 77% believed transgender people should be allowed to use the bathroom that matches their gender identity rather than being forced to use the one of their birth-assigned gender, with over 50% strongly agreeing with this.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.buzzfeed.com/lesterfeder/this-is-how-23-countries-feel-about-transgender-rights|title=This Is How 23 Countries Feel About Transgender Rights|publisher=BuzzFeedNews|author=J. Lester Feder|date=29 December 2016}}</ref>

The 2015 [[Eurobarometer]] found that 84% of [[Spaniards]] thought that same-sex marriage should be allowed throughout Europe, 10% were against.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.equineteurope.org/IMG/pdf/ebs_437_en.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160122075042/http://www.equineteurope.org/IMG/pdf/ebs_437_en.pdf|url-status=dead|title=Special Eurobarometer 437|archive-date=22 January 2016}}</ref> The 2019 Eurobarometer showed that 91% of Spaniards believed gay and bisexual people should enjoy the same rights as heterosexual people, and 86% supported same-sex marriage.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ec.europa.eu/commfrontoffice/publicopinion/index.cfm/ResultDoc/download/DocumentKy/87771|title=Eurobarometer on Discrimination 2019: The social acceptance of LGBTI people in the EU|publisher=European Commission|work=TNS|access-date=23 September 2019|page=2}}</ref>

The 2023 Eurobarometer found that 88% of Spaniards thought same-sex marriage should be allowed throughout Europe, and 89% agreed that "there is nothing wrong in a sexual relationship between two persons of the same sex".<ref>{{Cite web |date=22 December 2023 |title=Discrimination in the EU_sp535_volumeA.xlsx [QB15_2] and [QB15_3] |url=https://webgate.ec.europa.eu/ebsm/api/public/odp/download?key=357D4B83D1BE42F7D20030592A2E8DE4 |access-date=29 December 2023 |website=data.europa.eu |format=xls}}</ref>

==LGBT culture==

===Literature===
[[File:Jacinto Benavente y Martinez.jpg|thumb|200px|right|[[Jacinto Benavente]], [[Nobel Prize in Literature]]]]
[[File:Federico García Lorca. Huerta de San Vicente, Granada.jpg|200px|thumb|right|[[Federico García Lorca]] in 1932]]
At the beginning of the 20th century, Spanish authors, like [[Jacinto Benavente]], [[Pedro de Répide]] and Antonio de Hoyos y Vinent, had to choose between ignoring the subject of homosexuality or representing it negatively. The only authors publishing literature with LGBT content were foreigners: [[Augusto d'Halmar]] from Chile published ''Pasión y muerte del cura Deusto'', Alfonso Hernández Catá from [[Cuba]] published ''El ángel de Sodoma'', and [[Alberto Nin Frías]] from [[Uruguay]] published ''La novela del renacimiento y otros relatos'', ''La fuente envenenada'', ''Marcos, amador de la belleza'', ''Alexis o el significado del temperamento Urano'' and, in 1933, ''Homosexualismo creador'', the first essay representing homosexuality in a positive light.<ref name="Eisenberg">{{Cite web | author = Daniel Eisenberg | url = http://users.ipfw.edu/jehle/DEISENBE/Other_Hispanic_Topics/escondida.pdf | title = Homosexuality in Spanish history and culture | access-date = 30 June 2008 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110514124557/http://users.ipfw.edu/jehle/DEISENBE/Other_Hispanic_Topics/escondida.pdf | archive-date = 14 May 2011 | url-status = dead }}</ref>

Others, such as the authors of the [[Generation of '27]], took refuge in poetry. The gay and bisexual poets of this literary movement were amongst the most influential in [[Spanish literature]]: [[Federico García Lorca]], [[Emilio Prados]], [[Luis Cernuda]], [[Vicente Aleixandre]] and [[Manuel Altolaguirre]]. These poets were highly influenced by the great gay authors of the rest of Europe, such as [[Oscar Wilde]], [[André Gide]], mainly his ''[[Corydon (book)|Corydon]]'', and [[Marcel Proust]]. In 1930, [[Emilio García Gómez]] also published his ''Poemas arabigoandaluces'', which included the pederastic poets of [[Al-Andalus]].<ref name="Eisenberg"/> Around the mid-1930s, there was a slight liberalisation which ended with the beginning of the [[Spanish Civil War]]. After the Civil War, with García Lorca assassinated and the majority of gay and bisexual poets in exile, gay culture retired anew to the cryptic poetry of [[Vicente Aleixandre]], who never admitted his homosexuality publicly. Other gay poets of this period are [[Francisco Brines]], [[Leopoldo María Panero]], Juan Gil-Albert and [[Jaime Gil de Biedma]] and, in [[Córdoba, Andalusia|Córdoba]], Vicente Núñez, [[Pablo García Baena]] and Juan Bernier, belonging to the ''Cántico'' group.<ref name="Eisenberg"/>

Authors that appear after the [[Spanish Transition]] include [[Juan Goytisolo]], Luis Antonio de Villena, [[Antonio Gala]], [[Terenci Moix]], [[Álvaro Pombo]], [[Vicente Molina Foix]],<ref>Alfredo Martínez Expósito, «Vicente Molina Foix», in ''Who's Who in Contemporary Gay and Lesbian History'', Robert Aldrich, Garry Wotherspoon (ed.), Routledge, 2001, p.141.</ref> Antonio Roig, Biel Mesquida, Leopoldo Alas, Vicente García Cervera, Carlos Sanrune, Jaume Cela, Eduardo Mendicutti, Miguel Martín, Lluis Fernández, Víctor Monserrat, [[Alberto Cardín]], Mariano García Torres, [[Agustín Gómez-Arcos]],<ref name="Eisenberg"/> [[Óscar Esquivias]],<ref name="basanta">{{cite magazine | url = http://www.elcultural.es/version_papel/LETRAS/28955/Pampanitos_verdes | year = 2011 | author=Basanta, Ángel | title = Pampanitos verdes | magazine=El Cultural | access-date = 12 October 2012}}</ref> Luisgé Martín and Iñaki Echarte.

No lesbian authors in Spain publicly acknowledged their homosexuality until the 1990s. [[Gloria Fuertes]] never wanted her sexual orientation to be public. The first lesbian author to be openly gay was Andrea Luca. Other authors who have treated love between women in their books include [[Ana María Moix]], Ana Rosetti, [[Esther Tusquets]], Carmen Riera, [[Elena Fortún]], [[Isabel Franc]] and [[Lucía Etxebarría]], whose novel ''Beatriz y los cuerpos celestes'' won the [[Nadal Prize]] in 1998.<ref name="Eisenberg"/>

===Cinema and television===
[[File:KARLA SOFIA GASCON 2021.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Karla Sofía Gascón]].]]
[[File:Pedro Almodóvar-69720.jpg|thumb|right|Almodóvar receiving the [[Golden Lion]] for ''[[The Room Next Door]]'' (2024)]]
Early representation of homosexuality in Spanish cinema was difficult due to censorship by the Franco regime. The first movie that shows any kind of homosexuality, very discreetly, was ''Diferente'', a musical from 1961, directed by Luis María Delgado. Up to 1977, if homosexuals appeared at all, it was to ridicule them as the "funny effeminate faggot".<ref name="cine">{{Cite web | url = http://usuarios.lycos.es/marele1971/cineles/espana.html | title = La Homosexualidad en el cine Español | agency = Web de Marele | access-date = 3 July 2007 | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070707072142/http://usuarios.lycos.es/marele1971/cineles/espana.html | archive-date = 7 July 2007 | df = dmy-all }}</ref>

During the [[Spanish transition to democracy]], the first films appeared where homosexuality was not portrayed in a negative way. Examples are ''[[La Muerte de Mikel]]'' from [[Imanol Uribe]] and [[Ocaña, an Intermittent Portrait|''Ocaña, retrat intermitent'']] from [[Ventura Pons]]. In these films, authors experiment with different visions of gay men: the [[transvestite]] in ''Un hombre llamado Flor de Otoño'' (1978), the manly and attractive gay man in ''[[Hidden Pleasures|Los placeres ocultos]]'' (1976) from [[Eloy de la Iglesia]], the warring "queen" in ''Gay Club'' (1980), etc. Homosexuality is the center of the plot, and homosexuals are shown as vulnerable, in inner turmoil and in dispute with society.<ref name="cine"/>

Beginning in 1985, homosexuality loses primacy on the plot, in spite of still being fundamental. This trend begins with ''[[La ley del deseo]]'' (1987) from [[Pedro Almodóvar]] and continues with films like ''[[Tras el cristal]]'' (1986) from [[Agustí Villaronga]], ''Las cosas del querer'' (1989) and ''Las cosas del querer 2'' (1995) from [[Jaime Chávarri]].<ref name="cine"/> Successful films include ''[[Perdona bonita, pero Lucas me quería a mí]]'' (1997), ''[[Segunda piel]]'' (1999), ''[[Km. 0]]'' (2000), ''[[Plata quemada]]'' (2000), ''[[Bulgarian Lovers|Los novios búlgaros]]'' (2003) and ''[[Cachorro]]'' (2004).

Undoubtedly, Spain's best-known LGBT person is [[Pedro Almodóvar]]. Almodóvar has often intertwined LGBT themes in his plots, and his films have turned him into one of the most renowned Spanish movie directors. Apart from Almodóvar, [[Ventura Pons]] and [[Eloy de la Iglesia]] are two film directors who have worked on more LGBT themes in their movies.<ref name="cine"/> In September 2004, movie director [[Alejandro Amenábar]] publicly announced his homosexuality.

There have not been as many Spanish films with a lesbian plot. The most renown may be the comedy ''[[A mi madre le gustan las mujeres]]'' (2002), and the romantic drama ''[[Room in Rome]]'' (''Habitación en Roma'') (2010).

The most-important LGBT film festivals are [[LesGaiCineMad]] in Madrid and the ''Festival internacional de cinema gai i lèsbic de Barcelona'' (FICGLB). There are also many other smaller festivals and shows, including ''Festival del Mar'' in the [[Balearic Islands]], ''Festival del Sol'' in the [[Canary Islands]], ''Zinegoak'' in [[Bilbao]], ''LesGaiFestiVal'' in [[Valencia, Spain|Valencia]] or ''Zinentiendo'' in [[Zaragoza]].<ref>{{Cite web | url = http://www.homocine.com/festivales | title = Festivales de Cine LGTB | agency = homocine.com | access-date = 5 November 2014}}</ref>

In 2018, [[Ángela Ponce]] became the first transgender woman to win the [[Miss Universe Spain 2018|Miss Universe Spain]] title,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.gmanetwork.com/news/lifestyle/content/658755/miss-universe-spain-crowns-its-first-transgender-queen-angela-ponce/story/|title=Miss Universe Spain crowns its first transgender queen, Angela Ponce|website=GMA News Online|language=en-US|access-date=15 December 2018}}</ref> and was the first transgender woman to contest for [[Miss Universe 2018]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thestar.com.my/news/regional/2018/12/15/first-transgender-woman-to-contest-miss-universe-in-bangkok-is-from-spain/|title=First transgender woman to contest Miss Universe – in Bangkok – is from Spain – Asean Plus {{!}} The Star Online|website=www.thestar.com.my|access-date=15 December 2018}}</ref>

===Music===
[[File:Miguel de Molina.jpg|thumb|[[Miguel de Molina]].]]
[[File:José_Antonio_Nielfa_-_Otxoa_-_Toma_bacalao.jpg|thumb|''Toma bacalao'' (1989) by [[La Otxoa]].]]

[[File:Diamante en bruto María Peláe – Ayer por mí, hoy por ti - (Programa 4) 0-23 screenshot.png|thumb|[[María Peláe]].]]
During Franco's dictatorship, musicians seldom made any reference to homosexuality in their songs or in public speeches. An exception was the ''[[copla (music)|copla]]'' singer Miguel de Molina, openly homosexual and against Franco. De Molina fled to [[Argentina]] after being brutally tortured and his shows prohibited.<ref>{{Cite web | url = http://www.islaternura.com/APLAYA/NoEresElUnico/M/MOLINAmiguelABRIL2003/MOLINABiografia.htm | title = Miguel de Molina. Apuntes biográficos | work=Isla Ternura | access-date = 27 July 2007 | language = es| url-status = usurped |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070714065157/http://www.islaternura.com/APLAYA/NoEresElUnico/M/MOLINAmiguelABRIL2003/MOLINABiografia.htm  |archive-date = 14 July 2007}}</ref> Another exception was Bambino, whose homosexuality was known in [[flamenco]] circles. Some songs from [[Raphael (singer)|Raphael]], as "Qué sabe nadie" ("What does anyone know") or "Digan lo que digan" ("Whatever they say"), have frequently been interpreted in a gay light.<ref>{{Cite web | url = http://www.chueca.com/fotos/200210/17144301.htm | title = Galería de fotos (Raphael) | work=Chueca.com | access-date = 27 July 2007 | language = es|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070507174513/http://www.chueca.com/fotos/200210/17144301.htm  |archive-date = 7 May 2007}}</ref>

In 1974, the [[folk rock]] band Cánovas, Rodrigo, Adolfo y Guzmán talked about a lesbian relationship in the song "María y Amaranta" ("María and Amaranta"), that surprisingly was not censored. During the [[Spanish transition to democracy|transition to democracy]], the duo Vainica Doble sung about the fight of a gay man against the prejudices of his own family in the song "El rey de la casa" ("The king of the house").

Singer-songwriter [[Víctor Manuel]] has included LGBT subjects in several of his songs. In 1980, he released "Quién puso más" ("Who put more?"), a true love story between two men that ends after 30 years. He later mentioned transsexuality in his song "Como los monos de Gibraltar" ("As the monkeys in Gibraltar"), feminine homosexuality in "Laura ya no vive aquí" ("Laura doesn't live here any more") and bisexuality in "No me llames loca" (Don't call me fool/queen).
[[File:Manuela Trasobares (2023).jpg|thumb|left|[[Manuela Trasobares]], operatic mezzo-soprano.]]
It was not until the [[La Movida Madrileña]] that homosexuality became visible in Spanish music. The duo [[Pedro Almodóvar]] and [[Fabio McNamara]] usually dressed as women during their concerts, where they sang provocative lyrics. [[Tino Casal]] never hid his homosexuality and became an icon for many gay people. Nevertheless, it would be the trio [[Olvido Gara|Alaska]], [[Nacho Canut]] y [[Carlos Berlanga]] who would be identified from the beginning with the LGBT movement due to their constant references to homosexuality in their lyrics and their concerts. During their time as [[Alaska y Dinarama|Dinarama]], they recorded the song "[[¿A Quién le Importa?]]" ("Who cares?"), which became a [[gay anthem]] in Spain. After the Movida, several artists continued to make music with homosexual themes, such as Fabio McNamara, Carlos Berlanga in "Vacaciones" ("Holiday"), or Luis Miguélez, ex-guitarist of Dinarama and later member of Glamour to Kill.

At the end of the 1980s, [[Mecano]] made a hit with the song "[[Mujer contra mujer]]" ("Woman against woman"), clearly defending the love of two women. There were French ("[[Une femme avec une femme]]") and Italian ("Per Lei Contro Di Lei") versions. The song was a huge hit in France in 1990 where it reached No. 1 in charts during seven weeks. The song was also a hit in Latin America and is one of the most remembered of the group. They later composed the song "Stereosexual" that talked about bisexuality.<ref name="mari.com"/> In 1988, Tam Tam Go!, in the album "Spanish shuffle", included the song "Manuel Raquel", the only song in Spanish in the album, which told the story of a transsexual. [[Tino Casal]] included in his 1989 album ''Histeria'' the very explicit song "Que digan misa".
[[File:Festival des Vieilles Charrues 2022 - Rodrigo Cuevas - 012.jpg|thumb|[[Rodrigo Cuevas]].]]
At the beginning of the 1990s, new singer-songwriters also took up the subject, especially [[Inma Serrano]], Javier Álvarez, and Andrés Lewin, but also [[Pedro Guerra]] in his song "Otra forma de sentir" ("Another way of feeling") or [[Tontxu]] in "¿Entiendes?" ("Do you understand?"). Other artists with diverse styles also used the theme, as "El cielo no entiende" ("Heaven doesn't understand") by [[OBK]], "Entender el amor" ("Understand love") by [[Mónica Naranjo]], "El día de año nuevo" ("New Year's Day") by [[Amaral (band)|Amaral]], "Eva y María" by Materia Prima, "Sacrifícate" by Amistades Peligrosas, "La revolución sexual" by La casa azul, "Ángeles" by Merche, "Como una flor" by Malú, "Da igual" by Taxi, "El que quiera entender que entienda" by [[Mägo de Oz]], etc.<ref name="mari.com"/>

[[Indie pop]] has also treated homosexuality from different points of view, as the band Ellos in the song "Diferentes" ("Different"), or [[L Kan]] in "Gayhetera" (Gayhereto). The duo [[Astrud (band)|Astrud]] has been related to [[gay culture]]. The leather subculture has the band Gore Gore Gays with themes that range from LGBT demands to explicit sex.<ref name="mari.com">{{Cite web | url = http://www.glosas.net/int/gay/musicamaricom.htm | title = Musica mari.com | work = Glosas.net | access-date = 7 July 2007 | archive-date = 3 July 2007 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070703062935/http://www.glosas.net/int/gay/musicamaricom.htm | url-status = dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web | year = 2005 | url = http://www.filosofia.tk/aarom/temasmusica2000/gayncionero/gayncioneroZ.htm | title = Gaycionero | work = El desván de Aarom | access-date = 7 July 2007 | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070927015720/http://www.filosofia.tk/aarom/temasmusica2000/gayncionero/gayncioneroZ.htm | archive-date = 27 September 2007 | df = dmy-all }}</ref> Within the indie pop universe, many other bands produce songs almost exclusively for a gay public, especially gay-friendly or with a clear gay content ([[Nancys Rubias]], Lorena C, Spunky, La Terremoto de Alcorcón, Putilatex, Putirecords, Borrachas provincianas, Vanity Bear, Modelé Fatale, Dos Hombres Solos, Postura 69, etc.) and some drag queens have a successful career in music, such as [[La Prohibida]], Nacha la Macha, or La Otxoa.

=== Politics ===
{{Main|List of LGBT politicians in Spain}}
[[File:PAH en plaça del Padró, Raval. - 9266540527.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Ada Colau]], the openly bisexual [[Mayor of Barcelona]]]]
[[File:Carla Antonelli 2023 (cropped).jpg|thumb|[[Carla Antonelli]] first trans person to be elected to the [[Cortes Generales|Spanish Parliament]].]]
Several openly gay politicians have served in public office in Spain. One of the most prominent gay politicians is [[Jerónimo Saavedra]], who served as [[President of the Canary Islands]] twice from 1982 to 1987 and again from 1991 to 1993. Saavedra came out as gay in 2000. He served as a member of the [[Senate of Spain|Senate]] until 2004, and was Mayor of [[Las Palmas]] from 2007 to 2011.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.lasexta.com/programas/sexta-columna/noticias/jeronimo-saavedra-el-primer-diputado-homosexual-del-psoe-cuando-me-preguntaban-por-que-no-me-casaba-escapaba-diciendo-que-mi-abuelo-se-caso-a-los-58-y-yo-aun-no-los-tenia_20170623594d74200cf26ad761d7aec6.html|title=Jerónimo Saavedra, el primer diputado homosexual del PSOE: "Cuando me preguntaban por qué no me casaba escapaba diciendo que mi abuelo se casó a los 58"|website=laSexta.com|language=es|date=23 June 2017}}</ref> Another prominent gay politician and activist was [[Pedro Zerolo]], who served on the [[City Council of Madrid]] until his death in June 2015. Zerolo was known for his LGBT activism and was one of the biggest promoters of the law extending the right to marriage to same-sex couples, leading many to label him a gay icon.

Others include [[Javier Maroto]], formerly serving as mayor of the Basque capital of [[Vitoria-Gasteiz]] from 2011 to 2015 and currently serving as senator. Maroto married his fiancé José Manuel Rodríguez in September 2015. The marriage ceremony was attended by Prime Minister [[Mariano Rajoy]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.revistavanityfair.es/poder/articulos/javier-maroto-libreria-padre-partido-popular-carla-antonelli/35709|title=Políglota, deportista y gay: así es Javier Maroto, el gran perjudicado por el acuerdo del PP con Vox|date=11 January 2019|website=vf|language=es}}</ref> [[Máximo Huerta]], [[Ángeles Álvarez]] and [[Fernando Grande-Marlaska]] are other gay politicians who serve/have served in the [[Cortes Generales]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.elmundo.es/loc/2016/10/01/57ee25f9e2704e3d018b4609.html|title=Cuando Grande-Marlaska le dijo a su familia que era homosexual|date=1 October 2016|website=ELMUNDO|language=es}}</ref> Grande-Marlaska has served as [[Ministry of the Interior (Spain)|Minister of the Interior]] since June 2018.

[[Ada Colau]], elected [[List of mayors of Barcelona|Mayor of Barcelona]] in 2015, revealed her bisexuality in December 2017.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.lavanguardia.com/gente/20171209/433536076517/ada-colau-confiesa-bisexualidad-novia.html|title=Ada Colau revela su bisexualidad: "Mi relación con mi novia me marcó durante mucho tiempo"|language=es|date=9 December 2017|work=La Vanguardia}}</ref> Other Catalan gay politicians include [[Antoni Comín]], [[Santi Vila]] and [[Miquel Iceta]].

[[Carla Antonelli]], Víctor Casco, [[Iñigo Lamarca]], Fran Ferri, Jesús Vázquez Abad, Iñaki Oyarzábal, [[Empar Pineda]] and [[Luis Alegre Zahonero]] are other openly LGBT politicians, variously serving as mayors or members of regional legislatures.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.gaystarnews.com/article/spanish-politician-i%c3%b1aki-oyarz%c3%a1bal-comes-out-publicly-gay270612/|title=Spanish politician Iñaki OyarzÃ¡bal comes out publicly as gay|date=27 June 2012|website=Gay Star News|access-date=5 September 2019|archive-date=17 February 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190217031925/https://www.gaystarnews.com/article/spanish-politician-i%c3%b1aki-oyarz%c3%a1bal-comes-out-publicly-gay270612/|url-status=dead}}</ref> In 2007, [[Manuela Trasobares]] won a seat as a councillor in the small Valencian town of [[Geldo]], becoming the first openly transgender Spaniard to hold public office.<ref>{{cite web|title=Spain local election sees first transsexual woman as councillor |url=http://www.typicallyspanish.com/news/publish/article_10722.shtml |date=May 30, 2007 |accessdate=July 20, 2007 |work=Typically Spanish |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070808132953/http://www.typicallyspanish.com/news/publish/article_10722.shtml |archivedate=August 8, 2007 }}</ref>

=== Sports ===
[[File:Mapi León 20190421.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Mapi León]], lesbian footballer and player in the [[Spain women's national football team]]]]
Sports is traditionally a difficult area for LGBT visibility. Recently though, there have been professional sportswomen and sportsmen who have come out. These include [[Mapi León]] and [[Ana Romero]] in football, [[Víctor Gutiérrez (water polo)|Víctor Gutiérrez]] in waterpolo, [[Carlos Peralta (swimmer)|Carlos Peralta]] in swimming, [[Marta Mangué]] in handball, [[Javier Raya]] in figure skating and [[Miriam Blasco]] in judo.

In February 2019, the far-right party [[Vox (political party)|Vox]] vetoed a motion calling for an official stance against homophobia in sports. The motion, supported by every other political party, required unanimity to be adopted.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-spain-politics/spains-far-right-debuts-in-senate-by-blocking-anti-homophobia-motion-idUSKCN1QA1QO|title=Spain's far-right debuts in Senate by blocking anti-homophobia motion|work=Reuters|date=21 February 2019}}</ref>

==Summary table==
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Right
! Status
|-
| Same-sex sexual activity legal
| [[File:Yes check.svg|15px|Yes]] (Since 1979)
|-
| Equal [[age of consent]] (16)
| [[File:Yes check.svg|15px|Yes]] (Since 1995)
|-
| Anti-discrimination laws in employment
| [[File:Yes check.svg|15px|Yes]] (Since 1995)
|-
| Anti-discrimination laws in the provision of goods and services
| [[File:Yes check.svg|15px|Yes]] (Since 2022)
|-
| Anti-discrimination laws in all other areas (incl. indirect discrimination, hate speech)
| [[File:Yes check.svg|15px|Yes]] (Since 1995)
|-
| Anti-discrimination laws concerning gender identity
| [[Image:Yes check.svg|15px|Yes]] (Since 2022)
|-
| [[Same-sex marriage]]
| [[File:Yes check.svg|15px|Yes]] (Since 2005)
|-
| [[Recognition of same-sex unions|Recognition of same-sex couples]] (e.g. unregistered cohabitation, life partnership)
| [[File:Yes check.svg|15px|Yes]] (Since 1998 in some autonomous communities, since 2018 nationwide)
|-
| Stepchild adoption by same-sex couples
| [[File:Yes check.svg|15px|Yes]] (Since 2000 in some autonomous communities, since 2005 nationwide)
|-
| [[LGBT adoption|Joint adoption by same-sex couples]]
| [[File:Yes check.svg|15px|Yes]] (Since 2000 in some autonomous communities, since 2005 nationwide)
|-
| Automatic parentage presumption on [[birth certificates]] for children of same-sex couples
| [[File:Yes check.svg|15px|Yes]] (Since 2015)
|-
| LGBT people allowed to serve openly in the military
| [[File:Yes check.svg|15px|Yes]]
|-
| Right to change legal gender on documents or forms by way of [[Gender self-identification|self-determination]] and without SRS or sterilization
| [[File:Yes check.svg|15px|Yes]] (Since 2023, for those over 16-years-old)<ref>{{cite news |date= 17 May 2024 |title= Germany's Bundesrat passes gender self-identification law |url= https://www.dw.com/en/germanys-bundesrat-passes-gender-self-identification-law/a-69114973 |work= DW (Deutsche Welle) |access-date= 12 July 2024 |quote= With the new law, Germany is following the example of Spain, which in early 2023 passed a law allowing people over 16 years of age to change their legally registered gender without any medical supervision.}}</ref>
|-
| Automatic parental leave for both spouses after birth
| [[File:Yes check.svg|15px|Yes]] (Since 2006)
|-
| Access to [[IVF]] treatment for everyone
| [[File:Yes check.svg|15px|Yes]] (Since 2021 nationwide by [[executive order]], since 2023 by law)<ref name="gaycitynews.com">{{Cite web |date=8 November 2021 |title=Spain Extends IVF to Single Women, LGBTQ Folks |url=https://www.gaycitynews.com/spain-restores-reproductive-health-rights-to-single-women-lgbtq-folks/}}</ref>
|-
| [[Conversion therapy]] banned by law nationwide
| [[File:Yes check.svg|15px|Yes]] (Since 2023)
|-
| [[Intersex]] minors protected from invasive surgical procedures by law nationwide
| [[File:Yes check.svg|15px|Yes]] (Since 2023)
|-
| Non-binary gender recognition
| [[Image:Yes check.svg|15px|Yes]]/[[File:X mark.svg|15px|No]] Some cases have made their way to a jury and the case won, so now some people have an X instead of an F (femenino) or an M (masculino) as their sex in their personal ID (Spanish [[Documento Nacional de Identidad (Spain)|DNI]])
|-
| [[Men who have sex with men|MSMs]] allowed to donate blood
| [[File:Yes check.svg|15px|Yes]] (Since 2005)
|-
|}

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=note}}
{{notelist}}

==See also==
{{Portal|LGBTQ|Spain}}{{Commons category|LGBT rights in Spain}}
*[[COGAM]]
*[[Human rights in Spain]]
*[[Same-sex marriage in Spain]]
*[[First same-sex marriage in Spain]]
*[[LGBT history in Spain]]
*[[LGBT rights in Europe]]
*[[LGBT rights in the European Union]]
{{clear}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
*[[:es:Homosexualidad en España]]

{{Spain topics}}
{{LGBTQ rights in Europe}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Lgbt Rights in Spain}}
[[Category:LGBTQ rights in Spain| ]]

Fieldstone church

2025-06-14T13:58:49Z

2A00:23C7:C8BC:C501:507C:445E:62F7:256D: /* Gallery */Removed links

{{Short description|Church building made of field stones}}
{{No footnotes|article|date=January 2008}}

[[File:Zixdorf Church.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Fieldstone church at [[Zixdorf]] in the [[Fläming]], Germany, 13th and 15th century]]
A '''fieldstone church''' ({{langx|de|Feldsteinkirche}}) is a type of [[church architecture|church]], built using [[fieldstone]] of [[glacial erratic]]s and glacial [[rubble]]. Such [[cathedral]]s and monasteries occur mostly in areas where the [[ice age]]s have deposited such rock material on the one hand, and where on the other hand there is little or no access to natural rock for [[quarry]]ing and fashioning. In [[Europe]], the primary areas with fieldstone churches are [[Saxony-Anhalt]], [[Schleswig-Holstein]], [[Mecklenburg-Vorpommern]] and [[Brandenburg]] (including [[Berlin]]) in Germany, as well as [[Poland]], [[Finland]], parts of [[Scandinavia]] and the [[Baltic states]]. The stones used are often [[granite]], [[gneiss]] or [[quartzite]]; they can be used both hewn and unshaped. Since some of the churches are painted, the stones are not always visible. Especially in later examples, the fieldstones are often combined with other materials, such as [[brick]] or [[half-timbered]] parts.

Many fieldstone churches are in the [[Romanesque architecture|Romanesque]] tradition, and others are [[Gothic architecture|Gothic]] or in somewhat later architectural styles. The earliest examples date to the 11th century (in some regions later, depending on the date of [[Christianisation]] and of the [[Ostsiedlung|German eastward expansion]]). Many early examples in [[Holstein]] are associated with the activities of [[Vicelinus|St. Vicelinus]] and are thus known as ''Vizellinskirchen'' (Vicellinus churches); they often have round towers. Some of the earliest churches in Denmark (especially [[Bornholm]]) are fieldstone-built [[round church]]es. The flourish of the development of fieldstone churches was around the end of the 12th century, after which they became less common due to the increasing popularity of brick-built architecture (see [[Brick Romanesque]] and [[Brick Gothic]]). Their construction mostly ceased at the end of the 16th century. In the context of architectural revival styles, especially of [[Romanesque Revival architecture|Neo-Romanesque]], further fieldstone churches were erected in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

==Gallery==
<gallery caption="Examples of fieldstone churches" widths="100px" heights="100px" perrow="4">
Image:Herzberg church.jpg|[[Herzberg, Ostprignitz-Ruppin|Herzberg]], Germany, 13th century
Image:Klein Marzehns church3.JPG|Fieldstone and brick combination on spire in Klein Marzehns, Germany, Late Medieval
Image:Kranepuhl church1.JPG|Fieldstone, brick and [[half-timbered]] combination at Kranepuhl, Germany, early 13th century
Image:Luebnitz1 church.JPG|Lubnitz, Germany, early 13th century
Image:Kirche Ratekau.jpg|[[Ratekau]], Germany, St. Vicellinus, 1156
Image:Ny Kirke Bornholm.jpg|Østerlarskirke, [[Allinge-Gudhjem]] on [[Bornholm]], [[Denmark]], 11th century
Image:Dzwierzno church.jpg|[[Dźwierzno, Kuyavian-Pomeranian Voivodeship|Dźwierzno]], Poland, 15th century
Image:Tyrvään Pyhän Olavin Kirkko, Sastamala.jpg|[[St. Olaf's Church, Tyrvää|St. Olaf's Church]], [[Sastamala]], Finland, 1510
Image:Przedkòwò - kòscół.JPG|Church in [[Przodkowo]], [[Kashubia]], 19th century
File:Rozłazëno - kòscół.JPG|Church in [[Rozłazino, Pomeranian Voivodeship]], [[Kashubia]], 19th century
</gallery>

== See also ==
*[[Medieval stone churches in Finland]]

==References==
*Ehl, Heinrich: ''Norddeutsche Feldsteinkirchen''. Braunschweig-Hamburg, 1926.
*Riediger/Köhler: ''Feldsteinkirchen, Burgen und Herrensitze im Gebiet des Limes Saxoniae''. Reinbek, 1968.
*Badstübner, Ernst: ''Feldsteinkirchen des Mittelalters in Brandenburg und Mecklenburg-Vorpommern''. Hinstorff, 2002.{{ISBN|3356009427}}
*Erhaltung und Instandsetzung von Feldsteinkirchen in Mecklenburg. Motive aus Großmutters Zeit. Schwerin, 2001. {{ISBN|3-931185-68-0}}
*Pfeifer, Viola: ''Feldsteinkirchen im Fläming. Ein kunsthistorischer Führer''. Berlin, 1997. {{ISBN|3-930541-18-1}}
*Ibbeken, Hillert: ''Die mittelalterlichen Feld- und Bruchsteinkirchen des Fläming''. Berlin, 1999. {{ISBN|3-8305-0039-4}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Fieldstone churches}}
*[http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Naturpark_Hoher_Fl%C3%A4ming?uselang=de#Mediaeval_stone_churches_.2F_Mittelalterliche_Feldsteinkirchen Gallery] of fieldstone churches in [[High Fläming Nature Park]], Branednburg, on [[Wikimedia Commons]]
*[http://userpage.fu-berlin.de/~engeser/potsdam-mittelmark/ Informative site about medieval village churches in Brandenburg (in German]

[[Category:Church architecture]]
[[Category:Gothic church buildings]]
[[Category:Romanesque church buildings]]
[[Category:Romanesque architecture in Germany]]
[[Category:Stone buildings]]

House of Plantagenet

2025-06-14T13:35:24Z

2A00:23C7:C8BC:C501:507C:445E:62F7:256D: /* Angevin zenith */Removed link

{{Short description|Angevin royal dynasty that ruled England in the Middle Ages}}
{{Redirect|Plantagenet}}
{{featured article}}
{{Use British English|date=April 2013}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2022}}
{{Infobox family
| name = House of Plantagenet
| native_name =
| native_name_lang =
| other_names =
| type =
| coat_of_arms = Blason maison Plantagenêt.svg
| coat_of_arms_size = 140px
| alt = Illustration of the Plantagenet coat of arms, three gold lions on a red background
| coat_of_arms_caption = [[Armorial of the House of Plantagenet|Armorial of Plantagenet]]
| image =
| image_size =
| alt2 =
| image_caption =
| parent_house = [[House of Ingelger]]
| country = {{bulleted list
|{{flagicon|England}} [[Kingdom of England]]
|{{flag|Kingdom of France|seme}}
|{{flagicon|Lordship of Ireland}} [[Lordship of Ireland]]
|{{flagicon image|Banner of Llywelyn (Square).svg}} [[Principality of Wales]]
|{{flagicon|Holy Roman Empire}} [[Holy Roman Empire]] (titular)
}}
| region = 
| early_forms =
| etymology = 
| origin = 
| founded = 12th century
| founder = [[Geoffrey V of Anjou]]
| current_head = [[Henry Somerset, 12th Duke of Beaufort]]
| dissolution = {{plainlist|
* 1430 (Lancaster, female)
* 1471 (Lancaster, male)
* 1499 (York, male-legitimate)
* 1541 (York, female)
}}
| deposition = {{End date|1485}}
| cadet_branches = [[House of Lancaster]] [[House of York]] [[House of Beaufort]] (legitimised)
| final_ruler = [[Richard III of England]]
| final_head = 
| titles = {{bulleted list
| {{flagicon|England}} [[King of England]]
| {{flagicon|Kingdom of France|seme}} [[Dual monarchy of England and France|King of France]] ([[English claims to the French throne|claim]])
| {{flagicon|Holy Roman Empire}} [[King of the Romans]] (titular)
| {{flagicon|Two Sicilies|sicily}} [[King of Sicily]] (claim)
| {{flagicon|Castile}} [[King of Castile]] (claim)
| {{flagicon|Lordship of Ireland}} [[Lord of Ireland]]
| {{flagicon|Cyprus}} [[Cyprus|Lord of Cyprus]]
| {{flagicon image|Flag of Gwynedd.svg}} [[Prince of Wales]]
| {{flagicon|Aquitaine}} [[Duke of Aquitaine]]
| {{flagicon|Normandy}} [[Duke of Normandy]]
| {{flagicon|Brittany|cross}} [[Duke of Brittany]]
| {{flagicon|Gascony}} [[Duke of Gascony]]
| {{flagicon|Cornwall}} [[Duke of Cornwall]]
| {{flagicon|Gloucestershire}} [[Duke of Gloucester]]
| [[File:Arms of George Plantagenet, 1st Duke of Clarence.svg|20px]] [[Duke of Clarence]]
| [[File:Blason ville fr Aumale (Seine-Maritime).svg|20px]] [[Duke of Aumale]]
| {{flagicon|Anjou}} [[Count of Anjou]]
| {{flagicon image|Maine_flag.svg}} [[Count of Maine]]
| {{flagicon|Manche}} [[Count of Mortain]]
| {{flagicon|Nantes}} [[Count of Nantes]]
| {{flagicon|Poitou}} [[Count of Poitou]]
| {{flagicon|Buckinghamshire}} [[Earl of Buckingham]]
| {{flagicon|Cornwall}} [[Earl of Cornwall]]
| [[File:Coronet of the British Heir Apparent.svg|20px]] [[Earl of Chester]]
| {{flagicon|Essex}} [[Earl of Essex]]
| {{flagicon|Ulster}} [[Earl of Ulster]]
| {{flagicon|Norfolk}} [[Earl of Norfolk]]
| {{flagicon|Kent}} [[Earl of Kent]]
| [[File:Arms of Edmund Crouchback, Earl of Leicester and Lancaster.svg|20px]] [[Earl of Lancaster]]
| [[File:Arms of Coke, Earls of Leicester.svg|20px]] [[Earl of Leicester]]
| [[File:Marquess of Salisbury COA.svg|20px]] [[Earl of Salisbury]]
| [[File:Arms of Jean de Bretagne.svg|20px]] [[Earl of Richmond]]
}}
| styles = 
| members =
| connected_members = 
| other_families = 
| distinctions = 
| traditions = 
| motto =
| motto_lang =
| motto_trans =
| heirlooms = 
| estate = 
| website = 
| footnotes =
}}
{{Periods in English History}}
The '''House of Plantagenet'''{{Efn|The Plantagenet name is spelt in English sources in several ways, such as ''Plantaganet'', ''Plantagenett'', ''Plantagenette'', ''Plantaginet'', ''Plantagynett'', etc.}} ([[Help:IPA/English|/plænˈtædʒənət/]] [[Help:Pronunciation respelling key|''plan-TAJ-ə-nət'']]) was a [[royal house]] which originated from the [[Medieval France|French]] [[county of Anjou]]. The name Plantagenet is used by modern historians to identify four distinct royal houses: the [[Angevin kings of England|Angevins]], who were also counts of Anjou; the main line of the Plantagenets following the loss of Anjou; and the Houses of [[House of Lancaster|Lancaster]] and [[House of York|York]], two of the Plantagenets’ [[Cadet branch|cadet branches]]. The family held the [[English throne]] from 1154, with the accession of [[Henry II of England|Henry II]], until 1485, when [[Richard III of England|Richard III]] died in battle.

England was transformed under the Plantagenets, although only partly intentionally. The Plantagenet kings were often forced to negotiate compromises such as [[Magna Carta]], which constrained royal power in return for financial and military support. The king was no longer just the most powerful man in the nation, holding the prerogative of judgement, feudal tribute and warfare, but had defined duties to the realm, underpinned by a sophisticated justice system. By the end of the reign of Edward III, the Plantagenets developed a new identity including adopting the language of the ordinary people{{mdash}}[[Middle English]]{{mdash}} as the language of governance. This is one of the reasons that the [[Oxford Dictionary of National Biography]] considers Edward III as culturally the first ''English'' Plantagenet ruler.

In the 15th century, the Plantagenets were defeated in the [[Hundred Years' War]] and beset with social, political and economic problems. Popular revolts were commonplace, triggered by the denial of numerous freedoms. English nobles raised private armies, engaged in private feuds and openly defied [[Henry VI of England|Henry VI]]. The rivalry between the House of Plantagenet's two cadet branches of York and Lancaster brought about the [[Wars of the Roses]], a decades-long fight for the English succession. It culminated in the [[Battle of Bosworth Field]] in 1485, when the reign of the Plantagenets and the [[England in the Middle Ages|English Middle Ages]] both met their end with the death of King Richard III. [[Henry VII of England|Henry VII]], a Lancastrian, became king of England; five months later he married [[Elizabeth of York]], thus ending the Wars of the Roses and giving rise to the [[Tudor dynasty]]. The Tudors worked to centralise English royal power, which allowed them to avoid some of the problems that had plagued the last Plantagenet rulers. The resulting stability allowed for the [[English Renaissance]] and the advent of [[early modern Britain]]. Every monarch of England, and later the [[United Kingdom]], from Henry VII to present has been a descendant of the Plantagenets.

==Terminology==

===''Plantagenet''===

In the 15th century, near the end of the dynastic line, [[Richard of York, 3rd Duke of York]], adopted Plantagenet as his family name. ''Plantegenest'' (or ''Plante Genest'') had been a 12th-century nickname for his ancestor [[Geoffrey Plantagenet, Count of Anjou|Geoffrey]], [[Count of Anjou]] and [[Duke of Normandy]]. One of many popular theories suggests the blossom of the [[Cytisus scoparius|common broom]], a bright yellow ("gold") flowering plant, called ''[[Genisteae|genista]]'' in [[medieval Latin]], as the source of the nickname.<ref name=plant2007>{{harvnb|Plant|2007}}</ref>

It is uncertain why Richard of York chose this specific name, although during the [[Wars of the Roses]] (1455–1487) it emphasised Richard's status as Geoffrey's patrilineal descendant. The retrospective usage of the name for all of Geoffrey's male-line descendants was popular during the subsequent [[Tudor dynasty]], perhaps encouraged by the further legitimacy it gave to Richard's great-grandson, [[Henry VIII]].<ref>{{harvnb|Wagner|2001|p=206}}</ref> It was only in the late 17th century that it passed into common usage among historians.<ref name=Wilson>{{harvnb|Keefe|2008|}}</ref>

===''Angevins''===
{{Further|Angevin kings of England|Angevin Empire}}
[[File:Henry II Plantagenet.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Ancient depiction of the first Plantagenet King Henry the 2nd of England|upright|[[Henry II of England|Henry II]] (1154–1189) is considered by some to be the first Plantagenet king of England, and the first Angevin.]]
{{wikt-lang|Fr|Angevin}} is French for "of [[County of Anjou|Anjou]]". The three Angevin kings were the 12th-century Geoffrey of Anjou's son, [[Henry II of England|Henry II]], and grandsons [[Richard I of England|Richard I]] and [[John, King of England|John]]. Noble houses were regularly denominated by a territory or place of birth, eg., [[House of Normandy]], [[House of Wessex]]. "Angevin" can also refer to the period of history in which they reigned. Many historians identify the Angevins as a distinct English royal house. "Angevin" is also used in reference to any sovereign or government derived from Anjou. As a noun, it refers to any native of Anjou or an Angevin ruler, and specifically to other [[counts and dukes of Anjou]], including the ancestors of the three kings who formed the English royal house; their cousins, who held the crown of [[King of Jerusalem#House of Anjou|Jerusalem]]; and to unrelated members of the French royal family who were later granted the titles and formed different dynasties, such as the [[Capetian House of Anjou]] and the [[House of Valois-Anjou|Valois House of Anjou]].<ref>{{OED|Angevin}}</ref> Consequently, there is disagreement between those who consider John's son, [[Henry III of England|Henry III]], to be the first Plantagenet monarch, and those who do not distinguish between Angevins and Plantagenets and therefore consider the first Plantagenet to be Henry II.<ref>{{harvnb|Blockmans|Hoppenbrouwers|2014|p=173}}; {{harvnb|Gillingham|2007|pp=15–23}}; {{harvnb|Power|2007|pp=85–86}}; {{harvnb|Warren|1991|pp=228–229}}</ref>

The term "[[Angevin Empire]]" was coined by [[Kate Norgate]] in 1887. There was no known contemporary collective name for all of the territories under the rule of the Angevin Kings of England. This led to circumlocutions such as "our kingdom and everything subject to our rule whatever it may be" or "the whole of the kingdom which had belonged to his father". The "Empire" portion of "Angevin Empire" has been controversial, especially as these territories were not subject to any unified laws or systems of governance, and each retained its own laws, traditions, and feudal relationships. In 1986, a convention of historians concluded that there had not been an Angevin state, and therefore no "Angevin Empire", but that the term {{lang|fr|espace Plantagenet}} (French for "Plantagenet area") was acceptable.<ref>{{harvnb|Gillingham|2001|pp=2–5}}</ref> Nonetheless, historians have continued to use "Angevin Empire".<ref>For instance, {{Cite book |last=Crouch |first=David |title=William Marshal: Court, Career, and Chivalry in the Angevin Empire, 1147–1219 |date=1990 |publisher=Longman |isbn=978-0-582-03786-1 |author-link=David Crouch (historian)}} and {{Harvnb|Turner|Heiser|2014}}</ref>

==Origin==
[[File:The Children of Henry2 England.jpg|thumb|upright=1.4|alt=An illuminated diagram showing the Angevins; coloured lines connect the two to show the lineal descent|A 13th-century depiction of Henry II and his legitimate children: [[William IX, Count of Poitiers|William]], [[Henry the Young King|Henry]], [[Richard I of England|Richard]], [[Matilda of England, Duchess of Saxony|Matilda]], [[Geoffrey II, Duke of Brittany|Geoffrey]], [[Eleanor of England, Queen of Castile|Eleanor]], [[Joan of England, Queen of Sicily|Joan]] and [[John, King of England|John]]]]
The later [[counts of Anjou]], including the Plantagenets, descended from [[Geoffrey II, Count of Gâtinais]], and his wife [[Ermengarde of Anjou, Duchess of Burgundy|Ermengarde of Anjou]]. In 1060, the couple inherited the title via [[cognatic kinship]] from [[House of Ingelger|an Angevin family]] that was descended from a noble named [[Ingelger]], whose recorded history dates from 870.<ref name=Davies190>{{harvnb|Davies|1997|p=190}}</ref>

During the 10th and 11th centuries, power struggles occurred between rulers in northern and western France, including those of Anjou, [[Normandy]], [[Brittany]], [[Poitou]], [[Blois]] and [[Maine (province)|Maine]], and the kings of France. In the early 12th century, Geoffrey of Anjou married [[Empress Matilda]], [[Henry I of England|King Henry I]]'s only surviving legitimate child and heir to the English throne from the [[House of Normandy]]. As a result of this marriage, Geoffrey's son [[Henry II of England|Henry II]] inherited the English throne as well as Norman and Angevin titles, thus marking the beginning of the Angevin and Plantagenet dynasties.<ref name=Gillingham7>{{harvnb|Gillingham|2001|p=7}}</ref>

The marriage was the third attempt of Geoffrey's father, [[Fulk V, Count of Anjou]], to build a political alliance with Normandy. He first espoused his daughter, [[Matilda of Anjou|Matilda]], to [[William Adelin]], Henry I's heir. After William drowned in the wreck of the ''[[White Ship]]'', Fulk married another of his daughters, [[Sibylla of Anjou|Sibylla]], to [[William Clito]], son of Henry I's older brother, [[Robert Curthose]]. Henry I had the marriage annulled to avoid strengthening William's rival claim to Normandy. Finally Fulk achieved his goal through the marriage of Geoffrey and Matilda. Fulk then passed his titles to Geoffrey and became [[King of Jerusalem]].<ref name=Davies1999p309>{{harvnb|Davies|1999|p=309}}.</ref>

==Angevin kings==
{{See also|Angevin kings of England}}

===Arrival in England===
{{further|The Anarchy}}
[[File:France 1154-en.svg|thumb|right|alt=Map of King Henry the second's continental holdings in 1154 covering parts of today's France|[[Henry II of England|Henry II]]'s continental holdings in 1154 (in various shades of red), forming part of the "[[Angevin Empire]]"]]

When Henry II was born in 1133, his maternal grandfather, Henry I, was reportedly delighted, saying that the boy was "the heir to the kingdom". The birth reduced the risk that the King's realm would pass to his son-in-law's family, which was possible if the marriage of Matilda and Geoffrey ended childless. The birth of a second son, also named [[Geoffrey, Count of Nantes|Geoffrey]], increased the likelihood of partible inheritance following French custom, in which Henry would receive the English maternal inheritance and Geoffrey the Angevin paternal inheritance. This would separate the realms of England and Anjou.<ref name="Gillingham 2001 11–12">{{harvnb|Gillingham|2001|pp=11–12, 120}}</ref>

In order to secure an orderly succession, Geoffrey and Matilda sought more power from Henry I, but quarrelled with him after the king refused to give them power that might be used against him. When he died in December 1135, the couple were in Anjou, allowing Matilda's cousin [[Stephen, King of England|Stephen]] to seize the crown of England. Stephen's contested accession initiated the widespread civil unrest later called the Anarchy.<ref name=Schama2000p117>{{harvnb|Schama|2000|p=117}}</ref>

Count Geoffrey had little interest in England. Instead he commenced a ten-year war for the duchy of Normandy, but it became clear that to bring this conflict to a successful conclusion, Stephen would need to be challenged in England. In 1139, Matilda and her half-brother, [[Robert, 1st Earl of Gloucester|Robert]], invaded England.<ref>{{harvnb|Gillingham|2001|p=15}}</ref> From the age of nine, Henry was repeatedly sent to England to be the male figurehead of the campaigns, since it became apparent that he would become king if England were conquered. In 1141, Stephen was captured at the [[Battle of Lincoln (1141)|Battle of Lincoln]] and later exchanged for Robert, who had also been captured. Geoffrey continued the conquest of Normandy and, in 1150, transferred the duchy to Henry while retaining the primary role in the duchy's government.<ref>{{harvnb|Gillingham|2001|pp=15–18}}</ref>

Three events allowed the Angevins' successful termination of the conflict:
* Count Geoffrey died in 1151 before finalizing the division of his realm between Henry and Henry's younger brother Geoffrey, who would have inherited Anjou. According to [[William of Newburgh]], who wrote in the 1190s, Count Geoffrey decided that Henry would receive England and Anjou for as long as he needed the resources for the conflict against Stephen. Count Geoffrey instructed that his body should not be buried until Henry swore an oath that the young Geoffrey would receive Anjou when England and Normandy were secured.<ref>{{harvnb|Gillingham|2001|p=18}}</ref> [[W. L. Warren]] cast doubt on this account on the grounds that it was written later, based on a single contemporary source, it would be questionable that either Geoffrey or Henry would consider such an oath binding and it would break the inheritance practice of the time.<ref>{{harvnb|Warren|1973|pp=45–46}}</ref> The young Geoffrey died in 1158, before receiving Anjou, but he had become [[count of Nantes]] when the citizens of Nantes rebelled against their ruler. Henry had supported the rebellion.<ref name="Gillingham 2001 21">{{harvnb|Gillingham|2001|p=21}}</ref>
* [[Louis VII of France]] was granted an annulment of his marriage to [[Eleanor of Aquitaine]] on 18 March 1152, and she married Henry (who would become Henry II) on 18 May 1152. Consequently, the Angevins acquired the [[Duchy of Aquitaine]].<ref>{{harvnb|Weir|2008|pp=60–61}}</ref>
* Stephen's wife and elder son, [[Eustace IV, Count of Boulogne|Eustace]], died in 1153, leading to the [[Treaty of Wallingford]]. The treaty agreed to the peace offer that Matilda had rejected in 1142, recognised Henry as Stephen's heir, guaranteed Stephen's second son [[William I, Count of Boulogne|William]] his father's estates and allowed Stephen to be king for life. Stephen died soon afterwards, and Henry acceded to the throne in late 1154.<ref>{{harvnb|Gillingham|2001|pp=19–20}}</ref>

===Angevin zenith===
Of Henry's siblings, [[William FitzEmpress|William]] and Geoffrey died unmarried and childless, but the tempestuous marriage of Henry and Eleanor, who already had two daughters ([[Marie of France, Countess of Champagne|Marie]] and [[Alix of France|Alix]]) through her first marriage to King Louis, produced eight children in thirteen years:<ref>{{harvnb|Weir|2008|pp=59–74}}</ref>

* [[William IX, Count of Poitiers]] (1153–1156)
* [[Henry the Young King]] (1155–1183)
* [[Matilda of England, Duchess of Saxony|Matilda, Duchess of Saxony]] (1156–1189) – married [[Henry the Lion]], [[Duke of Bavaria]]. The eldest amongst the couple's children, Richenza, is probably the daughter English chroniclers call Matilda, who was left in Normandy with her grandparents in 1185 and married firstly to Geoffrey, [[Lords, counts and dukes of Perche|count of Perche]], and secondly to [[Enguerrand III, Lord of Coucy|Enguerrand de Coucy]]. The eldest son, [[Henry V, Count Palatine of the Rhine|Henry]], became [[duke of Saxony]] and [[count palatine of the Rhine]]. His brother Otto was nominated by his uncle Richard I as [[earl of York]] and [[count of Poitiers]] before being elected [[Holy Roman Emperor|emperor]] in opposition to the [[Hohenstaufen]] candidate. Otto was crowned in [[Rome]] but he was later excommunicated and declared deposed. Childless, Otto lost power following the defeat of the [[House of Welf|Welf]] and Angevin forces at the Battle of Bouvines. The youngest child, [[William of Winchester, Lord of Lüneburg|William of Winchester]], married [[Princess Helena of Denmark]]. Their only son, [[Otto I, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg|also called Otto]], was the sole male heir of his uncle Henry. The ducal house of [[Duchy of Brunswick-Lüneburg|Brunswick-Lüneburg]] and the British royal [[house of Windsor]] both descend from him.<ref>{{harvnb|Norgate|2004b|}}</ref>
* [[Richard I, King of England]] (1157–1199). He had no legitimate offspring, but is thought to have had two illegitimate sons, of whom little is known, called Fulk and [[Philip, Lord of Cognac]].<ref>{{harvnb|Weir|2008|pp=66–67}}</ref>
* [[Geoffrey II, Duke of Brittany]] (1158–1186) – married [[Constance, Duchess of Brittany|Constance]], daughter of [[Duke Conan IV of Brittany]] and became duke of Brittany by right of his wife. The couple's son, [[Arthur I, Duke of Brittany]], was a competitor to his uncle John for the Angevin succession and disappeared mysteriously as an adolescent in 1203.<ref>{{harvnb|Weir|2008|p=63}}</ref>
* [[Eleanor of England, Queen of Castile|Eleanor, Queen of Castile]] (1161–1214) – married [[King Alfonso VIII of Castile]]. The couple's children included [[King Henry I of Castile]] and four queen consorts, [[Berengaria of Castile|Berengaria of Leon]], [[Urraca of Castile, Queen of Portugal|Urraca of Portugal]], [[Blanche of Castile|Blanche of France]] and [[Eleanor of Castile (died 1244)|Eleanor of Aragon]].<ref>{{harvnb|Weir|2008|p=64}}</ref>
* [[Joan of England, Queen of Sicily|Joan, Queen of Sicily]] (1165–1199) – married firstly [[King William II of Sicily]] and secondly Count Raymond VI of Toulouse. Her children included [[Raymond VII of Toulouse]].<ref name="Weir 2008 65">{{harvnb|Weir|2008|pp=64–65}}</ref>
* [[John, King of England]] (1166–1216)

[[File:English - Martyrdom of Saint Thomas Becket - Walters W3415V - Open Reverse.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.3|A miniature from an English [[psalter]] presenting a spirited account of the murder of Archbishop [[Thomas Becket]], {{Circa|1250}}. [[Walters Art Museum]], [[Baltimore]]|alt=Miniature from an English psalter presenting a representation of the murder of Archbishop Becket]]

Henry also had illegitimate children with several mistresses, possibly as many as twelve. These children included [[Geoffrey (archbishop of York)|Geoffrey]], [[William Longespée, 3rd Earl of Salisbury|William]], Peter and four children who died young by [[Alys of France, Countess of Vexin|Alys]], the daughter of Louis VII, while she was betrothed to his son Richard.<ref name="Weir 2008 65"/> William's many competencies and importance as a royal bastard led to a long and illustrious career.<ref name=Longespee>{{harvnb|Strickland|2010|}}</ref>

Henry reasserted and extended previous suzerainties to secure possession of his inherited realm.<ref>{{harvnb|Gillingham|2001|p=23}}</ref> In 1162, he attempted to re-establish what he saw as his authority over the English Church by appointing his friend [[Thomas Becket]] as [[Archbishop of Canterbury]] upon the death of the incumbent archbishop, [[Theobald of Bec|Theobald]]. Becket's defiance as Archbishop alienated the king and his counsellors. Henry and Becket had repeated disputes over issues such as church tenures, the marriage of Henry's brother, and taxation.<ref name="Schama 2000 142">{{harvnb|Schama|2000|p=142}}</ref>

Henry reacted by getting Becket and other English bishops to recognise sixteen ancient customs in writing for the first time in the [[Constitutions of Clarendon]], governing relations between the king, his courts and the church. When Becket tried to leave the country without permission, Henry tried to ruin him by filing legal cases relating to Becket's previous tenure as chancellor. Becket fled and remained in exile for five years. Relations later improved, and Becket returned, but they declined again when Henry's son was crowned as [[coregent]] by the [[Archbishop of York]], which Becket perceived as a challenge to his authority.<ref name="Schama 2000 142"/>

Becket later excommunicated those who had offended him. When he received this news, Henry said: "What miserable drones and traitors have I nurtured and promoted in my household who let their lord be treated with such shameful contempt by a low-born clerk." Four of Henry's knights killed Becket in [[Canterbury Cathedral]] after Becket resisted a failed arrest attempt. Henry was widely considered complicit in Becket's death throughout Christian Europe. This made Henry a pariah; in penance, he walked barefoot into Canterbury Cathedral, where he was severely whipped by monks.<ref name="Schama 2000 142"/>

From 1155, Henry claimed that [[Pope Adrian IV]] had given him authorisation to reform the Irish church by assuming control of Ireland, but Professor Anne Duggan's research indicates that the ''[[Laudabiliter]]'' is a falsification of an existing letter and that was not in fact Adrian's intention.<ref name=Ireland>{{cite web|last1=Duggan|first1=Anne|title=Laudabiliter: a new interpretation by Professor Anne Duggan|url=http://www.historyireland.com/early-modern-history-1500-1700/laudabiliter-a-new-interpretation-by-professor-anne-duggan/|website=History Ireland|date=13 February 2013|access-date=30 January 2016}}</ref> It originally allowed Henry's brother William some territory. Henry did not personally act on this until 1171, by which time William was already dead. He invaded Ireland to assert his authority over knights who had accrued autonomous power after they recruited soldiers in England and Wales and colonised Ireland with his permission. Henry later gave Ireland to his youngest son, John.<ref>{{harvnb|Gillingham|2001|pp=28–29}}</ref>

In 1172, Henry gave John the castles of [[Château de Chinon|Chinon]], [[Loudun]] and [[Mirebeau]] as a wedding gift. This angered Henry's eighteen-year-old son, [[Henry the Young King]], who believed that those were his. A [[Revolt of 1173–1174|rebellion]] by Henry II's wife and three eldest sons ensued. [[Louis VII of France]] supported the rebellion. [[William the Lion]], king of the Scots, and others joined the revolt. After eighteen months, Henry subdued the rebels.<ref>{{harvnb|Gillingham|2001|pp=34–36}}</ref>

[[File:Seal - Richard I of England.jpg|thumb|alt=Photograph of the 1195 seal of Richard I of England. Exhibited in the History Museum of Vendee|[[Richard I of England|Richard I]]'s Great Seal of 1189, the History Museum of Vendée]]

In [[Le Mans]] in 1182, Henry II gathered his children to plan a [[partible inheritance]]: his eldest surviving son, Henry, would inherit England, Normandy and Anjou; Richard (his mother's favourite) would inherit the Duchy of Aquitaine; [[Geoffrey II, Duke of Brittany|Geoffrey]] would inherit Brittany; and John would inherit Ireland. This resulted in further conflict. The younger Henry rebelled again, but died of [[dysentery]]. Geoffrey died in 1186 after an accident in a tournament. In 1189, Richard and [[Philip II of France]] reasserted their various claims, exploiting the aging Henry's failing health. Henry was forced to accept humiliating peace terms, including naming Richard his sole heir. The old King died two days later, defeated and miserable. French and English contemporary moralists viewed this fate as retribution for the murder of Becket;<ref>{{harvnb|Gillingham|2001|p=40}}</ref> even his favourite legitimate son, John, had rebelled although the constantly loyal illegitimate son Geoffrey remained with Henry until the end.<ref>{{harvnb|Lovatt|2007|}}</ref>

Following Richard's coronation, he quickly put the kingdom's affairs in order and departed on a Crusade for the Middle East. Opinion of Richard has fluctuated. He was respected for his military leadership and courtly manners. He rejected and humiliated the sister of the king of France. He deposed the king of Cyprus and later sold the island. On the [[Third Crusade]], he made an enemy of [[Leopold V, Duke of Austria]], by showing disrespect to his banners as well as refusing to share the spoils of war. He was rumoured to have arranged the assassination of [[Conrad of Montferrat]]. His ruthlessness was demonstrated by his [[Massacre at Ayyadieh|massacre of 2,600 prisoners in Acre]].<ref>{{harvnb|Runciman|1987|p=53}}</ref> He obtained victories during the Third Crusade, but failed to capture [[Jerusalem]]. According to [[Steven Runciman]] Richard was "a bad son, a bad husband and a bad king".<ref>{{harvnb|Runciman|1987|p=75}}</ref> [[Jonathan Riley-Smith]] described him as "vain ... devious and self-centred".<ref>{{harvnb|Riley-Smith|1987|p=113}}</ref> In an alternate view [[John Gillingham]] points out that for centuries Richard was considered a model king.<ref>{{harvnb|Gillingham|1985|pp=17–23}}</ref>

Returning from the crusade with a small band of followers, Richard was captured by Leopold and was passed to [[Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor|Emperor Henry VI]]. Henry held Richard captive for eighteen months (1192–1194) while his mother raised the ransom, valued at 100,000 [[Mark (currency)#England and Scotland|marks]]. In Richard's absence, Philip II overran large portions of Normandy and John acquired control of Richard's English lands. After returning to England, Richard forgave John and re-established his authority in England. He left again in 1194 and battled Philip for five years, attempting to regain the lands seized during his captivity. When close to complete victory, he was injured by an arrow during a siege and died ten days later.<ref>{{harvnb|Gillingham|2009|}}</ref>

===Decline and the loss of Anjou===
[[File:Magna Carta (British Library Cotton MS Augustus II.106).jpg|thumb|upright=1.58|alt=Photograph of one of the four surviving copies of Magna Carta held in British Museum|right|One of only four surviving [[Exemplified copy|exemplifications]] of the 1215 text of [[Magna Carta]], in the [[British Library]], London.]]

Richard's failure to provide an heir caused a succession crisis and conflict between supporters of the claim of his nephew, [[Arthur I, Duke of Brittany|Arthur]], and John. [[Guillaume des Roches]] led the magnates of Anjou, Maine, and Touraine declaring for Arthur.<ref name= JohnONDB >{{harvnb| Gillingham |2010}}</ref> Once again Philip II of France attempted to disturb the Plantagenet territories on the European mainland by supporting his vassal Arthur's claim to the English crown. John won a significant victory while preventing Arthur's forces from capturing his mother, seizing the entire rebel leadership at the [[Battle of Mirebeau]] and his sister [[Eleanor, Fair Maid of Brittany]].<ref>{{harvnb|Gillingham|2001|p=91}}</ref>

John disregarded his allies' opinions on the fate of the prisoners, many of them their neighbours and kinsmen. Instead he kept his prisoners so vilely and in such evil distress that it seemed shameful and ugly to all those who were with him and who saw this cruelty, according to the ''[[Histoire de Guillaume le Maréchal]]''.<ref name="JohnONDB" /> As a result of John's behaviour the powerful Thouars, Lusignan, and des Roches families rebelled and John lost control of Anjou, Maine, Touraine, and northern Poitou. His son, King Henry III, maintained the claim to the Angevin territories until December 1259 when he formally surrendered them and in return was granted Gascony as duke of Aquitaine and a vassal of the king of France.<ref name="RidgewayH3ONDB">{{harvnb|Ridgeway|2010|}}</ref>

John's reputation was further damaged by the rumour, described in the [[Margam Abbey|Margam annals]], that while drunk he himself had murdered Arthur, and if not true it is almost certain John ordered the killing.<ref name="JohnONDB" /> There are two contrasting schools of thought explaining the sudden collapse of John's position. [[J. C. Holt|Sir James Holt]] suggests this was the inevitable result of superior French resources. [[John Gillingham]] identifies diplomatic and military mismanagement and points out that Richard managed to hold the Angevin territory with comparable finances.<ref>{{harvnb|Barratt|2003|pp=75–100}}</ref> Nick Barratt has calculated that Angevin resources available for use in the war were 22 per cent less than those of Philip, putting the Angevins at a disadvantage.<ref>{{harvnb|Turner|Heiser|2014|p=48}}</ref>

By 1214, John had re-established his authority in England and planned what Gillingham has called a grand strategy to recapture Normandy and Anjou.<ref>{{harvnb|Gillingham|2001|p=103}}</ref> The plan was that John would draw the French from [[Paris]], while another army, under his nephew [[Otto IV, Holy Roman Emperor|Otto IV]], the [[Holy Roman Emperor]], and his half-brother William attacked from the north. He also brought his niece Eleanor of Brittany, aiming to establish her as Duchess of Brittany. The plan failed when John's allies were defeated at the [[Battle of Bouvines]]. Otto retreated and was soon overthrown, William was captured by the French and John agreed to a five-year truce.<ref name = "Longespee" /><ref name="JohnONDB" />

From then on John also gave up the claim to Brittany of Eleanor and had her confined for life.<ref>{{Cite journal |first=G. |last=Seabourne |title=Eleanor of Brittany and her Treatment by King John and Henry III |journal=Nottingham Medieval Studies |volume=LI |date=2007 |pages=73–110|doi=10.1484/J.NMS.3.408 }}</ref> John's defeat weakened his authority in England, and his barons forced him to agree to [[Magna Carta]] in 1215, which limited royal power. Both sides failed to abide by the terms of Magna Carta, leading to the [[First Barons' War]], in which rebellious barons invited [[Louis VIII of France|Prince Louis]], the husband of [[Blanche of Castile|Blanche]], Henry II's granddaughter, to invade England.<ref name="JohnONDB" /> Louis did so but in October 1216, before the conflict was conclusively ended, John died.<ref>{{harvnb|Weir|2008|p=74}}</ref> The official website of the British Monarchy presents John's death as the end of the Angevin dynasty and the beginning of the Plantagenet dynasty.<ref name=autogenerated2>{{cite web|title=The official website of the British Monarchy|url=http://www.royal.gov.uk/HistoryoftheMonarchy/KingsandQueensofEngland/TheAngevins/TheAngevins.aspx|work=The Angevins|publisher=The Royal Household|access-date=20 February 2015}}</ref>

==Main line==

===Baronial conflict and the establishment of Parliament===
All subsequent English monarchs were descendants of the Angevin line via John, who had five legitimate children with [[Isabella of Angoulême|Isabella]]:<ref>{{harvnb|Weir|2008|pp=67–74}}</ref>

* [[Henry III of England|Henry III]] – King of England for most of the 13th-century
* [[Richard, 1st Earl of Cornwall|Richard]] – [[King of the Romans]] in the [[Holy Roman Empire]]<ref>{{harvnb|Vincent|2008|}}</ref>
* [[Joan of England, Queen consort of Scotland|Joan]] – queen consort of [[Alexander II of Scotland]]<ref>{{harvnb|Stringer|2004|}}</ref>
* [[Isabella of England|Isabella]] – wife of the Holy Roman Emperor, [[Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick II]]<ref>{{harvnb|Abulafia|2004|}}</ref>
* [[Eleanor of Leicester|Eleanor]] – wife of [[William Marshal, 1st Earl of Pembroke|William Marshal]]'s son (also named [[William Marshal, 2nd Earl of Pembroke|William]]), and later the English rebel [[Simon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester|Simon de Montfort]].<ref>{{harvnb|Hallam|2004|}}</ref>

John also had illegitimate children with several mistresses. These children probably included nine sons called [[Richard FitzRoy|Richard]], Oliver, Henry, Osbert Gifford, Geoffrey, John FitzJohn or Courcy, Odo or Eudes FitzRoy, Ivo, Henry, Richard the constable of [[Wallingford Castle]] and three daughters called [[Joan, Lady of Wales|Joan]], Matilda the abbess of Barking and Isabella la Blanche.<ref>{{harvnb|Weir|2008|p=73}}</ref> Joan was the best known of these, since she married Prince [[Llewelyn the Great]] of Wales.<ref>{{harvnb|Norgate|2004|}}</ref>

[[File:WLA vanda Cast of Tomb Effigy Henry III.jpg|thumb|alt=Photograph of the Cast of the effigy of King Henry the third in Westminster Abbey, c. 1272|A cast of the [[tomb effigy]] of [[Henry III of England|Henry III]] in [[Westminster Abbey]], {{circa|1272}}]]

[[William Marshal, 1st Earl of Pembroke]], was appointed regent for the nine-year-old King Henry on King John's death. Thereafter, support for Louis declined, and he renounced his claims in the [[Treaty of Lambeth]] after Marshal's victories at the battles of [[Battle of Lincoln (1217)|Lincoln]] and [[Battle of Sandwich (1217)|Sandwich]] in 1217.<ref name="RidgewayH3ONDB"/> The Marshal regime issued an amended Magna Carta as a basis for future government.<ref name="RidgewayH3ONDB"/> Despite the Treaty of Lambeth, hostilities continued and Henry was forced to compromise with the newly crowned Louis VIII of France and Henry's stepfather, [[Hugh X of Lusignan]]. They both overran much of Henry's remaining continental lands, further eroding the Angevins' power on the continent. In his political struggles, Henry perceived many similarities between himself and England's patron saint, [[Edward the Confessor]].<ref>{{harvnb|Carpenter|2007|}}</ref> Consequently, he named his first son Edward and built the existing magnificent shrine for the Confessor.<ref name=Schama2000p172>{{harvnb|Schama|2000|p=172}}</ref>

In early 1225, a great council approved a tax of £40,000 to dispatch an army, which quickly retook Gascony. During an assembly feudal prerogatives of the king were challenged by the barons, bishops and magnates who demanded that the king reissue Magna Carta and the Charter of the Forest in exchange for support. Henry declared that the charters were issued of his own "spontaneous and free will" and confirmed them with the royal seal, giving the new [[Magna Carta#The Great Charter 1225|Great Charter]] and the Charter of the Forest of 1225 much more authority than any previous versions.<ref name="RidgewayH3ONDB"/>

Henry III had nine children:<ref>{{harvnb|Weir|2008|pp=74–81}}</ref>

* [[Edward I of England|Edward I]] (1239–1307)
* [[Margaret of England]] (1240–1275). Her three children predeceased her husband, [[Alexander III of Scotland]]; consequently, the crown of Scotland became vacant on the death of their only grandchild, [[Margaret, Maid of Norway]] in 1290.<ref>{{harvnb|Weir|2008|p=203}}</ref>
* [[Beatrice of England|Beatrice, Countess of Richmond]] (1242–1275). She initially married John de Montfort of Dreux, and later married [[John II, Duke of Brittany]].
* [[Edmund Crouchback]] (1245–1296), who was granted the titles and estates of [[Simon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester]] and the [[Earl of Leicester|earldom of Leicester]] after Henry defeated Montfort in the [[Second Barons' War]]. Henry later granted Edmund the earldoms of [[Earl of Lancaster|Lancaster]] and [[Earl Ferrers|Ferrers]]. From 1276, through his second wife Edmund was [[Count of Champagne]] and Brie.<ref name=Weir2008>{{harvnb|Weir|2008|p=75}}</ref> Later Lancastrians would attempt to use Henry IV's maternal descent from Edmund to legitimise his claim to the throne, spuriously claiming that Edmund was the eldest son of Henry III but had not become king due to deformity.<ref>{{harvnb|Mortimer|2008|p=183}}</ref> Through his second marriage to [[Blanche of Artois|Blanche]], the widow of [[Henry I of Navarre]], Edmund was at the centre of European aristocracy. Blanche's daughter, [[Joan I of Navarre|Joan]], was [[queen regnant]] of Navarre and queen consort of France through her marriage to [[Philip IV of France|Philip IV]]. Edmund's son [[Thomas, 2nd Earl of Lancaster|Thomas]] became the most powerful nobleman in England, adding to his inheritance the earldoms of [[Earl of Lincoln|Lincoln]] and [[Earl of Salisbury|Salisbury]] through his marriage to the heiress of [[Henry de Lacy, 3rd Earl of Lincoln]].<ref name=TEoLONDB>{{harvnb|Maddicott|2008|}}</ref>
* Four others who died as children: Richard (1247–1256), John (1250–1256), William (c. 1251/1252–1256), [[Katherine of England|Katherine]] (c. 1252/3–1257) and Henry (no recorded dates).

Henry was bankrupted by his military expenditure and general extravagance. The pope offered Henry's brother [[Richard, 1st Earl of Cornwall|Richard]] the [[Kingdom of Sicily]], but the military cost of displacing the incumbent [[Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor|Emperor Frederick]] was prohibitive. [[Matthew Paris]] wrote that Richard stated: "You might as well say, 'I make you a present of the moon – step up to the sky and take it down'." Instead, Henry purchased the kingdom for his son Edmund, which angered many powerful barons. The barons led by Henry's brother-in-law Simon de Montfort forced him to agree to the [[Provisions of Oxford]], under which his debts were paid in exchange for substantial reforms. In France, with the [[Treaty of Paris (1259)|Treaty of Paris]], Henry formally surrendered the territory of his Angevin ancestors to [[Louis IX of France]], receiving in return the title duke of Aquitaine and the territory of Gascony as a vassal of the French king.<ref name="RidgewayH3ONDB"/>

[[File:Montfort Evesham.jpg|thumb|upright=2|alt=Photograph of a 13th-century representation of the death of Simon de Montfort|The death of [[Simon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester|Simon de Montfort]] at the [[Battle of Evesham]] in 1265]]

Disagreements between the barons and the king intensified. The barons, under [[Simon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester]], captured most of southeast England in the [[Second Barons' War]]. At the [[Battle of Lewes]] in 1264, Henry and Prince Edward were defeated and taken prisoner. De Montfort assembled the [[Montfort's Parliament|Great Parliament]], recognized as the first Parliament because it was the first time the cities and boroughs had sent representatives.<ref name=Schama2000p181>{{harvnb|Schama|2000|p=181}}</ref> Edward escaped, raised an army and defeated and killed de Montfort at the [[Battle of Evesham]] in 1265.<ref name=" EIODNB ">{{harvnb| Prestwich |2008|}}</ref>

Savage retribution was inflicted upon the rebels, and authority restored to Henry. With the realm now peaceful, Edward left England to join Louis IX on the [[Ninth Crusade]]; he was one of the last crusaders. Louis died before Edward's arrival, but Edward decided to continue. The result was disappointing; Edward's small force only enabled him to capture [[Acre, Israel|Acre]] and launch a handful of raids. After surviving an assassination attempt, Edward left for Sicily later in the year, never to participate in a crusade again. When Henry III died, Edward acceded to the throne; the barons swore allegiance to him even though he did not return for two years.<ref name=" EIODNB" />

===Constitutional change and the reform of feudalism===
Edward I married [[Eleanor of Castile]], daughter of [[Ferdinand III of Castile|King Ferdinand of Castile]], a great-grandson of Henry II through his second daughter Eleanor in 1254. Edward and Eleanor had sixteen children; five daughters survived to adulthood, but only one son survived Edward:<ref>{{harvnb|Weir|2008|pp=82–86}}</ref>

* [[Eleanor of England, Countess of Bar|Eleanor, Countess of Bar]] (1264/69−1298)
* Three daughters (Joan, Alice, and Juliana/Katherine) and two sons (John and Henry) born between 1265 and 1271. They died between 1265 and 1274 with little historical trace.
* [[Joan of Acre|Joan, Countess of Gloucester]] (1272–1307)
* [[Alphonso, Earl of Chester]] (1273–1284)
* [[Margaret of England, Duchess of Brabant|Margaret, Duchess of Brabant]] (1275–1333)
* [[Mary of Woodstock]] (1278–1332), who became a [[nun]]
* Isabella (1279–1279)
* [[Elizabeth of Rhuddlan|Elizabeth, firstly Countess of Holland and on widowhood, secondly Countess of Hereford]] (1282–1316). Among her eleven children were the earls of [[Hereford]], [[Essex]], and [[Northampton]], and the countesses of [[Earl of Ormond (Scotland)|Ormond]] and [[Devon]].
* [[Edward II of England|Edward II]]
* Two other daughters (Beatrice and Blanche), who died as children.

Following Eleanor's death in 1290, Edward married [[Margaret of France, Queen of England|Margaret of France]], daughter of [[Philip III of France]], in 1299. Edward and Margaret had two sons, who both lived to adulthood, and a daughter who died as a child:<ref>{{harvnb|Weir|2008|pp=86–90}}</ref>

* [[Thomas of Brotherton, 1st Earl of Norfolk|Thomas]] (1300–1338), whose daughter [[Margaret, Duchess of Norfolk|Margaret]] inherited his estates. Margaret's grandson, [[Thomas de Mowbray, 1st Duke of Norfolk|Thomas Mowbray]], was the first [[duke of Norfolk]], but Richard II exiled him and stripped him of his titles.
* [[Edmund of Woodstock, 1st Earl of Kent|Edmund, Earl of Kent]] (1301 to 1330). Edmund's loyalty to his half-brother, Edward II, resulted in his execution by order of the rebel Mortimer and his lover, Edward's queen, Isabella. His daughter, Joan, inherited his estates and married her own cousin, [[Edward the Black Prince]]; together, they had [[Richard II|Richard]], who later became the English king.
* Eleanor (1306–1311).

Evidence for Edward's involvement in legal reform is hard to find but his reign saw a major programme of legal change. Much of the drive and determination is likely to have come from the king and his experience of the baronial reform movement of the late 1250s and early 1260s. With the [[Statutes of Mortmain]], Edward imposed his authority over the Church; the statutes prohibited land donation to the Church, asserted the rights of the Crown at the expense of traditional feudal privileges, promoted the uniform administration of justice, raised income and codified the legal system. His military campaigns left him in heavy debt and when [[Philip IV of France]] confiscated the Duchy of [[Gascony]] in 1294, Edward needed funds to wage war in France. When Edward summoned a precedent-setting [[Model Parliament|assembly]] in order to raise more taxes for military finance, he included lesser landowners and merchants. The resulting parliament included barons, clergy, knights, and burgesses for the first time.<ref name=" EIODNB" />

===Expansion in Britain===
{{See also|Wars of Scottish Independence|Conquest of Wales by Edward I}}
[[File:Wales after the Treaty of Montgomery 1267 Colorblind.svg|thumb|upright|alt=Coloured map depicting Wales (adjacent to the Kingdom of England, coloured dark orange) following the Treaty of Montgomery of 1267. Gwynedd, Llywelyn ap Gruffudd's principality, is green; the territories conquered by Llywelyn are purple; the territories of Llywelyn's vassals are blue; the lordships of the Marcher barons are shown as light orange; and the lordships of the King of England are shown in yellow.|Wales after the [[Treaty of Montgomery]] of 1267:
{{Leftlegend|#009E73|[[Gwynedd]], Llywelyn ap Gruffudd's principality}}
{{Leftlegend|#CC79A7|Territories conquered by [[Llywelyn ap Gruffudd]]}}
{{Leftlegend|#56B4E9|Territories of Llywelyn's vassals}}
{{Leftlegend|#E69F00|Lordships of the [[Marcher barons]]}}
{{Leftlegend|#F0E442|Lordships of the King of England}}
{{Leftlegend|#D55E00|Kingdom of England}}]]

On his accession, Edward I sought to organise his realm, enforcing his claims to primacy in the [[British Isles]]. [[Llywelyn ap Gruffudd]] claimed to rule [[North Wales]] "entirely separate from" England but Edward viewed him to be "a rebel and disturber of the peace". Edward's determination, military experience and skilful naval manoeuvres ended what was to him rebellion. The invasion was executed by one of the largest armies ever assembled by an English king, comprising Anglo-Norman cavalry and Welsh archers and laying the foundation for future victories in France. Llywelyn was driven into the mountains, later dying in battle. The [[Statute of Rhuddlan]] established England's authority over Wales, and Edward's son was proclaimed the first English [[Prince of Wales]] upon his birth. Edward spent vast sums on his two Welsh campaigns with a large portion of it spent on a network of castles.<ref name="EIODNB" />

Edward asserted that the [[List of Scottish monarchs|king of Scotland]] owed him feudal allegiance, and intended to unite the two nations by marrying his son [[Edward II of England|Edward]] to [[Margaret, Maid of Norway|Margaret]], the sole heir of King [[Alexander III of Scotland|Alexander III]].<ref name="EIODNB" /> When Margaret died in 1290, [[Competitors for the Crown of Scotland|competition for the Scottish crown]] ensued. By invitation of Scottish magnates, Edward I resolved the dispute, ruling in favour of [[John Balliol]], who duly swore loyalty to him and became king. Edward insisted that he was Scotland's sovereign and possessed the right to hear appeals against Balliol's judgements, undermining Balliol's authority. Balliol allied with France in 1295; Edward invaded Scotland the following year, deposing and exiling Balliol.<ref name="EIODNB" />

Edward was less successful in Gascony, which was overrun by the French. With his resources depleting, Edward was forced to reconfirm the Charters, including Magna Carta, to obtain the necessary funds. In 1303 the French king restored Gascony to Edward by signing the [[Treaty of Paris (1303)|Treaty of Paris]]. Meanwhile, [[William Wallace]] rose in Balliol's name and recovered most of Scotland. Wallace was defeated at the [[Battle of Falkirk (1298)|Battle of Falkirk]], after which [[Robert the Bruce]] rebelled and was crowned king of Scotland. Edward died while travelling to Scotland for another campaign.<ref name="EIODNB" />

[[File:Peers and commoners fighting - The Holkham Bible Picture Book (c.1320-1330), f.40 - BL Add MS 47682.jpg|left|thumb|upright=1.2|alt=Image of the Battle of Bannockburn reproduced from the Holkham Bible|A scene from the [[Holkham Bible]] showing knights and foot soldiers at the [[Battle of Bannockburn]] in 1314.]]

King Edward II's coronation oath on his succession in 1307 was the first to reflect the king's responsibility to maintain the laws that the community "shall have chosen" ({{lang|frm|aura eslu}} in old French).<ref name=McKisack19594>{{harvnb|McKisack|1959|pp=4–6}}</ref> He was not unpopular initially but faced three challenges: discontent over the financing of wars; his household spending; and the role of his [[favourite]] [[Piers Gaveston]].<ref name="EIIODNB" >{{harvnb|Phillips|2008|}}</ref> When Parliament decided that Gaveston should be exiled the king was left with no choice but to comply.<ref name=ODNBPG>{{harvnb|Hamilton|2008|}}</ref> Edward engineered Gaveston's return, but was forced to agree to the appointment of [[Ordainers]], led by his cousin [[Thomas, 2nd Earl of Lancaster]], to reform the royal household with Piers Gaveston exiled again.<ref name="EIIODNB" />

When Gaveston returned again to England, he was abducted and executed after a mock trial.<ref name="ODNBPG" /> The ramifications of this drove Thomas and his adherents from power. Edward's humiliating defeat by Bruce at the [[Battle of Bannockburn]] in 1314, confirming Bruce's position as an independent king of Scots, leading to Lancaster being appointed head of the king's council.<ref name="EIIODNB" /> Edward finally repealed the Ordinances after defeating and executing Lancaster at the [[Battle of Boroughbridge]] in 1322.<ref name="EIIODNB" />

The French monarchy asserted its rights to encroach on Edward's legal rights in Gascony. Resistance to one judgement in [[Saint-Sardos, Lot-et-Garonne|Saint-Sardos]] resulted in Charles IV declaring the duchy forfeit. Charles's sister, [[Isabella of France|Queen Isabella]], was sent to negotiate and agreed a treaty that required Edward to pay homage in France to Charles. Edward resigned Aquitaine and Ponthieu to his son [[Edward III of England|Edward]], who travelled to France to give homage in his stead. With the English heir in her power, Isabella refused to return to England unless Edward II dismissed his favourites, and she became the mistress of [[Roger Mortimer, 1st Earl of March|Roger Mortimer]].<ref name="EIIODNB" />

The couple invaded England and, with [[Henry, 3rd Earl of Lancaster]], captured the king.<ref name=ODNBToL>{{harvnb|Waugh|2006|}}</ref> Edward II abdicated on condition that his son would inherit the throne rather than Mortimer. Although there is no historical record of the cause of death, he is popularly believed to have been murdered at Berkeley Castle by having a red-hot poker thrust into his bowels.<ref name=Schama220 >{{harvnb|Schama|2000|p=220}}; {{harvnb|Weir|2008|p=92}}</ref> A coup by Edward III ended four years of control by Isabella and Mortimer. Mortimer was executed. Though removed from power, Isabella was treated well, and lived in luxury for the next 27 years.<ref name="EIIODNB"/>

===Conflict with the House of Valois===
{{Main|Hundred Years' War|Hundred Years' War (1337–60)|Hundred Years' War (1369–89)}}
[[File:Philip iv and family.jpg|thumb|right|alt=Image of vellum manuscript from 1313 of Isabella, third from left, with her father, Philip IV, her future French king brothers, and Philip's brother, Charles of Valois|[[Isabella of France|Isabella]] (third from left) with her father, [[Philip IV of France|Philip IV]], her future French king brothers, and Philip's brother, [[Charles of Valois]]]]

In 1328, [[Charles IV of France]] died without a male heir. Queen Isabella made a claim to the throne of France on behalf of her son Edward, on the grounds that he was a [[matrilineal]] grandson of Philip IV of France. However, the precedents set by Philip V's succession over his niece [[Joan II of Navarre]] and Charles IV's succession over his nieces meant that the senior grandson of Philip III in the male line, Phillip of Valois, became king. Not yet in power, Edward paid homage to Phillip as Duke of Aquitaine.

In 1337, Phillip confiscated Aquitaine and Ponthieu from Edward, alleging he was harbouring Phillip's fugitive cousin and enemy, [[Robert III of Artois|Robert of Artois]].<ref name="EIIIODNB">{{harvnb|Ormrod|2008|}}</ref> In response, Edward proclaimed himself king of France to encourage the Flemish to rise in open rebellion against the French king. The conflict, later known as the Hundred Years' War, included a significant English naval victory at the [[Battle of Sluys]],<ref name="EIIIODNB" /> and a victory on land at [[Battle of Crécy|Crécy]], leaving Edward free to capture the important port of [[Calais]]. A subsequent victory against Scotland at the [[Battle of Neville's Cross]] resulted in the capture of [[David II of Scotland|David II]] and reduced the threat from Scotland.<ref name="EIIIODNB" /> The [[Black Death in England|Black Death]] brought a halt to Edward's campaigns by killing perhaps a third of his subjects.<ref name="EIIIODNB" /> The only Plantagenet known to have died from the Black Death was Edward III's daughter [[Joan of England (1335–1348)|Joan]] in [[Bordeaux]].<ref name="EIIIODNB" />

[[File:Battle of crecy froissart.jpg|thumb|alt=Image of the Battle of Crecy taken from Froissart|The [[Battle of Crécy]] was an important Plantagenet victory of the [[Hundred Years' War]] in France. [[Bibliothèque nationale de France]].]]

[[Edward, the Black Prince]] resumed the war with destructive [[chevauchée]]s starting from Bordeaux. His army was caught by a much larger French force at [[Poitiers]], but the ensuing [[Battle of Poitiers|battle]] was a decisive English victory, resulting in the capture of [[John II of France]]. John agreed to a [[Second Treaty of London|treaty]] promising the French would pay a four million écus ransom. The subsequent [[Treaty of Brétigny]] was demonstrably popular in England, where it was both ratified in parliament and celebrated with great ceremony.<ref name="EIIIODNB" />

To reach agreement, clauses were removed that would have had Edward renounce his claim to the French crown in return for territory in Aquitaine and the town of Calais. These were entered in another agreement to be effected only after the transfer of territory by November 1361, but both sides prevaricated over their commitments for the following nine years. Hostages from the Valois family were held in London while John returned to France to raise his ransom. Edward had restored the lands of the former Angevin Empire, holding Normandy, Brittany, Anjou, Maine and the coastline from [[Flanders]] to Spain. When the hostages escaped back to France, John was horrified that his word had been broken and returned to England, where he eventually died.<ref name="EIIIODNB" />

Fighting in the Hundred Years' War spilled from the French and Plantagenet lands into surrounding realms, including the dynastic conflict in [[Kingdom of Castile|Castile]] between Peter of Castile and [[Henry II of Castile]]. The Black Prince allied himself with Peter, defeating Henry at the [[Battle of Nájera]]. Edward and Peter fell out when Peter was unable to reimburse Edward's military expenses, leaving him bankrupt.<ref name="Black Prince ODNB">{{harvnb|Barber|2008|}}</ref> The Plantagenets continued to interfere, and [[John of Gaunt, 1st Duke of Lancaster]], the Black Prince's brother, married Peter's daughter [[Constance of Castile, Duchess of Lancaster|Constance]], claiming the Crown of Castile in her name. He invaded with an army of 5,000 men; however, fighting was inconclusive, before Gaunt agreed to a treaty with [[John I of Castile|King Juan of Castile]].<ref name=ODNGJoG>{{harvnb|Walker|2008|}}</ref> Terms of the treaty included the marriage of John of Gaunt's daughter [[Catherine of Lancaster|Katherine]] to Juan's son, [[Henry III of Castile|Enrique]].<ref name=KoL>{{harvnb|Goodman|2004|}}</ref>

[[Charles V of France]] maintained the terms of the treaty of Brétigny but encouraged others in Aquitaine to challenge the authority of the Plantagenets in Aquitaine.<ref name="Black Prince ODNB" /> The prince, who had suffered a debilitating illness for nearly a decade which often restricted his movement to being carried in a litter,<ref name="Black Prince ODNB" /> returned to England, where he soon died.<ref name=Weir2008p93>{{harvnb|Weir|2008|p=93}}</ref> John of Gaunt assumed leadership in France with limited success, and peace negotiations over several years were inconclusive.<ref name="ODNGJoG" />

===Descendants of Edward III===
[[File:Jean Froissart, Chroniques, 154v, 12148 btv1b8438605hf336, crop.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|alt=Image of Richard II and the peasants revolt taken from Froissart|[[Richard II]] meets the rebels of the 1381 [[Peasants' Revolt]], in an [[illuminated manuscript|illumination]] from [[Jean Froissart|Froissart]]'s [[Froissart's Chronicles|''Chronicles'']]. [[Bibliothèque nationale de France]], Paris.]]

The marriage of Edward III and [[Philippa of Hainault]] produced thirteen children and thirty-two grandchildren:<ref>{{harvnb|Weir|2008|pp=92–117}}</ref>

* [[Edward, the Black Prince|Edward]] (1330–1376){{mdash}}married his cousin [[Joan of Kent]], a granddaughter of Edward I, with whom he had two sons:
:* Edward (1365–1371/2)
:* [[Richard II of England|Richard]] (1367–1400)
* [[Isabella of England, Lady of Coucy|Isabella]] (1332–1382){{mdash}}married [[Enguerrand VII, Lord of Coucy]], and had two daughters:
:* [[Marie I de Coucy, Countess of Soissons|Marie]]
:* [[Philippa de Coucy, Countess of Oxford|Philippa]]
* [[Joan of England (1335–1348)|Joan]] (1335–1348)
* William (1334/6–1337)
* [[Lionel of Antwerp, 1st Duke of Clarence|Lionel]] (1338–1368){{mdash}}had one daughter with [[Elizabeth de Burgh, 4th Countess of Ulster|Elizabeth de Burgh]]:
:* [[Philippa, 5th Countess of Ulster|Philippa]] (1355–1378/81){{mdash}}through Philippa, the House of York, by [[cognatic kinship]], asserted that its claim to the throne was superior to the House of Lancaster's. Philippa's granddaughter and heir, [[Anne Mortimer]], married [[Richard of Conisburgh, 3rd Earl of Cambridge]], the Duke of York's heir. The [[Earl of Northumberland|earls of Northumberland]] and Clifford, significant supporters of the Lancasters during the Wars of the Roses, were descendants of Philippa through her other daughter, [[Elizabeth Mortimer]].
* [[John of Gaunt]] (1340–1399){{mdash}}married [[Blanche of Lancaster]], the heiress to the duchy of Lancaster and a direct descendant of Henry III, and had seven children with her:
:* [[Philippa of Lancaster|Philippa]] (1360–1415){{mdash}}married [[John I of Portugal]].
:* John (c. 1362/1364){{mdash}}died as an infant.
:* [[Elizabeth of Lancaster, Duchess of Exeter|Elizabeth]] (1364–1426){{mdash}}married [[John Hastings, 3rd Earl of Pembroke]]; [[John Holland, 1st Duke of Exeter]]; and [[John Cornwall, 1st Baron Fanhope]]; respectively.
:* Edward of Lancaster (1365–1365)
:* John of Lancaster (1366){{mdash}}died as an infant.
:* [[Henry IV of England|Henry]] (1367–1413)
:* Isabella of Lancaster (b. 1368){{mdash}}died as a child.
:After Blanche's death in 1369, John married [[Constance of Castile, Duchess of Lancaster|Constance of Castile]], trying unsuccessfully to obtain the throne of Castile. The marriage produced two children:
:* [[Catherine of Lancaster]] (1372–1418){{mdash}}married [[Henry III of Castile]], with whom she was a great-grandmother of [[Catherine of Aragon]], first wife of [[Henry VIII]] of England.
:* John (1374–1375)
:Constance died in 1394, after which John married [[Katherine Swynford]] on 13 January 1396. Their four children were born before they married. The pope legitimised them in 1396, as did Richard II by charter, on the condition that their children could not ascend the throne:
:* [[John Beaufort, 1st Earl of Somerset|John]] (c. 1371/1372–1410){{mdash}}grandfather of [[Margaret Beaufort, Countess of Richmond and Derby|Margaret Beaufort]], [[Henry VII of England|Henry VII]]'s mother.
:* [[Henry Beaufort|Henry]] (1375–1447)
:* [[Thomas Beaufort, Duke of Exeter|Thomas]] (1377–1427)
:* [[Joan Beaufort, Countess of Westmorland|Joan]] (1379–1440){{mdash}}Joan's son, [[Richard Neville, 5th Earl of Salisbury]], and her grandson, [[Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick]], were leading supporters of the House of York.
* [[Edmund of Langley, 1st Duke of York|Edmund]] (1341–1402){{mdash}}founder of the House of York. He had three children with [[Isabella of Castile, Duchess of York|Isabella of Castile]]:
:* [[Edward of Norwich, 2nd Duke of York|Edward]] (1373–1415){{mdash}}killed at the [[Battle of Agincourt]].
:* [[Constance of York|Constance]] (1374–1416)
:* [[Richard of Conisburgh, 3rd Earl of Cambridge|Richard]]{{mdash}}(1375–1415)
* Blanche (1342){{mdash}}died as a child.
* [[Mary of Waltham]] (1344–1362){{mdash}}married [[John V, Duke of Brittany]]. No issue.
* [[Margaret, Countess of Pembroke|Margaret]] (1346–1361){{mdash}}married [[John Hastings, 2nd Earl of Pembroke (4th Creation)|John Hastings, 2nd Earl of Pembroke]]. No issue.
* Joan (b. 1351)
* [[Thomas of Woodstock, 1st Duke of Gloucester|Thomas]] (1355–1397){{mdash}}murdered or executed for treason by order of Richard II; his daughter, [[Anne of Gloucester|Anne]], married [[Edmund Stafford, 5th Earl of Stafford|Edmund Stafford]].

Edward's long reign had forged a new identity, reinforced by [[Middle English]] beginning to establish itself as the spoken and written language of government. As a result, he is considered by the [[Oxford Dictionary of National Biography]] to be culturally the first ''English'' Plantagenet king.<ref name="EIIIODNB" />

===Demise of the main line===
[[File:Richard II King of England.jpg|thumb|upright|alt=Medieval painting of King Richard II|A portrait of [[Richard II]] (c. 1390). [[Westminster Abbey]], London.]]

The Black Prince's ten-year-old son succeeded as [[Richard II of England]] on the death of his grandfather, nominally exercising all the powers of kingship, supported by various councils. His government levied [[Taxation in medieval England|poll taxes]] to finance military campaigns which, combined with the poor state of the economy, resulted in the [[Peasants' Revolt]] in 1381, followed by brutal reprisals against the rebels.<ref name="RIIODNB">{{harvnb|Tuck|2009|}}</ref>

The king's uncle [[Thomas of Woodstock, 1st Duke of Gloucester]]; [[Richard FitzAlan, 11th Earl of Arundel]]; and [[Thomas de Beauchamp, 12th Earl of Warwick]]; became known as the [[Lords Appellant]] when they sought to impeach five of the king's favourites and restrain what was increasingly seen as tyrannical and capricious rule. Later they were joined by [[Henry IV of England|Henry Bolingbroke]], the son and heir of John of Gaunt, and [[Thomas de Mowbray, 1st Duke of Norfolk]]. Initially, they were successful in establishing a commission to govern England for one year, but they were forced to rebel against Richard, defeating an army under [[Robert de Vere, Duke of Ireland|Robert de Vere, Earl of Oxford]], at the skirmish of [[Radcot Bridge (Battle)|Radcot Bridge]].<ref name="RIIODNB" />

Richard was reduced to a figurehead with little power. As a result of the [[Merciless Parliament]], de Vere and [[Michael de la Pole, 1st Earl of Suffolk]], who had fled abroad, were sentenced to death in their absence. [[Alexander Neville|Alexander Neville, Archbishop of York]], had all his possessions confiscated. Several of Richard's council were executed. On John of Gaunt's return from Spain, Richard was able to re-establish his power, having Gloucester murdered in captivity in Calais. Warwick was stripped of his title. Bolingbroke and Mowbray were exiled.<ref name="RIIODNB" />

When John of Gaunt died in 1399, Richard disinherited John's son, Henry, who invaded England in response with a small force that quickly grew in numbers. Meeting little resistance, Henry deposed Richard to have himself crowned Henry IV of England. Richard died in captivity early the next year, probably murdered, bringing an end to the main Plantagenet line. None of Henry's heirs were free from challenge on the grounds of not being the true heir of Richard II and that the Lancastrian dynasty had gained the throne by an act of [[usurpation]].<ref name="RIIODNB" />

==House of Lancaster==
{{main|House of Lancaster}} {{Further|Hundred Years' War (1415–1453)}}

===Henry IV===
Henry married his Plantagenet cousin [[Mary de Bohun]], who was paternally descended from Edward I and maternally from Edmund Crouchback.<ref>{{harvnb|Weir|2008|pp=79–80}}</ref> They had seven children:<ref>{{harvnb|Weir|2008|pp=124–130}}</ref>

* Edward (b. 1382; died as a child){{mdash}}buried at [[Monmouth Castle]], [[Monmouth]].
* [[Henry V of England|Henry]] (1386–1422){{mdash}}had one son:
:* [[Henry VI of England|Henry]] (1421–1471){{mdash}}also had one son:
::* [[Edward of Westminster, Prince of Wales|Edward]] (1453–1471)
* [[Thomas, Duke of Clarence|Thomas]] (1387–1421){{mdash}}killed at the [[Battle of Baugé]]. His marriage to [[Margaret Holland]] proved childless; he had an illegitimate son named John, also known as the Bastard of Clarence.
* [[John, Duke of Bedford|John]] (1389–1435){{mdash}}had two childless marriages: to [[Anne of Burgundy]], daughter of [[John the Fearless]], and [[Jacquetta of Luxembourg]]. John had an illegitimate son and daughter, named Richard and Mary, respectively.
* [[Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester|Humphrey]] (1390–1447){{mdash}}died under suspicious circumstances while imprisoned for treason against Henry VI; his death may have been the result of a stroke.
* [[Blanche of England|Blanche]] (1392–1409){{mdash}}married [[Louis III, Count Palatine of the Rhine]], in 1402.
* [[Philippa of England|Philippa]] (1394–1430){{mdash}}married [[Eric of Pomerania]], king of [[Denmark]], [[Norway]] and [[Sweden]], in 1406.

[[File:Enguerrand de Monstrelet - Slag bij Azincourt.jpg|thumb|upright|Parchment miniature of Henry V's victory at the [[Battle of Agincourt]] in 1415, from [[Enguerrand de Monstrelet]]'s ''Chronique de France'' circa 1495|alt=15th century illuminated manuscript of the Battle of Agincourt]]

Henry went to convoluted legal means to justify his succession. Many Lancastrians asserted that his mother had had legitimate rights through her descent from [[Edmund Crouchback]], who it was claimed was the elder son of Henry III of England, set aside due to deformity.<ref name=Schama264 >{{harvnb|Schama|2000|p=264}}</ref> As the great-grandson of [[Lionel of Antwerp, 1st Duke of Clarence]], [[Edmund Mortimer, 5th Earl of March|Edmund Mortimer, Earl of March]], was the heir presumptive to Richard II and Henry used multiple rationales stressing his Plantagenet descent, divine grace, powerful friends, and Richard's misgovernment.<ref name=ODNBHIV >{{harvnb|Brown|Summerson|2010}}</ref>

In fact, Mortimer never showed interest in the throne. The later marriage of his sister [[Anne de Mortimer|Anne]] to [[Richard of Conisburgh, 3rd Earl of Cambridge]] consolidated this claim to the throne with that of the more junior [[House of York]]. Henry planned to resume war with France, but was plagued with financial problems, declining health and frequent rebellions.<ref name="mortimer353">{{harvnb|Mortimer|2003|p=353}}</ref> He defeated a Scottish invasion, a serious rebellion by [[Henry Percy, 1st Earl of Northumberland]] in the North and [[Owain Glyndŵr]]'s rebellion in Wales.<ref name="mortimer353"/> Many saw it as a punishment from God when Henry was later struck down with unknown but chronic illnesses.<ref name="ODNBHIV "/>

===Henry V===

Henry IV died in 1413. His son and successor, [[Henry V of England]], aware that [[Charles VI of France]]'s mental illness had caused instability in France, invaded to assert the Plantagenet claims and won a near total victory over the French at the [[Battle of Agincourt]].<ref name=Schama265 >{{harvnb|Schama|2000|p=265}}</ref> In subsequent years Henry recaptured much of Normandy and secured marriage to [[Catherine of Valois]]. The resulting [[Treaty of Troyes]] stated that Henry's heirs would inherit the throne of France, but conflict continued with [[Charles VII of France|the Dauphin]].

===Henry VI===

When Henry V died in 1422, his nine-month-old son succeeded him as [[Henry VI of England]]. During the minority of Henry VI the war caused political division among his Plantagenet uncles, Bedford, [[Humphrey of Lancaster, 1st Duke of Gloucester]], and [[Cardinal Beaufort]]. Humphrey's wife was accused of treasonable [[necromancy]] after two astrologers in her employ unwisely, if honestly, predicted a serious illness would endanger Henry VI's life, and Humphrey was later arrested and died in prison.<ref>{{harvnb|Harriss|2011|}}</ref>

Depopulation stemming from the Black Death led to increased wages, static food costs and a resulting improvement in the standard of living for the peasantry. However, under Henry misgovernment and harvest failures depressed the English economy to a pitiful state known as the [[Great Slump (15th century)|Great Slump]]. The economy was in ruins by 1450, a consequence of the loss of France, piracy in the channel and poor trading relations with the [[Hanseatic League]].<ref>{{harvnb|Davies|1977|p=19}}</ref> The economic slowdown began in the 1430s in the north of the country, spreading south in the 1440s, with the economy not recovering until the 1480s.<ref>{{harvnb| Hicks |2012|p=50}}</ref>

It was also driven by multiple harvest failures in the 1430s and disease amongst livestock, which drove up the price of food and damaged the wider economy.<ref>{{harvnb| Hatcher |2002|p=246}}</ref> Certain groups were particularly badly affected: cloth exports fell by 35 per cent in just four years at the end of the 1440s, collapsing by up to 90 per cent in some parts of the South-West.<ref>{{harvnb|Hicks|2012|p=51}}</ref> The Crown's debts reached £372,000, Henry's deficit was £20,000 per annum, and tax revenues were half those of his father.<ref>{{harvnb|Davies|1977|p=68}}</ref>

==House of York==
{{main|House of York}} {{further|Wars of the Roses}}

===Pre-regnal history===
Richard II made his uncle (Edward III's fourth son) Edmund the first [[duke of York]] in 1385. Edmund was married to Isabella, a daughter of King [[Peter of Castile]] and [[María de Padilla]] and the sister of [[Constance of Castile, Duchess of Lancaster|Constance of Castile]], who was the second wife of Edmund's brother John of Gaunt. Both of Edmund's sons were killed in 1415. The younger, [[Richard of Conisburgh, 3rd Earl of Cambridge|Richard]], became involved in the [[Southampton Plot]], a conspiracy to depose Henry V in favour of Richard's brother-in-law Edmund Mortimer. When Mortimer revealed the plot to the king, Richard was executed for treason. Richard's childless older brother [[Edward of Norwich, 2nd Duke of York|Edward]] was killed at the Battle of Agincourt later the same year.

[[Constance of York, Countess of Gloucester|Constance of York]] was Edmund's only daughter and was an ancestor of Queen [[Anne Neville]]. The increasingly interwoven Plantagenet relationships were demonstrated by Edmund's second marriage to [[Joan Holland]]. Her sister [[Alianore Holland, Countess of March|Alianore Holland]] was mother to Richard's wife, Anne Mortimer. [[Margaret Holland]], another of Joan's sisters, married [[John Beaufort, 1st Earl of Somerset|John of Gaunt's son]]. She later married [[Thomas of Lancaster, 1st Duke of Clarence|Thomas of Lancaster]], John of Gaunt's grandson by King Henry IV. A third sister, [[Eleanor Holland, Countess of Salisbury|Eleanor Holland]], was mother-in-law to [[Richard Neville, 5th Earl of Salisbury]]{{mdash}}John's grandson by his daughter [[Joan Beaufort, Countess of Westmorland]]. These sisters were all granddaughters of Joan of Kent, the mother of Richard II, and therefore Plantagenet descendants of Edward I.<ref>{{harvnb|Weir|2008|pp=93–114}}</ref>

Edmund's son Richard was married to Anne Mortimer, the daughter of [[Roger Mortimer, 4th Earl of March]] and [[Alianore Holland|Eleanor Holland]] and great-granddaughter of Edward III's second surviving son Lionel. Anne died giving birth to their only son in September 1411.<ref>{{harvnb| Harriss |2012|}}</ref> Richard's execution four years later left two orphans: [[Isabel of Cambridge, Countess of Essex|Isabel]], who married into the Bourchier family, and a son who was also called Richard.

Although his earldom was forfeited, Richard (the father) was not [[attainder|attainted]], and the four-year-old orphan Richard was his heir. Within months of his father's death, Richard's childless uncle, Edward Duke of York, was killed at Agincourt. Richard was allowed to inherit the title of Duke of York in 1426. In 1432 he acquired the earldoms of March and Ulster on the death of his maternal uncle Edmund Mortimer, Earl of March, who had died campaigning with Henry V in France, and the earldom of Cambridge which had belonged to his father.

Being descended from Edward III in both the maternal and the paternal line gave Richard a significant claim to the throne if the Lancastrian line should fail, and by [[cognatic primogeniture]] arguably a superior claim.<ref name="ODNBRoY">{{harvnb|Watts|2011|}}</ref> He emphasised the point by being the first to assume the Plantagenet surname in 1448. Having inherited the March and Ulster titles, he became the wealthiest and most powerful noble in England, second only to the king himself. Richard married [[Cecily Neville, Duchess of York|Cecily Neville]], a granddaughter of John of Gaunt, and had thirteen or possibly fifteen children:<ref>{{Harvnb|Weir|2008|pp=134–139}}</ref>

* [[Anne of York, Duchess of Exeter|Anne of York]] (1439–1476){{mdash}}([[Mitochondrial DNA]] taken from a descendant of her second daughter, [[Anne St Leger, Baroness de Ros]], was used in the identification of [[Exhumation of Richard III|the remains of Richard III]], which were found in 2012.<ref>{{cite web|title=Family tree|url=http://www.le.ac.uk/richardiii/science/familytree.html|publisher=[[University of Leicester]]|year=2012|access-date=21 January 2015}}</ref>)
* Henry (b. 1441; died as a child)
* [[Edward IV of England|Edward]] (1442–1483)
* [[Edmund, Earl of Rutland|Edmund]] (1443–1460)
* [[Elizabeth of York, Duchess of Suffolk|Elizabeth]] (1444–1503){{mdash}}married [[John de la Pole, 2nd Duke of Suffolk]]; she was the mother of several claimants to the throne.
* [[Margaret of York|Margaret]] (1446–1503){{mdash}}married [[Charles the Bold]], [[Duke of Burgundy]].
* William (b. 1447; died as a child)
* John (b. 1448; died as a child)
* [[George Plantagenet, 1st Duke of Clarence|George]] (1449–1478)
* Thomas (b. 1450/51; died as a child)
* [[Richard III of England|Richard]] (1452–1485)
* Ursula (b. 1455; died as a child)
* In her will, Cecily stated that Katherine and Humphrey were her children, but they may have been her grandchildren through de la Pole.

[[File:MS Ghent - Battle of Tewkesbury.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|alt=The Battle of Tewkesbury, as illustrated in the Ghent manuscript|The [[Battle of Tewkesbury]] of 1471, as illustrated in the Ghent manuscript]]

===Conflict over the crown===

When Henry VI had a mental breakdown, Richard was named regent, but the birth of a male heir resolved the question of succession.<ref name="ODNBRoY"/> When Henry's sanity returned, the court party reasserted its authority, but Richard of York and the Nevilles defeated them at a skirmish called the [[First Battle of St Albans]]. The ruling class was deeply shocked and reconciliation was attempted.<ref name="ODNBRoY"/> York and the Nevilles fled abroad, but the Nevilles returned to win the [[Battle of Northampton (1460)|Battle of Northampton]], where they captured Henry.<ref name="ODNBRoY"/>

When Richard of York joined them he surprised Parliament by claiming the throne and forcing through the [[Act of Accord]], which stated that Henry would remain as king for his lifetime, but would be succeeded by York. Margaret found this disregard for her son's claims unacceptable, and so the conflict continued. York was killed at the [[Battle of Wakefield]] and his head set on display at [[Micklegate Bar]] along with those of [[Edmund, Earl of Rutland]], and Richard Neville, Earl of Salisbury, who had been captured and beheaded.<ref name="ODNBRoY"/> The Scottish queen [[Mary of Guelders]] provided Margaret with support but London welcomed York's son [[Edward IV of England|Edward, Earl of March]] and Parliament confirmed that Edward should be made king. He was crowned after consolidating his position with victory at the [[Battle of Towton]].<ref name="ODNBEIV">{{harvnb|Horrox|2011|}}</ref>

Edward's preferment of the former Lancastrian-supporting Woodville family, following his marriage to [[Elizabeth Woodville]], led Warwick and Clarence to help Margaret depose Edward and return Henry to the throne. Edward and [[Richard III of England|Richard, Duke of Gloucester]], fled, but on their return, Clarence switched sides at the [[Battle of Barnet]], leading to the death of the Neville brothers. The subsequent [[Battle of Tewkesbury]] brought the demise of the last of the male line of the Beauforts. The battlefield casualty of [[Edward of Westminster, Prince of Wales]],<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fields |first1=Bertram |title=Royal Blood |date=1998 |publisher=Regan Books |pages=260–261}}</ref> and the later probable murder of Henry VI extinguished the House of Lancaster.<ref>{{harvnb|Griffiths|2015|}}</ref>

===Edward IV===

By the mid-1470s, the victorious House of York looked safely established, with seven living male princes: Edward IV, his two sons, his brother George and George's son, his brother Richard and Richard's son. Edward and Elizabeth Woodville themselves had ten children, seven of whom survived him:<ref name=autogenerated1>{{harvnb|Weir|2008|pp=139–145}}</ref>

* [[Elizabeth of York|Elizabeth]] (1466–1503){{mdash}}[[queen consort]] to [[Henry VII of England]]
* [[Mary of York|Mary]] (1467–1482)
* [[Cecily of York|Cecily]] (1469–1507){{mdash}}initially married [[John Welles, 1st Viscount Welles]], and later married Thomas Kyme (or Keme) following John's death.
* [[Edward V of England|Edward]] (1470–{{Circa|1483}}){{mdash}}briefly succeeded his father as King Edward V.
* [[Margaret of York (1472)|Margaret]] (1472; died that year)
* [[Richard of Shrewsbury, Duke of York|Richard]] (1473–{{Circa|1483}})
* [[Anne of York (daughter of Edward IV)|Anne]] (1475–1511){{mdash}}married [[Thomas Howard, 3rd Duke of Norfolk|Thomas Howard]]
* [[George Plantagenet, 1st Duke of Bedford|George]] (1477–1479)
* [[Catherine of York]] (1479–1527){{mdash}}married [[William Courtenay, 1st Earl of Devon]].
* [[Bridget of York]] (1480–1517){{mdash}}became a nun {{mdash}} possibly had an illegitimate daughter called [[Agnes of Eltham]]

===Princes in the Tower and Richard III===

Dynastic infighting and misfortune quickly brought about the demise of the House of York. [[George Plantagenet, 1st Duke of Clarence]], plotted against his brother and was executed. Following Edward's premature death in 1483, the Three Estates of the Realm, assembled in an informal Parliament, declared Edward's two sons illegitimate on the grounds of an alleged prior marriage to [[Lady Eleanor Talbot]], leaving Edward's marriage invalid.<ref>{{harvnb|Horrox|2013|}}</ref><ref name=Ashdown>{{Cite book |last=Ashdown-Hill |first=John |author-link=John Ashdown-Hill |title=The Mythology of Richard III |date=2015 |publisher=Amberley |pages=74–85}}</ref>

Richard III ascended to the throne, and the [[Princes in the Tower]]'s fate is unclear.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lewis |first=Matthew |title=The Survival of the Princes in the Tower |date=2018 |publisher=The History Press |location=Stroud}}</ref><ref name=Ashdown/> Richard's son predeceased him and Richard was killed in 1485<ref name="autogenerated5">{{harvnb|Weir|2008|p=145}}</ref> after an invasion by the forces of [[Henry VII of England|Henry Tudor]], who claimed the throne through his mother [[Margaret Beaufort, Countess of Richmond and Derby|Margaret Beaufort]].<ref>{{harvnb|Gunn|2009|}}</ref> Henry assumed the throne as Henry VII, founding the Tudor dynasty and bringing the Plantagenet line of kings to an end.<ref>{{harvnb|Anon|2004|}}</ref>

==House of Tudor and other Plantagenet descendants==

===Tudor===
[[File:Elizabeth of York from Kings and Queens of England.jpg|alt=Portrait of Elizabeth of York (1465–1503)|thumb|right|upright|[[Elizabeth of York]]]]
When [[Henry VII of England]] seized the throne there were eighteen Plantagenet descendants who might today be thought to have a stronger hereditary claim, and by 1510 this number had been increased further by the birth of sixteen Yorkist children.<ref name=Weir2008p148>{{harvnb|Weir|2008|p=148}}</ref> Henry mitigated this situation with his marriage to [[Elizabeth of York]]. She was the eldest daughter of Edward IV, and all their children were his cognatic heirs. Indeed, [[Polydore Vergil]] noted Henry VIII's pronounced resemblance to his grandfather Edward: "For just as Edward was the most warmly thought of by the English people amongst all English kings, so this successor of his, Henry, was very much like him in general appearance, in greatness of mind and generosity and for that reason was the most acclaimed and approved of all."<ref>{{harvnb|Starkey|2009|p=305}}</ref>

This did not deter [[Margaret of York|Margaret of York, Duchess of Burgundy]]{{mdash}}Edward's sister and Elizabeth's aunt{{mdash}}and members of the de la Pole family{{mdash}}children of Edward's sister and [[John de la Pole, 2nd Duke of Suffolk]]{{mdash}} from frequent attempts to destabilise Henry's regime.<ref name="ODNBMoY">{{harvnb|Jones|2008|}}</ref> Henry imprisoned Margaret's nephew [[Edward Plantagenet, 17th Earl of Warwick|Edward, Earl of Warwick]], the son of her brother George, in the Tower of London, but in 1487 Margaret financed a rebellion led by [[Lambert Simnel]] whose true identity remains uncertain, though he himself presented himself as 'Edward VI'. [[John de la Pole, 1st Earl of Lincoln]], joined the revolt, probably anticipating that it would further his own ambitions to the throne, but he was killed in the suppression of the uprising at the [[Battle of Stoke Field]] in 1487.<ref>{{harvnb|Horrox|2004|}}</ref> Warwick was implicated by two further failed invasions supported by Margaret by the so called [[Perkin Warbeck]] claiming to be Edward IV's son Richard of Shrewsbury, and supposedly Warbeck's later planned escape for them both; Warwick was executed in 1499; with his death the House of Plantagenet went extinct in the legitimate male line.<ref>Ulwencreutz, Lars. ''Ulwencreutz's the Royal Families in Europe V'' (2003), p. 202</ref> Edward's execution may simply have been a precondition for the marriage of [[Arthur, Prince of Wales]] to [[Katherine of Aragon]] in 1501.<ref name=EEoW>{{harvnb|Carpenter|2008|}}</ref>

===De La Pole===
[[John de la Pole, 2nd Duke of Suffolk|John de la Pole]]'s attainder meant that his brother [[Edmund de la Pole, 3rd Duke of Suffolk|Edmund]] inherited their father's titles, but much of the wealth of the [[duke of Suffolk|duchy of Suffolk]] was forfeit. Edmund did not possess sufficient finances to maintain his status as a duke, so as a compromise he accepted the title of [[Earl of Suffolk|earl of Suffolk]]. Financial difficulties led to frequent legal conflicts and Edmund's indictment for murder in 1501. He fled with his brother Richard, while their remaining brother, William, was imprisoned in the Tower{{mdash}}where he would remain until his death 37 years later{{mdash}}as part of a general suppression of Edmund's associates. [[Philip I of Castile|Philip the Fair]] had been holding Edmund and in 1506 he returned him to Henry. Edmund was imprisoned in the Tower. In 1513, he was executed after [[Richard de la Pole]], whom [[Louis XII|Louis XII of France]] had recognised as king of England the previous year, claimed the kingship in his own right.<ref name =EDLP>{{harvnb|Cunningham|2008|}}</ref> Richard, known as the White Rose, plotted an invasion of England for years but was killed in 1525 at the [[Battle of Pavia]] while fighting as the captain of the French [[landsknechts]] during [[François I of France]]'s invasion of Italy.<ref name=RDLP>{{harvnb|Cunningham|2004a|}}</ref>

===Pole===
[[File:El cardenal Reginald Pole, por Sebastiano del Piombo.jpg|thumb|Cardinal [[Reginald Pole]]|upright|alt=Ancient oil painting of Cardinal Pole]]

Warwick's sister, and therefore Edward IV's niece, [[Margaret Pole, Countess of Salisbury]], was executed by Henry VIII in 1541. By then, the cause was more religious and political rather than dynastic. The attainder of her father, [[George Plantagenet, 1st Duke of Clarence|Clarence]], was a legal bar to any claims to the throne by his children. Additionally her marriage, arranged by Henry VII, to [[Sir Richard Pole]], his half-cousin and trusted supporter, was not auspicious. Nevertheless, it did allow the couple to be closely involved in court affairs. Margaret's fortunes improved under Henry VIII and in February 1512 she was restored to the [[Earl of Salisbury|earldom of Salisbury]] and all the Warwicks' lands. This made her the first and, apart from [[Anne Boleyn]], the only woman in 16th-century England to hold a peerage title in her own right.<ref name=Pole>{{harvnb|Pierce|2015|}}</ref>

Her daughter [[Ursula Pole, Baroness Stafford|Ursula]] married the son of [[Edward Stafford, 3rd Duke of Buckingham]]. Buckingham's fall after arguments with the king over property, and Margaret's open support for [[Catherine of Aragon]] and [[Mary I of England|Princess Mary]] began the Poles' estrangement from the king. Hope of reconciliation was dashed by ''De unitate'', the letter that Margaret's son [[Reginald Pole]] wrote to Henry VIII, in which Reginald declared his opposition to the royal supremacy. In 1538 evidence came to light that Pole family members in England had been in communication with Reginald. Margaret's sons [[Geoffrey Pole|Geoffrey]] and [[Henry Pole, 1st Baron Montagu|Henry]] were arrested for treason along with several friends and associates, including Henry's wife and brother-in-law{{mdash}}[[Edward Neville (courtier)|Edward Neville]]. Among those arrested was the king's cousin [[Henry Courtenay, 1st Marquess of Exeter]], his [[Gertrude Courtenay, Marchioness of Exeter|wife]] and 11-year-old [[Edward Courtenay, 1st Earl of Devon|son]]. Courteney's wife was released two years later, but their son spent 15 years in the Tower until Queen Mary released him. Except for the surviving Geoffrey Pole, all the others implicated were beheaded.<ref name=Courteney>{{harvnb|Cooper|2008|}}</ref>

Margaret was attainted. The possibility of an invasion involving Reginald via her south coast estates and her embittered relationship with Henry VIII precluded any chance of pardon. However, the decision to execute her seems a spontaneous, rather than a premeditated, act. According to the Calendar of State Papers, her execution was botched at the hands of "a wretched and blundering youth ... who literally hacked her head and shoulders to pieces in the most pitiful manner". In 1886 she was beatified by [[Pope Leo XIII]] on the grounds she had laid down her life for the [[Holy See]] "and for the truth of the orthodox Faith".<ref name=Pole />

===Stafford===
[[Edward Stafford, 3rd Duke of Buckingham]], combined multiple lines of Plantagenet descent: from Edward III by his son Thomas of Woodstock, from Edward III via two of his Beaufort grandchildren, and from Edward I from Joan of Kent and the [[Holland family]]. His father failed in his rebellion against Richard III in 1483 but was restored to his inheritance on the reversal of his father's [[attainder]] late in 1485. His mother married Henry VII's uncle [[Jasper Tudor]], and his wardship was entrusted to the king's mother, [[Lady Margaret Beaufort]]. In 1502, during Henry VII's illness, there was debate as to whether Buckingham or [[Edmund de la Pole, 3rd Duke of Suffolk|Edmund de la Pole]] should act as [[regent]] for Henry VIII. There is no evidence of continuous hostility between Buckingham and Henry VIII, but there is little doubt of the duke's dislike of [[Thomas Wolsey]], whom he believed to be plotting to ruin the old nobility. Therefore, Henry VIII instructed Wolsey to watch Buckingham, his brother [[Henry Stafford, 1st Earl of Wiltshire]], and three other peers. Neither Henry VIII nor his father planned to destroy Buckingham because of his lineage and Henry VIII even allowed Buckingham's son and heir, [[Henry Stafford, 1st Baron Stafford]], to marry [[Ursula Pole, Baroness Stafford|Ursula Pole]], giving the Staffords a further line of royal blood descent. Buckingham himself was arrested in April 1521; he was found guilty on 16 May and executed the next day. Evidence was provided that the duke had been listening to prophecies that he would be king and that the Tudor family lay under God's curse for the execution of Warwick. This was said to explain Henry VIII's failure to produce a male heir. Much of this evidence consisted of ill-judged comments, speculation and bad temper, but it underlined the threat presented by Buckingham's descent.<ref name=Stafford>{{harvnb|Davies|2008|}}</ref>

===Tudor succession===
{{Main|Succession to Elizabeth I of England}}
As late as 1600, with the Tudor succession in doubt, older Plantagenet lines remained as possible claimants to a disputed throne, and religious and dynastic factors gave rise to complications. [[Thomas Wilson (record keeper)|Thomas Wilson]] wrote in his report ''The State of England, Anno Domini 1600'' that there were 12 "competitors" for the succession. At the time of writing (about 1601), Wilson had been working on intelligence matters for [[Thomas Sackville, 1st Earl of Dorset|Lord Buckhurst]] and [[Sir Robert Cecil]].<ref name=WilsonTom>{{Harvnb|Kelsey|2008}}</ref> The alleged competitors included five descendants of Henry VII and Elizabeth, including the eventual successor [[James I of England]], but also seven from older Plantagenet lines:<ref name=Pro>{{Harvnb|Public Records Office|1870}}</ref>

* [[Henry Hastings, 3rd Earl of Huntingdon]]
* [[George Hastings, 4th Earl of Huntingdon]]
* [[Charles Neville, 6th Earl of Westmorland]]
* [[Henry Percy, 9th Earl of Northumberland]]
* [[António, Prior of Crato]]
* [[Ranuccio I Farnese, Duke of Parma]]
* [[Philip III of Spain]] and his infant daughter

[[Ranulph Crewe]], [[Lord Chief Justice of England and Wales|Chief Justice of the King's Bench]], argued that by 1626 the House of Plantagenet could not be considered to remain in existence in a speech during the Oxford Peerage case, which was to rule on who should inherit the [[Earl of Oxford|earldom of Oxford]]. It was referred by [[Charles I of England]] to the [[House of Lords]], who called for judicial assistance. Crewe said:

{{Blockquote|I have labored to make a covenant with myself, that affection may not press upon judgement; for I suppose there is no man that hath any apprehension of gentry or nobleness, but his affection stands to the continuance of a house so illustrious, and would take hold of a twig or twine-thread to support it. And yet time hath his revolutions; there must be a period and an end to all temporal things – finis rerum – an end of names and dignities, and whatsoever is terrene; and why not of [[De Vere family|de Vere]]? For where is [[Bohun family|Bohun]]? Where is [[House of Mowbray|Mowbray]]? Where is [[Mortimer]]? Nay, which is more, and most of all, where is Plantagenet? They are entombed in the urns and sepulchres of mortality! yet let the name of de Vere stand so long as it pleaseth God.<ref name=carew>{{harvnb|Bent|1887|p=166}}</ref>}}

==Timeline of Plantagenet monarchs==
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from: 1154 till: 1399 color: a text:[[Angevin]]
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from: 1461 till: 1470 color: y text:[[House of York|Y]]
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from: 1154 till: 1189 color:a text:[[Henry II of England|Henry II]]
from: 1189 till: 1199 color:a text:[[Richard I of England|Richard I]]
from: 1199 till: 1216 color:a text:[[John of England|John]]
from: 1216 till: 1272 color:a text:[[Henry III of England|Henry III]]
from: 1272 till: 1307 color:a text:[[Edward I of England|Edward I]]
from: 1307 till: 1327 color:a text:[[Edward II of England|Edward II]]
from: 1327 till: 1377 color:a text:[[Edward III of England|Edward III]]
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from: 1413 till: 1422 color:l text:[[Henry V of England|Henry V]]
from: 1422 till: 1461 color:l text:[[Henry VI of England|Henry VI]]
from: 1461 till: 1470 color:y text:[[Edward IV of England|Edward IV]]
from: 1470 till: 1471 color:l text:Henry VI (again)
from: 1471 till: 1483 color:y text:Edward IV (again)
from: 1483 till: 1483 color:y text:[[Edward V of England|Edward V]]
from: 1483 till: 1485 color:y text:[[Richard III of England|Richard III]]

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==Genealogy==
{{see also|English monarchs family tree#House of Plantagenet|label 1=Plantagenet monarchs' family tree}}
{{hidden begin
|toggle = right
|title = Family tree
|titlestyle = background:lightgrey;
}}
:''This family tree includes selected members of the House of Plantagenet who were born legitimate.''<ref name="HoP">{{harvnb|Weir|2008|pp=57–145}}</ref>
{{legend|#FFAAAA|[[House of Lancaster]]}}

{{legend|#AAFFAA|[[House of York]]}}
{{chart/start| summary=Boxes and lines diagram with 64 boxes}}
{{chart|border=1| | | | | | | | | | | | | G5 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | G5=[[Geoffrey V, Count of Anjou]] 1113–1151}}
{{chart|border=1| | | | | | | | | |,|-|-|-|+|-|-|-|.| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | }}
{{chart|border=1| | | | | | | | | H2 | | GN | | WFE | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | H2='''[[Henry II of England|Henry II, King of England]]''' 1133–1189| GN=[[Geoffrey, Count of Nantes]] 1134–1158| WFE=[[William FitzEmpress]] 1136–1164}}
{{chart|border=1| |,|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|+|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|.| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | }}
{{chart|border=1| HYK | | R1 | | Ge2 | | | | | | J1 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | HYK=[[Henry the Young King]] 1155–1183| R1='''[[Richard I of England|Richard I, King of England]]''' 1157–1199| Ge2=[[Geoffrey II, Duke of Brittany]] 1158–1186| J1='''[[John, King of England]]''' 1167–1216}}
{{chart|border=1| | | | | | | | | |!| | | |,|-|-|-|^|-|-|-|.| | | | | | | | | | | | | }}
{{chart|border=1| | | | | | | | | A1 | | H3 | | | | | | R12 | | | | | | | | | | | | | A1=[[Arthur I, Duke of Brittany]] 1187–1203| H3='''[[Henry III of England|Henry III, King of England]]''' 1207–1272| R12=[[Richard, 1st Earl of Cornwall|Richard, King of Germany]] 1209–1272}}
{{chart|border=1| | | | | | | | | |,|-|-|-|^|-|-|-|.| | | |)|-|-|-|.| | | | | | | | | }}
{{chart|border=1| | | | | | | | | E1 | | | | | |EC | | HA | | EA | | | | | | | | | E1='''[[Edward I of England|Edward I, King of England]]''' 1239–1307| EC=[[Edmund Crouchback|Edmund, 1st Earl of Lancaster]] 1245–1296| boxstyle_EC=background-color: #FFAAAA;| HA=[[Henry of Almain]] 1235–1271| EA=[[Edmund, 2nd Earl of Cornwall]] 1249–1300}}
{{chart|border=1| |,|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|+|-|-|-|.| | | |)|-|-|-|.| | | | | | | | | | | | | }}
{{chart|border=1| AC | | E2 | | TB | | EW | |TP | |HP | | | | | | | | | | | | | AC=[[Alphonso, Earl of Chester]] 1273–1284| E2='''[[Edward II of England|Edward II, King of England]]''' 1284–1327| TB=[[Thomas of Brotherton, 1st Earl of Norfolk|Thomas, 1st Earl of Norfolk]] 1300–1338| EW=[[Edmund of Woodstock, 1st Earl of Kent|Edmund, 1st Earl of Kent]] 1301–1330| TP=[[Thomas, 2nd Earl of Lancaster]] c. 1278–1322| boxstyle_TP=background-color: #FFAAAA;| HP=[[Henry, 3rd Earl of Lancaster]] c. 1281–1345| boxstyle_HP=background-color: #FFAAAA;}}
{{chart|border=1| | | | | |)|-|-|-|.| | | |)|-|-|-|.| | | |!| | | | | | | | | | | | | }}
{{chart|border=1| | | | | E3 | | JE | | EP | | JP | |HG | | | | | | | | | | | | | E3='''[[Edward III of England|Edward III, King of England]]''' 1312–1377| JE=[[John of Eltham, Earl of Cornwall|John, Earl of Cornwall]] 1316–1336| EP=[[Edmund, 2nd Earl of Kent]] 1326–1331| JP=[[John, 3rd Earl of Kent]] 1330–1352| HG=[[Henry of Grosmont, Duke of Lancaster|Henry, Duke of Lancaster]] c. 1310–1361| boxstyle_HG=background-color: #FFAAAA;}}
{{chart|border=1| | | | | |)|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|.| | | | | }}
{{chart|border=1| | | | | EBP | | | | | |JG | |EL | | | | | | LA | | TW | | | | | EBP=[[Edward, the Black Prince|Edward, Prince of Wales]] 1330–1376| JG=[[John of Gaunt|John, Duke of Lancaster]] 1340–1399| boxstyle_JG=background-color: #FFAAAA;| EL=[[Edmund of Langley, 1st Duke of York|Edmund, 1st Duke of York]] 1341–1402| boxstyle_EL=background-color: #AAFFAA;| LA=[[Lionel of Antwerp, Duke of Clarence|Lionel, Duke of Clarence]] 1338–1368| TW=[[Thomas of Woodstock, Duke of Gloucester|Thomas, Duke of Gloucester]] 1355–1397}}
{{chart|border=1| | | | | |!| | | |,|-|-|-|(| | | |!| | | | | | | |!| | | |!| | | | | }}
{{chart|border=1| | | | | |!| | |HB | | |!| | | |)|-|-|-|.| | |TGS | | |!| | | | | | HB=''[[House of Beaufort|House of Beaufort]]''| boxstyle_HB=border-width:0px; vertical-align:bottom| TGS=''Two generations skipped''| boxstyle_TGS=border-width:0px; vertical-align:top}}
{{chart|border=1| | | | | R2 | | JB | |H4 | |EN | |RC |y| AM | | HP2 | | | | | R2='''[[Richard II of England|Richard II, King of England]]''' 1367–1400| JB=[[John Beaufort, 1st Earl of Somerset|John Beaufort, Earl of Somerset]] ''(legitimated)''| H4='''[[Henry IV of England|Henry IV, King of England]]''' 1367–1413| boxstyle_H4=background-color: #FFAAAA;| EN=[[Edward, 2nd Duke of York]] c. 1373–1415| boxstyle_EN=background-color: #AAFFAA;| RC=[[Richard of Conisburgh, Earl of Cambridge|Richard, Earl of Cambridge]] 1385–1415| boxstyle_RC=background-color: #AAFFAA;| AM=[[Anne Mortimer]] 1388–1411| HP2=[[Humphrey, Earl of Buckingham]] 1382–1399}}
{{chart|border=1| |,|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|b|-|-|-|+|-|-|-|.| | | |,|-|'| | | | | | | | | | | }}
{{chart|border=1|H5 | |TL | | JBS | |JL | |HG2 | |RY | | | | | | | | | | | | | H5='''[[Henry V of England|Henry V, King of England]]''' 1386–1422| boxstyle_H5=background-color: #FFAAAA;| TL=[[Thomas of Lancaster, Duke of Clarence|Thomas, Duke of Clarence]] 1387–1421| boxstyle_TL=background-color: #FFAAAA;| JBS=[[John Beaufort, Duke of Somerset]] 1404–1444| JL=[[John, Duke of Bedford]] 1389–1435| boxstyle_JL=background-color: #FFAAAA;| HG2=[[Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester]] 1390–1447| boxstyle_HG2=background-color: #FFAAAA;| RY=[[Richard of York, 3rd Duke of York|Richard, 3rd Duke of York]] 1411–1460| boxstyle_RY=background-color: #AAFFAA;}}
{{chart|border=1| |!| | | |,|-|-|-|'| | | |,|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|+|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|.| }}
{{chart|border=1|H6 | | MB | | | | | |E4 | |ER | |GC | | | | | |R3 | |EY | H6='''[[Henry VI of England|Henry VI, King of England]]''' 1421–1471| boxstyle_H6=background-color: #FFAAAA;| MB=[[Margaret Beaufort, Countess of Richmond and Derby|Margaret Beaufort]] 1443–1509| E4='''[[Edward IV of England|Edward IV, King of England]]''' 1442–1483| boxstyle_E4=background-color: #AAFFAA;| ER=[[Edmund, Earl of Rutland]] 1443–1460| boxstyle_ER=background-color: #AAFFAA;| GC=[[George Plantagenet, Duke of Clarence|George, Duke of Clarence]] 1449–1478| boxstyle_GC=background-color: #AAFFAA;| R3='''[[Richard III of England|Richard III, King of England]]''' 1452–1485| boxstyle_R3=background-color: #AAFFAA;| EY=[[Elizabeth of York, Duchess of Suffolk|Elizabeth, Duchess of Suffolk]] 1444–c.1503| boxstyle_EY=background-color: #AAFFAA;}}
{{chart|border=1| |!| | | |!| | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | |!| | | |!| }}
{{chart|border=1| |!| | |HoT | | |,|-|-|-|+|-|-|-|.| | | |)|-|-|-|.| | | |!| | | |!| | HoT=''[[House of Tudor]]''| boxstyle_HoT=border-width:0px; vertical-align:top}}
{{chart|border=1|EW2 | | He7 |~|EY2 | |E5 | |RS | |MP | |EP2 | |EM | |EyH | EW2=[[Edward of Westminster|Edward, Prince of Wales]] 1453–1471| boxstyle_EW2=background-color: #FFAAAA;| He7='''[[Henry VII of England|Henry VII, King of England]]''' 1457–1509| EY2=[[Elizabeth of York]] 1466–1503| boxstyle_EY2=background-color: #AAFFAA;| E5='''[[Edward V of England|Edward V, King of England]]''' 1470–?| boxstyle_E5=background-color: #AAFFAA;| RS=[[Richard of Shrewsbury]] 1473–?| boxstyle_RS=background-color: #AAFFAA;| MP=[[Margaret Pole, Countess of Salisbury|Margaret Pole, Countess of Salisbury]]| boxstyle_MP=background-color: #AAFFAA;| EP2=[[Edward Plantagenet, 17th Earl of Warwick|Edward, Earl of Warwick]] 1475–1499| boxstyle_EP2=background-color: #AAFFAA;| EM=[[Edward of Middleham|Edward, Prince of Wales]] 1473–1484| boxstyle_EM=background-color: #AAFFAA;| EyH=''[[Elizabeth of York, Duchess of Suffolk#Issue|House of York-de la Pole]]''| boxstyle_EyH=border-width:0px; vertical-align:top}}
{{chart|border=1| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | | | | | | }}
{{chart|border=1| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |HoP | | | | | | | | | | | | | HoP=''[[Margaret Pole, Countess of Salisbury#Descendants|House of Pole]]''| boxstyle_HoP=border-width:0px; vertical-align:top}}

{{chart| PC=[[Philippa, 5th Countess of Ulster|Philippa, 5th Countess of Ulster]] ''and the [[Edmund Mortimer, 3rd Earl of March|House of Mortimer]]''| Key='''KEY'''| RED=[[House of Lancaster]]| boxstyle_RED=background-color: #FFAAAA;| GREEN=[[House of York]]| boxstyle_GREEN=background-color: #AAFFAA;}}
{{chart/end}}
{{hidden end}}

{{hidden begin
|toggle = right
|title = List of male-line members of the House of Plantagenet
|titlestyle = background:lightgrey;
}}
Male, male-line, legitimate, non-morganatic members of the house who either lived to adulthood, or who held a title as a child, are included. Kings of England are in bold.
{{Tree list}}
*'''[[Henry II of England]]''', 1133–1189
**[[Henry the Young King]], 1155–1183
**'''[[Richard I of England]]''', 1157–1199
**[[Geoffrey, Duke of Brittany]], 1158–1186
***[[Arthur I, Duke of Brittany]], 1187–1203
**'''[[John of England]]''', 1167–1216
***'''[[Henry III of England]]''', 1207–1272
****'''[[Edward I of England]]''', 1239–1307
*****'''[[Edward II of England]]''', 1284–1327
******'''[[Edward III of England]]''', 1312–1377
*******[[Edward, the Black Prince]], 1330–1376
********'''[[Richard II of England]]''', 1367–1400
*******[[Lionel of Antwerp, 1st Duke of Clarence]], 1338–1368<ref name=Weirp96>{{harvnb|Weir|2008|pp=96–97}}</ref>
*******[[John of Gaunt, 1st Duke of Lancaster]], 1340–1399<ref name="Lancaster">{{harvnb|Weir|2008|pp=124–134}}</ref>
********'''[[Henry IV of England]]''', 1366–1413
*********'''[[Henry V of England]]''', 1386–1422
**********'''[[Henry VI of England]]''', 1421–1471
***********[[Edward of Westminster]], 1453–1471
*********[[Thomas, Duke of Clarence]], 1387–1421
*********[[John, Duke of Bedford]], 1389–1435
*********[[Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester]], 1390–1447
*******[[Edmund of Langley, 1st Duke of York]], 1341–1402<ref name="HoY">{{harvnb|Weir|2008|pp=134–145}}</ref>
********[[Edward of Norwich, 2nd Duke of York]], 1373–1415
********[[Richard of Conisburgh, 3rd Earl of Cambridge]], 1375–1415
*********[[Richard Plantagenet, 3rd Duke of York]], 1411–1460
**********'''[[Edward IV of England]]''', 1442–1483
***********'''[[Edward V of England]]''', 1470–?
***********[[Richard of Shrewsbury, 1st Duke of York]], 1473–?
**********[[Edmund, Earl of Rutland]], 1443–1460
**********[[George Plantagenet, 1st Duke of Clarence]], 1449–1478
***********[[Edward Plantagenet, 17th Earl of Warwick]], 1475–1499, the last legitimate male-line Plantagenet
**********'''[[Richard III of England]]''', 1452–1485
*******[[Thomas of Woodstock, 1st Duke of Gloucester]], 1355–1397
********[[Humphrey, 2nd Earl of Buckingham]], 1381–1399
******[[John of Eltham, Earl of Cornwall]], 1316–1336
*****[[Thomas of Brotherton, 1st Earl of Norfolk]], 1300–1338
******[[Edward of Norfolk]], 1313-1334
*****[[Edmund of Woodstock, 1st Earl of Kent]], 1301–1330
******[[Edmund, 2nd Earl of Kent]], 1326-1331
******[[John, 3rd Earl of Kent]], 1330–1352
****[[Edmund Crouchback, 1st Earl of Lancaster]], 1245–1296
*****[[Thomas Plantagenet, 2nd Earl of Lancaster]], 1278–1322
*****[[Henry, 3rd Earl of Lancaster]], 1281–1345
******[[Henry of Grosmont, 1st Duke of Lancaster]], 1310–1361
*****John of Beaufort, Lord of Beaufort, 1286–1317
***[[Richard, 1st Earl of Cornwall]], 1209–1272
****[[Henry of Almain]], 1235–1271
****[[Edmund, 2nd Earl of Cornwall]], 1249–1300
{{Tree list/end}}
{{hidden end}}

==Notes==
{{Notelist}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

=== Works cited ===
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{{Refend}}

== Further reading ==
* {{Cite book |last1=Jones |first1=Dan |title=The Plantagenets: The Kings Who Made England |date=10 May 2012 |publisher=HarperCollins Publishers |isbn=978-0-00-745749-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=81QmG4p8u8kC |language=en}}

{{Commons|Plantagenet}}

{{S-start}}
{{S-royalhouse|House of Plantagenet|||1485}}
{{S-bef |before=[[House of Blois]]}}
{{S-ttl |title=Ruling House of England |years=1154–1485 | dynasty=[[Angevin kings of England|Angevins]] (until 1214) [[House of Lancaster]] (1399–1461) [[House of York]] (1461–1485)}}
{{S-aft |after=[[House of Tudor]]}}
{{S-bef |before=[[Counts and dukes of Penthièvre|House of Penthièvre]]}}
{{S-ttl |title=Ruling House of Brittany |years=1181–1203}}
{{S-aft |after=[[List of viscounts of Thouars|House of Thouars]]}}
{{S-bef |before=[[House of Ingelger]]}}
{{S-ttl |title=[[Counts and dukes of Anjou|Ruling House of Anjou]] |years=until 1203}}
{{S-aft |after=[[Capetian House of Anjou|House of Anjou (Capetian)]]}}
{{S-end}}

{{Kingdom of England}}
{{Royal houses of Britain and Ireland}}
{{Royal houses of Cyprus}}
{{House of Plantagenet}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:House of Plantagenet| ]]
[[Category:House of Anjou| ]]
[[Category:English people of French descent]]
[[Category:French noble families|Plantagenet]]
[[Category:Royal houses of England]]
[[Category:12th-century establishments in England]]
[[Category:1541 disestablishments in England]]

World Englishes

2025-06-14T13:30:39Z

2A00:23C7:C8BC:C501:507C:445E:62F7:256D: /* History of English */Improved link

{{Short description|Indigenized varieties of English}}
{{Use American English|date = March 2019}}
{{Use mdy dates|date = March 2019}}
{{About|the classification of Englishes around the world|Global English or World English|International English}}

'''World Englishes''' is a term for emerging localized or [[Indigenous language|indigenized]] varieties of English, especially varieties that have developed in territories influenced by the [[United Kingdom]] or the [[United States]]. The study of World Englishes consists of identifying varieties of English used in diverse sociolinguistic contexts globally and analyzing how sociolinguistic histories, multicultural backgrounds and contexts of function influence the use of English in different regions of the world.

The issue of World Englishes was first raised in 1978 to examine concepts of regional Englishes globally. Pragmatic factors such as appropriateness, comprehensibility and interpretability justified the use of English as an international and intra-national language. In 1988, at a [[Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages]] (TESOL) conference in [[Honolulu]], [[Hawaii]], the International Committee of the Study of World Englishes (ICWE) was formed. In 1992, the ICWE formally launched the International Association for World Englishes (IAWE) at a conference of "World Englishes Today", at the [[University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign|University of Illinois]], USA.<ref name="web">International Association of World Englishes [http://www.iaweworks.org/history.php] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101214100854/http://www.iaweworks.org/history.php#|date=2010-12-14}}, Retrieved on 18 November 2010.</ref> There are two academic journals devoted to the study of this topic, titled ''English World-Wide'' (since 1980)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://benjamins.com/catalog/eww| title=English World-Wide A Journal of Varieties of English|language=en|access-date=2021-04-27}}</ref> and ''World Englishes'' (since 1982).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/1467971x|title=World Englishes - Wiley Online Library|website=onlinelibrary.wiley.com|doi=10.1111/(ISSN)1467-971X |language=en|access-date=2018-04-25}}</ref> There are a number of published handbooks<ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Nelson |editor1-first=Cecil L. |editor2-last=Proshina |editor2-first=Zoya |editor3-last=Davis |editor3-first=Daniel R. |title=The Handbook of World Englishes |date=2020 |publisher=Blackwell |location=Malden |isbn=978-1119164210 |edition=2nd}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Schreier |editor1-first=Daniel |editor2-last=Hundt |editor2-first=Marianne |editor3-last=Schneider |editor3-first=Edgar W. |title=The Cambridge Handbook of World Englishes |date=2020 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=978-1108425957}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=The Oxford handbook of World Englishes |date=2017 |editor=Markku Filppula |editor2=Juhani Klemola |editor3=Devyani Sharma |isbn=978-0-19-977771-6 |location=New York |oclc=964294896}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=The Routledge handbook of world Englishes |date=2021 |editor=Andy Kirkpatrick |isbn=978-0-367-14439-5 |edition=Second |location=Abingdon, Oxon |oclc=1200831762}}</ref> and textbooks<ref>{{Cite book|last=Schneider|first=Edgar W.|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1193301209|title=English around the world : an introduction|date=2020|isbn=978-1-108-44226-8|edition=Second|location=Cambridge|oclc=1193301209}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Mesthrie|first=Rajend|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/254167348|title=World Englishes : the study of new linguistic varieties|date=2008|publisher=Cambridge University Press|others=Rakesh Mohan Bhatt|isbn=978-0-511-40823-6|location=Cambridge, UK|oclc=254167348}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Kirkpatrick|first=Andy|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/141382470|title=World Englishes : implications for international communication and English language teaching|date=2007|publisher=Cambridge Univ Press|isbn=978-0-521-61687-4|location=Cambridge [England]|oclc=141382470}}</ref> on the subject.

Currently, there are approximately 75 territories where English is spoken either as a [[first language]] (L1) or as an unofficial or institutionalized [[second language]] (L2) in fields such as [[government]], [[law]], and [[education]]. It is difficult to establish the total number of Englishes in the world, as new varieties of English are constantly being developed and discovered.<ref name="Crystal">Crystal, D. (2007). ''English as a Global Language.'' Cambridge: Cambridge University Press</ref>

==World English vs. World Englishes vs. Global Englishes==
The notions of [[International English|World English]] and World Englishes are far from similar, although the terms are often mistakenly{{Citation needed|reason=How does one know this isn't just some arbitrary distinction just on Wikipedia?|date=December 2014}} used interchangeably. ''World English'' refers to the English language as a [[lingua franca]] used in business, trade, diplomacy and other spheres of global activity, while ''World Englishes'' refers to the different varieties of English and [[English-based creole languages|English-based creoles]] developed in different regions of the world. Alternatively, the term ''Global Englishes'' has been used by scholars in the field to emphasize the more recent spread of English due to [[globalization]], which has resulted in increased usage of [[English as a lingua franca]].<ref>Galloway, N. & Rose, H. (2015). ''Introducing Global Englishes.'' Arbingdon, UK: Routledge</ref>

==Historical context==

===History of English===
{{Main|History of English}}

English is a [[West Germanic languages|West Germanic language]] that originated from the [[Anglo-Frisian]] [[dialect]]s brought by [[Germanic tribes|Germanic invaders]] into [[Great Britain|Britain]]. Initially, [[Old English]] was a diverse group of dialects, reflecting the varied origins of the [[Anglo-Saxons|Anglo-Saxon]] kingdoms of England. Eventually, one of these dialects, [[West Saxon dialect (Old English)|Late West Saxon]], came to dominate.<ref name="intro">Baugh, A. C. and Cable. T. (1993). ''A History of the English Language''. Routledge.</ref>

The original [[Old English]] was then influenced by two further waves of invasion: the first by speakers of the [[North Germanic languages|Scandinavian branch]] of the Germanic language family, who conquered and colonized parts of Britain in the 8th and 9th centuries; the second by the [[Norman Conquest]] of England in the 11th century, by invaders who spoke [[Old Norman]] and ultimately developed a Norman variety called [[Anglo-Norman language|Anglo-Norman]]. For two centuries after the Norman Conquest, [[French language|French]] became the language of everyday life among the upper classes in England. Although the language of the masses remained English, the [[bilingual]] character of England in this period was thus formed.<ref name="intro" />

During the [[Middle English]] period, France and England experienced a process of separation. This period of conflicting interests and feelings of resentment was later termed the [[Hundred Years' War]]. By the beginning of the 14th century, English had regained universal use and become the principal tongue of all England, but not without having undergone significant change.<ref name="intro" />

During the [[Renaissance]], patriotic feelings regarding English brought about the recognition of English as the national language of England. The language was advocated as acceptable for learned and literary use. With the [[Great Vowel Shift]], the language in this period matured to a standard and differed significantly from the [[Middle English]] period, becoming recognizably "[[Early Modern English|modern]]".<ref>Stockwell, R. (2002). "How much shifting actually occurred in the historical English vowel shift?", Minkova, Donka; Stockwell, Robert. ''Studies in the History of the English Language: A Millennial Perspective''. Mouton de Gruyter.</ref>

By the [[Modern English|18th century]], three main forces were driving the direction of the English language: (1) to reduce the language to rule and effect a standard of correct usage; (2) to refine the language by removing supposed defects and introducing certain improvements; and (3) to fix English permanently in the desired form. This desire for system and regularity in the language contrasted with the individualism and spirit of independence characterized by the previous age.<ref name="intro" />

By the 19th century, the expansion of the [[British Empire]], as well as global trade, had led to the spread of English around the world. The rising importance of some of England's larger colonies and former colonies, such as the rapidly developing United States, enhanced the value of the English varieties spoken in these regions, encouraging the belief, among the local populations, that their distinct varieties of English should be granted equal standing with the standard of [[Great Britain]].<ref name="intro" />

===Global spread of English===
====First dispersal: English is transported to the New World====
The first [[diaspora]] involved relatively large-scale [[Human migration|migrations]] of mother-tongue English speakers from [[England]], Scotland and Ireland predominantly to [[North America]] and the [[Caribbean]], Australia, [[South Africa]] and New Zealand. Over time, their own English dialects developed into modern American, Canadian, West Indian, South African, Australian, and [[New Zealand English|New Zealand]] Englishes. In contrast to the [[British English|English of Great Britain]], the varieties spoken in modern North America and Caribbean, South Africa, Australia, and New Zealand have been modified in response to the changed and changing sociolinguistic contexts of the migrants, for example being in contact with indigenous [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]], [[Khoisan]] and [[Bantu languages|Bantu]], [[Australian Aborigines|Aboriginal]] or [[Māori people|Maori]] populations in the colonies.<ref name ="Jenkins">[[Jenkins, Jennifer]]. (2003). ''World Englishes: A Resource Book for Students.'' London and New York: Routledge.</ref>

====Second dispersal: English is transported to Asia and Africa====
The second [[diaspora]] was the result of the colonization of Asia and Africa, which led to the development of '[[New Englishes]]', the second-language varieties of English. In [[colonial Africa]], the history of English is distinct between West and East Africa. English in [[West Africa]] began with trade, particularly the [[History of slavery|slave trade]]. English soon gained official status in what are today [[Gambia]], [[Sierra Leone]], [[Ghana]], [[Nigeria]] and [[Cameroon]], and some of the [[pidgin]] and [[creole language|creoles]] which developed from English contact, including [[Krio language|Krio]] (Sierra Leone) and [[Cameroon Pidgin]], have large numbers of speakers now.

As for [[East Africa]], extensive British settlements were established in what are now [[Kenya]], [[Uganda]], [[Tanzania]], [[Malawi]], [[Zambia]] and [[Zimbabwe]], where English became a crucial language of the government, education and the law. From the early 1960s, the six countries achieved independence in succession; but English remained the official language and had large numbers of second language speakers in Uganda, Zambia, Zimbabwe and Malawi (along with [[Chewa language|Chewa]]).

English was formally introduced to the sub-continent of [[South Asia]] (India, [[Bangladesh]], [[Pakistan]], [[Sri Lanka]], [[Nepal]] and [[Bhutan]]) during the second half of the eighteenth century. In India, English was given status through the implementation of Macaulay 'Minute' of 1835, which proposed the introduction of an English educational system in India.<ref>{{cite web|author=Frances Pritchett |url=http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00generallinks/macaulay/txt_minute_education_1835.html |title=Minute on Education (1835) by Thomas Babington Macaulay |publisher=Columbia.edu |access-date=2010-11-17}}</ref> Over time, the process of '[[Indianisation (British India)|Indianization]]' led to the development of a distinctive national character of English in the Indian sub-continent.

British influence in [[South-East Asia]] and the [[Oceania|South Pacific]] began in the late eighteenth century, involving primarily the territories now known as [[Singapore]], [[Malaysia]] and [[Hong Kong]]. [[Papua New Guinea]], also a [[British protectorate]], exemplified the English-based [[pidgin]] - [[Tok Pisin]].

The Americans came late in [[South-East Asia]] but their influence spread quickly as their reforms on education in the [[Philippines]] progressed in their less than half a century colonization of the islands. English has been taught since the American period and is one of the official languages of the Philippines. Ever since English became the official language, a localized variety gradually emerged - [[Philippine English]]. Lately, linguist Wilkinson Daniel Wong Gonzales <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Wilkinson_Daniel_Wong_Gonzales?ev=hdr_xprf&_sg=mCNszti2YtJXBcgvTb_FFtSXL3-s4zdYcFDgMf1MYf5IPlslU5e-unjgtlDoLAPc |title=Wilkinson Daniel Wong Gonzales {{!}} Master of Arts, English Language and Linguistics {{!}} National University of Singapore, Singapore {{!}} NUS {{!}} Department of English Language & Literature |website=ResearchGate |language=en|access-date=2018-04-25}}</ref> argued that this variety has in itself more varieties, suggesting that we move towards Philippine Englishes<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/307896694 |title=Philippine Englishes: A timely or premature call? |website=ResearchGate |last=Gonzales |first=Wilkinson Daniel Wong |access-date=April 25, 2018 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161013215952/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/307896694_Philippine_Englishes_A_timely_or_premature_call |archive-date=October 13, 2016}}</ref> paradigm to progress further in Schneider's dynamic model after gathering evidences of such happening.<ref>{{Cite thesis|last=Villanueva|first=Rey John Castro|title=The Features of Philippine English across Regions |date=2016 |url=http://lynchlibrary.pssc.org.ph/cgi-bin/koha/opac-detail.pl?biblionumber=2750&shelfbrowse_itemnumber=6284}}</ref>

Nowadays, English is also learnt in other countries in neighboring areas, most notably in [[Taiwan]], Japan and [[Korea]].<ref name="Jenkins" />

==Classification of Englishes==
The spread of English around the world is often discussed in terms of three distinct groups of users, where English is used respectively as:<ref>{{cite book|last1=Jenkins|first1=Jennifer|title=World englishes : a resource book for students|date=2006|publisher=Routledge|location=London|isbn=978-0-415-25806-7|pages=14–15|edition=1. edition, 3. reprint}}</ref>

# a [[native language]] (ENL); the [[primary language]] of the majority population of a country, such as in the United States, the United Kingdom and Australia.
# a [[second language]] (ESL); an additional language for ''intra''national as well as ''inter''national communication in communities that are [[multilingual]], such as in [[India]], [[Pakistan]], [[Nigeria]], and [[Singapore]]. Most of these Englishes developed as a result of imperial expansion that brought the language to various parts of the world.
# a [[foreign language]] (EFL); used almost exclusively for international communication, such as in Japan.

===Kachru's Three Circles of English===
[[File:Kachru's three circles of English.svg |thumb|alt=Braj Kachru's Three Circles of English|''Braj Kachru's Three Circles of English'']] The most influential model of the spread of English is [[Braj Kachru]]'s model of World Englishes. In this model the diffusion of English is captured in terms of three concentric circles of the language: the Inner Circle, the Outer Circle, and the Expanding Circle.<ref>Kachru, B. (1992). ''The Other Tongue: English across cultures''. University of Illinois Press.</ref>

The '''''Inner Circle''''' refers to English as it originally took shape and was spread across the world in the first [[diaspora]]. In this transplantation of English, speakers from England carried the language to Australia, New Zealand, and North America. The Inner Circle thus represents the traditional historical and sociolinguistic bases of English in regions where it is now used as a primary language: the United Kingdom, the United States, Australia, New Zealand, Ireland, and anglophone Canada. English is the [[native language]] or [[mother tongue]] of most people in these countries. The total number of English speakers in the inner circle is as high as 380 million, of whom some 120 million are outside the United States.

The '''''Outer Circle''''' of English was produced by the second [[diaspora]] of English, which spread the language through imperial expansion by [[Great Britain]] in [[Asia]] and [[Africa]]. In these regions, English is not the native tongue but serves as a useful [[lingua franca]] between [[ethnic]] and language groups. Higher education, the [[legislature]] and [[judiciary]], national commerce and so on may all be carried out predominantly in English. This circle includes [[India]], [[Nigeria]], [[Bangladesh]], [[Pakistan]], [[Malaysia]], [[Tanzania]], [[Kenya]], [[South Africa]], the [[Philippines]] (colonized by the US) and others. The total number of English speakers in the outer circle is estimated to range from 150 million to 300 million.<ref>Kachru, Y. (2006). ''World Englishes in Asian Contexts''. (Larry E. Smith Eds.) Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press</ref> [[Singapore]], while in the Outer Circle, may be drifting into the Inner Circle as English becomes more often used as a home language (see [[Languages of Singapore]]), much as Ireland did earlier. The Outer Circle also includes countries where most people speak an [[English-based creole]], yet retain standard English for official purposes, such as [[Jamaica]], [[Trinidad and Tobago]], [[Barbados]], [[Guyana]], [[Belize]] and [[Papua New Guinea]].

Finally, the '''''Expanding Circle''''' encompasses countries where English plays no historical or governmental role, but where is nevertheless widely used as a medium of international communication. This includes much of the rest of the world's population not categorized above, including territories such as China, Russia, Japan, [[South Korea]], non-Anglophone [[Europe]] (especially [[Central Europe]] and [[Nordic countries]]), and the Middle East. The total in this expanding circle is the most difficult to estimate, especially because English may be employed for specific, limited purposes, usually in a business context. The estimates of these users range from 100 million to one billion.

The inner circle is 'norm-providing'; that means that the English language [[Norm (sociology)|norms]] is developed in these countries. The outer circle (mainly [[Commonwealth countries|New Commonwealth countries]]) is 'norm-developing'. The expanding circle (which includes much of the rest of the world) is 'norm-dependent' because it relies on the standards set by [[native speakers]] in the inner circle.<ref>Kachru, B. (1992). World Englishes: approaches, issues, and resources. ''Language Teaching'', 25: 1-14. Cambridge UP.</ref>

===Schneider's dynamic model of postcolonial Englishes===
{{Main|Schneider's dynamic model}}
[[Edgar W. Schneider|Edgar Werner Schneider]] tries to avoid a purely geographical and historical approach evident in the 'circles' models and incorporates [[sociolinguistic|sociolinguistic concepts]] pertaining to acts of [[Identity (social science)|identity]].<ref name="y2">Le Page, R. B. and Tabouret-Keller, A. (1985). ''Acts of identity: Creole-based approaches to language and ethnicity''. New York: Cambridge University Press.</ref> His model suggests that, despite all differences in geography and history, there is a fundamentally uniform process underlying all instances of the emergence of new World Englishes, motivated by the changing social relationship between a region's indigenous population and settlers who came to that region.

The relationship between historical and social conditions and linguistic developments is viewed as a unilateral implicational relationship among four components. The political history of a country, typically from colony to independent nationhood, is reflected in the identity rewritings of the groups involved (indigenous population and settlers). These determine sociolinguistic conditions of language contact (such as the acquisition of the other party's language), linguistic usage (such as the amount and kind of mutual interaction), and language attitudes. Linguistic developments, and structural changes in the varieties concerned, follow.

The model outlines five characteristic stages in the spread of English:

'''''Phase 1 – Foundation''''': This is the initial stage of the introduction of English to a new territory over an extended period of time. Two linguistic processes are operative at this stage: (a) [[language contact]] between English and [[indigenous language]]s; (b) contact between different [[dialects of English]] of the settlers which eventually results in a new stable [[dialect]] (see [[Koiné language|koiné]]). At this stage, [[bilingualism]] is marginal. A few members of the local populace may play an important role as interpreters, translators, and guides. Borrowings are limited to lexical items; with local place names and terms for local fauna and flora being adopted by the English.<ref name="y5">Schneider, E. W. (2007). ''Postcolonial English: Varieties around the world''. Cambridge University Press.</ref>

'''''Phase 2 – Exonormative stabilization''''': At this stage, the settler communities tend to stabilize politically under British rule. English increases in prominence and though the [[colloquial]] English is a colonial [[Koiné language|koiné]], the speakers look to England for their formal norms. Local vocabulary continues to be adopted. Bilingualism increases amongst the [[indigenous population]] through education and increased contacts with English settlers. Knowledge of English becomes an asset, and a new indigenous [[elite]] develops.<ref name="y5" />

'''''Phase 3 – Nativization''''': According to Schneider, this is the stage at which a transition occurs as the English settler population starts to accept a new [[identity (social science)|identity]] based on present and local realities, rather than sole allegiance to their 'mother country'. By this time, the indigenous strand has also stabilized an [[Second language|L2]] system that is a synthesis of substrate effects, interlanguage processes, and features adopted from the settlers' [[Koiné language|koiné]] English. [[Neologisms]] stabilize as English is made to adapt to local sociopolitical and cultural practices.<ref name="y5" />

'''''Phase 4 – Endonormative stabilization''''': This stage is characterized by the gradual acceptance of local [[Norms (sociology)|norms]], supported by a new locally rooted linguistic self-confidence. By this time political events have made it clear that the settler and indigenous strands are inextricably bound in a sense of [[nation]]hood independent of Britain. Acceptance of local English(es) expresses this new [[identity (social science)|identity]]. National dictionaries are enthusiastically supported, at least for new [[lexis (linguistics)|lexis]] (and not always for localized grammar). [[Literary genre|Literary creativity]] in local English begins to flourish.<ref name="y1">Mesthrie, Rajend and Bhatt, Rakesh M. (2008). ''World Englishes: The Study of New Linguistic Varieties''. Cambridge University Press.</ref>

'''''Phase 5 – Differentiation''''': At this stage, there is a change in the dynamics of [[identity (social science)|identity]] as the young nation sees itself as less defined by its differences from the [[British Empire|former colonial power]] and more as a composite of subgroups defined on regional, social and ethnic lines. Coupled with the simple effects of time in effecting [[language change]] (with the aid of [[social differentiation]]) the new English [[Koiné language|koiné]] starts to show greater differentiation.<ref name="y1" />

===Other models of classification===
====Strevens' world map of English====
The oldest map of the spread of English is Strevens' world map of English. His world map, even predating that of Kachru's three circles, showed that since American English became a separate variety from British English, all subsequent Englishes have had affinities with either one or the other.<ref name="y3">Strevens, P. (1980). ''Teaching English as an International Language''. Oxford: Pergamon Press.</ref>

====McArthur's Circle of World English====
[[Tom McArthur (linguist)|McArthur]]'s "wheel model" has an idealized central variety called "World Standard English," which is best represented by "written international English." The next circle is made of regional standards or standards that are emerging. Finally, the outer layer consists of localized varieties which may have similarities with the regional standards or emerging standards.

Although the model is neat, it raises several problems. Firstly, the three different types of English — ENL, [[ESL]] and [[English as a foreign or second language|EFL]], are conflated in the second circle. Secondly, the multitude of Englishes in Europe is also missing in this layer. Finally, the outside layer includes [[pidgins]], [[creole language|creoles]] and [[Second language|L2]] Englishes. Most scholars would argue that [[Pidgin English|English pidgins]] and [[English creoles|creoles]] do not belong to one family: rather they have overlapping multiple memberships.<ref>McArthur, A. (1987). "The English Languages?" ''English Today'': 11:9-13.</ref>

====Görlach's circle model of English====
Manfred Görlach's and McArthur's models are reasonably similar. Both exclude English varieties in Europe. As Görlach does not include [[English as a foreign or second language|EFL]]s at all, his model is more consistent, though less comprehensive. Outside the circle are mixed varieties ([[pidgins]], [[creole language|creoles]], and [[Mixed language|mixed languages]] involving English), which are better categorized as having partial membership.<ref>Görlach, M. (1990).''Studies in the History of the English Language''. Heidelberg: Carl Winter.</ref>

====Modiano's model of English====
In Modiano's model of English, the center consists of users of English as an International Language, with a core set of features that are comprehensible to the majority of native and competent [[non-native speakers]] of English. The second circle consists of features that may become internationally common or may fall into obscurity. Finally, the outer area consists of five groups ([[American English]], [[British English]], other major varieties, local varieties, and foreign varieties) each with features particular to their own speech community and which are unlikely to be understood by most members of the other four groups.<ref>Modiano, M. (1999). "Standard English(es) and educational practices for the world's lingua franca". ''English Today'': 15/4: 3-13.</ref>

==Variations and varieties==
{{main|List of dialects of English}}

The World Englishes paradigm is not static, and neither are rapidly changing realities of language use worldwide. The use of English in the Outer and Expanding Circle societies (refer to '''Kachru's Three Circles of English''') continues its rapid spread, while at the same time new patterns of [[language contact]] and variety differentiation emerge. The different varieties range from English in the Inner circle societies such as the United States, Canada, [[South Africa]], Australia and New Zealand, to the Outer circle post-colonial societies of [[Asia]] and [[Africa]]. The ''World Englishes'' Initiative, in recognizing and describing the New Englishes of the [[Caribbean English|Caribbean]], [[African English|Africa]] and [[Asia]], has been partly motivated by a consideration of the local linguistic factors and partly by a consideration of the wider [[cultural]] and [[political]] contexts of [[language acquisition]] and use. This, in turn, has involved the creative rewriting of discourses towards a recognition of [[Cultural pluralism|pluralism]] and multiple possibilities for scholarship. The notion of varieties in this context is similarly dynamic, as new contexts, new realities, new discourses, and new varieties continue to emerge.<ref>Kachru, B. B., Kachru, Y. and Nelson, C. (2009). ''The Handbook of World Englishes''. Wiley-Blackwell.</ref>

The terms ''[[language]]'' and ''[[dialect]]'' are not easily defined concepts. It is often suggested that languages are [[Autonomous language|autonomous]], while dialects are [[Heteronomous language|heteronomous]]. It is also said that dialects, in contrast with languages, are mutually intelligible, though this is not always the case. Dialects are characteristically spoken, do not have a codified form and are used only in certain domains.<ref name ="Melchers">Melchers, G. and Shaw, P. (2003) World Englishes. ''The English Language Series''. Department of English, Stockholm University, Sweden</ref>
In order to avoid the difficult dialect-language distinction, linguists tend to prefer a more neutral term, ''variety'', which covers both concepts and is not butted by popular usage. This term is generally used when discussing World Englishes.

==The future of World Englishes==
Two hypotheses have been advanced about English's future status as the major [[world language]]: that it may ultimately fragment into a large number of [[mutually unintelligible]] varieties (in effect, different [[languages]]), or that the current different varieties may converge so that differences across groups of speakers are largely eliminated.<ref name ="Jenkins" />

===English as the language of 'others'===
If English is, numerically speaking, the language of 'others', then the center of gravity of the language is almost certain to shift in the direction of the 'others'. In the words of [[Henry Widdowson|Widdowson]], there is likely to be a paradigm shift from one of language distribution to one of language spread:<ref>Widdowson, H. G. (1997). "EIL, ESL, EFL: Global Issues and Local Interests". ''World Englishes'', 16: 135–146.</ref>
{{Quote|When we talk about the spread of English, then, it is not that the conventionally coded forms and meanings are transmitted into different environments and different surroundings, and taken up and used by different groups of people. It is not a matter of the actual language being distributed but of the virtual language being spread and in the process being variously actualized. The distribution of the actual language implies adoption and conformity. The spread of virtual language implies adaptation and nonconformity. The two processes are quite different.}}

===A different world language===
The other potential shift in the linguistic center of gravity is that English could lose its [[International English|international role]] altogether or come to share it with a number of equals. Although this would not happen mainly as a result of native-speaker resistance to the spread of non-native speaker Englishes and the consequent abandoning of English by large numbers of non-native speakers, the latter could play a part.<ref name ="Jenkins" />

As evidence that English may eventually give way to another language (or languages) as the world's [[lingua franca]], [[David Crystal]] cites [[Internet]] data:<ref>Crystal, D. (2001) Language and the Internet. Cambridge UP.</ref>
{{Quote|When the internet started it was of course 100 percent English because of where it came from, but since the 1980s that status has started to fall away. By 1995, it was down to about 80 per cent present of English on the internet, and the current figures for 2001 are that it is hovering somewhere between 60 percent and 70 percent, with a significant drop likely over the next four or five years.}}
On the other hand, there are at least 1500 languages present on the internet now and that figure is likely to increase. Nevertheless, Crystal predicts that English will retain its dominant presence.

==See also==
{{portal|Language|World}}
{{col div|colwidth=30em}}
* [[Language shift]]
* [[List of countries by English-speaking population]]
* [[List of macaronic forms of English]]
* [[List of English-based pidgins]]
* [[Standard English]]
* [[Vulgar Latin]]
* [[Hinglish]]
* [[Euro English]]
* [[Pseudo-English]]
* [[Rally English]]
{{colend}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
*Bolton, Kingsley; Braj B. Kachru (Eds.) (2006). ''World Englishes: Critical concepts in linguistics.'' London: Routledge. {{ISBN|0-415-31506-9}}
*Crystal, David. (2003). ''English as a Global Language.'' Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|0-521-82347-1}}
*Jenkins, Jennifer. (2003). ''World Englishes: A Resource Book for Students.'' Routledge. {{ISBN|0415258065}}
*Kirkpatrick, Andy. (2010). ''The Routledge Handbook of World Englishes.'' {{ISBN|0203849329}}
*McArthur, Tom. (2002). ''Oxford Guide to World English.'' Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-860771-7}}

and the journals:
*[https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/1467971X ''World Englishes''] {{ISSN|0883-2919}}
*[https://benjamins.com/#catalog/journals/eww/main ''English World-Wide''] {{ISSN|0172-8865}}
*[http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayJournal?jid=ENG ''English Today''] {{ISSN|0266-0784}}
*[http://www.iaweworks.org/ ''International Association of World Englishes'']

{{English dialects by continent}}

[[Category:Anglic languages]]
[[Category:Comparison of forms of English]]
[[Category:Linguistics articles needing expert attention]]
[[Category:Global culture|English]]
[[Category:English as a global language]]

Government Pension Fund of Norway

2025-06-14T12:45:32Z

2A00:23C7:C8BC:C501:507C:445E:62F7:256D: /* Ethical council */Improved link

{{short description|Norwegian sovereign-wealth fund}}
{{redirect|Oljefondet|the Norwegian television series|Oljefondet (TV series)}}
{{more citations|date=December 2024}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2020}}
{{Infobox company
| name = Government Pension Fund of Norway
| image = Oljefondet 1998-now.jpg
| image_caption = Value of the fund over time in billion [[Norwegian Krone|Krone]]
| type = [[Privately held company|Government-owned]]
| foundation = 1967 1990
| location = [[Oslo]], [[Norway]]
| aum = {{profit}} US$ 1.738 trillion (March 2025)
| owner = [[Government of Norway]] ''Government Pension Fund Global managed by state-owned [[Norges Bank]]''
}}

The '''Government Pension Fund of Norway''' ({{langx|no|Statens pensjonsfond}}) is the [[sovereign wealth fund]] collective owned by the [[government of Norway]]. It consists of two entirely separate sovereign wealth funds: the Government Pension Fund Global (or Norges Bank Investment Management)<ref>[https://www.nbim.no/en/ About the fund: The aim of the fund is to ensure a long-term management of revenue from Norway’s oil and gas resources, so that this wealth benefits both current and future generations. The fund’s formal name is the Government Pension Fund Global.] Norges Bank Investment Management. Retrieved April 24, 2025.</ref> and the Government Pension Fund Norway.

The '''Government Pension Fund Global''' (''Statens pensjonsfond utland''), also known as the Oil Fund (''Oljefondet''), was established in 1990 to invest the surplus revenues of the Norwegian [[Petroleum industry|petroleum sector]]. {{asof|June 2025|post=,}} it had over US$1.9 trillion in assets,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Norway Government Pension Fund Global (Norway GPFG) – Sovereign Wealth Fund, Norway – SWFI |url=https://www.swfinstitute.org/profile/598cdaa60124e9fd2d05b9af |access-date=2023-06-21 |website=swfinstitute.org}}</ref> and held on average 1.5% of all of the world's listed companies, making it the world's largest single [[sovereign wealth fund]] in terms of total [[assets under management]].<ref name="veconomist">{{Cite news |date=21 September 2017 |title=Norway's sovereign-wealth fund passes the $1trn mark |newspaper=[[The Economist]] |url=https://www.economist.com/news/finance-and-economics/21729458-5m-odd-norwegians-own-more-1-all-shares-world-norways}}</ref><ref name="e24">{{Cite news |last=Hanna Ghaderi, Martin Hagh Høgseth and Kjetil Malkenes Hovland |date=25 October 2019 |title=Milepæl: Oljefondet passerer 10.000 milliarder kroner |language=no-NB |work=e24.no |url=https://e24.no/boers-og-finans/i/BRnA6v/milepael-oljefondet-passerer-10000-milliarder-kroner |url-status=live |access-date=2019-10-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191025092320/https://e24.no/boers-og-finans/i/BRnA6v/milepael-oljefondet-passerer-10000-milliarder-kroner |archive-date=2019-10-25}}</ref> This translates to over US$340,000 per Norwegian citizen.<ref name=":1" /> It also holds [[portfolio (finance)|portfolios]] of real estate and fixed-income investments. Many companies are excluded by the fund on [[socially responsible investing|ethical grounds]].<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.nbim.no/en/the-fund/responsible-investment/exclusion-of-companies/ | title=Observation and exclusion of companies | date=18 March 2019 }}</ref>

The '''Government Pension Fund Norway''' is smaller and was established in 1967 as a type of national insurance fund. It is managed separately from the Oil Fund and is limited to domestic and [[Nordic countries|Nordic]] investments and is therefore a key stock holder in many large Norwegian companies, predominantly via the [[Oslo Stock Exchange]].

==Government Pension Fund Global==
The Government Pension Fund Global ({{langx|no|Statens pensjonsfond Utland}}, SPU) is a [[pension fund|fund]] into which the [[Economic surplus|surplus]] wealth produced by Norwegian petroleum income is deposited. Its name changed in January 2006 from the Petroleum Fund of Norway. The fund is commonly referred to as the Oil Fund ({{lang|no|Oljefondet}}).

The purpose of the fund is to invest parts of the large surplus generated by the Norwegian [[petroleum industry|petroleum sector]], mainly from taxes of companies but also payment for licenses to explore for oil as well as the [[State's Direct Financial Interest]] and dividends from the partly state-owned [[Equinor]]. Current revenue from the petroleum sector is estimated to be at its peak period and to decline in the future decades. The Petroleum Fund was established in 1990 after a decision by the [[Storting|country's legislature]] to counter the effects of the forthcoming decline in income and to smooth out the disruptive effects of highly fluctuating oil prices.

As its name suggests, the Government Pension Fund Global is invested in international financial markets, so the risk is independent from the Norwegian economy. The fund is invested in 8,763 companies in 71 countries (as of 2024). As of November 2024, the fund's value was over 19 trillion Kroner, according to its official website.<ref name=":1">{{cite web |title=Home |url=https://www.nbim.no/ |website=nbim.no}}</ref>

===Background===
Norway has experienced [[economic]] surpluses since the development of its [[hydrocarbon]] [[resources]] in the 70s. This reality, coupled with the desire to mitigate [[Volatility (finance)|volatility]] stemming from fluctuating [[oil prices]], motivated the creation of Norway's Oil Fund, now the Government Pension Fund-Global (GPF-G).<ref name="CPBS SWF 2007">{{Cite journal |last1=Aizenman |first1=Joshua |last2=Glick |first2=Reuven |date=2007 |title=CPBS 2007 Annual Report |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/5033051 |journal=Center for Pacific Basin Studies |pages=11–14}}</ref> The instability of oil prices has been of constant concern for oil-dependent countries since the start of the [[oil boom]], but especially so in the decades following the first [[1970s energy crisis|oil shocks]] in the 1970s.<ref name="NCSU Norwg Exp">{{Cite journal |last1=Caner |first1=Mehmet |last2=Grennes |first2=Thomas |date=2010 |title=Sovereign Wealth Funds: The Norwegian Experience |journal=The World Economy |volume=33 |issue=4 |pages=597–614 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-9701.2009.01235.x|s2cid=153841260 }}</ref> As the [[real GDP]] of oil-exporting states is linked with the price of oil, it has been a goal of these [[exporters]] to stabilize oil consumption patterns, and a host of these exporting states singled out sovereign wealth funds as an effective [[policy tool]] for achieving this outcome.<ref name="NCSU Norwg Exp" /> The adoption of the GPF-G has been in line with the global economic trends, especially investment patterns. [[International investment]] has increased at a significantly higher pace than either [[global GDP]] or [[global trade]] of [[goods]] and [[service (economics)|service]]s, increasing by 175% over a period at which the former two metrics increased by 53% and 93% respectively.<ref name="Peterson">{{Cite journal |last=Truman |first=Edwin |date=2007 |title=Sovereign Wealth Funds: The Need for Greater Transparency and Accountability |url=http://www.afi.es/EO/Sovereign%20Funds%20Peterson%2007.pdf |journal=Peterson Institute for International Economics |volume=6 |pages=1–9}}</ref>

===Management and size===
[[File:Norway Oil Fund.png|thumb|Value of the Oil Fund in billions of kroner (June 2017 prices)]]
The domestic fund, the Government Pension Fund Norway, is managed by Folketrygdfondet. The global investment fund is managed by Norges Bank Investment Management (NBIM), part of the [[Norges Bank|Norwegian Central Bank]] on the behalf of the [[Ministry of Finance (Norway)|Ministry of Finance]].<ref name="gmalb">[https://www.theglobeandmail.com/report-on-business/international-business/european-business/norways-sovereign-wealth-fund/article25973060/ theglobeandmail.com: "Alberta and Norway: Two oil powers, worlds apart"], 15 August 2015</ref>

{{asof|June 2011|post=,}} it was the largest pension fund in the world, but it is not a pension fund in the conventional sense, as it derives its financial backing from oil profits, not pension contributions.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Norges Bank Investment Management |url=https://www.nbim.no/en/the-fund/market-value/ |access-date=23 June 2017}}</ref> In September 2017, the fund exceeded US$1 trillion in value for the first time, a thirteen-fold increase since 2002. With a population of 5.2 million people, the fund was worth $192,307 per Norwegian citizen. Of the assets, 65% were equities (accounting for 1.3% of global equity markets), and the rest were property and fixed-income investments. Norway can withdraw up to 3% of the fund's value each year.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Richard Milne |date=19 September 2017 |title=Norway's oil fund tops $1tn in assets for first time |work=Financial Times |url=https://www.ft.com/content/3f3f75c4-9d0c-11e7-8cd4-932067fbf946 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/https://www.ft.com/content/3f3f75c4-9d0c-11e7-8cd4-932067fbf946 |archive-date=10 December 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |access-date=19 September 2017}}</ref> The first withdrawal in its history was made in 2016.<ref>{{Cite news |date=3 March 2016 |title=Norway says made first withdrawal from oil fund in January |publisher=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-norway-swf/norway-says-made-first-withdrawal-from-oil-fund-in-january-idUSKCN0W52JR |access-date=27 February 2018}}</ref> In a parliamentary white paper in April 2011, the Norwegian Ministry of Finance forecast that the fund would reach $1 trillion by the end of 2019.<ref name="natbudg2011">{{Cite book |url=http://www.statsbudsjettet.no/upload/Statsbudsjett_2011/dokumenter/pdf/stm.pdf |title=Stortingsmelding 1 (2010–2011): Nasjonalbudsjettet 2011 |date=2010-10-01 |publisher=[[Ministry of Finance (Norway)|Royal Norwegian Ministry of Finance]] |location=Oslo |page=56 |language=no |trans-title=The National Budget 2011 |access-date=2011-04-05}}</ref> According to the forecast, a worst-case scenario for the fund value in 2030 was forecast at $455 billion, and a best case scenario at $3.3 trillion.<ref name="stmeld15_2010-11">{{Cite book |url=http://www.regjeringen.no/pages/16251809/PDFS/STM201020110015000DDDPDFS.pdf |title=Meld. St. 15 (2010–2011): Forvaltningen av Statens pensjonsfond i 2010 117–119 |date=2011-04-08 |publisher=[[Ministry of Finance (Norway)|Royal Norwegian Ministry of Finance]] |location=Oslo |pages=117–119 |language=no |trans-title=The Management of the Government Pension Fund 2010 |access-date=2011-04-09}}</ref> With 2.33 percent of European stocks,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Market value |url=https://www.nbim.no/en/the-fund/market-value/ |access-date=2017-01-10 |website=www.nbim.no}}</ref> it is the largest stock owner in Europe.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sindre Heyerdahl, E24 |title=OLJEFONDETS GIGANTTAP PÅ AKTIV FORVALTNING: Mener Gjedrem bløffer om investeringene |date=11 March 2009 |url=http://e24.no/makro-og-politikk/article2971889.ece |language=no}}</ref>

In 1998, the fund was allowed to invest up to 40 percent of its portfolio in the international [[stock market]]. In June 2009, the ministry decided to raise the stock portion to 60 percent. In May 2014, the Central Bank governor proposed raising the rate to 70 percent.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Mohsin |first=Saleha |date=7 May 2014 |title=Norway Wealth Fund Wins Labor Backing to Buy New Asset Classes |work=Bloomberg |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2014-05-07/norway-wealth-fund-wins-labor-backing-to-buy-new-asset-classes.html}}</ref> The Norwegian government planned that up to 5 percent of the fund should be invested in [[real estate]], beginning in 2010.<ref name="stmeld1-2009-145">{{Cite web |date=2009-10-09 |title=Stortingsmelding nr. 1 (2009–2010) – Nasjonalbudsjettet 2010 |url=http://www.regjeringen.no/pages/2249931/PDFS/STM200920100001000DDDPDFS.pdf |publisher=[[Norwegian Ministry of Finance]] |location=[[Oslo]] |page=145 |language=no}}</ref> A specific policy for the real estate investments was suggested in a report the Swiss [[Partners Group]] wrote for the Norwegian Ministry of Finance.<ref name="spf-realestatepolicy">{{Cite web |date=2009-09-15 |title=Investment Policy for Real Estate |url=http://www.regjeringen.no/Upload/FIN/Statens%20pensjonsfond/rapporter/parteners_group_investment_policy_real_estate.pdf |publisher=[[Partners Group]] |location=[[Baar, Switzerland]]}}</ref>

Norway's sovereign wealth fund is taking steps to become more active in company governance. In the second quarter of 2013, the sovereign fund voted in 6,078 general meetings as well as 239 shareholder proposals on environmental and social issues. Norway's Government Pension Fund Global (GPFG) has the potential to influence the corporate governance market in Europe, and possibly China as well, greatly.<ref>"[http://www.swfinstitute.org/swf-news/could-norways-sovereign-fund-be-a-vanguard-for-corporate-governance-55619/ Could Norway's Sovereign Fund be a Vanguard for Corporate Governance]." Sovereign Wealth Fund Institute. 13 August 2013. Retrieved 21 August 2013.</ref> It has also started to become active in pushing for lower executive pay.<ref>"[https://www.bbc.com/news/business-36185925]" BBC. 2 May 2016. Retrieved 2 May 2016.</ref>

==Relationship to sovereignty==
The rise of globalization as the predominant political-economic system has had several key effects on states, especially in regard to [[interdependence]] and [[sovereignty]]. The erosion of fully independent [[socioeconomic]] structures has provoked new questions regarding the role of the state and its ability to project its sovereignty on a set of global economic systems that seem largely out of reach both legally and pragmatically for most states.<ref name="Gordon SWF Book" /> Sovereign wealth funds are an inherently [[nationalist]] type of [[investment vehicle]], and there exists potential for their use as a mitigating force to the [[Supranational union|supranational]] forces of globalization.<ref name="Gordon SWF Book">{{Cite book |last=Clark |first=Gordon |title=Sovereign Wealth Funds; Legitimacy, Governance, and Global Power |date=2013 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=9780691142296 |pages=30–45 |chapter=Rethinking the "Sovereign" in Sovereign Wealth Funds |jstor=j.ctt2jc8pg.8}}</ref> The issue with this is that such practices may lead to a general increase in [[protectionism]] as nations attempt to wrestle back control of their economies from external forces, an outcome that most economic [[intergovernmental organizations]], such as the [[International Monetary Fund]], would like to see avoided.<ref name="IMF">{{Cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Simon |date=September 2007 |title=The Rise of Sovereign Wealth Funds |url=http://www.economia.puc-rio.br/mgarcia/Seminario/Seminario_textos/The%20Rise%20of%20Sovereign%20Wealth%20Funds.pdf |journal=Finance & Development |volume=44 |issue=3}}</ref> Some commentators, like Professor Gordon L. Clark of the [[University of Oxford]], express concerns regarding non-profit considerations motivating the practices of the GPF-G, especially in regards to its ethical concerns and how these considerations may be used as a means of exerting Norwegian standards on foreign [[Company|firms]].<ref name="Gordon SWF Book" /> On the other hand, the [[OECD]] has stated that sovereign wealth funds have had a stabilizing influence on international markets due to their ability to provide capital during times of domestic investor pessimism.<ref name="OECD">{{Cite journal |last=Ervin |first=Carolyn |date=2008 |title=Sovereign Wealth Funds |journal=The OECD Observer |volume=2008 |issue=267 |pages=21–22 |doi=10.1787/observer-v2008-2-en|doi-access=free }}</ref> The OECD has taken steps to minimize the possibilities of economic protectionism by instituting the Freedom of Investment project, where participating states agree upon guiding sets of principles that seek to boost [[transparency (trade)|transparency]] and transnational investment, while also advising states on how to best handle issues of foreign investment in the sphere of [[national security]].<ref name="OECD" />

===Debate===
As a result of the large size of the fund relative to the low number of people living in Norway (5.2 million people in 2017), the ''Oil Fund'' has become a hot political issue, dominated by three main issues:
* Whether the country should use more of the petroleum revenues for the [[state budget of Norway|state budget]] instead of saving the funds for the future. The main matter of debate is to what degree increased government spending would increase [[inflation]].
* Whether the high level of exposure (around 71 percent in 2025<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.nbim.no/en/investments/all-investments/#/ | title=All investments | date=25 February 2018 }}</ref>) to the highly [[volatility (finance)|volatile]] stock market is financially safe. Others{{Who|date=February 2023}} claim that the high diversification and extreme long-term nature of the investments will dilute the risk and that the state is losing considerable amounts of money because of the low investment percentage in the stock market.
* Whether the investment policy of the Petroleum Fund is [[ethics|ethical]].

==Concerns and potential outcomes==
There are diverse concerns and predicted effects of sovereign wealth funds on international [[financial markets]] and the global economy as a whole, with experts expressing strong fears regarding [[destabilization]] and [[protectionism]] stemming from sovereign wealth funds. The destabilization argument, often cited by Roland Beck of the [[European Central Bank]], is that non-market investment motives may lead sovereign wealth funds managers to make decisions that go against market logic, in turn causing an unexpected and potentially disastrous ripple effect.<ref name="Impact of SWFs">{{Cite journal |last1=Beck |first1=Roland |last2=Fidora |first2=Michael |date=2008 |title=The Impact of Sovereign Wealth Funds on Global Financial Markets |journal=Intereconomics |volume=43 |issue=6 |pages=349–358 |citeseerx=10.1.1.165.5696 |doi=10.1007/s10272-008-0268-5|s2cid=55129408 }}</ref> The protectionist argument, mentioned above in relation to sovereignty and sovereign wealth funds, is essentially a fear that sovereign wealth funds could be used in a non-market, protectionist manner where competing states would perpetuate ever-increasing anti-global [[free trade]] movements.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Jen |first=Stephen |date=October–December 2007 |title=Sovereign Wealth Funds What they are and what's happening |url=http://www.afi.es/eo/SOVEREIGN%20WEALTH%20FUNDS%20STEPHEN%20JEN.pdf |journal=World Economics |volume=8 |issue=4 |pages=1–7}}</ref> However, despite these fears, there is also strong evidence to suggest that sovereign wealth funds are unlikely to gain [[board of directors]] seats in their acquisitions.<ref name="Italian">{{Cite journal |last1=Bortolotti |first1=Bernardo |last2=Fotak |first2=Veljko |last3=Megginson |first3=William |last4=Miracky |first4=William |date=2009 |title=Sovereign Wealth Fund Investment Patterns and Performance |journal=Fondazione Eni Enrico Mattei: Institutions and Markets |pages=1–55 |hdl=10419/53268}}</ref> Additionally, Norway's GPF-G is especially unlikely to gain any board-of-directors seats in a company headquartered in an [[OECD]] country.<ref name="Italian" /> Furthermore, some experts directly contradict fears regarding the destabilizing effect of sovereign wealth funds, arguing that these funds increase the stability of global finance due to the fact that they serve to increase the variety of owners of risky financial vehicles, minimizing [[Market exposure|exposure]] to shocks in any one particular [[Industry (economics)|industry]], while also simultaneously limiting the absolute loss any actor can suffer in a particular global [[economic sector]].<ref name="Impact of SWFs" />

===Ethical council===
Part of the investment policy debate is related to the discovery of several cases of investment by The Petroleum Fund in very controversial companies, involved in businesses such as [[weapon|arms]] production, tobacco and [[fossil fuels]].<ref name=gmalb/> The Petroleum Fund's Advisory Council on Ethics was established 19 November 2004 by royal [[decree]]. Accordingly, the Ministry of Finance issued a new regulation on the management of the Government Petroleum Fund, which also includes ethical guidelines.

According to its ethical guidelines, the Norwegian pension fund cannot invest money in companies that directly or indirectly contribute to killing, torture, deprivation of freedom or other violations of [[human rights]] in conflict situations or wars. Contrary to popular belief, the fund is allowed to invest in a number of arms-producing companies, as only some kind of weapons, such as [[nuclear arms]], are banned by the ethical guidelines as investment objects.

To support the ethical screening process, the Council on Ethics works with [[RepRisk]] ESG Business Intelligence, a global research firm and provider of environmental, social and governance (ESG) risk data. RepRisk monitors the companies in the Norwegian Pension Fund's portfolio for issues such as severe human rights violations, particularly regarding child labor, forced labour, and violations of individual rights in conflict areas as well as gross [[environmental degradation]] and corruption. RepRisk has been working with the Council on Ethics since 2009 and in 2014, re-won the tender for ESG data provision for 2014–2017.<ref>{{Cite news |date=28 January 2014 |title=RI ESG Briefing, 28 January: Norwegian government fund selects RepRisk for portfolio monitoring |issue=Responsible Investor |url=http://www.reprisk.com/marketing/wp-content/uploads/2014/01/ResponsibleInvestorESGBriefingcJanuaryc2014.pdf |access-date=1 July 2014 |ref=RI |archive-date=8 September 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140908064624/http://www.reprisk.com/marketing/wp-content/uploads/2014/01/ResponsibleInvestorESGBriefingcJanuaryc2014.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>

An investigation by the Norwegian business newspaper {{lang|no|Dagens Næringsliv}} in February 2012 showed that Norway has invested more than $2 billion in 15 technology companies producing technology that can and has been used for filtering, [[wiretapping]], or surveillance of communication in various countries, among them [[Iran]], [[Syria]], and [[Burma]]. Although surveillance tech is not the primary activity of all the 15 companies, they have all had or still have some kind of connection to such technology. The Ministry of Finance in Norway stated that it would not withdraw investing in these companies or discuss an eventual exclusion of surveillance industry companies from its investments.

On 19 January 2010 the Ministry of Finance announced that 17 tobacco companies had been excluded from the fund.<ref name="fin100119">{{Cite web |date=2010-01-19 |title=Tobacco producers excluded from Government Pension Fund Global |url=http://www.regjeringen.no/en/dep/fin/press-center/Press-releases/2010/Tobacco-producers-excluded-from-Government-Pension-Fund-Global.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121024091355/http://www.regjeringen.no/en/dep/fin/press-center/press-releases/2010/Tobacco-producers-excluded-from-Government-Pension-Fund-Global.html?id=591449 |archive-date=2012-10-24 |publisher=The Norwegian Ministry of Finance}}</ref> The total divestment from these companies was $2 billion (NOK 14.2 billion), making it the largest divestment caused by ethical recommendations in the history of the fund.<ref>{{Cite web |last=The Ethical Council of The Government Pension Fund of Norway |date=2009-10-22 |title=Recommendation October 22nd, 2009 |url=http://www.regjeringen.no/Upload/FIN/etikk/rec_tobacco_english.pdf}}</ref>

In March 2014, as the result of both domestic and international pressure, the parliament appointed a panel to investigate whether the fund should divest its coal assets in line with its ethical investment mandate. The panel released its recommendations in December 2014, recommending the fund follow a strategy of corporate engagement rather than divestment. The parliament was set to make its decision early in 2015. In the event, the fund will be required to divest from companies that derive at least 30% of their business from coal.<ref name=gmalb/>

In 2014, the fund divested from 53 coal companies around the world, including 16 companies in the US (among them [[Peabody Energy]], [[Arch Coal]], and [[Alpha Natural Resources]]), 13 companies in India (including [[Coal India]]) and 3 companies in China.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Damian Carrington, the Guardian |date=2015-03-16 |title=Norway's sovereign wealth fund drops over 50 coal companies |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2015/mar/16/norways-sovereign-wealth-fund-drops-over-50-coal-companies}}</ref> As a result, the total value of the fund's coal holdings fell by 5% to $9.7 billion.<ref name="Damian Carrington, the Guardian">{{Cite news |last=Damian Carrington, the Guardian |date=2015-03-13 |title=Norway's giant fund increases stake in oil and gas companies to £20bn |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2015/mar/13/norways-giant-fund-increases-stake-in-oil-and-gas-companies-to-20bn}}</ref> In 2014, the fund also sold its stakes in 59 out of 90 oil and gas companies in which it holds shares by $30 billion.<ref name="Damian Carrington, the Guardian" /> In May 2015, Norwegian political members agreed on the divestment of $945 million of the fund from coal assets. By June 2015, a total of $900 billion in coal assets were agreed to be sold, the largest in the 122 affected companies was UK’s [[SSE plc|SSE]], where the fund held $956 million in shares.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Carrington |first=Damian |date=2015-06-05 |title=Norway confirms $900bn sovereign wealth fund's major coal divestment |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2015/jun/05/norways-pension-fund-to-divest-8bn-from-coal-a-new-analysis-shows |access-date=2024-12-17 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}</ref>

On 8 March 2019, the Ministry of Finance<ref>{{Cite web |date=8 March 2019 |title=Energy Stocks in the Government Pension Fund Global |url=https://www.regjeringen.no/contentassets/c8cd5eea5a2b499388462ffcc70e4339/en-gb/pdfs/stm201820190014000engpdfs.pdf |access-date=19 October 2019 |quote=The Government is proposing, based on an overall assessment, to omit companies classified as exploration and production companies from the GPFG's benchmark index and investment universe.}}</ref> recommended divestiture from its oil and gas exploration and production holdings. This came after the August 2017 [[Lofoten Declaration]] which demanded leadership in a global [[fossil fuel phase-out]] from the countries that can most afford to act, such as Norway.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Andy Rowell |date=8 March 2019 |title=Norway Set to Divest $1 Trillion Wealth Fund From Oil and Gas Exploration Companies |url=http://priceofoil.org/2019/03/08/shockwaves-as-norways-1trill-wealth-fund-plans-to-disinvest-from-upstream-oil/ |access-date=19 October 2019 |website=Oil Change International}}</ref>

Green energy is becoming an important aspect for the Government Pension Fund since fossil fuel stocks simply are not producing as much value as they used to.{{Citation needed|date=December 2023}} As of 2019, new guidelines will prohibit the fund from investing in companies that produce over 20 million tons of coal annually. The fund plans to sell off over $10 billion in stocks from companies using too many fossil fuels.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Nikel|first=David|title=Norway Wealth Fund To Dump Fossil Fuel Stocks Worth Billions In Environmental Move|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/davidnikel/2019/06/12/norway-wealth-fund-to-dump-fossil-fuel-stocks-worth-billions-in-environmental-move/|access-date=2021-03-12|website=Forbes|language=en}}</ref> In hopes of improving the Norwegian economy, the firm is becoming more environmentally-friendly by investing in companies that promote renewable energy. For example, the fund will continue to hold stakes in firms like Shell using renewable energy divisions.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Davies|first=Rob|date=2019-03-08|title=Norway's $1tn wealth fund to divest from oil and gas exploration|language=en-GB|work=The Guardian|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/mar/08/norways-1tn-wealth-fund-to-divest-from-oil-and-gas-exploration|access-date=2021-03-12|issn=0261-3077}}</ref>

In March 2021, it was reported that the Government Pension Fund was examining whether companies in the fund had used forced labor from [[Xinjiang internment camps]].<ref>{{Cite news|last=Fouche|first=Gwladys|date=2021-03-11|title=Norway wealth fund to probe whether firms could be using forced labour from China's Xinjiang|language=en|work=Reuters|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-norway-swf-ethics-idUSKBN2B21EA|access-date=2021-03-11}}</ref>

On 1 December 2021, the fund's head of Governance and Compliance, Carine Smith Ihenacho, told [[Reuters]] that companies in its portfolio will be asked to take more specific action on climate change.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Fouche|first=Gwladys|date=2021-12-01|title=Norway wealth fund calls on companies to act on climate|language=en|work=Reuters|url=https://www.reuters.com/business/sustainable-business/companies-should-take-more-action-climate-norways-sovereign-fund-says-2021-12-01/|access-date=2021-12-01}}</ref>

===Excluded companies===
The following companies have been excluded from the Government Pension Fund of Norway for activities in breach of the ethical guidelines:<ref>{{Cite web |last=Norges Bank |author-link=Norges Bank |title=NBIM Annual Report 2007 |date=15 January 2010 |url=http://www.nbim.no/en/press-and-publications/Reports/}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="font-size: 85%; border: gray solid 1px; border-collapse: collapse; text-align: center; "
! Company
! HQ
! Date of exclusion
! Reason
! data-sort-type=number| Divestment (Millions [[USD]])
|-
| [[Africa Israel Investments]]
| {{Flagu|Israel}}
| 24 August 2010
| Violation of international humanitarian law in [[occupied Palestinian territory]] by being involved in developing settlements<ref name="samling" />
| 1.2
|-
| [[Alliance One International, Inc.]]
| {{Flagu|USA}}
| 19 Jan 2010
| Production of tobacco.<ref name=fin100119 />
| 0.9
|-
| [[Alliant Techsystems|Alliant Techsystems Inc]]
| {{Flagu|USA}}
| 30 Jun 2005
| Production of components for cluster munitions.<ref name="eight">{{Cite web |last=Norwegian Ministry of Finance |author-link=Norwegian Ministry of Finance |date=2005-09-02 |title=Åtte nye selskaper utelukket fra Petroleumsfondet |url=http://www.regjeringen.no/nb/dokumentarkiv/Regjeringen-Bondevik-II/Finansdepartementet/234231/234458/atte_nye_selskaper_utelukket_fra.html?id=256666&epslanguage=NO |language=no}}</ref>
|N/A{{#tag:ref|The total divestment from the seven companies [[Alliant Techsystems]] Inc, EADS Co ([[European Aeronautic Defence and Space Company]]), [[General Dynamics Corporation]], [[L3 Communications]] Holdings Inc, [[Lockheed Martin Corp]], [[Raytheon]] Co and [[Thales SA]] was approx. $340 million.<ref name="eight" /> | group="nb" | name="Alliant" }}
|-
| [[Altria Group Inc.]]
| {{Flagu|USA}}
| 19 Jan 2010
| Production of tobacco.<ref name=fin100119 />
| 131
|-
| [[Barrick Gold|Barrick Gold Corporation]]
| {{Flagu|Canada}}
| 30 Jan 2009
| Extensive environmental degradation related to the [[Porgera Gold Mine]] in [[Papua New Guinea]]<ref name="Barrick">{{Cite web |last=Finance |first=Ministry of |date=30 January 2009 |title=Recommendation on the exclusion of the company Barrick Gold |url=http://www.regjeringen.no/en/dep/fin/Selected-topics/andre/Ethical-Guidelines-for-the-Government-Pension-Fund---Global-/Recommendations-and-Letters-from-the-Advisory-Council-on-Ethics/recommendation-on-the-exclusion-of-the-c-3.html?id=544365 |access-date=2 December 2016}}</ref>
| 245
|-
| [[Babcock & Wilcox]]
| {{Flagu|USA}}
| 11 January 2013
| Production of nuclear arms
| N/A
|-
| [[Boeing|Boeing Company]]
| {{Flagu|USA}}
| 11 Oct 2005
| Maintenance of [[ICBMs]] for the U.S. Air Force.<ref name=uttrekk/>
| N/A<ref group="nb" name="BAE" />
|-
| [[British American Tobacco|British American Tobacco BHD]]
| {{Flagu|Malaysia}}
| 19 Jan 2010
| Production of tobacco.<ref name=fin100119 />
| 9.4
|-
| [[British American Tobacco|British American Tobacco Plc.]]
| {{Flagu|United Kingdom}}
| 19 Jan 2010
| Production of tobacco.<ref name=fin100119 />
| 683
|-
| Danya Cebus
| {{Flagu|Israel}}
| 24 August 2010
| Violation of the [[Geneva Convention]] in [[occupied Palestinian territory]] by being involved in developing settlements<ref name="samling" />
| N/A
|-
| [[Dongfeng Motor Group]] Co Ltd.
| {{Flagu|China}}
| 28 February 2009
| Sale of weapons and military material to Burma<ref>{{Cite news |last=Criscione |first=Valeria |date=2009-03-16 |title=Pension fund treads a thorny path |work=Financial Times |url=http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/5fe99214-11c9-11de-87b1-0000779fd2ac.html?ft_site=falcon&desktop=true#axzz4ZlY9BB27 |access-date=2017-02-26 |issn=0307-1766}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Norway bars its pension fund from investing in Dongfeng Motor, due to sale of military trucks to Burma {{!}} Business & Human Rights Resource Centre |url=https://business-humanrights.org/en/norway-bars-its-pension-fund-from-investing-in-dongfeng-motor-due-to-sale-of-military-trucks-to-burma |access-date=2017-02-26 |website=business-humanrights.org |language=en}}</ref>
| N/A
|-
| [[Duke Energy]] +3 subsidiaries
| {{Flagu|USA}}
| 7 September 2016
| Risk of severe environmental damage<ref>{{Cite web |date=7 September 2016 |title=Decision on exclusion of companies from the Government Pension Fund Global |url=http://www.norges-bank.no/en/Published/News-archive/2016/2016-09-07-Decision-on-exclusion-of-companies-from-the-Government-Pension-Fund-Global/ |access-date=7 September 2016 |publisher=[[Bank of Norway]] |archive-date=10 September 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160910163138/http://www.norges-bank.no/en/Published/News-archive/2016/2016-09-07-Decision-on-exclusion-of-companies-from-the-Government-Pension-Fund-Global/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>
| 300 (or more)<ref>{{Cite web |date=7 September 2016 |title=World's Biggest Sovereign Fund Dumps Duke |url=https://www.thestreet.com/story/13696134/1/world-s-biggest-sovereign-fund-dumps-duke.html |access-date=7 September 2016 |website=TheStreet}}</ref>
|-
| [[Airbus]]
| {{Flagu|France}} {{Flagu|Germany}} {{Flagu|Netherlands}} {{Flagu|Spain}}
| 30 Jun 2005
| Production of nuclear missiles for the French Air Force through the company [[MBDA]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=The Ethical Council of the Government Pension Fund of Norway |date=2006-04-18 |title=Tilrådning 18. april 2006 |url=http://www.regjeringen.no/en/dep/fin/tema/statens_pensjonsfond/etiske-retningslinjer/tilradninger-og-brev-fra-etikkradet/tilradning-18-april-2006.html?id=91821 |language=no}}</ref><ref group="nb">EADS was initially excluded because it produced cluster munitions components, but the company later stopped such production. The exclusion was upheld because of the company's production of nuclear missiles.</ref>
| N/A<ref group="nb" name="Alliant" />
|-
| [[Elbit Systems]]
| {{Flagu|Israel}}
| 3 Sep 2009
| Supply of surveillance systems for the [[Israeli West Bank barrier]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Norwegian Ministry of Finance |author-link=Norwegian Ministry of Finance |date=2009-09-04 |title=Supplier of surveillance equipment for the separation barrier in the West Bank excluded from the Government Pension Fund – Global |url=http://www.regjeringen.no/en/dep/fin/press-center/Press-releases/2009/supplier-of-surveillance-equipment-for-t.html?id=575444}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Ethical Council of the Government Pension Fund of Norway |date=2009-09-04 |title=Recommendation on the exclusion of the company Elbit Systems Ltd |url=http://www.regjeringen.no/en/dep/fin/Selected-topics/The-Government-Pension-Fund/Ethical-Guidelines-for-the-Government-Pension-Fund---Global-/Recommendations-and-Letters-from-the-Advisory-Council-on-Ethics/the-council-on-ethics-recommends-that-th.html?id=575451}}</ref><ref name="ShowFull&cid=1251804480041">{{Cite web |last=Herb Keinon and Yaakov Katz |date=2009-09-03 |title=Norway envoy summoned on divestment |url=http://fr.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?pagename=JPost/JPArticle/ShowFull&cid=1251804480041 |website=The Jerusalem Post}}</ref>
| 5.0
|-
| [[Freeport-McMoRan|Freeport McMoRan Copper & Gold Inc.]]
| {{Flagu|USA}}
| 28 Mar 2006
| Serious environmental damage.<ref name="Norwegian Ministry of Finance">{{Cite web |last=Norwegian Ministry of Finance |author-link=Norwegian Ministry of Finance |date=2006-06-06 |title=To selskaper – Wal-Mart og Freeport – trekkes ut av Statens pensjonsfond – Utland |url=http://www.regjeringen.no/nb/dep/fin/pressesenter/pressemeldinger/2006/To-selskaper---Wal-Mart-og-Freeport---trekkes-ut-av-Statens-pensjonsfond---Utland.html?id=104384&epslanguage=NO |language=no}}</ref>
| 17.2
|-
| [[G4S]]
| {{Flagu|UK}}
| 14 November 2019
| Serious or systematic human rights violations<ref>[https://www.nbim.no/en/the-fund/news-list/2019/decision-to-exclude-company-from-the-government-pension-fund-global2/ Decision to exclude company from the Government Pension Fund Global]</ref>
| N/A
|-
| GenCorp, Inc. (now [[Aerojet Rocketdyne Holdings|Aerojet Rocketdyne Holdings, Inc.]])
| {{Flagu|USA}}
| 15 Nov 2007
| Production of nuclear weapons.<ref name="vapen">{{Cite web |last=Norwegian Ministry of Finance |author-link=Norwegian Ministry of Finance |date=2008-01-11 |title=One producer of cluster munitions and two producers of nuclear weapons excluded from the Government Pension Fund – Global |url=http://www.regjeringen.no/en/dep/fin/Press-Center/Press-releases/2008/One-producer-of-cluster-munitions-and-tw.html?id=496485}}</ref>
| N/A
|-
| [[General Dynamics|General Dynamics Corporation]]
| {{Flagu|USA}}
| 30 Jun 2005
| Production of components for cluster munitions.<ref name=eight/>
| N/A<ref group="nb" name="Alliant" />
|-
|[[Grupo Carso]] SAB de CV
| {{Flagu|Mexico}}
| 15 Feb 2011
| Production of tobacco.<ref>{{Cite web |last=The Council on Ethics |date=15 February 2011 |title=Til Finansdepartementet |url=http://www.regjeringen.no/Upload/FIN/Statens%20pensjonsfond/2011/spu/carso2011.pdf |access-date=19 August 2012 |publisher=[[Norwegian Ministry of Finance]] |language=no}}</ref>
| N/A
|-
| [[Gudang Garam|Gudang Garam tbk pt]]
| {{Flagu|Indonesia}}
| 19 Jan 2010
| Production of tobacco.<ref name=fin100119 />
| 0
|-
| [[Hanwha|Hanwha Corporation]]
| {{Flagu|South Korea}}
| 15 May 2007
| Production of cluster munitions.<ref name=vapen/>
| 1.2<ref name="hanwha">{{Cite web |last=The Council on Ethics |date=2008-01-11 |title=Recommendation on exclusion of the companies Rheinmetall AG and Hanwha Corp |url=http://www.regjeringen.no/en/dep/fin/Selected-topics/andre/Ethical-Guidelines-for-the-Government-Pension-Fund---Global-/Recommendations-and-Letters-from-the-Advisory-Council-on-Ethics/Recommendation-on-exclusion-of-the-compa-2.html?id=496492}}</ref>
|-
| [[Honeywell|Honeywell International Inc.]]
| {{Flagu|USA}}
| 11 Oct 2005
| Simulations of nuclear explosions.<ref name=uttrekk/>
| N/A<ref group="nb" name="BAE" />
|-
|Huabao International Holdings Limited
|{{Flagu|Hong Kong}}
|8 May 2013
| Production of tobacco
| N/A
|-
| [[Imperial Tobacco|Imperial Tobacco Group Plc]]
| {{Flagu|United Kingdom}}
| 19 Jan 2010
| Production of tobacco.<ref name=fin100119 />
| 347
|-
| [[ITC Limited|ITC Ltd.]]
| {{Flagu|India}}
| 19 Jan 2010
| Production of tobacco.<ref name=fin100119 />
| 48
|-
| [[Japan Tobacco|Japan Tobacco Inc.]]
| {{Flagu|Japan}}
| 19 Jan 2010
| Production of tobacco.<ref name=fin100119 />
| 210
|-
| [[Jacobs Engineering Group]]
| {{Flagu|USA}}
| 11 January 2013
| Production of nuclear arms
| N/A
|-
| [[KT&G|KT&G Corp.]]
| {{Flagu|South Korea}}
| 19 Jan 2010
| Production of tobacco.<ref name=fin100119 />
| 16
|-
| Lingui Development Berhad Ltd.
| {{Flagu|Malaysia}}
| 16 February 2011
| Severe environmental damages
| N/A
|-
|[[Li-Ning]]
|{{Flagu|China}}
|8 March 2022
|Human rights abuse<ref>{{Cite web |title=Decisions on observation and exclusion |url=https://www.nbim.no/en/the-fund/news-list/2022/decisions-on-observation-and-exclusion/ |access-date=2022-04-18 |website=Norges Bank Investment Management |date=7 March 2022 |language=en-GB}}</ref>
|
|-
| [[Lockheed Martin|Lockheed Martin Corp]]
| {{Flagu|USA}}
| 30 Jun 2005
| Production of components for cluster munitions.<ref name=eight/>
| N/A<ref group="nb" name="Alliant" />
|-
| [[Lorillard Tobacco Company|Lorillard Inc.]]
| {{Flagu|USA}}
| 19 Jan 2010
| Production of tobacco.<ref name=fin100119 />
| 42
|-
| [[Madras Aluminium]]
| {{Flagu|United Kingdom}}
| 31 October 2007
| Severe environmental damages
| N/A
|-
| [[Norilsk Nickel]]
| {{Flagu|Russia}}
| 31 October 2009
| Severe environmental damages
| N/A
|-
| [[Northrop Grumman|Northrop Grumman Corp.]]
| {{Flagu|USA}}
| 11 Oct 2005
| Maintenance of ICBMs for the U.S. Air Force.<ref name=uttrekk/>
| N/A<ref group="nb" name="BAE" />
|-
| [[Philip Morris International|Philip Morris International Inc.]]
| {{Flagu|USA}}
| 19 Jan 2010
| Production of tobacco.<ref name=fin100119 />
| 476
|-
| Philip Morris ČR a.s. (a subsidiary of [[Philip Morris International]])
| {{Flagu|Czech Republic}}
| 19 Jan 2010
| Production of tobacco.<ref name=fin100119 />
| 2.7
|-
| [[Poongsan Corporation]]
| {{Flagu|South Korea}}
| 30 Sep 2006
| Production of cluster munition.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Norwegian Ministry of Finance |author-link=Norwegian Ministry of Finance |date=2006-12-06 |title=Sørkoreansk klasevåpenprodusent utelukket fra Statens pensjonsfond – Utland |url=http://www.regjeringen.no/nb/dep/fin/pressesenter/pressemeldinger/2006/Sorkoreansk-klasevapenprodusent-utelukket-fra-Statens-pensjonsfond-Utland.html?id=437728&epslanguage=NO |language=no}}</ref>
| 1.2
|-
| [[Potash Corporation of Saskatchewan]]
| {{Flagu|Canada}}
| 30 Sep 2011
| Production of phosphate in the occupied territories of [[Western Sahara]].<ref name="dec2011" />
| 274
|-
| [[Raytheon|Raytheon Company]]
| {{Flagu|USA}}
| 30 Jun 2005
| Production of components for cluster munitions.<ref name= eight/>
| N/A<ref group="nb" name="Alliant" />
|-
| [[Reynolds American|Reynolds American Inc.]]
| {{Flagu|USA}}
| 19 Jan 2010
| Production of tobacco.<ref name=fin100119 />
| 36
|-
| [[Samling Global Ltd.]]
| {{Flagu|Malaysia}}
| 23 Aug 2010
| Illegal logging and severe environmental damage<ref name="samling">{{Cite web |date=2010-08-23 |title=Three companies excluded from the Government Pension Fund Global |url=http://www.regjeringen.no/en/dep/fin/press-center/Press-releases/2010/three-companies-excluded-from-the-govern.html?id=612790 |access-date=2010-08-30 |publisher=The Ministry of Finance}}</ref>
| 1.4
|-
| [[Safran|SAFRAN SA]]
| {{Flagu|France}}
| 11 Oct 2005
| Production of nuclear missiles for the French Navy.<ref name=uttrekk/>
| N/A<ref group="nb" name="BAE" />
|-
| [[Serco|Serco Group plc]]
| {{Flagu|United Kingdom}}
| 15 Nov 2007
| Maintenance of [[British nuclear weapons]] through the [[Atomic Weapons Establishment]].<ref name=vapen/>
| N/A
|-
| [[Sesa Sterlite Limited]]
| {{Flagu|India}}
| 30 January 2014
| Severe environmental damages
| N/A
|-
| Schweitzer-Mauduit International Inc.
| {{Flagu|USA}}
| 8 May 2013
| Production of tobacco
| N/A
|-
| [[Shanghai Industrial Holdings]]
| {{Flagu|China}}
| 15 March 2011
| Production of tobacco
| N/A
|-
| [[Shikun UVinui]]
| {{Flagu|Israel}}
| 17 June 2012
| Violation of the [[Geneva Convention]] in [[occupied Palestinian territory]] by being involved in developing settlements<ref name="GPFN to exclude Shikun & Binui">{{Cite web |title=Massive Norwegian state fund to divest from Israeli company |website=[[The Times of Israel]] |url=http://www.timesofisrael.com/massive-norwegian-state-fund-to-divest-from-israeli-company/ |access-date=2 December 2016}}</ref>
| 1.4
|-
| [[Souza Cruz S/A|Souza Cruz SA]]
| {{Flagu|Brazil}}
| 19 Jan 2010
| Production of tobacco.<ref name=fin100119 />
| 7.4
|-
|-
| [[Sterlite Industries]]
| {{Flagu|India}}
| 31 October 2007
| Severe environmental damages
| N/A
|-
| [[Swedish Match|Swedish Match AB]]
| {{Flagu|Sweden}}
| 19 Jan 2010
| Production of tobacco.<ref name=fin100119 />
| 75
|-
| Ta Ann Holdings Berhad
| {{Flagu|Malaysia}}
| 14 October 2013
| Severe environmental damages
| N/A
|-
| [[Textron|Textron Inc.]]
| {{Flagu|USA}}
| 30 Jan 2009
| Production of components for cluster munitions.<ref name="Textron">{{Cite web |last=Finance |first=Ministry of |date=30 January 2009 |title=Recommendation on the exclusion of the company Textron Inc. |url=http://www.regjeringen.no/en/dep/fin/Selected-topics/andre/Ethical-Guidelines-for-the-Government-Pension-Fund---Global-/Recommendations-and-Letters-from-the-Advisory-Council-on-Ethics/recommendation-on-the-exclusion-of-the-c-2.html?id=544363 |access-date=2 December 2016}}</ref>
| 36
|-
| [[Universal Corporation|Universal Corp VA]]
| {{Flagu|USA}}
| 19 Jan 2010
| Production of tobacco.<ref name=fin100119 />
| 3
|-
| WTK Holdings Berhad
| {{Flagu|Malaysia}}
| 14 October 2013
| Severe environmental damages
| N/A
|-
| [[Vector Group|Vector Group Ltd.]]
| {{Flagu|USA}}
| 19 Jan 2010
| Production of tobacco.<ref name=fin100119 />
| 2.1
|-
| [[Vedanta Resources|Vedanta Resources Plc]]
| {{Flagu|UK}}
| 28 Aug 2007
| Environmental and human rights abuses.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Norwegian Ministry of Finance |author-link=Norwegian Ministry of Finance |date=2007-11-06 |title=Metals and mining company excluded from the investment universe of the Norwegian Government Pension Fund – Global |url=http://www.regjeringen.no/en/dep/fin/Press-Center/Press-releases/2007/Metals-and-mining-company-excluded-from-.html?id=488626}}</ref>
| 12
|-
|[[Volcan (mining company)]]
|{{Flagu|Peru}}
|14 October 2013
| Severe environmental damages
| 7.5
|-
| [[Zijin Mining]]
| {{Flagu|China}}
| 14 October 2013
| Severe environmental damages
| N/A
|-
| [[Zuari Agro Chemicals Ltd.]]
| {{Flagu|India}}
| 14 October 2013
| Serious or systematic human rights violations
| N/A
|}

The fund does not announce exclusions until it has completed sales of its positions, so as not to affect the share price at the time of the transaction.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Norway's Big Ethical Giant |url=https://www.forbes.com/2009/01/30/norway-mining-weapons-markets-equity-0130_markets15.html |access-date=2023-05-17 |website=Forbes |language=en}}</ref>

In 2016, Norges Bank decided to exclude 52 coal companies from the fund.<ref>{{Cite web |title=First coal exclusions from the Government Pension Fund Global |date=14 April 2016 |url=http://www.nbim.no/en/transparency/news-list/2016/first-coal-exclusions-from-the-government-pension-fund-global/ |access-date=15 April 2016 |publisher=[[Norges Bank]]}}</ref>

===Reinstated companies===
Several previously excluded companies have later been reinstated to the fund because the companies were no longer involved in the activities that had led to their exclusion.

{| class="wikitable sortable" style="font-size:95%;"
! Company
! HQ
! Date of exclusion
! Reason
! data-sort-type=number| Divestment (Millions [[USD]])
! Date of reinstatement
|-
| [[ST Engineering]]
| {{Flagu|Singapore}}
| 26 Apr 2002<ref>{{Cite web |last=Finance |first=Ministry of |date=2007-04-26 |title=History |url=https://www.regjeringen.no/en/sub/styrer-rad-utvalg/ethics_council/History/id445813/ |access-date=2024-01-10 |website=Government.no |language=en-GB}}</ref>
| Design, mass production and stockpile of [[Land mine|land mines]], [[Dual-purpose improved conventional munition|dual-purpose improved conventional munition (DPICM)]] mortar shells containing 25 bomblets, artillery shells containing 64 DPICM [[bomblets]], air-delivered [[cluster bombs]] with 650 bomblets <ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-02-24 |title=Singapore Technologies Engineering |url=https://etikkradet.no/singapore-technologies-engineering-2/ |access-date=2024-01-10 |website=Etikkrådet |language=nb-NO}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Landmine and Cluster Munition Monitor |url=http://archives.the-monitor.org/index.php/publications/display?url=lm/2007/singapore.html |access-date=2024-01-10 |website=archives.the-monitor.org}}</ref>
|N/A
|30 Sep 2016<ref>{{Cite news |date=2016-09-30 |title=Norway's wealth fund can resume investing in ST Engineering: Central bank |url=https://www.straitstimes.com/business/norways-wealth-fund-can-resume-investing-in-st-engineering-central-bank |access-date=2024-01-10 |work=The Straits Times |language=en |issn=0585-3923}}</ref>
|-
| [[BAE Systems|BAE Systems plc]]
| {{Flagu|United Kingdom}}
| 11 Oct 2005
| Production of nuclear missiles for the [[French Air and Space Force|French Air Force]] through the company [[MBDA]].<ref name="uttrekk">{{Cite web |last=Norwegian Ministry of Finance |author-link=Norwegian Ministry of Finance |date=2006-01-05 |title=Uttrekk av selskaper fra Statens pensjonsfond Utland |url=http://www.regjeringen.no/nb/dep/fin/pressesenter/pressemeldinger/2006/Uttrekk-av-selskaper-fra-Statens-pensjonsfond---Utland.html?id=103778&epslanguage=NO |language=no}}</ref>
| N/A{{#tag:ref|The total divestment from the seven companies BAE Systems Plc, Boeing Co., Finmeccanica S.p.A., Honeywell International Inc., Northrop Grumman Corp., Safran SA and United Technologies Corp was apx. '''500 million USD'''.<ref name="uttrekk" /> | group="nb" | name="BAE"}}
| 11 Jan 2013<ref name="drd_reinstated_1">{{Cite web |last=Norwegian Ministry of Finance |author-link=Norwegian Ministry of Finance |date=2012-08-31 |title=Recommendation to revoke the exclusion of the companies BAE Systems plc. and Finmeccanica S.p.A. from the investment universe of the Government Pension Fund Global |url=http://www.regjeringen.no/upload/FIN/etikk/2013/bae_finmec_eng.pdf}}</ref>
|-
| [[DRD Gold Limited]]
| {{Flagu|South Africa}}
| 29 Jan 2007
| Serious environmental damage.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Norwegian Ministry of Finance |author-link=Norwegian Ministry of Finance |date=2007-04-11 |title=Mining company excluded from the investment universe of the Norwegian Government Pension Fund – Global |url=http://www.regjeringen.no/en/dep/fin/Press-Center/Press-releases/2007/Mining-company-excluded-from-the-investm.html?id=462551}}</ref>
| 0.6
| 3 Sep 2009<ref name="drd_reinstated_2">{{Cite web |last=Norwegian Ministry of Finance |author-link=Norwegian Ministry of Finance |date=2009-09-03 |title=Thales SA and DRD Gold Limited to be reinstated in the Government Pension Fund – Global's portfolio |url=http://www.regjeringen.no/en/dep/fin/press-center/Press-releases/2009/thales-sa-and-drd-gold-limited-to-be-rei.html?id=575442}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=The Council on Ethics |date=2009-02-13 |title=Recommendation to reverse the exclusion of DRD Gold |url=http://www.regjeringen.no/en/dep/fin/Selected-topics/The-Government-Pension-Fund/Ethical-Guidelines-for-the-Government-Pension-Fund---Global-/Recommendations-and-Letters-from-the-Advisory-Council-on-Ethics/recommendation-to-reverse-a-decision-to-.html?id=575438}}</ref>
|-
| [[Finmeccanica|Finmeccanica S.p.A.]]
| {{Flagu|Italy}}
| 11 Oct 2005
| Production of nuclear missiles for the [[French Air and Space Force]] through the company [[MBDA]].<ref name=uttrekk/>
| N/A<ref group="nb" name="BAE" />
| 11 Jan 2013<ref name=drd_reinstated_1 />
|-
| [[FMC Corporation]]
| {{Flagu|USA}}
| 30 Sep 2011
| Production of phosphate in the occupied territories of [[Western Sahara]].<ref name="dec2011">{{Cite web |date=6 December 2011 |title=Statens pensjonsfond utland: To selskaper utelukkes fra fondets investeringsunivers |url=http://www.regjeringen.no/nb/dep/fin/pressesenter/pressemeldinger/2011/statens-pensjonsfond-utland-nye-beslutni/statens-pensjonsfond-utland-to-selskaper.html?id=665637 |language=no}}</ref>
| 52
| 11 Jan 2013<ref name="drd_reinstated_3">{{Cite web |date=2012-08-31 |title=Recommendation to revoke the exclusion of FMC Corporation from the Government Pension Fund Global's investment universe |url=http://www.regjeringen.no/upload/FIN/etikk/2013/fmc_eng.pdf}}</ref>
|-
| [[Kerr-McGee|Kerr-McGee Corporation]]
| {{Flagu|USA}}
| 29 Apr 2005
| Petroleum surveying in occupied [[Western Sahara]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Norwegian Ministry of Finance |author-link=Norwegian Ministry of Finance |date=2005-06-06 |title=Første selskap utelukket fra Petroleumsfondet |url=http://www.regjeringen.no/nb/dokumentarkiv/Regjeringen-Bondevik-II/Finansdepartementet/234231/234458/forste_selskap_utelukket_fra_petroleumsfondet.html?id=256344&epslanguage=NO |language=no}}</ref>
| 54
| 30 Jun 2006<ref>{{Cite web |last=Norwegian Ministry of Finance |author-link=Norwegian Ministry of Finance |date=2006-09-01 |title=KerrMcGee Corporation tas inn igjen i Statens pensjonsfond – Utland |url=http://www.regjeringen.no/nb/dep/fin/pressesenter/pressemeldinger/2006/KerrMcGee-Corporation-tas-inn-igjen-i-Statens-pensjonsfond---Utland.html?id=271732&epslanguage=NO}}</ref>
|-
| [[L-3 Communications|L3 Communications Holdings Inc]]
| {{Flagu|USA}}
| 30 Jun 2005
| Production of components for [[Cluster munition|cluster munitions]].<ref name=eight/>
| N/A<ref group="nb" name="Alliant" />
| 31 August 2005<ref>{{Cite web |last=Norwegian Ministry of Finance |author-link=Norwegian Ministry of Finance |date=2005-08-31 |title=Companies that have been excluded, but where the decision to exclude has later been revoked |url=http://www.regjeringen.no/en/dep/fin/Selected-topics/the-government-pension-fund/responsible-investments/companies-excluded-from-the-investment-u/companies-that-have-been-excluded-but-wh.html?id=594965}}</ref>
|-
| [[Thales Group|Thales SA]]
| {{Flagu|France}}
| 30 Jun 2005
| Production of components for [[Cluster munition|cluster munitions]].<ref name= eight/>
| N/A<ref group="nb" name="Alliant" />
| 3 Sep 2009<ref>{{Cite web |last=The Council on Ethics |date=2009-02-13 |title=Recommendation to reverse the exclusion of Thales SA |url=http://www.regjeringen.no/en/dep/fin/Selected-topics/The-Government-Pension-Fund/Ethical-Guidelines-for-the-Government-Pension-Fund---Global-/Recommendations-and-Letters-from-the-Advisory-Council-on-Ethics/recommendation-to-reverse-the-exclusion-.html?id=575446}}</ref>
|-
| [[United Technologies Corporation|United Technologies Corp.]]
| {{Flagu|USA}}
| 11 Oct 2005
| Production of engines for [[Intercontinental ballistic missile|ICBMs]] in the U.S. Air Force.<ref name=uttrekk/>
| N/A<ref group="nb" name="BAE" />
| 2 March 2013<ref name="drd_reinstated_4">{{Cite web |date=2012-03-02 |title=Recommendation on inclusion of the company United Technologies Corp. |url=http://www.regjeringen.no/en/archive/Stoltenbergs-2nd-Government/Ministry-of-Finance/Nyheter-og-pressemeldinger/nyheter/2010/Decision-on-exclusion-reversed.html?id=594307}}</ref>
|-
| [[Walmart|Wal-Mart Stores Inc.]]
| {{Flagu|USA}}
| 28 Mar 2006
| Breach of human rights and labour rights.<ref name="Norwegian Ministry of Finance" />
| 372
| 26 June 2019<ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-06-26 |title=Norway wealth fund allowed to invest again in Walmart, Rio Tinto, others |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/business/norway-wealth-fund-allowed-to-invest-again-in-walmart-rio-tinto-others-idUSKCN1TQ0RI/ |last1=Fouche |first1=Gwladys }}</ref>
|-
| [[Rio Tinto Group]]
| {{Flagu|United Kingdom}} {{Flagu|Australia}}
| 28 Apr 2008
| Severe environmental damage<ref>{{Cite web |last=Norwegian Ministry of Finance |author-link=Norwegian Ministry of Finance |date=2008-09-09 |title=The Government Pension Fund divests its holdings in mining company |url=http://www.regjeringen.no/en/dep/fin/Press-Center/Press-releases/2008/the-government-pension-fund-divests-its-.html?id=526030}}</ref>
| 882
| 26 June 2019<ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-06-26 |title=Norway wealth fund allowed to invest again in Walmart, Rio Tinto, others |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/business/norway-wealth-fund-allowed-to-invest-again-in-walmart-rio-tinto-others-idUSKCN1TQ0RI/ |last1=Fouche |first1=Gwladys }}</ref>
|-
|[[Dongfeng Group]]
|{{Flagu|China}}
|March 2009
|Sale of military vehicles to [[Myanmar]]<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Finansdepartementet |date=2014-12-11 |title=Beslutninger om avsluttet observasjon og gjeninkludering av selskap i SPU |url=https://www.regjeringen.no/no/aktuelt/Beslutninger-om-avsluttet-observasjon-og-gjeninkludering-av-selskap-i-SPU/id2344678/ |access-date=2017-02-26 |website=Regjeringen.no |language=no}}</ref>
|N/A
|Dec 2014<ref>{{Cite web |date=2014 |title=Council Of Ethics Annual Report 2014 |url=http://etikkradet.no/files/2015/01/Council-on-Ethics-2014-Annual-Report.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150421002829/http://etikkradet.no/files/2015/01/Council-on-Ethics-2014-Annual-Report.pdf |archive-date=2015-04-21 |website=Norway's Council of Ethics}}</ref>
|}

===Companies "under observation"===
As an alternative to full exclusion from the fund, companies may be placed "under observation" to help put pressure on the company to improve.
{| class="wikitable" style="font-size:95%;"
! Company
! HQ
! Date of warning
! Reason
! Shares
|-
|[[Alstom]]
|{{Flagu|France}}
|6 Dec 2011
|Risk of gross corruption<ref>{{Cite web |date=6 December 2011 |title=Statens pensjonsfond utland: Selskap settes til observasjon på grunn av risiko for korrupsjon |url=http://www.regjeringen.no/nb/dep/fin/pressesenter/pressemeldinger/2011/statens-pensjonsfond-utland-nye-beslutni/statens-pensjonsfond-utland-selskap-sett.html?id=665635 |publisher=The Norwegian Ministry of Finance |language=no}}</ref>
|N/A
|-

|-
|}
It was proposed that one more company, [[Goldcorp]], should be placed under similar observation. Goldcorp, as of 2019, merged with another company and no longer exists.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kristoffer Rønneberg |date=20 February 2010 |title=Ønsker "gult kort" for gruveselskap |url=http://www.aftenposten.no/nyheter/uriks/article3527171.ece |access-date=20 February 2010 |publisher=Aftenposten}}</ref>

===Currency portfolio===
In October 2010 the fund spent NOK 600 million ($136.4 million as of October 2010) daily buying foreign currencies. That figure would be increased to 800 million kroner daily in November.<ref>{{Cite news |date=29 October 2010 |title=Norway c.bank to sell NOK 800 mln daily in Nov |work=[[Reuters]] |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSOSN00479420101029 |access-date=29 October 2010}}</ref> This practice was suspended in January 2011, and on 31 January it was announced that this would also be the case in February.<ref>{{Cite news |date=31 January 2011 |title=Norway fund to refrain from fx buying in Feb |work=[[Reuters]] |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/norway-oilfund-idUSOSB01706920110131 |access-date=31 January 2011}}</ref>

==Government Pension Fund – Norway==
The Government Pension Fund – Norway ({{lang|no|Statens pensjonsfond Norge}}, SPN) was established by the ''National Insurance Act'' ({{lang|no|Folketrygdloven}}) in 1967 under the name ''National Insurance Scheme Fund'' ({{lang|no|Folketrygdfondet}}). The name was changed at the same time as the former Petroleum Fund, on 1 January 2006. It continues to be managed by a separate board and separate government entity, still named {{lang|no|Folketrygdfondet}}. The Government Pension Fund – Norway had a value of NOK 384 billion autumn 2024. Unlike the Global division, it is required to limit its investments to companies in the Norwegian stock market, predominantly on the [[Oslo Stock Exchange]]. The Fund is not allowed to own more than a 15% interest in any single Norwegian company.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2014-03-28|title=Investment management|url=https://www.folketrygdfondet.no/investment-management/category378.html|access-date=2022-01-06|website=Folketrygdfondet|language=en|archive-date=6 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220106175937/https://www.folketrygdfondet.no/investment-management/category378.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==Notes==
<references group="nb" />

==See also==
{{Portal|Energy}}
{{div col |colwidth=30em}}
* [[The budgetary rule]] – concerning the usage of capital gains from The Government Pension Fund – Global
* [[Pensions in Norway]]
* [[Economy of Norway]]
* [[Sovereign wealth fund]]
* [[Economy of Norway#Energy Resources|Energy Resources of Norway]]{{Broken anchor|date=2024-07-25|bot=User:Cewbot/log/20201008/configuration|target_link=Economy of Norway#Energy Resources|reason= The anchor (Energy Resources) [[Special:Diff/13400826|has been deleted]].}}
* [[Ethical investing]]
{{div col end}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20100315064711/http://www.regjeringen.no/en/dep/fin/Selected-topics/the-government-pension-fund.html Norwegian Ministry of Finance: On the Government Pension Fund]
*[http://www.ftf.no/ The Government Pension Fund – Norway: Official site]
*[http://www.nbim.no/ The Government Pension Fund – Global: Official site]

{{Norway topics}}
{{Pension plans by country}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Government Pension Fund Of Norway, The}}
[[Category:1967 establishments in Norway]]
[[Category:1990 establishments in Norway]]
[[Category:1967 in politics]]
[[Category:1990 in politics]]
[[Category:1967 in economic history]]
[[Category:1990 in economic history]]
[[Category:Sovereign wealth funds]]
[[Category:Public pension funds]]
[[Category:Public finance of Norway]]
[[Category:Retirement in Norway]]
[[Category:Government of Norway]]
[[Category:North Sea energy]]

Shampoo

2025-06-14T11:26:48Z

2A00:23C7:C8BC:C501:507C:445E:62F7:256D: /* Commonly used ingredients */Added link

{{Short description|Hair care product}}
{{About|the hair care product}}
{{pp-move|small=yes}}
{{organize|date=January 2024}}
[[File:Hair wash with shampoo.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.3|Shampoo lather in hair]]
[[Image:Shampoo.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.3|Bottles of shampoo and [[lotion]]s manufactured in the early 20th century by the C.L. Hamilton Co. of [[Washington, D.C., United States]]]]

'''Shampoo''' ({{IPAc-en|ʃ|æ|m|ˈ|p|uː}}) is a [[hair care]] product, typically in the form of a [[Viscosity|viscous]] liquid, that is formulated to be used for cleaning (scalp) [[hair]]. Less commonly, it is available in solid bar format. ("[[Dry shampoo]]" is a separate product.) Shampoo is used by applying it to wet hair, massaging the product in the hair, roots and scalp, and then rinsing it out. Some users may follow a shampooing with the use of [[hair conditioner]].

Shampoo is typically used to remove the unwanted build-up of [[sebum]] (natural oils) in the hair without stripping out so much as to make hair unmanageable. Shampoo is generally made by combining a [[surfactant]], most often [[sodium lauryl sulfate]] or [[sodium laureth sulfate]], with a co-surfactant, most often [[cocamidopropyl betaine]] in water. The [[sulfate]] ingredient acts as a [[surfactant]], trapping oils and other contaminants, similarly to [[soap]].

Shampoos are marketed to people with hair. There are also shampoos intended for animals that may contain [[insecticide]]s or other [[medication]]s to treat skin conditions or [[parasite]] infestations such as [[flea]]s.

==History==
=== Indian subcontinent ===
In the Indian subcontinent, a variety of herbs and their extracts have been used as shampoos since ancient times. The first origin of shampoo came from the Indus Valley Civilization. A very effective early shampoo was made by boiling Sapindus with dried Indian gooseberry (amla) and a selection of other herbs, using the strained extract.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Ethnobotany of India |last=Bahadur |first=Bir |publisher=Apple Academic Press |isbn=9781351737661 |publication-date=2021-03-11 |pages=70 |last2=Krishnamurthy |first2=K.V |last3=Pullaiah |first3=T}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=The Diverse Curriculum |last=Kara |first=Bennie |publisher=Sage Publication |year=2024 |isbn=9781529783674}}</ref>
''Sapindus'', also known as soapberries or soapnuts, a tropical tree widespread in India, is called ''ksuna'' (Sanskrit: क्षुण)<ref>[http://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/cgi-bin/tamil/recherche kSuNa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190607113955/https://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/cgi-bin/tamil/recherche |date=2019-06-07 }}, Sanskrit Lexicon, Monier-Williams Dictionary (1872)</ref> in ancient Indian texts and its fruit pulp contains [[saponin]]s which are a natural surfactant. The extract of soapberries creates a lather which Indian texts called ''phenaka'' (Sanskrit: फेनक).<ref>[http://spokensanskrit.de/index.php?tinput=phenaka&direction=SE&script=HK&link=yes phenaka] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402092716/http://spokensanskrit.de/index.php?tinput=phenaka&direction=SE&script=HK&link=yes |date=2015-04-02 }}, Spoken Sanskrit, University of Koeln, Germany</ref> It leaves the hair soft, shiny and manageable. Other products used for hair cleansing were shikakai (''[[Acacia concinna]]''), [[hibiscus]] flowers,<ref name=rahman>Rahman, {{Google books|4bnaAAAAMAAJ|History of Indian Science, Technology and Culture}}, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0195646528}}, page 145</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.tnsmpb.tn.gov.in/images/HIBISCUS%20ROSA%20SINENSIS.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721161928/http://www.tnsmpb.tn.gov.in/images/HIBISCUS%20ROSA%20SINENSIS.pdf|url-status=dead|title=Tamil Nadu Medicinal plants board|archive-date=July 21, 2011}}</ref> ritha (''[[Sapindus mukorossi]]'') and arappu (''Albizzia amara'').<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://agritech.tnau.ac.in/forestry/forestry_nursery_albizzia_amara.html|title=Forestry :: Nursery Technologies|website=agritech.tnau.ac.in|access-date=2011-02-18|archive-date=2011-08-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110811061233/http://agritech.tnau.ac.in/forestry/forestry_nursery_albizzia_amara.html|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Guru Nanak]], the founder and the first [[Sikh Guru|Guru]] of [[Sikhism]], made references to soapberry tree and soap in the 16th century.<ref>Khushwant Singh, Hymns of Guru Nanak, Orient Longman, {{ISBN|978-8125011613}}</ref>

Cleansing the hair and body massage (champu) during one's daily bath was an indulgence of early colonial traders in India. When they returned to Europe, they introduced the newly learned habits, including the hair treatment they called shampoo.<ref>Virginia Smith (2007), Clean: A History of Personal Hygiene and Purity, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0199297795}}</ref> The word ''[[wikt:shampoo|shampoo]]'' entered the English language from the [[Indian subcontinent]] during the [[Early modern period|colonial era]].<ref>M. J. Campion, [https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-18796493 Hobson-Jobson: The words English owes to India] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180816232018/https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-18796493|date=2018-08-16}}. BBC News, 11 July 2012.</ref> It dated to 1762 and was derived from the [[Hindi]] word {{transliteration|hi|ISO|cā̃pō}} ({{lang|hi|चाँपो}}, {{IPA|hns|tʃãːpoː|pron}}),<ref>{{transliteration|hi|ISO|cā̃pō}} ({{lang|hi|चाँपो}}) is the [[Imperative mood|imperative]] of {{transliteration|hi|ISO|cā̃pnā}} ({{lang|hi|चाँपना}}, {{IPA|hns|tʃãːpnaː|pron}}), 'to smear, knead the muscles, massage the head and hair'.</ref><ref>American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 4th Edition, See Shampoo; Also see [http://dsalsrv02.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/search3advanced?dbname=hobson&query=shampoo&matchtype=exact&display=utf8 Shampoo] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170829213758/http://dsalsrv02.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/search3advanced?dbname=hobson&query=shampoo&matchtype=exact&display=utf8|date=2017-08-29}}. Hobson-Jobson (1903), University of Chicago.</ref> itself derived from the [[Sanskrit]] root {{transliteration|sa|IAST|chapati}} ({{lang|sa|चपति}}), which means 'to press, knead, or soothe'.<ref>Sanskrit Lexicon, University of Koeln, Germany, see चपयति (2008).</ref><ref>[http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?allowed_in_frame=0&search=shampoo&searchmode=none Shampoo] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203020930/http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?allowed_in_frame=0&search=shampoo&searchmode=none|date=2013-12-03}}, Etymology Dictionary (2006).</ref>

=== Ancient Mesopotamia ===
Ancient Mesopotamian tablets from the [[Neo-Assyrian Empire|Neo-Assyrian period]] document the use of medicated shampoo to treat scalp eruptions.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Scurlock |first=JoAnn |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt1287mwm |title=Sourcebook for Ancient Mesopotamian Medicine |date=2014 |publisher=Society of Biblical Literature |isbn=978-1-58983-970-0 |pages=429–430 |doi=10.2307/j.ctt1287mwm.14|jstor=j.ctt1287mwm }}</ref>

===Europe===
[[File:Katalog vintern 1905-1906. AB Nordiska Kompaniet. Hår-, Toalett- & Tandvatten, Pomada & Brilliantine - Nordiska Museet - NMA.0040796.jpg|thumb|Swedish advertisement for toiletries, 1905/1906]]
[[Sake Dean Mahomed]], an Indian traveller, surgeon, and entrepreneur, is credited with introducing the practice of ''shampoo'' or "shampooing" to Britain. In 1814, Mahomed, with his Irish wife Jane Daly, opened the first commercial "shampooing" vapour masseur bath in England, in [[Brighton]]. He described the treatment in a local paper as "The Indian Medicated Vapour Bath (type of Turkish bath), a cure to many diseases and giving full relief when everything fails; particularly Rheumatic and paralytic, gout, stiff joints, old sprains, lame legs, aches and pains in the joints".<ref name=Teltscher>{{cite journal|doi=10.1080/13698010020019226|title=The Shampooing Surgeon and the Persian Prince: Two Indians in Early Nineteenth-century Britain|first=Kate|last=Teltscher|journal=Interventions: International Journal of Postcolonial Studies|volume=2|issue=3|year=2000|pages=409–23|s2cid=161906676}}</ref> This medical work featured testimonies from his patients, as well as the details of the treatment made him famous. The book acted as a marketing tool for his unique baths in Brighton and capitalised on the early 19th-century trend for seaside spa treatments.<ref>{{Cite web |title=British Library |url=https://www.bl.uk/collection-items/the-benefits-of-shampooing-by-sake-dean-mahomed |access-date=2023-09-25 |website=www.bl.uk}}</ref>

During the early stages of shampoo in [[Europe]], English [[hair stylist]]s boiled shaved [[soap]] in [[water]] and added [[herbs]] to give the hair shine and [[fragrance]]. Commercially made shampoo was available from the turn of the 20th century. A 1914 advertisement for Canthrox Shampoo in ''American Magazine'' showed young women at camp washing their hair with Canthrox in a lake; magazine advertisements in 1914 by [[Rexall]] featured Harmony Hair Beautifier and Shampoo.<ref>Victoria Sherrow, ''Encyclopedia of hair: a cultural history'', 2007 s.v.'' "Advertising" p. 7.</ref>

In 1900, German perfumer and hair-stylist Josef Wilhelm Rausch developed the first liquid hair washing soap and named it "Champooing" in Emmishofen, Switzerland. Later, in 1919, J.W. Rausch developed an antiseptic chamomile shampooing with a pH of 8.5.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Geschichte |url=https://www.rausch.ch/ueber-uns/geschichte.html |access-date=2024-01-02 |website=Rausch |language=de}}</ref>

In 1927, liquid shampoo was improved for mass production by German inventor [[Hans Schwarzkopf]] in Berlin; his name became a shampoo brand sold in Europe.

Originally, [[soap]] and shampoo were very similar products; both containing the same naturally derived [[surfactants]], a type of [[detergent]]. Modern shampoo as it is known today was first introduced in the 1930s with ''Drene'', the first shampoo using synthetic surfactants instead of soap.

===Indonesia===
Early shampoos used in [[Indonesia]] were made from the [[husk]] and [[straw]] (''merang'') of [[rice]]. The husks and straws were burned into ash, and the ashes (which have [[alkaline]] properties) are mixed with water to form [[foam|lather]]. The ashes and lather were scrubbed into the hair and rinsed out, leaving the hair clean, but very dry. Afterwards, [[coconut oil]] was applied to the hair in order to moisturize it.<ref name="kompas">{{cite web | title =Agar RAMBUT Selalu Sehat | publisher =Kompas Cyber Media | date =2004-04-11 | url =http://www.kompas.com/kesehatan/news/0404/11/190759.htm | access-date =2007-03-26 | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20070312145840/http://www.kompas.com/kesehatan/news/0404/11/190759.htm | archive-date =2007-03-12 | url-status =dead }}</ref>

===Philippines===
[[Filipinos]] have been traditionally using ''gugo'' before commercial shampoos were sold in stores. The shampoo is obtained by soaking and rubbing the bark of the vine ''Gugo'' (''[[Entada phaseoloides]]''),<ref>{{cite book |last1=Diaz |first1=Eden C. |title=Home Economics, Practical Arts and Livelihood Education for College: Book Two |date=1990 |publisher=Rex Bookstore, Inc. |isbn=978-971-23-0795-9 |page=75 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0D9zrQoLCuEC&pg=PA75 |access-date=18 June 2021 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Salas |first1=Kinny |title=Thick, lush, sexy hair from drugstore products |url=https://lifestyle.inquirer.net/154561/thick-lush-sexy-hair-from-drugstore-products/ |access-date=18 June 2021 |newspaper=Philippine Daily Inquirer |date=21 March 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140325151615/http://lifestyle.inquirer.net/154561/thick-lush-sexy-hair-from-drugstore-products |archive-date=25 March 2014}}</ref> producing a lather that cleanses the scalp effectively. ''Gugo'' is also used as an ingredient in [[hair tonic]]s.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gonzales |first1=Lucas L. | last2=Quimio | first2=Marcos J. Jr. |last3=Calinawan |first3=Rogelio |title=Response of gugo to differing potting media |journal=Canopy International |volume=27 |page=3 |url=http://erdb.denr.gov.ph/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/c_v27n4.pdf |publisher=[[Department of Environment and Natural Resources (Philippines)|Department of Environment and Natural Resources]] |access-date=18 June 2021 |issn=0115-0960 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210618094840/http://erdb.denr.gov.ph/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/c_v27n4.pdf |archive-date=18 June 2021 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

===Pre-Columbian North America===
Certain [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]] tribes used extracts from North American plants as hair shampoo; for example the [[Ohlone people|Costanoan]]s of present-day coastal [[California]] used extracts from the [[coastal woodfern]], ''[[Dryopteris expansa]]''.<ref>C. Michael Hogan. 2008. [http://www.globaltwitcher.com/artspec_information.asp?thingid=88976 ''Coastal Woodfern (Dryopteris arguta)'', GlobalTwitcher, ed. N. Stromberg] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110711102430/http://www.globaltwitcher.com/artspec_information.asp?thingid=88976 |date=2011-07-11 }}</ref>

===Pre-Columbian South America===
Before [[quinoa]] can be eaten the [[saponin]] must be washed out from the grain prior to cooking. Pre-Columbian [[Andean]] civilizations used this soapy by-product as a shampoo.<ref>{{cite web |title=Quinoa – March Grain of the Month |url=http://wholegrainscouncil.org/node/5889/print |url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304123157/https://wholegrainscouncil.org/node/5889/print|archive-date=2016-03-04 }}</ref>

== Types ==
Shampoos can be classified into four main categories:<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Romanowski |first=Perry |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LIu4NVsrU8oC&pg=PA3 |title=The Beauty Aisle Insider: Top Cosmetic Scientists Answer Your Questions about the Lotions, Potions and Other Beauty Products You Use Every Day |date=2012-03-20 |publisher=Harlequin |isbn=978-0-373-89266-2 |pages=3–4 |language=en}}</ref>

* ''deep cleansing shampoos'', sometimes marketed under descriptions such as volumizing, clarifying, balancing, oil control, or thickening, which have a slightly higher amount of detergent and create a lot of foam;
* ''conditioning shampoos'', sometimes marketed under descriptions such as moisturizing, 2-in-1, smoothing, anti-frizz, color care, and hydrating, which contain an ingredient like silicone or [[polyquaternium-10]] to smooth the hair;
* ''baby shampoos'', sometimes marketed as tear-free, which contain less detergent and produce less foam; and
* ''anti-dandruff shampoos'', which are medicated to reduce [[dandruff]].<ref name=":0" />

==Composition==
[[File:Mild shampoo.jpg|thumb|Typical liquid shampoo]]
Shampoo is generally made by combining a [[surfactant]], most often [[sodium lauryl sulfate]] or [[sodium laureth sulfate]], with a co-surfactant, most often [[cocamidopropyl betaine]] in [[water]] to form a thick, viscous liquid. Other essential ingredients include salt ([[sodium chloride]]), which is used to adjust the viscosity, a [[preservative]] and [[fragrance]].<ref>Robbins, Clarence R., ''Chemical and physical behavior of human hair'', 4th ed (Springer Verlag: New York) 2002.</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=ChemViews |title=Shampoo Science |journal=ChemViews |date=2012 |doi=10.1002/chemv.201200149}}</ref> Other ingredients are generally included in shampoo formulations to maximize the following qualities:
* pleasing foam
* ease of rinsing
* minimal [[Human skin|skin]] and [[Human eye|eye]] [[irritation]]
* thick or creamy feeling
* pleasant fragrance<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pg.com/en_US/downloads/innovation/factsheet_Head_and_Shoulders_final.pdf|title=Latest innovations|website=Pg.com|access-date=September 4, 2019|archive-date=September 19, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200919124046/https://www.pg.com/en_US/downloads/innovation/factsheet_Head_and_Shoulders_final.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>
* low [[toxicity]]
* good [[biodegradation|biodegradability]]
* slight [[acid]]ity ([[pH]] less than 7)
* no damage to hair
* repair of damage already done to hair

Many shampoos are [[pearlescent]]. This effect is achieved by the addition of tiny flakes of suitable materials, e.g. [[glycol distearate]], chemically derived from [[stearic acid]], which may have either animal or vegetable origins. Glycol distearate is a wax. Many shampoos also include [[silicone]] to provide conditioning benefits.

===Commonly used ingredients===
* [[Ammonium chloride]]
* [[Ammonium lauryl sulfate]]
* [[Glycol]]
* [[Sodium laureth sulfate]] is derived from coconut oils and is used to soften water and create pleasing foam.
* [[Hypromellose]] cellulose ethers are widely used as thickeners, rheology modifiers, emulsifiers and dispersants in Shampoo products.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Cellulose ether for Shampoo |date=23 April 2023 |url=https://www.kimacellulose.com/cellulose-ether-for-shampoo.html |access-date=2023-04-23 |language=en-US |archive-date=2023-04-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230423033607/https://www.kimacellulose.com/cellulose-ether-for-shampoo.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
* [[Sodium lauroamphoacetate]] is naturally derived from coconut oils and is used as a cleanser and counter-irritant. This is the ingredient that makes the product tear-free.
* [[Polysorbate]] 20 (abbreviated as [[Polysorbate 20|PEG(20)]]) is a mild glycol-based surfactant that is used to solubilize fragrance oils and essential oils, meaning it causes liquid to spread across and penetrate the surface of a solid (i.e. hair).
* [[Polysorbate]] 80 (abbreviated as [[Polysorbate 80|PEG(80)]]) is a glycol used to emulsify (or disperse) oils in water so the oils do not float on top.
* PEG-150 distearate is a simple thickener.
* [[Citric acid]] is produced biochemically and is used as an antioxidant to preserve the oils in the product. While it is a severe eye-irritant, the sodium lauroamphoacetate counteracts that property. Citric acid is used to adjust the pH down to approximately 5.5. It is a fairly weak acid which makes the adjustment easier. Shampoos usually are at pH 5.5 because at slightly acidic pH, the scales on a hair follicle lie flat, making the hair feel smooth and look shiny. It also has a small amount of preservative action. Citric acid, as opposed to any other acid, will prevent bacterial growth.<ref>{{Cite web |title=How To Make Clarifying Shampoo – Dermatologist Explains – Clarifying Shampoos |date=10 June 2022 |url=https://clarifyingshampoos.com/how-to-make-clarifying-shampoo/ |access-date=2022-06-20 |language=en-US |archive-date=2022-06-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220613042313/https://clarifyingshampoos.com/how-to-make-clarifying-shampoo/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
* [[Quaternium-15]] is used as a bacterial and fungicidal preservative.
* [[Polyquaternium]]-10 acts as the conditioning ingredient, providing moisture and fullness to the hair.
* Di-PPG-2 myreth-10 adipate is a water-dispersible [[emollient]] that forms clear solutions with surfactant systems.
* [[Chloromethylisothiazolinone]], or CMIT, is a powerful [[biocide]] and preservative.

===Benefit claims regarding ingredients===
In the United States, the [[Food and Drug Administration]] (FDA) mandates that shampoo containers accurately list ingredients on the products container. The government further regulates what shampoo manufacturers can and cannot claim as any associated benefit. Shampoo producers often use these regulations to challenge marketing claims made by competitors, helping to enforce these regulations. While the claims may be substantiated, however, the testing methods and details of such claims are not as straightforward. For example, many products are purported to protect hair from damage due to [[ultraviolet radiation]]. While the ingredient responsible for this protection does block UV, it is not often present in a high enough concentration to be effective. The North American Hair Research Society has a program to certify functional claims based on third-party testing. Shampoos made for treating medical conditions such as [[dandruff]]<ref>{{cite web|title=Dandruff|url=http://www.headandshoulders.co.in/hair-clinic/understanding-scalp-issues/dandruff|website=Headanshoulders.co.in|access-date=2015-09-18|archive-date=2015-08-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150829080321/http://www.headandshoulders.co.in/hair-clinic/understanding-scalp-issues/dandruff|url-status=live}}</ref> or [[itchy scalp]] are regulated as [[Over-the-counter drug|OTC]] drugs<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://www.fda.gov/drugs/how-drugs-are-developed-and-approved/otc-nonprescription-drugs|title=OTC (Nonprescription) Drugs|first=Center for Drug Evaluation and|last=Research|date=May 20, 2019|journal=FDA|access-date=December 16, 2019|archive-date=December 15, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191215210107/https://www.fda.gov/drugs/how-drugs-are-developed-and-approved/otc-nonprescription-drugs|url-status=dead}}</ref> in the US marketplace.

In the European Union, there is a requirement for the anti-dandruff claim to be substantiated as with any other advertising claim, but it is not considered to be a medical problem.{{citation needed|date=September 2018}}

==Health risks==
A number of contact [[allergen]]s are used as ingredients in shampoos, and [[contact allergy]] caused by shampoos is well known.<ref name="medscape.com">{{Cite web | url=http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/706406 | title=Shampoos | website=Medscape.com | access-date=2014-04-23 | archive-date=2014-12-15 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141215123525/http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/706406 | url-status=live }}</ref> [[Patch test]]ing can identify ingredients to which patients are allergic, after which a physician can help the patient find a shampoo that is free of the ingredient to which they are allergic.<ref name="medscape.com"/><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://dermnetnz.org/procedures/patch-tests.html|title=Patch tests | DermNet NZ|website=Dermnetnz.org|access-date=2014-04-23|archive-date=2016-07-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160727150805/http://dermnetnz.org/procedures/patch-tests.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The US bans 11 ingredients from shampoos, Canada bans 587, and the EU bans 1328.<ref>{{cite periodical|last1=Schlanger|first1=Zoe|title=Will your shampoo make your hair fall out? The US government isn't sure|url=https://qz.com/1015989/will-your-shampoo-make-your-hair-fall-out-the-us-fda-doesnt-know-either/|access-date=27 June 2017|periodical=[[Quartz (publication)|Quartz]]|date=27 June 2017}}</ref>

==Specialized shampoos==
===Dandruff===
Cosmetic companies have developed shampoos specifically for those who have [[dandruff]]. These contain [[fungicide]]s such as [[ketoconazole]], [[zinc pyrithione]] and [[selenium disulfide]], which reduce loose dander by killing [[fungi]] like ''[[Malassezia furfur]]''. [[Coal tar]] and [[salicylic acid|salicylate]] derivatives are often used as well.
Alternatives to medicated shampoos are available for people who wish to avoid synthetic fungicides. Such shampoos often use [[tea tree oil]], [[essential oil]]s or herbal extracts.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Aburjai |first1=Talal |last2=Natsheh |first2=Feda M. |title=Plants used in cosmetics |journal=Phytotherapy Research |date=November 2003 |volume=17 |issue=9 |pages=987–1000 |doi=10.1002/ptr.1363|pmid=14595575 |s2cid=19327387 }}</ref>

===Colored hair===
Many companies have also developed color-protection shampoos suitable for colored hair; some of these shampoos contain gentle cleansers according to their manufacturers. Shampoos for color-treated hair are a type of moisturizing shampoo.<ref name=":0" />

===Baby===
Shampoo for [[infant]]s and young children is formulated so that it is less irritating and usually less prone to produce a stinging or burning sensation if it were to get into the eyes.<ref name=":0" /> For example, [[Johnson's baby|Johnson's Baby]] Shampoo advertises under the premise of "No More Tears". This is accomplished by one or more of the following formulation strategies.

# dilution, in case the product comes in contact with eyes after running off the top of the head with minimal further dilution
# adjusting pH to that of non-stress tears, approximately 7, which may be a higher pH than that of shampoos which are pH adjusted for skin or hair effects, and lower than that of shampoo made of soap
# Use of surfactants which, alone or in combination, are less irritating than those used in other shampoos (e.g. [[Sodium lauroamphoacetate]])
# use of nonionic surfactants of the form of polyethoxylated synthetic glycolipids and polyethoxylated synthetic monoglycerides, which counteract the eye sting of other surfactants without producing the anesthetizing effect of alkyl polyethoxylates or alkylphenol polyethoxylates

The distinction in 4 above does not completely surmount the controversy over the use of shampoo ingredients to mitigate eye sting produced by other ingredients, or the use of the products so formulated. The considerations in 3 and 4 frequently result in a much greater multiplicity of surfactants being used in individual baby shampoos than in other shampoos, and the detergency or foaming of such products may be compromised thereby. The monoanionic sulfonated surfactants and viscosity-increasing or foam stabilizing alkanolamides seen so frequently in other shampoos are much less common in the better baby shampoos.

===Sulfate-free shampoos===
Sulfate-free shampoos are composed of natural ingredients and free from both [[sodium lauryl sulfate]] and [[sodium laureth sulfate]].<ref name="Sulfate-free Shampoos">{{cite web |last1=Suhira |first1=Munshi |title=Sulfate-free Shampoo Recipe |url=https://shebegan.com/sulfate-free-shampoos-all-you-need-to-know-most-popular-sulfate-free-shampoos/ |website=Shebegan |publisher=Shebegan Mag |access-date=29 May 2020 |archive-date=27 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200927125639/https://shebegan.com/sulfate-free-shampoos-all-you-need-to-know-most-popular-sulfate-free-shampoos/ |url-status=live }}</ref> These shampoos use alternative surfactants to cleanse the hair.

===Animal===
{{More citations needed section|date=February 2010}}
Shampoo intended for animals may contain [[insecticide]]s or other medications for treatment of skin conditions or [[parasite]] infestations such as [[flea]]s or [[mange]]. These must never be used on humans. While some human shampoos may be harmful when used on animals, any human haircare products that contain active ingredients or drugs (such as zinc in anti-dandruff shampoos) are potentially toxic when ingested by animals. Special care must be taken not to use those products on pets. Cats are at particular risk due to their instinctive method of grooming their fur with their tongues.
[[File:Pet_shampoo_virgin_coconut_oil_Gliricidia_sepium4.jpg|200px|thumbnail|right|[[Pet]] shampoo with [[Coconut oil|VCO]] and [[Gliricidia sepium|mother of cocoa]]]]
Shampoos that are especially designed to be used on [[pet]]s, commonly [[dog]]s and [[cat]]s, are normally intended to do more than just clean the pet's [[Coat (animal)|coat]] or skin. Most of these shampoos contain ingredients which act different and are meant to treat a skin condition or an [[allergy]] or to fight against [[flea]]s.

The main ingredients contained by pet shampoos can be grouped in insecticidals, antiseborrheic, antibacterials, antifungals, [[emollients]], [[emulsifiers]] and [[humectants]]. Whereas some of these ingredients may be efficient in treating some conditions, pet owners are recommended to use them according to their [[veterinarian]]'s indications because many of them cannot be used on cats or can harm the pet if it is misused.
Generally, insecticidal pet shampoos contain [[pyrethrin]], [[pyrethroids]] (such as permethrin and which may not be used on cats) and [[carbaryl]]. These ingredients are mostly found in shampoos that are meant to fight against parasite infestations.

Antifungal shampoos are used on pets with yeast or [[ringworm]] infections. These might contain ingredients such as [[miconazole]], [[chlorhexidine]], [[providone iodine]], [[ketoconazole]] or [[selenium sulfide]] (which cannot be used on cats).

Bacterial infections in pets are sometimes treated with antibacterial shampoos. They commonly contain [[benzoyl peroxide]], [[chlorhexidine]], povidone iodine, [[triclosan]], [[ethyl lactate]], or sulfur.

[[Antipruritic]] shampoos are intended to provide relief of itching due to conditions such as atopy and other allergies.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.peteducation.com/article.cfm?c=2+2095&aid=828|title=Dog Shampoos: The Function of Common Ingredients|website=Peteducation.com|access-date=2010-06-11|archive-date=2010-06-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100616141856/http://www.peteducation.com/article.cfm?c=2+2095&aid=828|url-status=live}}</ref> These usually contain colloidal [[oatmeal]], [[hydrocortisone]], [[Aloe vera]], pramoxine hydrochloride, [[menthol]], [[diphenhydramine]], sulfur or salicylic acid. These ingredients are aimed to reduce the inflammation, cure the condition and ease the symptoms at the same time while providing comfort to the pet.

Antiseborrheic shampoos are those especially designed for pets with scales or those with excessive oily coats. These shampoos are made of sulfur, [[salicylic acid]], refined [[tar]] (which cannot be used on cats), [[selenium sulfide]] (cannot be used on cats) and benzoyl peroxide. All these are meant to treat or prevent seborrhea oleosa, which is a condition characterized by excess oils. Dry scales can be prevented and treated with shampoos that contain sulfur or salicylic acid and which can be used on both cats and dogs.

Emollient shampoos are efficient in adding oils to the skin and relieving the symptoms of a dry and itchy skin. They usually contain oils such as [[almond]], [[Maize|corn]], [[cottonseed]], [[coconut]], [[olive]], [[peanut]], Persia, [[safflower]], [[sesame]], [[lanolin]], [[mineral]] or [[Higher alkanes|paraffin oil]]. The emollient shampoos are typically used with emulsifiers as they help distributing the emollients. These include ingredients such as [[cetyl alcohol]], [[laureth-5]], [[lecithin]], PEG-4 dilaurate, [[stearic acid]], [[stearyl alcohol]], [[carboxylic acid]], [[lactic acid]], [[urea]], [[sodium lactate]], [[propylene glycol]], [[glycerin]], or [[polyvinylpyrrolidone]].

Although some of the pet shampoos are highly effective, some others may be less effective for some condition than another. Yet, although natural pet shampoos exist, it has been brought to attention that some of these might cause [[irritation]] to the skin of the pet. Natural ingredients that might be potential allergens for some pets include [[eucalyptus]], [[lemon]] or [[Orange (fruit)|orange]] extracts and [[tea tree oil]].{{cn|date=March 2024}} On the contrary, oatmeal appears to be one of the most widely skin-tolerated ingredients that is found in pet shampoos. Most ingredients found in a shampoo meant to be used on animals are safe for the pet as there is a high likelihood that the pets will lick their coats, especially in the case of cats.

Pet shampoos which include [[fragrances]], [[deodorant]]s or colors may harm the skin of the pet by causing inflammations or irritation. Shampoos that do not contain any unnatural additives are known as [[hypoallergenic]] shampoos and are increasing in popularity.

===Solid shampoo bars===
[[File:CHAMPÚ SÓLIDO.jpg|alt=a yellow disk of soap next to the pink box it was sold in|thumb|A shampoo bar]]
Invented in 1987 by Lush co-founder, Mo Constantine<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-03-17 |title=6 reasons to ditch plastic bottles and try a shampoo bar |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/climate-change/news/lush-cosmetics-tiktok-aussie-hair-b2302752.html |access-date=2025-02-04 |website=The Independent |language=en}}</ref> and cosmetic chemist, Stan Krystal,<ref>{{Cite patent|number=EP0330435B1|title=Solid shampoo composition|gdate=1994-02-02|invent1=Constantine|invent2=Krysztal|inventor1-first=Margaret Joan|inventor2-first=Stanislaw|url=https://patents.google.com/patent/EP0330435B1/en}}</ref> solid shampoos or shampoo bars can either be soap-based or use other plant-based surfactants, such as sodium cocoyl isethionate or sodium coco-sulfate combined with oils and waxes. Soap-based shampoo bars are high in pH (alkaline) compared to human hair and scalps, which are slightly acidic. Alkaline pH increases the friction of the hair fibres which may cause damage to the hair cuticle, making it feel rough and drying out the scalp.<ref>{{cite journal |title=The Shampoo pH can Affect the Hair: Myth or Reality? |journal=Int J Trichology |year=2014 |issue=2014 Jul-Sep; 6(3) |pages=95–99 |doi=10.4103/0974-7753.139078 |pmid=25210332 |last1=Gavazzoni Dias |first1=Maria Fernandareis |last2=Pichler |first2=Janine |last3=Adriano |first3=Andrericardo |last4=Cecato |first4=Patricia |last5=De Almeida |first5=Andreiamunck |volume=6 |pmc=4158629 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

===Jelly and gel===
[[File:At last! A liquid shampoo ...Prell, 1955.jpg|thumb|Advertisement offering shampoo in two forms: a bottle of liquid and a tube of gel]]
Stiff, non-pourable clear gels to be squeezed from a tube were once popular forms of shampoo, and can be produced by increasing a shampoo's [[viscosity]]. This type of shampoo cannot be spilled, but unlike a solid, it can still be lost down the drain by sliding off wet skin or hair.

===Paste and cream===
Shampoos in the form of pastes or creams were formerly marketed in jars or tubes. The contents were wet but not completely dissolved. They would apply faster than solids and dissolve quickly.

{{Anchor|Antibacterial shampoo}}

===Antibacterial===
Antibacterial shampoos are often used in [[veterinary]] medicine for various conditions,<ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1111/j.1365-3164.1996.tb00239.x | last1 = Guaguere | first1 = E. | title = Topical treatment of canine and feline pyoderma | journal = Veterinary Dermatology | volume = 7 | issue = 3 | pages = 145–151 | year = 1996| pmid = 34644989 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1111/j.1365-3164.2004.00344.x | last1 = Mueller | first1 = R. S. | title = Treatment protocols for demodicosis: an evidence-based review | journal = Veterinary Dermatology | volume = 15 | issue = 2 | pages = 75–89 | year = 2004 | pmid = 15030556}}</ref> as well as in humans before some [[surgery|surgical procedures]].<ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1055/s-2003-40001 | last1 = Williams Iii | first1 = E. F. | last2 = Lam | first2 = S. M. | title = Midfacial Rejuvenation Via an Endoscopic Browlift Approach: A Review of Technique | journal = Facial Plastic Surgery | volume = 19 | issue = 2 | pages = 147–156 | year = 2003 | pmid = 12825156| s2cid = 260135007 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal
| doi = 10.1097/01376517-198802000-00004
| last1 = Raney | first1 = J. P.
| last2 = Kirk | first2 = E. A.
| title = The use of an Ommaya reservoir for administration of morphine sulphate to control pain in select cancer patients
| journal = Journal of Neuroscience Nursing
| volume = 20
| issue = 1
| pages = 23–29
| year = 1988
| pmid = 2963870
| s2cid = 23825496 }}</ref>

== No Poo Movement ==
{{main|No poo}}

Closely associated with [[environmentalism]], the "[[no poo]]" movement consists of people rejecting the societal norm of frequent shampoo use. Some adherents of the no poo movement use [[baking soda]] or [[vinegar]] to wash their hair, while others use diluted honey. Further methods include the use of raw eggs (potentially mixed with salt water), rye flour, or chickpea flour dissolved in water. Other people use nothing or rinse their hair only with conditioner.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.wikihow.com/Wash-Your-Hair-Without-Shampoo |title=How to Wash Your Hair Without Shampoo: 11 steps |website=Wikihow.com |date=2012-03-20 |access-date=2012-04-25 |archive-date=2012-05-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120513185835/http://www.wikihow.com/Wash-Your-Hair-Without-Shampoo |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=tubular |url=http://www.instructables.com/id/How-to-Go-No-Poo/ |title=How to Go No Poo |website=Instructables.com |date=2008-03-19 |access-date=2012-04-25 |archive-date=2012-05-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120504195101/http://www.instructables.com/id/How-to-Go-No-Poo/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Theory===
In the 1970s, ads featuring [[Farrah Fawcett]] and [[Christie Brinkley]] asserted that it was unhealthy not to shampoo several times a week. This mindset is reinforced by the greasy feeling of the scalp after a day or two of not shampooing. Using shampoo every day removes [[sebum]], the oil produced by the scalp. This causes the [[sebaceous glands]] to produce oil at a higher rate, to compensate for what is lost during shampooing. According to Michelle Hanjani, a dermatologist at Columbia University, a gradual reduction in shampoo use will cause the sebum glands to produce at a slower rate, resulting in less grease in the scalp.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=102062969 |title=When It Comes To Shampoo, Less Is More |website=Npr.org |access-date=2012-04-25 |archive-date=2012-05-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120518153446/http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=102062969 |url-status=live }}</ref> Although this approach might seem unappealing to some individuals, many people try alternate shampooing techniques like baking soda and vinegar in order to avoid ingredients used in many shampoos that make hair greasy over time.<ref>{{Cite web |last=O'Neal |first=Lauren |date=April 20, 2011 |title=How to Quit Shampoo Without Becoming Disgusting |url=http://thehairpin.com/2011/04/how-to-quit-shampoo-without-becoming-disgusting |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140228000510/http://thehairpin.com/2011/04/how-to-quit-shampoo-without-becoming-disgusting |archive-date=February 28, 2014 |access-date=March 8, 2014 |website=[[The Hairpin]]}}</ref>

Whereas the use of baking soda for hair cleansing has been associated with hair damage and skin irritation, likely due to its high pH value and exfoliating properties, honey, egg, rye flour, and chickpea flour hair washes seem gentler for long-term use.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Clarifying Shampoos – Big, glossy, bouncy hair! |url=https://clarifyingshampoos.com/ |access-date=2022-06-20 |language=en-US |archive-date=2022-06-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220613035957/https://clarifyingshampoos.com/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

== See also ==
*[[Soap]]
*[[Dry shampoo]]
*[[Baby shampoo]]
*[[Hair conditioner]]
*[[Exfoliation (cosmetology)|Exfoliant]]
*[[Hair washing without commercial shampoo|No Poo]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==

* {{commonscat-inline}}
* {{Wikiquote-inline}}
* {{Wiktionary-inline}}

{{cosmetics|state=show}}
{{Human hair}}
{{Dosage forms|state=collapsed}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Shampoos| ]]
[[Category:Drug delivery devices]]
[[Category:Hairdressing]]
[[Category:Indian inventions]]
[[Category:Personal hygiene products]]
[[Category:Toiletry]]

Armagh Observatory

2025-06-14T11:21:22Z

2A00:23C7:C8BC:C501:507C:445E:62F7:256D: /* See also */Added links

{{Short description|Astronomical research institute in Armagh, Northern Ireland}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2020}}
{{Use Hiberno-English|date=November 2020}}
{{Multiple issues|
{{primary sources|date=April 2017}}
{{more citations needed|date=April 2017}}
}}

{{Infobox Observatory}}
'''Armagh Observatory''' is an astronomical [[research institute]] in [[Armagh]], [[Northern Ireland]]. Around 25 astronomers are based at the observatory, studying stellar astrophysics, the [[Sun]], [[Solar System]] astronomy and Earth's [[climate]].

In 2018, Armagh Observatory was recognized for having 224 years of unbroken weather records.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://www.newsletter.co.uk/news/recognition-for-woman-who-preserved-unbroken-weather-record-at-armagh-observatory-1-8741208|title=Recognition for woman who preserved unbroken weather record at Armagh Observatory|website=www.newsletter.co.uk|language=en|access-date=2019-10-30}}</ref>

==History==
The Observatory is located close to the centre of the city of Armagh, adjacent to the [[Armagh Planetarium]] in approximately {{convert|14|acre|m2}} of landscaped grounds known as the Armagh Astropark. It was founded in 1789 by [[The Most Reverend|The Most Rev.]] and [[Right Honourable|Rt Hon.]] [[Richard Robinson, 1st Baron Rokeby|The 1st Baron Rokeby]], [[Church of Ireland]] [[Primate of All Ireland|Lord Primate of All Ireland]] and [[Archbishop of Armagh (Church of Ireland)|Lord Archbishop of Armagh]].

In 1795 through 1797 Solar observations were made at Armagh, including measurements of [[sunspot]]s.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Arlt|first=R.|s2cid=55309719|date=2009|title=The solar observations at Armagh Observatory in 1795–1797|journal=Astronomische Nachrichten|language=en|volume=330|issue=4|pages=311–316|doi=10.1002/asna.200911195|bibcode=2009AN....330..311A|issn=1521-3994|doi-access=free}}</ref>

[[Ernst Julius Öpik]] (grandfather of [[Lembit Öpik]] MP) was based here for over 30 years and among his many contributions to astrophysics he wrote of the dangers of an asteroid impacting on the Earth.

One of the observatory's directors, [[Thomas Romney Robinson]] invented the [[Cup-anemometer|cup anemometer]], a device for measuring wind speed.<ref name=":5">{{Cite book |last=Winn |first=Chris |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GZHxXRyTYkgC&q=Armagh+Observatory+telescopes&pg=PA236 |title=I Never Knew that About Ireland |date=2007-03-06 |publisher=Macmillan |isbn=9780312368807 |language=en}}</ref>

A plan was announced in 1949 to establish an [[Armagh Planetarium]].<ref>{{Cite journal|title=1976IrAJ...12..204G Page 204|bibcode = 1976IrAJ...12..204G| last1=Grew | first1=Sheelagh | journal=Irish Astronomical Journal | year=1976 | volume=12 | page=204 }}</ref> After many years work the Planetarium opened in 1968, its first director was [[Patrick Moore]]. It celebrated its 50th anniversary in 2018.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.irishnews.com/news/2018/05/04/news/armagh-planetarium-marks-50th-anniversary-1320702/|title=Armagh Planetarium marks 50th anniversary|date=3 May 2018 }}</ref>

In 2018, the observatory was given an award by Centennial Weather Station Award from the World Meteorological Organisation for 224 years of unbroken weather recordings. The records go back to 1794 and are also made available on the internet in the early 21st century.<ref name=":0" />

In modern times the Observatory along with the nearby Planetarium and 14-acre Astropark are noted tourist attraction and education centre. The gardens, historical telescopes, and various astronomically related devices such as sundials are among some of the exhibits for visitors.<ref name=":4">{{Cite web |title=Armagh Observatory, Armagh |url=https://discovernorthernireland.com/Armagh-Observatory-Armagh-P3286/ |access-date=2019-10-31 |website=discovernorthernireland.com |language=en-gb |archive-date=31 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191031192216/https://discovernorthernireland.com/Armagh-Observatory-Armagh-P3286/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>

In 2025, the Irish Historic Astronomical Observatories, consisting of [[Dunsink Observatory]], [[Birr Castle]] and Armagh Observatory, were added to the World Heritage Tentative List, a step towards becoming a [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Irish historical observatories seek UNESCO status |url=https://www.rte.ie/news/ireland/2025/0418/1508329-astronomical-observatories-unesco/ |website=www.rte.ie |publisher=RTÉ |date=2025-04-18 | access-date=2025-04-20}}</ref>

==Facilities==
There are scale models of the Solar System and the Universe, two sundials and historic telescopes, as well as telescope domes and other outdoor exhibits. The Human Orrery, launched in 2004, is located close to the main Observatory building. The Observatory's specialist library and archives, and collections of scientific instruments and artefacts associated with the development of modern astronomy, represent one of the leading collections of its kind in the [[British Isles]].

== Instruments ==

A 2½ inch aperture refracting telescope by J & E [[Edward Troughton|Troughton]] was installed in a dome in 1795.<ref name=":6">{{Cite book|title=Troughton, Thomas|date=2011-10-31|publisher=Oxford University Press|series=Benezit Dictionary of Artists|doi = 10.1093/benz/9780199773787.article.b00185568}}</ref> The telescope was manufactured in London, and is noted for its late 18th century [[brass]] metal work.<ref name=":6" /> It is also known the Troughton Equatorial Telescope, for having an [[equatorial mount]]ing.<ref name=":6" />

The observatory has an Earnshaw Regulator.<ref name=":6" /> It is an accurate type of clock invented in 1791 by [[Thomas Earnshaw]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/treasuresofpower00meas|url-access=registration|quote=Earnshaw Regulator.|title=Treasures of the Powerhouse Museum|last1=Measham|first1=Terry|last2=Museum|first2=Powerhouse|date=1994-01-01|publisher=Powerhouse Publishing|language=en}}</ref> Earnshaw travelled with it to Armagh to set it up in the new Observatory.

In the early 1800s it was reported to have a [[mural circle]] instrument.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Iy_sAAAAMAAJ&q=Armagh+Observatory&pg=PA17|title=Memoirs of the Royal Astronomical Society|last=Society|first=Royal Astronomical|date=1836|publisher=Priestley and Weale|language=en}}</ref> Another instrument at the observatory is a [[sunshine recorder]].<ref name=":0" />

In the 1830s the observatory bought a 15-inch reflecting telescope from the [[Grubb Telescope Company]].<ref name="Butler">{{cite journal |last1=Butler |first1=C. J. |title=The 15-inch Equatorial Reflector by Thomas Grubb at Armagh Observatory |journal=Bulletin of the Scientific Instrument Society |date=June 2016 |issue=129 |pages=2–9 |url=https://scientificinstrumentsociety.org/BulletinArticles_public/Bulletin129_Butler,C.J._15-inch-equatorial-by-Thomas-Grubb.pdf}}</ref> The telescope used a [[Speculum metal|speculum metal mirror]] mounted on an equatorial mount with clockwork-drive.<ref name=Butler />

In 1885, a ten-inch aperture refracting telescope was installed, also by Grubb.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=https://www.sciencephoto.com/media/663882/view/armagh-10-inch-refractor-telescope-1885|title=Armagh 10-inch refractor telescope, 1885 - Stock Image - C025/0064|website=Science Photo Library|access-date=2019-10-31}}</ref> This was installed in the Robinson dome.<ref name=":2" />

Meridian marks can be found in the vicinity of the observatory, these look like stone arches, but were used to mark the location of the north-south line for the astronomical instruments. There is also another one in the form of an iron obelisk. The first meridian mark was built in 1793, and is in Tullyard, and it was used with the transit instrument.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Butler |first=John |date=2016-04-01 |title=Armagh Observatory's meridian marksARMAGH OBSERVATORY |url=https://academic.oup.com/astrogeo/article/57/2/2.27/2468648 |journal=Astronomy & Geophysics |language=en |volume=57 |issue=2 |pages=2.27–2.31 |doi=10.1093/astrogeo/atw073 |issn=1366-8781 |doi-access=free|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

In 2005, two wide-angle cameras for a meteor detection systems were installed.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2Y3POvMXDcgC&q=Armagh+Observatory&pg=PA263|title=Advances in Meteoroid and Meteor Science|last1=Trigo-Rodriguez|first1=J. M.|last2=Rietmeijer|first2=F.|last3=Llorca|first3=Jordi|last4=Janches|first4=D.|date=2008-03-21|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=9780387784199|language=en}}</ref>

==Research==
The records of temperature take at Armagh Observatory between 1844 and 2004 were analyzed in 2006 research paper.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/search.jsp?R=20060050130|title=Examination of the Armagh Observatory Annual Mean Temperature Record, 1844-2004|date=July 2006 |last1=Wilson |first1=Robert M. |last2=Hathaway |first2=David H. }}</ref>

==List of directors==
{| class="wikitable"
|+ style="text-align: left;" | Directors of Armagh Observatory
|-
| [[James Hamilton (priest, born 1748)|James Archibald Hamilton]]
| 1790 - 1815
|-
| William Davenport
| 1815 - 1823
|-
|[[Thomas Romney Robinson]]
| 1823 - 1882
|-
|[[John Louis Emil Dreyer]]
|1882 - 1916
|-
| Joseph A. Hardcastle
|1917
|-
|[[Frederick William Archdall Ellison|WFA Ellison]]
|1918 - 1936
|-
|[[Eric Mervyn Lindsay]]
|1937 - 1974
|-
|Mart de Groot
|1976 - 1994
|-
|Mark E. Bailey
| 1995 - 2016
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ style="text-align: left;" | Directors of Armagh Observatory and Planetarium
|-
|[[Michael G. Burton]]<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.armaghplanet.com/blog/armagh-planetarium-welcomes-new-director.html |title=Armagh Planetarium Welcomes New Director |access-date=2020-11-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170414163834/http://www.armaghplanet.com/blog/armagh-planetarium-welcomes-new-director.html |archive-date=2017-04-14 | date=1 August 2016 | publisher=Astronotes | url-status=dead }}</ref>
| 2016 -
|}

==See also==
*[[Royal Astronomical Society]]
*[[Markree Observatory]] (Irish observatory 1830s-1900, discovered the [[asteroid]] [[9 Metis]])
*[[List of astronomical observatories]]
*[[List of largest optical telescopes in the British Isles]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*{{official website|https://armagh.space/}}
*[http://www.aavso.org/visit-armagh-observatory A Visit to Armagh Observatory], AAVSO

{{Places of Interest in County Armagh}}
{{Portal bar|Northern Ireland|Astronomy|Stars|Spaceflight|Outer space|Solar System|Education|Science}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Buildings and structures completed in 1789]]
[[Category:Astronomical observatories in Northern Ireland]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Armagh (city)|Observatory]]
[[Category:Tourist attractions in County Armagh]]
[[Category:Science museums in Northern Ireland]]
[[Category:Grade A listed buildings]]
[[Category:1789 establishments in Ireland]]
[[Category:Research institutes in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Astronomy institutes and departments]]
[[Category:World Heritage Tentative List]]

John Harrison

2025-06-14T11:08:16Z

2A00:23C7:C8BC:C501:507C:445E:62F7:256D: /* Early life */Removed apostrophe

{{Short description|English clockmaker (1693–1776)}}
{{other people|}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2020}}
{{Infobox scientist
| name = John Harrison
| image = File:John Harrison (Gemälde).jpg
| caption = Thomas King's 1767 portrait of John Harrison, located at the [[Science and Society Picture Library]], London
| birth_date = {{OldStyleDate|3 April|1693|24 March}}
| birth_place = [[Foulby]], [[Wakefield]], [[West Riding of Yorkshire]] in England
| death_date = {{death date and age|df=yes|1776|3|24|1693|4|3}}
| death_place = [[London]], England
| nationality = English
| field = [[Horology]] [[&]] [[carpentry]]
| work_institution =
| alma_mater =
| doctoral_adviser =
| doctoral_students =
| known_for = [[Bimetallic strip]] [[Gridiron pendulum]] [[Grasshopper escapement]] [[Longitude by chronometer]] [[Marine chronometer]]
| prizes = [[Copley Medal]] (1749) [[Longitude rewards]] (1737 & 1773)
| religion =
| footnotes =
}}

'''John Harrison''' ({{OldStyleDate|3 April|1693|24 March}} – 24 March 1776) was an English carpenter and clockmaker who invented the [[marine chronometer]], a long-sought-after device for solving the [[History of longitude|problem of how to calculate longitude]] while at sea.

Harrison's solution revolutionized navigation and greatly increased the safety of long-distance sea travel. The problem he solved had been considered so important following the [[Scilly naval disaster of 1707]] that the [[Parliament of Great Britain|British Parliament]] was offering financial rewards of up to £20,000 (equivalent to £{{Format price|{{Inflation|UK|20000|1750|r=0}}}} in {{CURRENTYEAR}}) under the 1714 [[Longitude Act]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.americanscientist.org/issues/pub/the-british-longitude-act-reconsidered|title=The British Longitude Act Reconsidered|author=William E. Carter|work=American Scientist|access-date=19 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120220051000/http://www.americanscientist.org/issues/pub/the-british-longitude-act-reconsidered|archive-date=20 February 2012}}</ref> though Harrison never received the full reward due to political rivalries. He presented his first design in 1730, and worked over many years on improved designs, making several advances in time-keeping technology, finally turning to what were called sea watches. Harrison gained support from the [[Board of Longitude|Longitude Board]] in building and testing his designs. Towards the end of his life, he received recognition and a reward from Parliament.

== Early life ==
{{No footnotes|section|date=April 2018}}
[[File:Longcase clock movement.png|thumb|Woodcut of cross section of English longcase (grandfather) clock movement from the mid-1800s]]
John Harrison was born in [[Foulby]] in the [[West Riding of Yorkshire]], the first of five children in his family.<ref name="britannica.com">{{Cite web|title=John Harrison {{!}} British horologist {{!}} Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/John-Harrison-British-horologist|access-date=2021-12-11|website=www.britannica.com|language=en}}</ref> His stepfather worked as a carpenter at the nearby [[Nostell Priory]] estate. A house on the site of what may have been the family home bears a [[blue plaque]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/bradford/content/articles/2009/04/06/nostell_john_harrison_feature.shtml |title=John Harrison: Timekeeper to Nostell and the world!|work=BBC Bradford and West Yorkshire|publisher=BBC|date= 8 April 2009|access-date= 10 February 2012}}</ref> Around 1700, the Harrison family moved to the [[Lincolnshire]] village of [[Barrow upon Humber]]. Following his father's trade as a carpenter, Harrison built and repaired [[clock]]s in his spare time. Legend has it that at the age of six, while in bed with [[smallpox]], he was given a [[watch]] to amuse himself and he spent hours listening to it and studying its moving parts.

He also had a fascination with music, eventually becoming [[Conducting|choirmaster]] for the [[Church of Holy Trinity, Barrow upon Humber]].<ref>{{cite book | author=Sobel, Dava | title=Longitude: The True Story of a Lone Genius Who Solved the Greatest Scientific Problem of His Time | location=New York | publisher=Penguin | year=1995 | isbn=0-14-025879-5 | url=https://archive.org/details/longitudetruest000sobe }}</ref>

Harrison built his first [[longcase clock]] in 1713, at the age of 20. The mechanism was made entirely of wood. Three of Harrison's early wooden clocks have survived:
* the first (1713) is in the [[Worshipful Company of Clockmakers]]' collection, previously in the Guildhall in London and since 2015 on display in the [[Science Museum, London|Science Museum]].
* The second (1715) is also in the Science Museum in London
* the third (1717) is at [[Nostell Priory]] in Yorkshire, the face bearing the inscription "John Harrison Barrow".

The Nostell example, in the [[billiards]] room of this stately home, has a [[Victorian decorative arts|Victorian]] outer case with small glass windows on each side of the movement so that the wooden workings may be inspected.

On 30 August 1718, John Harrison married Elizabeth Barret at Barrow-upon-Humber church. After her death in 1726, he married Elizabeth Scott on 23 November 1726, at the same church.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Whittle|first=Eric|title=The Inventor of the Marine Chronometer: John Harrison of Foulby (1693-1776)|publisher=Wakefield Historical Publications|year=1984|isbn=0-901869-18-X|pages=6–8}}</ref>

In the early 1720s, Harrison was commissioned to make a new [[turret clock]] at [[Brocklesby Hall]], North Lincolnshire. The clock still works, and like his previous clocks has a wooden movement of [[oak]] and [[lignum vitae]]. Unlike his early clocks, it incorporates some original features to improve timekeeping, for example the [[grasshopper escapement]]. Between 1725 and 1728, John and his brother James, also a skilled [[joiner]], made at least three precision [[longcase clock]]s, again with the movements and longcase made of oak and lignum vitae. The [[gridiron pendulum|grid-iron pendulum]] was developed during this period. Of these longcase clocks:
* Number 1 is in a private collection. Until 2004, it belonged to the Time Museum (USA), which closed in 2000.
* Number 2 is in the [[Leeds City Museum]], as the centrepiece of a permanent display dedicated to John Harrison's achievements. The exhibition, "John Harrison: The Clockmaker Who Changed the World", opened on 23 January 2014. It was the first longitude-related event marking the tercentenary of the Longitude Act.
* Number 3 is in the collection of the Worshipful Company of Clockmakers.

Harrison was a man of many skills and he used these to systematically improve the performance of the pendulum clock. He invented the gridiron pendulum, consisting of alternating [[brass]] and iron rods assembled in such a way that the thermal expansions and contractions essentially cancel each other out. Another example of his inventive genius was the [[grasshopper escapement]], a control device for the step-by-step release of a clock's driving power. Developed from the [[anchor escapement]], it was almost frictionless, requiring no lubrication because the pallets were made from wood. This was an important advantage at a time when lubricants and their degradation were little understood. In his earlier work on sea clocks, Harrison was continually assisted, both financially and in many other ways, by the watchmaker and instrument maker [[George Graham (clockmaker)|George Graham]]. Harrison was introduced to Graham by the [[Astronomer Royal]] [[Edmond Halley]], who championed Harrison and his work. The support was important to Harrison, as he was supposed to have found it difficult to communicate his ideas in a coherent manner.

== Longitude problem ==
[[File:Longitude (PSF).png|thumb|Longitude lines on the globe]]
{{No footnotes|section|date=April 2018}}
{{See also|History of longitude|Longitude rewards}}
[[Longitude]] fixes the location of a place on Earth east or west of a north–south reference line called the [[prime meridian]]. It is given as an [[angle|angular measurement]] that ranges from 0° at the prime meridian to +180° eastward and −180° westward. Knowledge of a ship's east–west position is essential when approaching land. Over long voyages, cumulative errors in estimates of position by [[dead reckoning]] frequently led to [[shipwreck]]s and a great loss of life. Avoiding such disasters became vital in Harrison's lifetime, in an era when [[trade]] and the need for accurate [[navigation]] were increasing dramatically around the world.

Many ideas were proposed for how to determine longitude during a sea voyage. Earlier methods attempted to compare local time with the known time at a reference place, such as [[Greenwich]] or [[Paris]], based on a simple theory that had first been proposed by [[Gemma Frisius]]. The methods relied on [[astronomy|astronomical observations]] that were themselves reliant on the predictable nature of the motions of different [[astronomical object|heavenly bodies]]. Such methods were problematic because of the difficulty in maintaining an accurate record of the time at the reference place.

Harrison set out to solve the problem directly, by producing a reliable clock that could keep the time of the reference place accurately over long intervals without having to constantly adjust it. The difficulty was in producing a clock that was not affected by variations in [[temperature]], [[pressure]], or [[humidity]], resisted corrosion in salt air, and was able to function on board a constantly moving ship. Many scientists, including [[Isaac Newton]] and [[Christiaan Huygens]], doubted that such a clock could ever be built and favoured other methods for reckoning longitude, such as the [[Method of Lunar Distances|method of lunar distances]]. Huygens ran trials using both a [[pendulum]] and a spiral [[balance spring]] clock as methods of determining longitude, with both types producing inconsistent results. Newton observed that "a good watch may serve to keep a reckoning at sea for some days and to know the time of a celestial observation; and for this end a good Jewel may suffice till a better sort of watch can be found out. But when longitude at sea is lost, it cannot be found again by any watch".<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sommerlad |first=Joe |date=2018-04-03 |title=Who was the British clockmaker who completely revolutionised navigation? |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/john-harrison-longitude-clocks-navigation-sea-ships-sailing-google-doodle-a8285816.html |access-date=2023-08-31 |website=[[The Independent]] |language=en}}</ref>

== First three marine timekeepers ==
[[File:Henry Sully clock with escapement and suspension mechanism.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.2|[[Henry Sully]]'s clock (Fig.1) with escapement (Fig.2) and shipboard [[gimbal]]ed suspension mechanism (Fig.7)]]
In the 1720s, the English clockmaker [[Henry Sully]] invented a [[marine chronometer|marine clock]] that was designed to determine longitude: this was in the form of a clock with a large [[balance wheel]] that was vertically mounted on friction rollers and impulsed by a frictional rest Debaufre-type [[escapement]]. Very unconventionally, the balance [[oscillation]]s were controlled by a weight at the end of a pivoted horizontal lever attached to the balance by a cord. This solution avoided temperature error due to [[thermal expansion]], a problem which affects steel balance springs. Sully's clock kept accurate time only in calm weather, however, because the balance oscillations were affected by the pitching and rolling of the ship. Still, his clocks were among the first serious attempts to find longitude by improving the accuracy of timekeeping at sea. Harrison's machines, though much larger, are of similar layout: H3 has a vertically mounted balance wheel and is linked to another wheel of the same size, an arrangement that eliminates problems arising from the ship's motion.<ref name="FSWM">[http://www.fhs.ch/en/perso/?perso=sully Federation of the Swiss Watch Industry] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090623222750/http://www.fhs.ch/en/perso/?perso=sully |date=23 June 2009 }}</ref>

In 1716, Sully presented his first {{lang|fr|Montre de la Mer}} to the French [[Académie des Sciences]]<ref name="A Chronology of Clocks">[http://www.anthonygrayclocks.com/Horological%20Timeline.html A Chronology of Clocks] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071018035028/http://www.anthonygrayclocks.com/Horological%20Timeline.html |date=18 October 2007 }}</ref> and in 1726 he published {{lang|fr|Une Horloge inventée et executée par M. Sulli}}.<ref name="A Chronology of Clocks" /> In 1730, Harrison designed a marine clock to compete for the [[Longitude prize]] and travelled to London, seeking financial assistance. He presented his ideas to [[Edmond Halley]], the [[Astronomer Royal]], who in turn referred him to [[George Graham (clockmaker)|George Graham]], the country's foremost clockmaker. Graham must have been impressed by Harrison's ideas, for he loaned him money to build a model of his "Sea clock". As the clock was an attempt to make a seagoing version of his wooden pendulum clocks, which performed exceptionally well, he used wooden wheels, roller [[pinion]]s, and a version of the grasshopper escapement. Instead of a pendulum, he used two dumbbell balances which were linked together.

It took Harrison five years to build his first sea clock (or H1).<ref>{{cite web | title = Harrison's Marine timekeeper (H1) | publisher=[[National Maritime Museum]] | url = http://www.nmm.ac.uk/collections/explore/object.cfm?ID=ZAA0034 | access-date = 25 February 2008}}</ref> He demonstrated it to members of the [[Royal Society]] who spoke on his behalf to the [[Board of Longitude]]. The clock was the first proposal that the Board considered to be worthy of a sea trial. In 1736, Harrison sailed to [[Lisbon]] on [[HMS Centurion (1732)|HMS ''Centurion'']] under the command of Captain George Proctor and returned on [[HMS Orford (1698)|HMS ''Orford'']] after Proctor died at Lisbon on 4 October 1736. The clock lost time on the outward voyage. However, it performed well on the return trip: both the captain and the [[sailing master]] of the ''Orford'' praised the design. The master noted that his own calculations had placed the ship sixty miles east of its true landfall which had been correctly predicted by Harrison using H1.

This was not the transatlantic voyage stipulated by the Board of Longitude in their conditions for winning the prize, but the Board was impressed enough to grant Harrison £500 for further development. Harrison had moved to London by 1737<ref>{{Cite book|title=John Harrison: the man who found longitud|last=Quill|first=Humphrey|publisher=Baker|year=1966|location=London|pages=233|bibcode=1966jhmw.book.....Q}}</ref> and went on to develop H2,<ref>{{cite web | title = Harrison's Marine timekeeper (H2) | publisher=[[National Maritime Museum]] | url = http://www.nmm.ac.uk/collections/explore/object.cfm?ID=ZAA0035 | access-date = 25 February 2008}}</ref> a more compact and rugged version. In 1741, after three years of building and two of on-land testing, H2 was ready, but by then [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Britain]] was at war with Spain in the [[War of the Austrian Succession]], and the mechanism was deemed too important to risk falling into Spanish hands. In any event, Harrison suddenly abandoned all work on this second machine when he discovered a serious design flaw in the concept of the bar balances. He had not recognized that the period of oscillation of the bar balances could be affected by the [[yaw angle|yawing]] action of the ship (when the ship turned upon its vertical axis, such as when "[[coming about]]" while [[tacking (sailing)|tacking]]). It was this that led him to adopt circular balances in the Third Sea Clock (H3). The Board granted him another £500 and while waiting for the war to end, he proceeded to work on H3.<ref>{{cite web | title = Harrison's Marine timekeeper (H3) | publisher=[[National Maritime Museum]] | url = http://www.nmm.ac.uk/collections/explore/object.cfm?ID=ZAA0036 | access-date = 25 February 2008}}</ref>

Harrison spent seventeen years working on this third "sea clock", but despite every effort it did not perform exactly as he had wished. The problem was that, because Harrison did not fully understand the physics behind the springs used to control the balance wheels, the timing of the wheels was not [[Isochronous timing|isochronous]], a characteristic that affected its accuracy. The engineering world was not to fully understand the properties of springs for such applications for another two centuries.{{Citation needed|date=March 2015}} Despite that, it had proved a very valuable experiment and much was learned from its construction. Certainly with this machine Harrison left the world two enduring legacies–the [[bimetallic strip]] and the [[roller bearing|caged roller bearing]].

{{Gallery|title=Harrison's first three marine timekeepers
| width=220
| align=center
| File:H1_low_250.jpg|Harrison's first sea clock, the H1
| File:NMM_Longitude_editathon_09.JPG|Harrison's second sea clock, the H2
| File:Royal_Observatory,_Greenwich_2010_PD_14.JPG|Harrison's third sea clock, the H3
|height=240}}

== Longitude watches ==
[[File:H4 low 250.jpg|thumb|220px|Harrison's "sea watch" No. 1 (H4), with winding crank]]
After steadfastly pursuing various methods during thirty years of experimentation, Harrison found to his surprise that some of the watches made by Graham's successor [[Thomas Mudge (horologist)|Thomas Mudge]] kept time just as accurately as his huge sea clocks.{{Citation needed|date=January 2013}} It is possible that Mudge was able to do this after the early 1740s thanks to the availability of the new "Huntsman" or [[Crucible steel|"Crucible" steel]] first produced by [[Benjamin Huntsman]] sometime in the early 1740s, which enabled harder [[pinion]]s but more importantly a tougher and more highly polished cylinder escapement to be produced.<ref>{{cite book | last = Wayman| first = Michael L. | title = The Ferrous Metallurgy of Early Clocks and Watches | publisher=British Museum | year = 2000 }}</ref>
Harrison then realized that a mere watch after all could be made accurate enough for the task and was a far more practical proposition for use as a marine timekeeper. He proceeded to redesign the concept of the watch as a timekeeping device, basing his design on sound scientific principles.

==="Jefferys" watch===
He had already in the early 1750s designed a precision watch for his own use, which was made for him by the watchmaker [[John Jefferys (clockmaker)|John Jefferys]] {{circa}} 1752–1753. This watch incorporated a novel frictional rest escapement and was not only the first to have a compensation for temperature variations but also contained the first miniature ''[[going train]] [[Fusee (horology)|fusee]]'' of Harrison's design which enabled the watch to continue running whilst being wound. These features led to the very successful performance of the "Jefferys" watch, which Harrison incorporated into the design of two new timekeepers which he proposed to build. These were in the form of a large watch and another of a smaller size but similar pattern. However, only the larger No. 1 watch (or "H4" as it is sometimes called) appears to have been finished (see the reference to "H4" below). Aided by some of London's finest workmen, he proceeded to design and make the world's first successful marine timekeeper that allowed a navigator to accurately assess his ship's position in [[longitude]]. Importantly, Harrison showed everyone that it could be done by using a watch to calculate longitude.<ref>{{cite web | title = Harrison's Marine timekeeper (H4) | publisher=[[National Maritime Museum]] | url = http://collections.rmg.co.uk/collections/objects/79142.html | access-date = 25 February 2008}}</ref> This was to be Harrison's masterpiece – an instrument of beauty, resembling an oversized [[pocket watch]] from the period. It is engraved with Harrison's signature, marked Number 1 and dated AD 1759.

=== H4 ===
[[File:Harrison H4 clockwork 1.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|right|The clockwork in Harrison's H4 watch]][[file:Harrison H4 clock in The principles of Mr Harrison's time-keeper 1767.jpg|thumb|Drawings of Harrison's H4 chronometer of 1761, published in ''The principles of Mr Harrison's time-keeper'', 1767.<ref>''[https://books.google.com/books?id=aB8OAAAAQAAJ The principles of Mr Harrison's time-keeper]''</ref>]]
Harrison's first "sea watch" (now known as H4) is housed in silver pair cases some {{convert|5.2|in|cm}} in diameter. The clock's [[Movement (clockwork)|movement]] is highly complex for the period, resembling a larger version of the then-current conventional movement. A coiled steel spring inside a brass mainspring barrel provides 30 hours of power. That is covered by the fusee barrel which pulls a chain wrapped around the conically shaped pulley known as the fusee. The fusee is topped by the winding square (requiring separate key). The great wheel attached to the base of this fusee transmits power to the rest of the movement. The fusee contains the [[maintaining power]], a mechanism for keeping the H4 going while being wound. From Gould:<ref name="gould" /> {{Blockquote|The escapement is a modification of the "verge" fitted to... the common watches of Harrison's day. But the modifications are extensive. The pallets are very small, and have their faces set parallel, instead of at the usual angle of 95° or so. Moreover, instead of being steel, they are of diamond, and their backs are shaped to cycloidal curves... The action of this escapement is quite different from that of the verge, which it appears to resemble. In that escapement, the teeth of the crown wheel act only upon the faces of the pallets. But in this, as will be seen from the points of the teeth rest, for a considerable portion of the supplementary arc—from 90° to 145° (limit of banking) past the dead point—upon the ''backs'' of the pallets, and tend to assist the balance towards the extreme of its swing and to retard its return. This escapement is obviously a great improvement upon the verge, as the train has far less power over the motions of the balance. The latter is no longer checked in its swing by a force equal to that which originally impelled it, but by the balance spring, assisted only by the friction between the tooth and the back of the pallet.}}

In comparison, the verge's escapement has a recoil with a limited balance arc and is sensitive to variations in driving torque. According to a review by H. M. Frodsham of the movement in 1878, H4's escapement had "a good deal of 'set' and not so much recoil, and as a result the impulse came very near to a double chronometer action".<ref>Harrison M. Frodsham, 'Some Materials for a Resume of Remontoires', ''Horological Journal'', Vol. 20 (1877-78), p120-122</ref>

The D-shaped pallets of Harrison's escapement are both made of [[diamond]], approximately 2 mm long with the curved side radius of 0.6 mm, a considerable feat of manufacture at the time.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://watchesbysjx.com/2019/09/john-harrison-marine-chronometer-h4-diamond-pallets.html|title=In-Depth: The Microscopic Magic of H4, Harrison's First Sea Watch. A heart of diamond.|last=Lake|first=Tim|website=WatchesbySJX|access-date=2 September 2019}}</ref> For technical reasons the balance was made much larger than in a conventional watch of the period, {{convert|2.2|in}} in diameter weighing {{convert|28+5/8|gr||adj=pre|Troy}} and the vibrations controlled by a flat spiral steel spring of three turns with a long straight tail. The spring is tapered, being thicker at the stud end and tapering toward the collet at the centre. The movement also has centre seconds motion with a sweep seconds hand.

The Third Wheel is equipped with internal teeth and has an elaborate bridge similar to the pierced and engraved bridge for the period. It runs at 5 beats (ticks) per second, and is equipped with a tiny {{frac|7|1|2}} second [[remontoire]]. A balance-brake, activated by the position of the fusee, stops the watch half an hour before it is completely run down, in order that the remontoire does not run down also. Temperature compensation is in the form of a 'compensation curb' (or 'Thermometer Kirb' as Harrison called it). This takes the form of a bimetallic strip mounted on the regulating slide, and carrying the curb pins at the free end. During its initial testing, Harrison dispensed with this regulation using the slide, but left its indicating dial or figure piece in place. This first watch took six years to construct, following which the Board of Longitude determined to trial it on a voyage from Portsmouth to Kingston, [[Jamaica]]. For this purpose it was placed aboard the 50-gun {{HMS|Deptford|1732|6}}, which set sail from Portsmouth on 18 November 1761.<ref name="Clowes">{{cite book|last=Clowes|first=William Laird|title=The Royal Navy: A History From the Earliest Times to the Present|volume=3|publisher=Sampson, Low, Marston and Company|year=1898|location=London|oclc=645627800}}</ref>{{rp|13–14}} Harrison, by then 68 years old, sent it on this transatlantic trial in the care of his son, [[William Harrison (instrument maker)|William]]. The watch was tested before departure by Robertson, Master of the Academy at Portsmouth, who reported that on 6 November 1761 at noon it was 3 seconds slow, having lost 24 seconds in 9 days on mean solar time. The daily rate of the watch was therefore fixed as losing {{frac|24|9}} seconds per day.<ref name="Rees">Rees's Clocks Watches and Chronometers, 1819–20, David & Charles reprint 1970</ref>

When ''Deptford'' reached its destination, after correction for the initial error of 3 seconds and accumulated loss of 3 minutes 36.5 seconds at the daily rate over the 81 days and 5 hours of the voyage,<ref name="Rees" /> the watch was found to be 5 seconds slow compared to the known longitude of Kingston, corresponding to an error in longitude of 1.25 minutes, or approximately one nautical mile.<ref name=gould>{{cite book | url=http://fer3.com/arc/imgx/marinechronomete00gouluoft_b.pdf | author=Gould, Rupert T. | author-link = Rupert Gould | title=The Marine Chronometer. Its History and Development | location=London | publisher=J. D. Potter | year=1923 | isbn=0-907462-05-7}}</ref>{{rp|56}} William Harrison returned aboard the 14-gun {{HMS|Merlin|1757|6}}, reaching England on 26 March 1762 to report the successful outcome of the experiment.<ref name=Clowes /> Harrison senior thereupon waited for the £20,000 prize, but the Board were persuaded that the accuracy could have been just luck and demanded another trial. The Board were also not convinced that a timekeeper which took six years to construct met the test of practicality required by the [[Longitude Act 1714|Longitude Act]]. The Harrisons were outraged and demanded their prize, a matter that eventually worked its way to [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|Parliament]], which offered £5,000 for the design. The Harrisons refused but were eventually obliged to make another trip to [[Bridgetown]] on the island of [[Barbados]] to settle the matter.

At the time of this second trial, another method for measuring longitude was ready for testing: the [[Method of Lunar Distances]]. The Moon moves fast enough, some thirteen degrees a day, to easily measure the movement from day to day. By comparing the angle between the Moon and the Sun for the day one left for Britain, the "proper position" (how it would appear in [[Greenwich]], England, at that specific time) of the Moon could be calculated. By comparing this with the angle of the Moon over the horizon, the longitude could be calculated. During Harrison's second trial of his 'sea watch' (H4), [[Nevil Maskelyne]] was asked to accompany [[HMS Tartar (1756)|HMS ''Tartar'']] and test the Lunar Distances system. Once again the watch proved extremely accurate, keeping time to within 39 seconds, corresponding to an error in the longitude of Bridgetown of less than {{convert|10|mi|km}}.<ref name="gould" />{{rp|60}} Maskelyne's measures were also fairly good, at {{convert|30|mi|km}}, but required considerable work and calculation in order to use. At a meeting of the Board in 1765 the results were presented, but they again attributed the accuracy of the measurements to luck. Once again the matter reached Parliament, which offered £10,000 in advance and the other half once he turned over the design to other watchmakers to duplicate.<ref>In 1767, the Board of Longitude published a detailed description of Harrison's H4 watch: {{cite book |last1=The Commissioners of Longitude |title=The Principles of Mr. Harrison's Time-Keeper, with Plates of the Same |date=1767 |publisher=W. Richardson and S. Clark |location=London, England |url=https://archive.org/details/principlesmrhar00unkngoog/page/n6}}</ref> In the meantime Harrison's watch would have to be turned over to the Astronomer Royal for long-term on-land testing.[[File:Harrison's Chronometer H5.JPG|thumb|upright=1.3|Harrison's Chronometer H5, (Collection of the [[Worshipful Company of Clockmakers]]), in the [[Science Museum, London]]]]

Unfortunately, Nevil Maskelyne had been appointed [[Astronomer Royal]] on his return from Barbados, and was therefore also placed on the Board of Longitude. He returned a report of the watch that was negative, claiming that its "going rate" (the amount of time it gained or lost per day) was due to inaccuracies cancelling themselves out, and refused to allow it to be factored out when measuring longitude. Consequently, this first Marine Watch of Harrison's failed the needs of the Board despite the fact that it had succeeded in two previous trials.
Harrison began working on his second 'sea watch' (H5) while testing was conducted on the first, which Harrison felt was being held hostage by the Board. After three years he had had enough; Harrison felt "extremely ill used by the gentlemen who I might have expected better treatment from"<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Burkholder |first=Ruth |year=1983 |title=Solving the Problem of Longitude |url=https://www.captaincooksociety.com/cooks-life/people/cooks-officers-and-crew-and-contemporaries/john-harrison-solving-the-problem-of-longitude |journal=Cook's Log |publisher=Captain Cook Society |volume=6 |issue=4 |pages=222–224}}</ref> and decided to enlist the aid of King [[George III of Great Britain|George III]]. He obtained an audience with the King, who was extremely annoyed with the Board. King George tested the watch No. 2 (H5) himself at the palace and after ten weeks of daily observations between May and July in 1772, found it to be accurate to within one third of one second per day. King George then advised Harrison to petition Parliament for the full prize after threatening to appear in person to dress them down. Finally in 1773, when he was 80 years old, Harrison received a monetary award in the amount of £8,750 from Parliament for his achievements, but he never received the official award (which was never awarded to anyone). He was to live for just three more years.

In total, Harrison received £23,065 for his work on chronometers. He received £4,315 in increments from the Board of Longitude for his work, £10,000 as an interim payment for H4 in 1765 and £8,750 from Parliament in 1773.<ref>{{cite book | last = Varzeliotis| first = A.N. Thomas | title = Time Under Sail: The Very Human Story of the Marine Chronometer | publisher=Alcyone Books | year = 1998 | isbn = 0-921081-10-3}}</ref> This gave him a reasonable income for most of his life (equivalent to roughly £450,000 per year in 2007, though all his costs, such as materials and subcontracting work to other horologists, had to come out of this). He became the equivalent of a multi-millionaire (in today's terms) in the final decade of his life. Captain [[James Cook]] used [[Larcum Kendall#K1|K1]], a copy of H4, on his second and third voyages, having used the [[lunar distance method]] on his first voyage.<ref>Captain James Cook, Richard Hough, Holder and Stroughton 1994.pp 192–193 {{ISBN|0-340-58598-6}}</ref> K1 was made by [[Larcum Kendall]], who had been apprenticed to [[John Jefferys (clockmaker)|John Jefferys]]. Cook's log is full of praise for the watch and the charts of the southern Pacific Ocean he made with its use were remarkably accurate. [[Larcum Kendall#K2|K2]] was loaned to Lieutenant [[William Bligh]], commander of [[HMS Bounty|HMS ''Bounty'']], but it was retained by [[Fletcher Christian]] following the infamous [[Mutiny on the Bounty|mutiny]]. It was not recovered from [[Pitcairn Island]] until 1808, when it was given to Captain [[Mayhew Folger]], and then passed through several hands before reaching the [[National Maritime Museum]] in London.

Initially, the cost of these chronometers was quite high (roughly 30% of a ship's cost). However, over time, the costs dropped to between £25 and £100 (half a year's to two years' salary for a skilled worker) in the early 19th century.<ref name="landes">{{cite book| last = Landes| first = David S.| title = Revolution in Time| publisher = Belknap Press of Harvard University Press| year = 1983| location = Cambridge, Massachusetts| url = https://archive.org/details/revolutionintime00land_1| isbn = 0-674-76800-0}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last = Mercer| first = Vaudrey | title = John Arnold & Son, Chronometer Makers, 1762–1843 | publisher=The Antiquarian Horological Society | year = 1972 }}</ref> Many historians point to relatively low production volumes over time as evidence that the chronometers were not widely used. However, Landes<ref name="landes" /> points out that the chronometers lasted for decades and did not need to be replaced frequently–indeed the number of makers of marine chronometers reduced over time due to the ease in supplying the demand even as the merchant marine expanded.<ref name="king">{{cite book | last = King| first = Dean| title = A Sea of Words | publisher=Henry Holt and Co. | year = 2000 | location = New York| isbn = 978-0-8050-6615-9}} This book has a table showing that at the peak just prior to the [[War of 1812]], Britain's [[Royal Navy]] had almost 1,000 ships. By 1840, this number had reduced to only 200. Even though the navy only officially equipped their vessels with chronometers after 1825, this shows that the number of chronometers required by the navy was shrinking in the early 19th century.</ref><ref name="Mörzer Bruyns">{{cite encyclopedia | last=Mörzer Bruyns | first=Willem F. J. | editor1-last = Anderson | editor1-first = R. G. W. |editor2-last = Bennett | editor2-first = J. A. | editor3-last = Ryan | editor3-first = W. F. | encyclopedia= Making Instruments Count: Essays on Historical Scientific Instruments Presented to Gerard L'Estrange Turner | title = The Astronomical Clocks of Andreas Hohwü: A Checklist | year= 1993 | publisher= Varorium | location = Aldershot | isbn = 0-86078-394-4 | pages = 454–470}} Mörzer Bruyns identifies a recession starting around 1857 that depressed shipping and the need for chronometers.</ref> Also, many merchant mariners would make do with a deck chronometer at half the price. These were not as accurate as the boxed marine chronometer but were adequate for many. While the Lunar Distances method would complement and rival the marine chronometer initially, the chronometer would overtake it in the 19th century. The more accurate Harrison timekeeping device led to the much-needed precise calculation of [[longitude]], making the device a fundamental key to the modern age. After Harrison, the marine timekeeper was reinvented yet again by [[John Arnold (watchmaker)|John Arnold]], who, while basing his design on Harrison's most important principles, at the same time simplified it enough for him to produce equally accurate but far less costly marine chronometers in quantity from around 1783. Nonetheless, for many years even towards the end of the 18th century, chronometers were expensive rarities, as their adoption and use proceeded slowly due to the high expense of precision manufacturing. The expiry of Arnold's patents at the end of the 1790s enabled many other watchmakers including [[Thomas Earnshaw]] to produce chronometers in greater quantities at less cost even than those of Arnold.

By the early 19th century, navigation at sea without one was considered unwise to unthinkable. Using a chronometer to aid navigation simply saved lives and ships – the insurance industry, self-interest, and common sense did the rest in making the device a universal tool of maritime trade.

==Death and memorials ==
[[File:Johnharrisonstatue.jpg|thumb|300x300px|Bronze statue of John Harrison in [[Barrow upon Humber]], Lincolnshire|left]]
[[File:John Harrison tombstone.jpg|thumb|180x180px|Harrison's tomb at [[St John-at-Hampstead]]]]
{{multiple image
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Harrison died on 24 March 1776, at the age of eighty-two, just shy of his eighty-third birthday.<ref name="britannica.com"/> He was buried in the graveyard of [[St John-at-Hampstead|St John's Church, Hampstead]], in north London, along with his second wife Elizabeth and later their son William. His tomb was restored in 1879 by the [[Worshipful Company of Clockmakers]], even though Harrison had never been a member of the Company.

Harrison's last home was 12 [[Red Lion Square]] in the [[Holborn]] district of London.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.modernistbritain.co.uk/post/building/Summit+House/|title=Summit House, London|website=Modernist Britain|language=en|access-date=2018-04-03|quote=On the corner of Dane Street there is a Blue Plaque dedicated to John Harrison (1693–1776)}}</ref> There is a [[blue plaque]] dedicated to Harrison on the wall of Summit House, a 1925 modernist office block, on the south side of the square. A memorial tablet to Harrison was unveiled in [[Westminster Abbey]] on 24 March 2006, finally recognising him as a worthy companion to his friend [[George Graham (clockmaker)|George Graham]] and [[Thomas Tompion]], 'The Father of English Watchmaking', who are both buried in the Abbey. The memorial shows a [[meridian (geography)|meridian]] line (line of constant longitude) in two metals to highlight Harrison's most widespread invention, the bimetallic strip thermometer. The strip is engraved with its own longitude of 0 degrees, 7 minutes and 35 seconds West.

The [[Corpus Clock]] in [[Cambridge]], unveiled in 2008, is a homage by the designer to Harrison's work but is of an electromechanical design. In appearance it features Harrison's [[grasshopper escapement]], the 'pallet frame' being sculpted to resemble an actual grasshopper. This is the clock's defining feature.

In 2014, [[Northern Rail]] named diesel railcar [[British Rail Class 153|153316]] as the ''John 'Longitude' Harrison''.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.scunthorpetelegraph.co.uk/Train-given-clock-maker-John/story-21004026-detail/story.html|title=Train naming tribute to world famous inventor John Harrison|work=Scunthorpe Telegraph|date=26 April 2014|access-date=6 March 2015|archive-date=2 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402163809/http://www.scunthorpetelegraph.co.uk/Train-given-clock-maker-John/story-21004026-detail/story.html|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.northernrail.org/news/7460|title=Northern Honours Inventor John Harrison|work=northernrail.org/news|date=27 April 2014|access-date=6 March 2015}}</ref>

On 3 April 2018, [[Google]] celebrated his 325th birthday by making a [[Google Doodle]] for its homepage.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://doodles.google/doodle/john-harrisons-325th-birthday/|title=John Harrison's 325th Birthday|website=www.google.com}}</ref>

In February 2020, a bronze statue of John Harrison was unveiled in [[Barrow upon Humber]]. The statue was created by sculptor [[Marcus Cornish]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.grimsbytelegraph.co.uk/news/local-news/statue-north-lincolnshire-inventor-john-3999760|title=Statue of North Lincolnshire inventor John Harrison now on display in his home village|publisher=[[Grimsby Telegraph]]|date=31 March 2020|last=Waller|first=Jamie|access-date=9 December 2021}}</ref>

== Later history ==
[[File:Martin Burgess - Clock B at the Royal Observatory - Greenwich.jpg|thumb|Clock B at the [[Royal Observatory, Greenwich]]|left|271x271px]]
After [[World War I]], Harrison's timepieces were rediscovered at the [[Royal Greenwich Observatory]] by retired naval officer [[Rupert T. Gould|Lieutenant Commander Rupert T. Gould]].

The timepieces were in a highly decrepit state and Gould spent many years documenting, repairing and restoring them, without compensation for his efforts.<ref>{{cite book | last = Betts| first = Jonathan| title = Time restored: The Harrison Timekeepers and R.T. Gould, the man who knew (almost) everything| publisher=Oxford University Press | year = 2006 | location = Oxford| page = 464| isbn = 978-0-19-856802-5}}</ref> Gould was the first to designate the timepieces from H1 to H5, initially calling them No.1 to No.5. Unfortunately, Gould made modifications and repairs that would not pass today's standards of good museum [[Conservation-restoration|conservation practice]], although most Harrison scholars give Gould credit for having ensured that the historical artifacts survived as working mechanisms to the present time. Gould wrote ''The Marine Chronometer'', published in 1923, which covered the history of chronometers from the [[Middle Ages]] to the 1920s, and which included detailed descriptions of Harrison's work and the subsequent evolution of the chronometer. The book remains the authoritative work on the marine chronometer. Today the restored H1, H2, H3, and H4 timepieces can be seen on display in the Royal Observatory at Greenwich. H1, H2, and H3 still work: H4 is kept in a stopped state because, unlike the first three, it requires oil for lubrication and so will degrade as it runs. H5 is owned by the [[Worshipful Company of Clockmakers]] of London, and was previously on display at the [[Clockmakers' Museum]] in the [[Guildhall, London]], as part of the Company's collection; since 2015 the collection has been displayed in the [[Science Museum, London]].

In the final years of his life, John Harrison wrote about his research into [[musical tuning]] and manufacturing methods for [[Bell (instrument)|bells]]. His tuning system (a [[Meantone temperament|meantone]] system derived from [[pi]]), is described in his pamphlet ''A Description Concerning Such Mechanism ... (CSM)''.<ref name="CSM">{{Cite book |title=A Description concerning such Mechanism as will afford a nice, or true Mensuration of Time; together with Some Account of the Attempts for the Discovery of the Longitude by the Moon; and also An Account of the Discovery of the Scale of Musick |url=http://www.hsn161.com/HSN/CSM.pdf |first=John |last=Harrison |author-link=John Harrison |place=London |year=1775}}</ref> The system challenged the traditional view that [[harmonics]] occur at integer [[frequency]] ratios and in consequence all music using this tuning produces [[Beat (acoustics)|low-frequency beating]]. In 2002, Harrison's last manuscript, ''A true and short, but full Account of the Foundation of Musick, or, as principally therein, of the Existence of the Natural Notes of Melody'', was rediscovered in the US [[Library of Congress]]. His theories on the mathematics of bell manufacturing (using "Radical Numbers") are yet to be clearly understood.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lucytune.com/academic/manuscript_search.html |title=LucyTuning*LucyScaleDevelopments*LucyTuned Lullabies*Pi tuning*John Longitude Harrison |publisher=Lucytune.com |access-date=28 September 2012}}</ref>

One of the controversial claims of his last years was that of being able to build a land clock more accurate than any competing design. Specifically, he claimed to have designed a clock capable of keeping accurate time to within one second over a span of 100 days.<ref name=CSM />{{Rp|25–41}} At the time, such publications as ''The London Review of English and Foreign Literature'' ridiculed Harrison for what was considered an outlandish claim. Harrison drew a design but never built such a clock himself, but in 1970 [[Martin Burgess]], a Harrison expert and himself a clockmaker, studied the plans and endeavored to build the timepiece as drawn. He built two versions, dubbed Clock A and Clock B. Clock A became the Gurney Clock which was given to the city of [[Norwich]] in 1975, while Clock B lay unfinished in his workshop for decades until it was acquired in 2009 by [[Donald Saff]]. The completed Clock B was submitted to the [[National Maritime Museum]] in [[Greenwich, London|Greenwich]] for further study. It was found that Clock B could potentially meet Harrison's original claim, so the clock's design was carefully checked and adjusted. Finally, over a 100-day period from 6 January to 17 April 2015, Clock B was secured in a transparent case in the Royal Observatory and left to run untouched, apart from regular winding. Upon completion of the run, the clock was measured to have lost only 5/8 of a second, meaning Harrison's design was fundamentally sound. If we ignore the fact that this clock uses materials such as [[duraluminium]] and [[invar]] unavailable to Harrison, had it been built in 1762, the date of Harrison's testing of his H4, and run continuously since then without correction, it would now ({{CURRENTMONTHNAME}} {{CURRENTYEAR}}) be slow by just {{#expr:trunc ((({{#time:U}}+6556507200)*72.338e-9 round 0)/60)}} minutes and {{#expr:(({{#time:U}}+6556507200)*72.338e-9 round 0) mod 60}} seconds. [[Guinness World Records]] has declared Martin Burgess' Clock B the "most accurate mechanical clock with a pendulum swinging in free air."<ref name="The Observer 19 April 2015">{{cite news |title=Clockmaker John Harrison vindicated 250 years after 'absurd' claims |url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2015/apr/19/clockmaker-john-harrison-vindicated-250-years-absurd-claims |last=McKie |first=Robin |newspaper=[[The Observer]] |date=2015-04-18 |page=7 |access-date=2015-04-23}}</ref>

== In literature, television, drama and music ==
{{external media| float = right| video1 = [https://www.c-span.org/video/?116077-1/longitude ''Booknotes'' interview with Dava Sobel on ''Longitude'', January 17, 1999], [[C-SPAN]]| video2 = [https://www.c-span.org/video/?86908-1/longitude Presentation by Sobel on ''Longitude'', June 17, 1997], [[C-SPAN]]}}
In 1995, inspired by a [[Harvard University]] symposium on the longitude problem organized by the [[National Association of Watch and Clock Collectors]], [[Dava Sobel]] wrote a book about Harrison's work. ''[[Longitude (book)|Longitude: The True Story of a Lone Genius Who Solved the Greatest Scientific Problem of His Time]]'' became the first popular bestseller on the subject of [[horology]]. ''The Illustrated Longitude'', in which Sobel's text was accompanied by 180 images selected by William J. H. Andrewes, appeared in 1998. The book was dramatised for UK television by Charles Sturridge in a [[Granada Productions]] 4 episode series for [[Channel 4]] in 1999, under the title ''[[Longitude (TV serial)|Longitude]]''. It was broadcast in the US later in the same year by co-producer [[A&E Television Networks|A&E]]. The production starred [[Michael Gambon]] as Harrison and [[Jeremy Irons]] as Gould.<ref>{{cite web |title=Longitude © (1999) |url=http://movie-dude.com/[Film]%20Longitude%20(1999).htm |publisher=movie-dude.com |access-date=22 June 2021}}</ref> Sobel's book was the basis for a [[Public Broadcasting Service|PBS]] [[Nova (American TV series)|NOVA]] episode entitled ''Lost at Sea: The Search for Longitude''.

In 1998, British composer [[Harrison Birtwistle]] wrote the piano piece "Harrison's clocks" which contains musical depictions of Harrison's various clocks. Composer [[Peter Graham (composer)|Peter Graham]]'s piece ''Harrison's Dream'' is about Harrison's forty-year quest to produce an accurate clock. Graham worked simultaneously on the brass band and wind band versions of the piece, which received their first performances just four months apart in October 2000 and February 2001 respectively.<ref>{{cite interview|url=http://www.basbwe.net/images/2011/06/02spring_graham.pdf|title=An Interview with Peter Graham|publisher=BASBWE|year=2002}}</ref>

==Works==
* {{Cite book|title=Principes de la montre|volume=|publisher=veuve François Girard & François Seguin|location=Avignon|year=1767|language=en|url=https://gutenberg.beic.it/webclient/DeliveryManager?pid=617949}}

== See also ==

*[[History of longitude]]
*[[Lunar distance (navigation)]]
*[[Marine chronometer]]
*''[[The Island of the Day Before]]'' – Umberto Eco

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== Further reading ==
* {{cite book|title=The Man Who Made Time Travel |last=Lasky|first= Kathryn |year=2003|isbn= 978-0-374-34788-8|publisher=Farrar, Straus and Giroux}}
* {{cite book | last=North|first= Thomas | title=The Church Bells of the County and City of Lincoln | location=Leicester | publisher=Samuel Clark | year=1882 | pages=60–61}}
* {{cite book |last1=Sobel|first1= Dava |last2=Andrewes|first2= Willam J.H. | title=The Illustrated Longitude: The True Story of a Lone Genius Who Solved the Greatest Scientific Problem of His Time | url=https://archive.org/details/illustratedlongi0000sobe| url-access=registration| location=New York | publisher=Walker Publishing Co. | year=1998 | isbn=0-8027-1344-0}}
* {{cite book |last=Winchester|first= Simon| title=The Perfectionists - How Precision Engineers Created the Modern World | publisher=Harper Perennial | location = New York | year=2019 | pages=23–52| isbn=978-0-06-265256-0}}
* {{cite book|editor-last=Wolfendale |editor-first=Arnold |title= Harrison in the Abbey |quote=Published in Honour of John Harrison on the Occasion of the Unveiling of his Memorial in the Abbey on 24 March 2006 |location=London|publisher= Worshipful Company of Clockmakers|year= 2006}}

== External links ==
{{Commons}}
{{DNB poster|Harrison, John (1693-1776)}}
*[http://www.rmg.co.uk/explore/astronomy-and-time/time-facts/harrison John Harrison and the Longitude Problem, at the National Maritime Museum site]
*[https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/longitude/ PBS Nova Online: ''Lost at Sea, the Search for Longitude'']
*[http://www.lucytune.com/ John 'Longitude' Harrison and musical tuning]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20081219102103/http://www.nmm.ac.uk/upload/pdf/Gould-Harrison-longitude-JBetts.pdf Excerpt from: Time Restored: The Story of the Harrison Timekeepers and R.T. Gould, 'The Man who Knew (almost) Everything']
*[https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1510333/Clock-from-1776-just-goes-on-and-on.html UK Telegraph: 'Clock from 1776 just goes on and on']
*[https://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/longitude-pioneer-was-not-a-lone-genius-1693503.html Andrew Johnson, ''Longitude pioneer was not a 'lone genius','' The Independent, 31 May 2009]
*[https://www.bbc.co.uk/ahistoryoftheworld/objects/arSAQ-UETSOyftkNWZTpVQ Harrison's precision pendulum-clock No. 2, 1727, on the BBC's "A History of the World" website]
*[http://secretlivesofobjects.blogspot.com/2010/04/more-than-just-pretty-tick-tock-clock.html Leeds Museums and Galleries "Secret Life of Objects" blog, John Harrison's precision pendulum-clock No. 2]
*[http://cudl.lib.cam.ac.uk/view/MS-H-17809 Account of John Harrison and his chronometer] at [[Cambridge Digital Library]]
*[https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2016/01/pendulum-clock-john-harrison/424614/ Building an Impossible Clock] Shayla Love, 19 Jan 2016, ''The Atlantic''
* {{Librivox author |id=12142}}

{{Copley Medallists 1731–1750}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Harrison, John}}
[[Category:1693 births]]
[[Category:1776 deaths]]
[[Category:18th-century English people]]
[[Category:Burials at St John-at-Hampstead]]
[[Category:British carpenters]]
[[Category:English designers]]
[[Category:English clockmakers]]
[[Category:18th-century English inventors]]
[[Category:English watchmakers (people)]]
[[Category:People from Barrow upon Humber]]
[[Category:People from Foulby]]
[[Category:Engineers from Yorkshire]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Copley Medal]]
[[Category:English scientific instrument makers]]

Southease

2025-06-14T10:08:59Z

2A00:23C7:C8BC:C501:507C:445E:62F7:256D: Added church dedication

{{Short description|Village and parish in East Sussex, England}}
{{Use British English|date=June 2016}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2022}}
{{Infobox UK place
| official_name = Southease
| country = England
| region = South East England
| static_image_name = Southease Church,from the east.jpg
| static_image_caption = St Peter’s Church, Southease
| area_footnotes = -Rodmell & Southease<ref name=ESiF>{{cite web |url=http://www.eastsussexinfigures.org.uk/webview/ |title=East Sussex in Figures |access-date=26 April 2008 |publisher=East Sussex County Council}}</ref>
| area_total_km2 = 11.26
| population = 502
| population_ref = (2007)<ref name=ESiF />
| population_density = {{convert|115.5|/sqmi|/km2|abbr=on}}
| os_grid_reference = TQ421053
| coordinates = {{coord|50.83|0.02|display=inline,title}}
| post_town = LEWES
| postcode_area = BN
| postcode_district = BN7
| dial_code = 01273
| constituency_westminster = [[Lewes (UK Parliament constituency)|Lewes]]
| london_distance = {{convert|47|mi}} N
| shire_district = [[Lewes]]
| shire_county = [[East Sussex]]
| website =
}}

'''Southease''' is a small village and [[civil parish]] in East Sussex, in [[South East England]] between the [[A26 road]] and the C7 road from [[Lewes]] to [[Newhaven, East Sussex|Newhaven]]. The village is to the west of the [[River Ouse, Sussex]] and has a church dedicated to [[Saint Peter]]. [[Southease railway station]] lies roughly a kilometre east over the river and may be reached via a [[swing bridge]].

The church has one of only three round towers in Sussex, all of which are located in the Ouse Valley and all three built in the first half of the 12th century.

It is downstream of [[Lewes]], the [[county town]] of [[East Sussex]] and upstream of [[Piddinghoe]] and [[Newhaven, East Sussex|Newhaven]]. Paths along both the banks of the river allow hiking in either direction along the river. The remains of a [[slipway]] on the west bank of the [[River Ouse, Sussex|Ouse]] just north of the bridge faces [[Mount Caburn]]. The nearest village is [[Rodmell]], about a kilometre to the northwest.

The [[South Downs Way]] winds its way through the village towards the nearby River Ouse and the railway station. A new bridge has been built over the [[A26 road|A26]].<ref name=new-a26-bridge>[http://www.nationaltrail.co.uk/Southdowns/article.asp?PageId=3&ArticleId=5 New Bridge over A26 near Southease]</ref>

Most [[cottage]]s in the village date from the 17th century.<ref name="salzman-southease"/>

==History==
[[File:Southease Green.JPG|thumb|right|upright=1.35|Southease Green]]

===Name===
The name seems to be of Anglo-Saxon origin, meaning "South land overgrown with brushwood".<ref name=sdnpa-southease>{{cite web|url=https://www.southdowns.gov.uk/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/Southease-Conservation-Area-Appraisal-Management-Plan.pdf|title=Southease Conservation Area Character Appraisal and Management Plan|date=July 2017|access-date=27 January 2020|publisher=South Downs National Park Authority}}</ref> It is possible that Northease and Southease take their names from the [[Rodmell]] salt industry for the reference to brushwood could have indicated a small coppice industry provisioning the salt rendering ovens. Now little remains of the saltern mounds, for the big farmers have ploughed the land where they once stood.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Bangs|first=Dave|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/701098669|title=A freedom to roam Guide to the Brighton Downs : from Shoreham to Newhaven and Beeding to Lewes|date=2008|publisher=David Bangs|isbn=978-0-9548638-1-4|location=Brighton|oclc=701098669}}</ref>

===Historical record===
The village first appears in the historical record when King [[Edgar the Peaceful|Edgar]] granted the manor of Southease (including Southease parish, 38 hides, a church and part of [[South Heighton]]) to [[Hyde Abbey]].<ref name=sdnpa-southease/> It was granted to the abbey again by [[Æthelred the Unready|King Æthelred]] in 996.<ref name="salzman-southease"/> The church dates from the year 966.<ref name=bbc-louise-schweitzer>[http://www.bbc.co.uk/southerncounties/content/articles/2009/03/30/southease_walk_feature.shtml Southease, Rodmell, Telscombe], Louise Schweitzer</ref> The village is noted in the [[Domesday Book]] of 1086 as comprising 60 households, a significant settlement at the time. Included in the listing are ploughlands, meadows and a church.<ref>{{cite web|title=Open Domesday: Southease|url=https://opendomesday.org/place/TQ4205/southease/|access-date=15 December 2024}}</ref>

Village history is closely linked with the Ouse and [[Lewes and Laughton Levels|Lewes Levels]].<ref name=sdnpa-southease/> In the 11th to 13th centuries drainage of the river allowed more crops to be grown, but subsequent flooding led to more reliance on fishing.<ref name=sdnpa-southease/> At the time of the [[Domesday Book]] a thriving community was in place and the village appears to have been the biggest herring fishery in the district, having been assessed for 38,500 herring while [[Brighton]] had a mere 4,000.<ref name=sdnpa-southease/> Until 1623 the steward of Southease manor recorded that the tenants were customarily given six good herrings at Lent (four if they came across the river from the manorial outlier of Heighton), as if herrings were still easily obtained in a village that is now stranded four miles from the sea.<ref name=":0" />

[[Telscombe]] and Southease villages must once have been one community, with Telscombe as an outlier of the mother settlement of Southease. Telscombe peasants always shared common rights with Southease over their brooklands, and the two manors were both owned by Winchester's [[Hyde Abbey]] for nearly 600 years from Saxon times until the [[English Reformation|Reformation]].<ref name=":0" />

After the [[Dissolution of the Monasteries]], the manor probably remained in possession of the king, and in 1546 one John Kerne was appointed [[bailiff]] and collector of the manors of Southease, Telscombe and Heighton.<ref name="salzman-southease"/> There was never a manor house in Southease as it was always owned by absentee landlords.<ref name=bbc-louise-schweitzer/>

In the 16th century the manor passed to the Sackville family: it was held by [[Thomas Sackville, 1st Earl of Dorset|Thomas Sackville]], his widow Cicely and their grandson [[Robert Sackville, 2nd Earl of Dorset|Robert]].<ref name="salzman-southease"/>

====19th century====
The population of the parish declined through the 19th century.<ref name=sussex-parish-clerks>{{cite web
|url=http://www.sussex-opc.org/index.php?t=Parish&k=231
|title=Sussex Online Parish Clerks – Southease
|access-date=25 June 2012}}</ref> The census recorded a population of 120 in 1841 with the population falling with each census to 66 in 1891.<ref name=sussex-parish-clerks/>
When Telscombe's open fields were [[enclosure|enclosed]] in 1811 the Down pastures were left as [[common land]] and the Telscombe Tye still is.<ref name=":0" />

The village was part of the [[Holmstrow (hundred)|Holmstrow hundred]] until the abolition of hundreds in the 19th century.<ref>{{cite book|title=Parliamentary Papers, House of Commons and Command, Volume 11|publisher=[[Office of Public Sector Information|H M Stationery Office]]|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WzkSAAAAYAAJ&q=holmstrow+hundred&pg=PA205|date=1831}}</ref>

====20th century====
During [[World War II]] four [[British hardened field defences of World War II#Type 24|Type 24 pillboxes]] were built, roughly at the corners of the village, with a [[British hardened field defences of World War II#Type 28|Type 28 pillbox]] just to the north.<ref name=sdnpa-southease/> The former were for rifles and light machine guns and the latter was for a 2-pounder anti-tank gun or a [[QF 6-pounder Hotchkiss|6-pounder Hotchkiss gun]].<ref name=sdnpa-southease/> There was also a [[Prisoner-of-war camp]] containing 16 [[Nissen hut]]s near the northern farm, the concrete bases of which are still visible.<ref name=sdnpa-southease/> There was also an anti-aircraft gun.<ref name=sdnpa-southease/>

The body of the writer [[Virginia Woolf]] was found on 18 April 1941, at Asham Wharf on the east bank of the Ouse, to the north of the bridge, after her suicide by drowning on 28 March.<ref name=woolf-asham-wharf>[http://www.riverocean.org.uk/ocean/webwalks/Newhaven%20to%20Lewes%20(linear).html Newhaven to Lewes walk] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090816185053/http://www.riverocean.org.uk/ocean/webwalks/Newhaven%20to%20Lewes%20%28linear%29.html |date=16 August 2009 }} – mentions Asham Wharf</ref>

==Notable buildings and areas==
{{Geographic Location
|title = '''Nearest parishes'''
|Centre = Southease
|Northwest = [[Rodmell]]
|Northeast = [[Rodmell]]
|North = [[Rodmell]]
|East = [[Firle]]
|West = [[Telscombe]]
|Southwest = [[Telscombe]]
|Southeast = [[Tarring Neville]]
|South = [[Piddinghoe]]
}}
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Like [[Iford, East Sussex|Iford]] and [[Kingston near Lewes|Kingston]], Southease is a parish of two halves. To the east is the [[Lewes Brooks]] and to the west is the [[South Downs]]. Between the two sits the Southease village with many old buildings from Soiuthease's rich history.

===Parish Church===
{{multiple image
| align = right
| width =
| footer = Exterior views of Southease Church
| image1 = St Peter's Church - geograph.org.uk - 1092150.jpg
| width1 = 260
| alt1 = View of church from East
| caption1 = View of church from East
| image2 = St Peter, Southease 4.jpg
| width2 = 150
| alt2 = View of church from West
| caption2 = View of church from West
}}

This is one of three churches in the Ouse valley to have a round 12th-century tower – the others are in [[Lewes]] and [[Piddinghoe]].<ref name=sdnpa-southease/> The [[chancel]] and [[nave]] date from the 11th century and form the nave of the original building, the chancel and [[transept]]s having been demolished in the 14th century.<ref name=sdnpa-southease/> There are remains of mural paintings from 1280 on the north and west walls.<ref name=sdnpa-southease/> It is a Grade I listed building.<ref name=sdnpa-southease/> The churchyard is surrounded by mature lime trees and bounded by a flint boundary wall.<ref>{{National Heritage List for England|num=1239384|desc=The Parish Church|grade=I|access-date=9 February 2020}}</ref><ref name=sdnpa-southease/> The church bells were rehung in 2000.

===Southease Listed Buildings===
Southease has a number of listed buildings givens its grand past, which include Southease Place, Rock and Barn Cottage, Thatched Cottage, The Rectory and Black Lamb House.

'''Southease Place''' is a 17th-century two-storey house with a tiled [[hipped roof]].<ref name="sdnpa-southease" /><ref name="blb-southease-place">{{Cite web|url=https://britishlistedbuildings.co.uk/101239387-southease-place-southease|title=Southease Place|access-date=2021-05-30|website=britishlistedbuildings.co.uk}}</ref> The lower floor has been refaced with flints, the upper with stucco.<ref name="sdnpa-southease" /><ref name="blb-southease-place" /> It is a [[Grade II listed building]].<ref>{{National Heritage List for England|num=1239387|desc=Southease Place|grade=II|access-date=9 February 2020}}</ref><ref name="sdnpa-southease" /><ref name="blb-southease-place" />

One of the village's original farmsteads has now been made into two cottages, '''Rock Cottage''' and '''Barn Cottage''', with the division having taken place between 1873 and 1899. Rock Cottage forms the western section of the building and Barn Cottage the eastern.<ref name="blb-barn-cottage-rock-cottage">{{Cite web|title=Barn Cottage rock Cottage|url=https://britishlistedbuildings.co.uk/101239388-barn-cottagerock-cottage-southease|access-date=2021-05-30|website=britishlistedbuildings.co.uk}}</ref><ref name="nhl=barn-cottage-rock-cottage">{{National Heritage List for England|num=1239388|desc=Barn Cottage Rock Cottage|grade=II|access-date=9 February 2020}}</ref> Parts of Rock Cottage are 16th century, making it the oldest remaining dwellings in the village.<ref name="sdnpa-southease" /><ref name="blb-barn-cottage-rock-cottage" /> Both are [[Grade II listed building]]s and stand next to the old southern farmstead, which includes all the traditional 18th-century buildings.<ref name="blb-threshing-barn-at-the-southern-farmstead">{{Cite web|title=Threshing barn at the Southern Farmstead|url=https://historicengland.org.uk/listing/the-list/list-entry/1468182|access-date=2021-05-30|website=britishlistedbuildings.co.uk}}</ref> The late 18th-century threshing barn, on the southern boundary, is the dominant feature in views of the village from the South.<ref name="blb-threshing-barn-at-the-southern-farmstead" />

While the farmhouse was divided into two cottages, '''Thatched Cottage''' was once two separate cottages and has been combined into a larger one.<ref name="sdnpa-southease" /><ref name="brb-thatched-cottage">{{Cite web|url=https://historicengland.org.uk/listing/the-list/list-entry/1239458|title=THATCHED COTTAGE|access-date=2021-05-30|website=britishlistedbuildings.co.uk}}</ref> It dates from the 18th century and has a thatched hipped roof.<ref name="sdnpa-southease" /><ref name="brb-thatched-cottage" /> It is a [[Grade II listed building]].<ref name="sdnpa-southease" /><ref name="brb-thatched-cottage" />

'''The Rectory''' is an L-shaped building with a 16th-century frame that has been stuccoed and a 19th-century addition that has also been stuccoed.<ref name="sdnpa-southease" /><ref name="blb-the-rectory">{{Cite web|url=https://historicengland.org.uk/listing/the-list/list-entry/1239461|title=THE RECTORY|access-date=2021-05-30|website=britishlistedbuildings.co.uk}}</ref> A western gable bears the date 1604 and the monogram of John Rivers.<ref name="sdnpa-southease" /><ref name="blb-the-rectory" /> It is a [[Grade II listed building]].<ref name="sdnpa-southease" /><ref name="blb-the-rectory" /><ref>{{National Heritage List for England|num=1239458|desc=Thatched Cottage|grade=II|access-date=9 February 2020}}</ref><ref>{{National Heritage List for England|num=1239461|desc=The Rectory|grade=II|access-date=9 February 2020}}</ref>

'''Black Lamb House''' is an 18th-century two-storey house formerly known as "The Rest"<ref name="sdnpa-southease" /> and is also a [[Grade II listed building]].<ref name="sdnpa-southease" /><ref>{{National Heritage List for England|num=1273728|desc=The Rest|grade=II|access-date=9 February 2020}}</ref>

===Southease Brook pastures===
Southease brook pastures are still regularly flooded in winter, attracting wintering [[snipe]] and other wildfowl, and raptors to prey upon them. To the north of the lane to Southease Bridge, the pastures are designated as part of the [[Lewes Brooks]] SSSI ([[Site of Special Scientific Interest]]), although the ditches both there and to the south of the Bridge are heavily dominated by Reed, [[Phragmites australis]], at the expense of the much wider range of plants and freshwater invertebrates that occurred until modern times. [[Wild Celery|Wild celery]], [[Marsh Dock|marsh dock]], [[Sea Clubrush|sea clubrush]] and [[bulrush]] still occur, although other special plants, like [[Ranunculus lingua|greater spearwort]] and [[Golden Dock|golden dock]] appear to have been lost. [[Water Rail|Water rail]] can still be heard from the thick cover of the ditches, and [[Water Shrew|water shrew]] and [[Hydrophilus piceus|great silver diving beetle]] are present. [[Tringa totanus|Redshank]], [[oystercatcher]], [[Little Egret|little egret]] and [[Common Sandpiper|common sandpiper]] can be seen along the Ouse channel banks.<ref>{{Cite web|title=SSSI detail: Lewes Brooks|url=https://designatedsites.naturalengland.org.uk/SiteDetail.aspx?SiteCode=S1003002|access-date=2022-01-24|website=Designated Sites Natural England}}</ref>

===Southease swing bridge===
[[File:Southease Swing Bridge - geograph.org.uk - 1092218.jpg|left|thumb|Southease Swing Bridge]]
Before bridges spanned the Ouse, the Stock Ferry, several hundred yards down stream of the current bridge, was the usual way of crossing.<ref name="salzman-southease">[http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=56920 Southease], A History of the County of Sussex: Volume 7, [[L. F. Salzman]] (editor), retrieved 15 May 2009</ref><ref>{{National Heritage List for England|num=1393389|desc=Swing Bridge over River Ouse|grade=II|access-date=9 February 2020}}</ref> However, the [[Lower Ouse Improvement Act 1791]] ([[31 Geo. 3]]. c. 76) required the ferry to be replaced with a bridge. The bridge had to be substantial enough to allow cattle, people and vehicles to pass over while allowing ships to pass.<ref name=sdnpa-southease/> The original bridge was a wooden [[cantilever bridge]] slightly to the north of the current one.<ref name=sdnpa-southease/> The wooden bridge was demolished in 1879 when it was replaced by the current one.<ref name=sdnpa-southease/>

The current swing bridge was built in the 1880s and although the swing mechanism remains, it has not been opened since 1967.<ref name=southease-bridge-and-railway>[http://www.sussexias.co.uk/articles/main_9.htm Sussex Industrial Archaeology Society page with information on Southease Bridge and railway]</ref> In September 2009 the bridge was granted Grade II [[listed building]] status.<ref>[http://www.sussexexpress.co.uk/newsmain/Historic-swing-bridge-saved.5656424.jp Historic swing bridge saved], Sussex Express, 17 September 2009, retrieved 21 September 2009</ref> The bridge was closed from 8 June to 26 November 2010 and a scaffold bridge was put in place for walkers and cyclists while the original bridge structure was lifted into the adjacent Environment Agency yard, restored and then replaced.<ref>[http://www.nationaltrail.co.uk/SouthDowns/article.asp?PageId=3&ArticleId=38 Southease bridge to undergo refurbishment] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100118040214/http://www.nationaltrail.co.uk/SouthDowns/article.asp?PageId=3&ArticleId=38 |date=18 January 2010 }}, [http://www.nationalrail.co.uk], retrieved 22 January 2010</ref><ref>{{Cite journal
|url=http://sias2.pastfinder.org.uk/sias_news/SIAS-News_149.pdf
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120425060639/http://sias2.pastfinder.org.uk/sias_news/SIAS-News_149.pdf
|url-status=usurped
|archive-date=25 April 2012
|title=Southease Swing Bridge Reopens
|author=Alan H.J. Green
|issue=149
|pages=7–10
|journal=Sussex Industrial Archaeology Newsletter
|publisher=Sussex Industrial Archaeology Society}}</ref> Other traffic had to take a detour for {{Convert|10|km|mi}}.<ref name=bbc-restored-southease-brodge-officially-opened>{{Cite news|title=Restored Southease Bridge officially opened|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-sussex-11844618|date=26 November 2010|access-date=12 June 2020|publisher=[[BBC News]]}}</ref> The wrought iron parts of the bridge were strengthened as it had suffered corrosion and twisting of the supports.<ref name=bbc-restored-southease-brodge-officially-opened/> The turntable, deck and supporting timbers were replaced.<ref name=bbc-restored-southease-brodge-officially-opened/>

===Southease Hill===
[[File:Southease Hill - geograph.org.uk - 1092618.jpg|thumb|left|Southease Hill]]
To the every east of the parish on the border with [[Telscombe]] is Southease Hill. To the north, between the Southease Road and Cricketing Bottom, is a broad-backed sheep-grazed slope, with scattered gorse and thorn brakes. It is a special place for downland flora and fauna. After the war it suffered from the farmer applying agrochemicals there and it is still recovering, but you can find [[harebell]]s and [[Caltha palustris|cowslips]] flowers in summer and butter waxcap fungi, Hygrocybe ceracea, in autumn and one steep part of the slope ({{gbmappingsmall|TQ 414 047}}) survived the chemical peril, and the old Down pasture herbs and insects are intact in this area.<ref name=":0" />

===Hill Buildings===
[[File:South Downs from the River Ouse - geograph.org.uk - 1092541.jpg|thumb|Hill Buildings from the River Ouse]]
Hill Buildings ({{gbmappingsmall|TQ 420 042}}) was a little Victorian farm built after the [[enclosure]] of Southease in 1845. It had two gaunt cottages which were deserted for much of the late 20th century and became ruinous. New cottages have now been built, although the old flint barn and yard survive.

To the north is a bushy chalk grassland bank ({{gbmappingsmall|TQ 420 044}}) with [[spotted orchid]] and [[Primula veris|cowslips]], [[round-headed rampion]] and [[dropwort]]. It is grazed, which is important for the diversity of the chalk grassland plants.<ref name=":0" />

=== Southease railway station ===
{{Main|Southease railway station}}
Southease railway station is on the [[Seaford branch line]]. Compass Travel runs the 123 bus which stops on the C7 road.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://southeasevillage.info/links/123-bus-service-and-timetable|title=Bus Services|publisher=Southease Village Website|access-date=7 May 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.compass-travel.co.uk/download/east-sussex-bus-services/123.pdf|title=123 – 24.07.17 123.pdf|date=24 July 2017|access-date=7 May 2018}}</ref>

==Governance==
On a local level, Southease parish is governed as a [[Parish Meeting]] with twice yearly meetings of the parish electorate.

The next level of government is the district council. The parish of Southease lies within the Kingston ward of [[Lewes District Council]], which returns a single seat to the council. The election on 12 May 2015 elected a Liberal Democrat<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lewes.gov.uk/council/3847.asp#Kingston |title=Election Results |access-date=15 November 2008 |publisher=Lewes District Council |date=4 May 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080918222418/http://www.lewes.gov.uk/council/3847.asp |archive-date=18 September 2008 }}</ref>

East Sussex County Council is the next tier of government, for which Southease is within the Newhaven and Ouse Valley West division, with responsibility for Education, Libraries, Social Services, Civil Registration, Trading Standards and Transport. Elections for the County Council are held every four years. The [[Liberal Democrats (UK)|Liberal Democrat]] Carla Butler was elected in the 2013 election.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.eastsussex.gov.uk/yourcouncil/about/people/councillors/find/newhaven/ |title=Councillor David Rogers OBE |access-date=15 November 2008 |work=Find your Councillor |publisher=East Sussex County Council}}</ref>

The UK Parliament constituency for Southease is [[Lewes (UK Parliament constituency)|Lewes]]. The Liberal Democrat [[Norman Baker]] served as the constituency MP from 1997 until 2015, when Conservative Maria Caulfield was elected. As of July 2024 Liberal Democrat [[James MacCleary]] is the MP.

Prior to [[Brexit]] in 2020, Southease was part of the [[South East England (European Parliament constituency)|South East England]] constituency in the [[European Parliament]].

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Southease}}
* [http://southeasevillage.info/ Southease village website]
* [http://www.sussex-opc.org/index.php?cy=1&k=231&t=Parish Details about the church at Online Parish Clerks]
* [http://www.southdownsway.co.uk/sdw_lewes_southease.html South Downs Way page section covering Southease]
* [https://archive.today/20080221123834/http://www.crsbi.ac.uk/ed/sx/sechu/index.htm Details of church architecture from Corpus of Romanesque Sculpture in Britain and Ireland]
*[https://www.geograph.org.uk/gridref/TQ4205 Photos of Southease from geograph.org.uk]

{{Lewes district}}

{{authority control}}

[[Category:Villages in East Sussex]]
[[Category:Civil parishes in East Sussex]]

Philip Howard Colomb

2025-06-14T09:52:04Z

2A00:23C7:C8BC:C501:507C:445E:62F7:256D: Removed link

{{short description|Scottish naval officer}}
{{More citations needed|date=May 2007}}
{{Use British English|date=April 2012}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2020}}
{{Infobox person
| honorific_prefix =
| name = Philip Howard Colomb
| honorific_suffix =

| native_name =
| native_name_lang =
| image =
| alt =
| caption =
| birth_name =
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1831|05|29|df=yes}}

| birth_place = Knockbrex, Scotland
| death_date = {{Death date and age|1899|10|13|1831|05|29|df=yes}}
| death_place = [[Botley, Hampshire]]
| death_cause =
| resting_place =
| resting_place_coordinates =
| monuments =
| nationality = British
| other_names =
| alma_mater =
| occupation = Naval officer
| years_active =
| employer =
| organization =
| known_for =
| notable_works =
| style =
| title =
| term =
| predecessor =
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| party =
| movement =
| opponents =
| boards =
| spouse =
| children =
| parents = {{Plainlist|
* [[George Thomas Colomb]]
* }}
| relatives = [[John Colomb|Sir John Colomb]] (brother)
| module = {{Infobox military person|embed=yes

| allegiance = {{Flag|United Kingdom}}
| branch = {{navy|United Kingdom}}
| serviceyears = 1846–1886
| rank = Vice-Admiral
||commands = {{ubl|{{HMS|Dryad|1866|6}}|{{HMS|Audacious|1869|6}}|{{HMS|Thunderer |1872|6}}}}
| battles = [[Second Anglo-Burmese War]] [[Crimean War]]
| awards =
}}
}}

[[Vice-Admiral]] '''Philip Howard Colomb''', [[Royal Navy|RN]] (29 May 1831 – 13 October 1899). Born in Knockbrex, near [[Gatehouse of Fleet]], [[Dumfries and Galloway]], [[Scotland]], he was a [[Royal Navy]] officer, [[historian]], [[critic]] and inventor. He was the son of General [[George Thomas Colomb]] (1787–1874). His younger brother [[John Colomb|Sir John Colomb]] was also a soldier and strategist of the Royal Navy.

==Naval career==
Colomb entered the navy in 1846, and served first at sea off Portugal in 1847; afterwards, in 1848, in the [[Mediterranean Sea]], and from 1848 to 1851 as [[midshipman]] of the {{HMS|Reynard|1848|2}} in operations against [[piracy]] in Chinese waters; as midshipman and [[shipmate]] of the ''Serpent'' during the [[Burmese War]] of 1852–53; as mate of the ''Phoenix'' in the Arctic Expedition of 1854; as lieutenant of the ''Hastings'' in the [[Baltic Sea]] during the [[Crimean War]], taking part in the [[Bombardment of Sveaborg|attack on Sveaborg]].

He became what was known at that time as a gunner's lieutenant in 1857, and from 1859 to 1863 he served as flag-lieutenant to Rear-Admiral Sir Thomas Pasley at [[HMNB Devonport|Devonport]]. Between 1858 and 1868 Colomb was employed in home waters on a variety of special services, chiefly connected with gunnery, signalling and the tactical characteristics and capacities of [[steam power|steam]] warships. From 1868 to 1870 he commanded {{HMS|Dryad|1866|6}} in the Persian Gulf region and was engaged in the suppression of the slave trade, particularly around [[Zanzibar]] and Oman. His book ''Slave-catching in the Indian Ocean: A record of naval experiences'' was published by Longmans in London in 1873, an interesting and informative account, one distinguished by a studied moderation.

In 1874, while captain of {{HMS|Audacious|1869|6}}, he served for three years as flag-captain to Vice-Admiral Ryder in China; and finally he was appointed, in 1880, to command {{HMS|Thunderer|1872|6}} in the Mediterranean. The next year he was appointed captain of the steam reserve at [[HMNB Portsmouth|Portsmouth]]. After serving three years in that capacity, he remained at Portsmouth as flag-captain to the commander-in-chief until 1886, when he was retired by superannuation before he had attained flag rank. Subsequently, he became rear-admiral, and finally vice-admiral on the retired list.
[[File:The loss of HMS 'Sultan', court martial on Captain Rice at Portsmouth - The Graphic 1889.jpg|thumb|Colomb attended the court martial at Portsmouth of Captain Ernest Rice as his friend, following the loss of {{HMS|Sultan|1870|6}}. ''[[The Graphic]]'', 1889]]

==Contributions to naval warfare==
Colomb saw that the introduction of steam into the navy would necessitate a new system of signals, and new [[Naval tactics|tactics]]. He set himself to devise the former as far back as 1858. Working with [[Francis John Bolton]], he worked out a [[Morse code]] system with signal lamps about 1862.<ref>{{cite book | editor-first = Christopher H. | editor-last = Sterling | title = Military Communications: From Ancient Times to the 21st Century | year = 2008 | location = Santa Barbara, California | publisher = ABC-CLIO, Inc. | isbn = 978-1-85109-732-6| page = 209 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=RBC2nY1rp5MC&pg=PA209}}</ref> This system of signals was adopted by the navy in 1867.

Colomb moved on to tactics. Having first determined by experiment—for which he was given special facilities by the admiralty—what are the manoeuvring powers of ships propelled by steam under varying conditions of speed and helm, he proceeded to devise a system of tactics based on these data. In the sequel he prepared a new evolutionary signal-book, which was adopted by the Royal Navy, and still remains in substance the foundation of the existing system of tactical evolutions at sea. The same series of experimental studies led him to conclusions concerning the chief causes of collisions at sea; and these conclusions, though stoutly combated in many quarters at the outset, have since been generally accepted, and were ultimately embodied in the international code of regulations adopted by the leading maritime nations on the recommendation of a conference at [[Washington, D.C.|Washington]] in 1889.

After his retirement Colomb devoted himself rather to the history of [[naval warfare]], and to the large principles disclosed by its intelligent study, than to experimental inquiries having an immediate practical aim. As in his active career he had wrought organic changes in the ordering, direction and control of fleets, so by his historic studies, pursued after his retirement, he helped greatly to effect, if he did not exclusively initiate, an equally momentous change in the popular, and even the professional, way of regarding sea-power and its conditions.

Colomb did not invent the term "sea-power", as it is of very ancient origin, nor did he employ it until [[Alfred Thayer Mahan|Captain Mahan]] of the United States Navy had made it a household word with all. But he thoroughly grasped its conditions, and in his great work on ''Naval Warfare'' (first published in 1891) he enunciated its principles with great cogency and with keen historic insight. The central idea of his teaching was that naval supremacy is the condition precedent of all vigorous military offensive across the seas, and, conversely, that no vigorous military offensive can be undertaken across the seas until the naval force of the enemy has been accounted for either destroyed or defeated and compelled to withdraw to the shelter of its own ports, or at least driven from the seas by the menace of a force it dare not encounter in the open. This broad and indefeasible principle he enunciated and defended in essay after essay, in lecture after lecture, until what at first was rejected as a paradox came in the end to be accepted as a commonplace. He worked quite independently of Captain Mahan, and his chief conclusions were published before Captain Mahan's works appeared.

The admiral died quite suddenly and in the full swing of his literary activity on 13 October 1899, at Steeple Court, [[Botley, Hampshire|Botley]], [[Hampshire|Hants]]. His latest published work was a biography of his friend [[Astley Cooper Key|Sir Astley Cooper Key]], and his last article was a critical examination of the tactics adopted at [[battle of Trafalgar|Trafalgar]], which showed his acumen and insight at their best.

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{Internet Archive author |sname=Philip Howard Colomb}}
*{{EB1911|wstitle=Colomb, Philip Howard|volume=6|pages=699–700}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Colomb, Philip}}
[[Category:1831 births]]
[[Category:1899 deaths]]
[[Category:Royal Navy personnel of the Crimean War]]
[[Category:Scottish naval historians]]
[[Category:Scottish inventors]]
[[Category:Royal Navy vice admirals]]
[[Category:Military personnel from Dumfries and Galloway]]
[[Category:People from Botley, Hampshire]]

Villers-sur-Mer

2025-06-14T09:47:44Z

2A00:23C7:C8BC:C501:507C:445E:62F7:256D: /* History */Changed tense

{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2021}}
{{Expand French|date=December 2008|Villers-sur-Mer|topic = geo}}
{{Infobox French commune
|name = Villers-sur-mer
|commune status = [[Communes of France|Commune]]
|image = Villers-sur-Mer_-_Avenue_de_la_Republique_et_la_Digue_06-08-04.jpg
|caption = Avenue de la République
|image coat of arms = Blason Villers-sur-Mer.svg
|arrondissement = Lisieux
|canton = Pont-l'Évêque
|INSEE = 14754
|postal code = 14640
|mayor = Chhun-Na Lenglart<ref>{{cite web|title=Répertoire national des élus: les maires|url=https://www.data.gouv.fr/fr/datasets/r/2876a346-d50c-4911-934e-19ee07b0e503|publisher=data.gouv.fr, Plateforme ouverte des données publiques françaises|date=12 March 2025|language=fr}}</ref>
|term = 2024–2026
|intercommunality = [[Communauté de communes Cœur Côte Fleurie|CC Cœur Côte Fleurie]]
|coordinates = {{coord|49.3214|-0.005|format=dms|display=inline,title}}
|elevation m = 38
|elevation min m = 3
|elevation max m = 136
|area km2 = 8.99
|population = {{France metadata Wikidata|population_total}}
|population date = {{France metadata Wikidata|population_as_of}}
|population footnotes = {{France metadata Wikidata|population_footnotes}}
}}

'''Villers-sur-Mer''' ({{IPA|fr|vilɛʁ syʁ mɛʁ|-|Fr-Paris--Villers-sur-Mer.ogg}}) is a [[Communes of France|commune]] in the [[Calvados (department)|Calvados]] [[Departments of France|department]] in Normandy, northwestern France, with a population of 2,644 as of 2017.<ref name=pophist/>

== Geography ==
The commune is located on the French coast of the [[English Channel]], on the [[Côte Fleurie]], between [[Deauville]] and [[Houlgate]], approximately 200 km from Paris.

It is the northernmost [[Communes of France|French commune]] through which falls the [[Prime Meridian (Greenwich)|Prime meridian]]. The latter is represented on the seafront promenade with a blue mark on the ground and on the parapet. This mark is positioned 32 metres west of the actual meridian in use today, the [[IERS Reference Meridian]].

== Paleontology ==
[[File:Villers-sur-mer Les dinosaures.jpg|200px|left|thumb|Topiary dinosaurs address the sea]]
Numerous [[fossil]]s of vertebrates were found in the [[Jurassic]] (Upper [[Callovian]]) Vaches-Noires cliffs in Villers-sur-Mer. Remains include marine reptiles, in particular [[teleosaurids]] (''[[Steneosaurus heberti]]'') and [[metriorhynchids]], [[coelacanths]], a huge suspension-feeding fish ''[[Leedsichthys]]'' and [[dinosaurs]].<ref name=Hua2024/> A 2.5 m-long metriorhynchid skeleton, assigned to [[Metriorhynchus superciliosus|''Metriorhynchus'' cf. ''superciliosus'']], is unique due to the preserved undigested food in its stomach: the remains of invertebrates and gill apparatus of ''Leedsichthys''. This content indicates that large fishes were not the main diet of these thalattosuchians and this individual likely devoured already dead ''Leedsichthys''.<ref name=Hua2024>{{cite journal|author=Stéphane Hua, Jeff Liston, Jérôme Tabouelle|date=February 2024|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/378391210|title=The Diet of ''Metriorhynchus'' (Thalattosuchia, Metriorhynchidae): Additional Discoveries and Paleoecological Implications|journal=Fossils|volume=2|issue=1|pages=66–76|doi=10.3390/fossils2010002|doi-access=free }}</ref> It is also widely known by [[ammonite]] specialists.

Villers-sur-Mere is known for the large topiary dinosaurs facing the sea from the garden of the office of tourism. In certain years, a baby dinosaur is added to the garden. There is a small museum in the enclosure of the office of tourism, which has an outline of the resources and discoveries, along with the Paléospace l'Odyssée, which covers topics as varied as the [[Greenwich Meridian]], the nature and history of the marshland surrounding the town, and fossils found in the nearby Vaches Noires cliffs.

.

== History ==
It seems that Villers-sur-Mer (then known as ''Villers'') was more akin to a group of [[Hamlet (place)|hamlets]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.levillare-villerssurmer.com/lv/lv.php?page=aflv&limite=24|title=Le Villare Espace associatif et Culturel {{!}} Les lettres de Villers|website=www.levillare-villerssurmer.com|access-date=12 February 2019}}</ref> during the early 19th century. According to the [[Cassini map]] (drawn in the 18th century), Villers at that time was made up of a church, two farms (''La Motte'' and ''Fontaine''), and a castle.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.geoportail.gouv.fr.ignipq.local.oshimae.rie.agri/|title=Géoportail|website=www.geoportail.gouv.fr.ignipq.local.oshimae.rie.agri|access-date=12 February 2019}}</ref>

==Population==
The town had a population of 2,644 in 2017, posting a growth of just under 50 residents between then and 2007.<ref name=pophist>[https://www.insee.fr/fr/statistiques/4515315?geo=COM-14754#ancre-POP_T1 Population en historique depuis 1968], INSEE</ref>

==Curiosity==
On the beach of Villers-sur-Mer (last stretch of rue Alfred Feine), the famous last scene of the first film by [[François Truffaut]] was shot: ''[[The 400 Blows|Les Quatre Cent Coups]]'' ends with a [[Freeze-frame shot|freeze frame]] of its boy hero running towards the sea.

n 1978, Villiers-Sur-Mer was twinned with the English village of [[Wickham,_Hampshire|Wickham]].

==Transportation==
[[File:Gare de Villers-sur-Mer.jpg|200px|left|thumb|Railway station]]
[[Gare de Villers-sur-Mer|Villers-sur-Mer station]] is on the line from [[Gare de Trouville-Deauville|Deauville]] to [[Gare de Dives-Cabourg|Dives-sur-Mer]]. The station building is no longer open but train services operate year-round on weekends, and also on weekdays during the summer.

==See also==
* [[Communes of the Calvados department]]
* [[Adélaïde-Louise d'Eckmühl de Blocqueville]] (1815–1892), salon holder, died in Villers-sur-Mer.
{{Clear}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{commons category}}
*[http://www.mairie-villers-sur-mer.fr Official site]

{{Calvados communes}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Villerssurmer}}
[[Category:Communes of Calvados (department)]]
[[Category:Seaside resorts in France]]
[[Category:Calvados communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia]]

Langley, Northumberland

2025-06-14T05:09:52Z

2A00:23C7:C8BC:C501:507C:445E:62F7:256D: /* Landmarks */Added link

{{Short description|Village in Northumberland, England}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2019}}
{{Use British English|date=August 2019}}
{{Infobox UK place
|country = England
|official_name = Langley
|coordinates = {{coord|54.948|-2.275|display=inline,title}}
|population =
|civil_parish=[[Haydon, Northumberland|Haydon]]
|unitary_england= [[Northumberland County Council|Northumberland]]
|lieutenancy_england= [[Northumberland]]
|region = North East England
|constituency_westminster = [[Hexham (UK Parliament constituency)|Hexham]]
|post_town = HEXHAM
|postcode_district = NE47
|postcode_area = NE
|dial_code = 01434
|os_grid_reference = NY825615
|static_image_name = Langley Castle.jpg
|static_image_caption = Langley Castle
}}

'''Langley''' or '''Langley-on-Tyne''' is a small village in [[Northumberland]], England, located to the west of [[Hexham]].

The village is on the [[A686 road|A686]] about {{convert|3|mi|0}} south of [[Haydon Bridge]]. The skyline of Langley on Tyne is still dominated by the lead smelting chimney with its underground flue leading to the old smelt works, now a sawmill, where the old tracks for the ore wagons can still be seen. There are currently just over 100 residents in Langley.

== Governance ==
Langley is in the [[House of Commons of the United Kingdom|parliamentary]] constituency of [[Hexham (UK Parliament constituency)|Hexham]], [[Joe Morris (politician)|Joe Morris]] of the [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]] is the [[Member of Parliament (United Kingdom)|Member of Parliament]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=MPs representing Hexham
|url=https://members.parliament.uk/constituency/4100/overview|archive-url=|archive-date= |access-date=12 August 2024|website=UK Parliament|language=en}}</ref>

For [[Local Government]] purposes it belongs to [[Northumberland County Council]] a [[unitary authority]], with Langley lying in the [[List of electoral wards in Northumberland|''Tynedale Division'']].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.northumberland.gov.uk/|title=Northumberland County Council – Northumberland – UK|work=northumberland.gov.uk}}</ref> Prior to the [[2009 structural changes to local government in England]] it was part of [[Tynedale|Tynedale Council]].

== Landmarks ==
[[Langley Castle]] is a restored [[medieval]] [[tower house]], and a [[Grade I listed building]]. It was built in the middle of the 14th century as a great H-shaped tower of four storeys. Before this the site was the seat of the [[Baron]]s of [[Tynedale]] in the 12th century, from whom descend the [[Tyndall]] family. It was attacked and severely damaged in 1405 by the forces of [[Henry IV of England|Henry IV]] in the campaign against the [[Baron Percy|Percys]] and Archbishop Scrope. It remained as a ruin until it was bought and restored by a local historian, [[Cadwallader John Bates|Cadwallader Bates]], in the late 19th century. He died in 1902 and his wife Josephine continued the restoration. After she died in 1932 the building remained empty until it was used as a [[barracks]] in the [[World War II|Second World War]], following which it was used as a girls' school.<ref>{{cite book
| last = Fry
| first = Plantagenet Somerset
| authorlink = Plantagenet Somerset Fry
| title = The David & Charles Book of Castles
| publisher = David & Charles
| year = 1980
| location =
| pages = 251
| isbn = 0-7153-7976-3}}</ref><ref>{{cite book
| last = Hodgson
| first = John
| authorlink = John Hodgson (antiquary)
| title = A History of Northumberland
| url = https://archive.org/details/ahistorynorthum01tynegoog
| publisher =
| year = 1840
| location =
| pages = Vol 3:pp 367–8}}</ref> Inside Langley Castle are some of the best preserved [[Garderobe]]s in Britain and these can be viewed from the main staircase. It has since been converted into a luxury hotel.

'''Staward Manor''' has an old Roman altar stone and, in 1999, a Roman road was discovered nearby.

[[Allen Banks & Staward Gorge|Staward Gorge]] is a [[Victorian era|Victorian]] garden in a gorge of the [[River Allen, Northumberland|River Allen]]. There are the remains of a medieval [[Pele tower]]. It is an [[Site of special scientific interest|area of Special Scientific Interest]] and the most northerly habitat of [[dormouse|dormice]] in Britain, and while walking in the [[National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty|National Trust]]-owned [[Allen Banks]] and surrounding area, visitors may encounter deer and [[red squirrels]].

== Notable people ==
*[[Catherine Cookson|Dame Catherine Cookson]], author, lived in the village for many years.

==References==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Langley, Northumberland}}
*{{gbmapping|NY831617}}
*[http://www.thegardenstation.co.uk/ The Garden Station]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20070928035709/http://www.flavell.vispa.com/langley.htm Langley Methodist Church]
*[http://ukheritage.net/castles/langley.htm Langley Castle]
*[https://www.nationaltrust.org.uk/allen-banks-and-staward-gorge Allen Banks & Staward Gorge information at the National Trust]

{{authority control}}

[[Category:Villages in Northumberland]]

Langley Castle

2025-06-14T05:06:31Z

2A00:23C7:C8BC:C501:507C:445E:62F7:256D: /* Architecture */Added definition

{{Short description|Grade I listed castle in Langley, Northumberland, United Kingdom}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2022}}
{{Infobox military installation
| name = Langley Castle
| ensign =
| ensign_size =
| location = [[Langley, Northumberland|Langley]], [[Northumberland]]
| country = [[England]]
| image = Langley Castle.jpg
| alt =
| caption = Langley Castle, 2005
| type = [[Tower house]]
| coordinates = {{Coord|54.956|-2.259|display=inline,title}}
| gridref = NY835624
| pushpin_map = United Kingdom Northumberland
| pushpin_mapsize =
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| fate = 
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| designations = [[Listed building|Grade I listed building]]
| website =
}}

'''Langley Castle''' is a restored [[Middle Ages|medieval]] [[tower house]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pastscape.org.uk/hob.aspx?hob_id=16363|title=National Monument Record for Langley Castle}}</ref> in the village of [[Langley, Northumberland|Langley]] in the valley of the [[River Tyne|River South Tyne]]. The castle is {{convert|3|mi|0}} south of [[Haydon Bridge]], [[Northumberland|in Northumberland]], [[England]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |title=Langley Castle, Langley on Tyne, Northumberland: archaeological watching brief |url=https://archaeologydataservice.ac.uk/library/browse/issue.xhtml?recordId=1116010&recordType=GreyLitSeries |journal=Archaeology Data Service |language=en |publication-date=2010 |doi=10.5284/1018800}}</ref> Langley Castle is a Grade I listed building. The property switched ownership several times over hundreds of years until Langley Castle was finally built in 1364. The castle was built in an H shape with four floors, and has four towers on each corner. The castle has several other unique architectural features. After being severely damaged by a fire in 1405, Langley Castle was left in ruins for 500 years until it was restored in 1914. In the last 100 years Langley Castle went through many uses, and now operates as a [[hotel]].

==History==
The Twelfth Century is when any record of Langley was first found, 200 years before the construction of Langley Castle.<ref name=":1" /> It was owned by Adam de Tindal in 1165 until he died in 1191 and his son, Adam de Tindal, inherited the land. When Adam de Tindal died, his daughter, Philippa de Tindal, became the heir of the property. In 1235 there is documentation that Philippa’s spouse, Nicholas de Boltby, was the owner of the property. When Nicholas de Boltby died, Langley was inherited by his daughter and her husband, Isobella and Thomas de Moulton.<ref name=":1" /> Thomas adopted his mother’s [[Maiden and married names|maiden name]], becoming Thomas de Lucy. Following Isobella and Thomas de Lucy’s death their eldest son, Thomas de Lucy, became the owner of Langley in 1305. He died three years later and the property was passed to his younger brother, Anthony de Lucy.

In 1308 Anthony de Lucy put the property to use by holding annual fairs and markets for local people, until Langley was handed to his son, Thomas de Lucy, after his death in 1343. The de Lucy family home was a [[Manor house|Manor House]] on the Langley land until David Bruce destroyed the Manor House in 1346.<ref name=":1" />
[[File:Langley Castle (hotel).jpg|left|thumb|upright=1.3|Langley Castle, nowadays a hotel]]
Four years after the destruction of the Manor House the construction of Langley Castle started and was finished in 1364.<ref name=":1" /> Thomas de Lucy, died a year later and his daughter, Maud de Lucy inherited the property with her second husband the [[Earl]] of Northumberland, Henry Percy. In 1398, Maud de Lucy died, and Henry Percy along with his son Hotspur Percy took over Langley Castle.

In 1405, after the Percys did not pay their taxes to [[Henry IV of England|King Henry IV]], the king gave Langley to [[Robert de Umfraville|Sir Robert Umfraville]]. Shortly before Umfraville was to take possession, Langley Castle was attacked and severely damaged by a fire in 1405 by the forces of Henry IV in the campaign against the [[Baron Percy|Percys]] and [[Richard Scrope (bishop)|Archbishop Scrope]]. Langley Castle lay destroyed for many years; in 1551 the crown gave full ownership to Thomas Percy, the sixth Earl of Northumberland. In 1568 Thomas Percy joined the [[Rising of the North]] Rebellion, but was captured and killed, so Langley Castle went back into the hands of the crown.

In 1625 Langley Castle was bought by John Murray, the first Earl of Annandale, from the crown. Six year later in 1631 Langley Castle was purchased from Murray by Sir Edward Radclyffe. In 1653, Sir Edward Radclyffe had all his property impounded for siding with the King. George Hurd from London then purchased Langley Castle. Edward’s son, Sir [[Francis Radclyffe, 1st Earl of Derwentwater|Francis Radclyffe]], swiftly found the funds to buy Langley Castle and the rest of his father’s property back. Sir Francis Radclyffe was then raised to [[Earl of Derwentwater]], Viscount Langley, and Baron Tynedale. Sir Francis Radclyffe died in 1696 and Langley Castle was inherited by his son Edward Radclyffe.

Edward Radclyffe married [[Lady Mary Tudor]], an illegitimate daughter of [[Charles II of England|King Charles II]]. Langley was then inherited by their son James Radclyffe, becoming the new Earl of Derwentwater and Viscount Langley.<ref name=":1" /> In 1714 James Radclyffe was a part of the [[Jacobitism|Jacobite Rebellion]] which led to his capture and then execution in the [[Tower of London]]. After James Radclyffe died the Langley estate was yet again given back to the crown.

As a gift Langley Castle was given by the crown to the Governors of the Royal Hospital in 1749. In 1833 the governors appointed John Grey as the main person to oversee Langley Castle.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=The Barony and Castle of Langley |url=https://archaeologydataservice.ac.uk/library/browse/details.xhtml?recordId=3210870 |journal=Archaeology Data Service |language=en |publication-date=1885 |doi=10.5284/1059497}}</ref> With Grey's expert experience he increased the Langley estate’s annual income by £15,000. Langley was bought and restored by a local historian, [[Cadwallader John Bates|Cadwallader Bates]], in 1882. Bates unexpectedly died in 1902 before the restoration of the Castle was finished. Bate's wife Josephine continued the restoration, and Langley castle was finally finished in 1914.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |last=Langley on Tyne, Hexham, Northumberland |first=Langley Castle Hotel |title=The History of Langley Castle |url=https://www.langleycastle.co.uk/files-sbbasic/ba_langleycastle_gb/langley_castle_history_leaflet.pdf}}</ref>

After Josephine Bates died, in 1932 the building remained empty until it was used as a [[barracks]] in the [[World War II|Second World War]], following which it was used as a girls' school. In the 1980s it was bought by the Robb family. In 1986, it was bought by Dr [[Stuart Madnick]], a professor at the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]], who converted it into a hotel. In 2022 he bought a seal that belonged to the first Baron of Langley, Adam de Tindal.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-08-21 |title=Owner seals the deal to secure more castle history |url=https://www.hexham-courant.co.uk/news/20674649.owner-seals-deal-secure-history-langley-castle/ |access-date=2025-02-13 |website=Hexham Courant |language=en}}</ref>

== Architecture ==

[[Image:Langley Castle Plan.JPG|thumb|Ground plan of the castle from 1853; A - entrance; B - vaulted chamber; C - garderobe tower; F - fireplaces|220x220px]]Langley Castle is set in a woodland estate of 10 acres (40,000 m2). It was built in the middle of the 14th century by Sir Thomas de Lucy as an H-shaped tower of four storeys.<ref name=":0" /> It was originally built in 1350, but after the destructive fire of 1405 it lay in ruins for 500 years until Cadwallader Bates and his wife Josephine restored it in 1914.

The building is a quadrangular castle, fully solid with no courtyard. It has a main central hall and is an example of an upper floor hall house design. Each corner of the castle has a major tower that is one storey above the main building. There is an extra tower that is flush with the level of the roof.

This small pele-like structure has the original entrance to the castle connecting to the spiral staircase that leads to each floor. Langley Castle also has gigantic boulders that the walls are built on that serve as the foundation, making it difficult for an attempted break-in. Other additions added by Cadwallader Bates included increasing the size of the windows and putting a door on the south side of the castle.

Another unique feature is the [[portcullis]] slot and roof boss near the main entrance on the wall of the east side of the castle. There are also dual moulded doorways between the first-floor hallway and the entrance to the lobby. The chapel now serves as the Cadwallader Bates Memorial Room. One of the more remarkable features of the building is the South-West tower, which is occupied by 12 [[garderobe]]s (toilets), four to each floor. This was very uncommon to see in houses and castles at the time. Each stall had its own pointed archway. These garderobes are some of the most exceptional remaining within this type of architecture in all of Europe.<ref name=":0" /> Although lots of restoration went on in the 20th century, many of the original medieval designs and architecture remain throughout the castle.

== See also ==
* [[Castles in Great Britain and Ireland]]
* [[List of castles in England]]

==Further reading==
*{{cite book|last=Fry|first=Plantagenet Somerset|title=The David & Charles Book of Castles|publisher=David & Charles|year=1980|page=251|ISBN=0-7153-7976-3}}
*{{cite book|title=A History of Northumberland|year=1840|first=John|last=Hodgson|author-link=John Hodgson (antiquary)|volume=Pt2 Vol 3|pages=367–8}}

==References==
{{reflist}}
{{refbegin}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{commons category}}
*[http://www.langleycastle.com/ Langley Castle Hotel]
*[http://northumberlandtales.blogspot.com/2008/08/langley-castle.html More details on early ownership]

{{Castles in North East England}}

[[Category:Castles in Northumberland]]
[[Category:Grade I listed buildings in Northumberland]]
[[Category:Grade I listed castles]]
[[Category:Hotels in Northumberland]]

Golden Plough Tavern

2025-06-14T05:02:15Z

2A00:23C7:C8BC:C501:507C:445E:62F7:256D: /* Tavern */Added hyphen

{{short description|Historic tavern in Pennsylvania, United States}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=March 2025}}

{{Infobox NRHP
| name = Gen. Horatio Gates House and Golden Plough Tavern
| nrhp_type =
| image = YorkPaGPTavern.jpg
| caption =
| location = 157–159 W. Market St. [[York, Pennsylvania]]
| coordinates = {{coord|39|57|43|N|76|43|47|W|display=inline,title}}
| locmapin = Pennsylvania#USA
| built = 1741
| builder = Joseph Chambers
| architecture = Georgian
| added = December 6, 1971
| area = {{convert|1|acre}}
| refnum = 71000737<ref name="nris">{{NRISref|version=2010a}}</ref>
| designated_other1_name = Pennsylvania state historical marker
| designated_other1_abbr=PHMC
| designated_other1_date = June 23, 1967<ref name=phmcdatabase>{{cite web | title =PHMC Historical Markers | work =Historical Marker Database | publisher =Pennsylvania Historical & Museum Commission | url =http://search.pahistoricalmarkers.com/ | access-date =December 30, 2013 | archive-url =https://archive.today/20131207041235/http://search.pahistoricalmarkers.com/ | archive-date =December 7, 2013 | url-status =dead }}</ref>
| designated_other1_link = List of Pennsylvania state historical markers
| designated_other1_color = navy
| designated_other1_textcolor=#ffc94b
}}

The '''Gen. Horatio Gates House''' and '''Golden Plough Tavern''' are two connecting historic buildings which are located in downtown [[York, Pennsylvania|York]], [[York County, Pennsylvania]]. The buildings were restored between July 1961 and June 1964,<ref>{{cite web |url={{NRHP-PA|H001123_01H.pdf}} |title=NRHP Inventory – Nomination Form, General Gates House and Golden Plough Tavern |publisher=National Register of Historic Places |date=July 1971 |format=PDF |access-date=February 13, 2012}}</ref> and are operated as a museum by the York County History Center.

==Gates house==
The General Horatio Gates House was built by Joseph Chambers in 1751, and connected to the Golden Plough Tavern through a shared kitchen. It is a {{frac|2|1|2}}-story, brick and [[limestone]] dwelling in the [[Georgian architecture|Georgian]]-style.

It was the home of General [[Horatio Gates]] (1727–1806), while the [[Second Continental Congress]] convened in York, September 30, 1777, to June 27, 1778, and was added to the [[National Register of Historic Places]] in 1971.<ref name="nris"/>

==Tavern==
The Golden Plough Tavern was built by Martin Eichelberger in 1741 and is a two-story, Germanic-influenced medieval style building. The tavern is quite significant for its age and social history but is also an exceptional museum of [[American historic carpentry|historic carpentry]] and [[vernacular architecture]].

The ground floor wall construction is a rare type which blends [[timber framing]] with [[log building]]. These walls are framed and the spaces between the posts are ''infilled'' with [[hewn]] beams, each beam fitted into its own mortise, and the gaps between the beams ''chinked'' with stones and mud like a [[log cabin]]. This construction technique is similar to timber framing infilled with planks known by many names including [[post-and-plank]].

The upper walls are [[Timber framing#Half-timbered|''half timbered'']] in a Germanic style with [[brick nog]] and [[wattle and daub]] infill. Half timbered buildings in America are relatively rare, generally found in some areas settled by German immigrants.

The roof structure is framed with a Germanic type of truss called a [[liegender stuhl]] directly translated as a "lying chair" where ''chair'' has the general meaning of ''support''. Liegender stuhl trusses in Europe are found in Switzerland and Germany.

The [[wood shingle]]s on the roof are also a rare type for America.

The [[Barnett Bobb House|Barnett Bobb Log House]] was moved to this location in 1968.<ref name="arch">{{cite web| url = https://www.dot7.state.pa.us/ce/SelectWelcome.asp| title = National Historic Landmarks & National Register of Historic Places in Pennsylvania| publisher = CRGIS: Cultural Resources Geographic Information System| format = Searchable database| access-date = 2011-12-19| archive-date = 2007-07-21| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070721014609/https://www.dot7.state.pa.us/ce/SelectWelcome.asp| url-status = dead}} ''Note:'' This includes {{cite web| url = {{NRHP-PA|H001123_01H.pdf}}| title = National Register of Historic Places Inventory Nomination Form: Gen. Horatio Gates House and Golden Plough Tavern| access-date = 2011-12-18| author = Pennsylvania Register of Historic Sites and Landmarks| format = PDF| date = July 1971}}</ref>

The tavern was added to the [[National Register of Historic Places]] in 1971.<ref name="nris"/>

==Gallery==
<gallery mode=packed heights="150">
File:Photocopy of drawing (from York County Historical Society) William Wagner, artist ca. 1830 SOUTH FRONT AND WEST SIDE (TAVERN ON FAR LEFT; JOSEPH CHAMBERS HOUSE ADJOINING ON RIGHT) HABS PA,67-YORK,12-9.tif|Circa-1830 drawing of the buildings, York County Historical Society.
File:Gen Gates House York PA.JPG|Gen. Gates House, November 2010
File:Golden Plow York PA.JPG|Golden Plough Tavern, November 2010
</gallery>

== See also ==
* [[Conway Cabal]]
* [[National Register of Historic Places listings in York County, Pennsylvania]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Golden Plow Tavern, York, Pennsylvania}}
*[https://www.yorkhistorycenter.org/ York County History Center website]
*[[Historic American Buildings Survey]] (HABS) documentation, filed under York, York County, PA:
**{{HABS |survey=PA-5169 |id=pa1016 |title=Golden Plough Tavern, 159 West Market Street |photos=9 |data=1 |cap=1 |link=no}}
**{{HABS |survey=PA-5189 |id=pa1335 |title=Joseph Chambers House (Horatio Gates House), 157 West Market Street |data=1 |link=no}}

{{National Register of Historic Places in Pennsylvania}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Continental Congress]]
[[Category:Commercial buildings on the National Register of Historic Places in Pennsylvania]]
[[Category:Historic American Buildings Survey in Pennsylvania]]
[[Category:Houses on the National Register of Historic Places in Pennsylvania]]
[[Category:Commercial buildings completed in 1741]]
[[Category:1741 establishments in Pennsylvania]]
[[Category:Georgian architecture in Pennsylvania]]
[[Category:Taverns in Pennsylvania]]
[[Category:Taverns in the American Revolution]]
[[Category:Pennsylvania in the American Revolution]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in York, Pennsylvania]]
[[Category:Museums in York County, Pennsylvania]]
[[Category:American Revolutionary War museums in Pennsylvania]]
[[Category:Houses in York County, Pennsylvania]]
[[Category:National Register of Historic Places in York County, Pennsylvania]]

Horatio Gates

2025-06-14T05:00:43Z

2A00:23C7:C8BC:C501:507C:445E:62F7:256D: /* Seven Years' War */Added hyphen

{{Short description|British-born American army officer (1727-1806)}}
{{For|the Canadian businessman|Horatio Gates (businessman)}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=August 2021}}
{{Infobox military person
| name = Horatio Gates
| image = File:HoratioGatesByStuart.jpeg
| caption = ''[[Portrait of Horatio Gates]]'' {{circa}} 1794 by [[Gilbert Stuart]], on display at the [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]]
| nickname =
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1727|07|26|mf=yes}}
| birth_place = [[Maldon, Essex]], [[Kingdom of Great Britain| Great Britain]]
| death_date = {{Death date and age|1806|04|10|1727|07|26|mf=yes}}
| death_place = [[New York City]], -[[United States of America|U.S.]]
| placeofburial = [[Trinity Church (Manhattan)|Trinity Church graveyard]] in [[New York City]]
| allegiance = {{Flagcountry|Kingdom of Great Britain}} {{Flagu|United States|1777-Ross}}
| branch = {{army|Kingdom of Great Britain}} {{Flagicon image|Betsy Ross flag.svg}} [[Continental Army]]
| serviceyears = 1745–1769 1775–1783
| rank = [[Major (United Kingdom)|Major]] ([[Kingdom of Great Britain|Great Britain]]) [[Major general (United States)|Major general]] (United States)
| unit =
| commands = {{tree list}}
*[[Continental Army]]
** Adjutant General
** Canadian Department
** Northern Department
** Eastern Department
** Southern Department
{{tree list/end}}
| battles = {{tree list}}
* [[War of the Austrian Succession]]
* [[Seven Years' War]]
* [[American Revolutionary War]]
** [[Battles of Saratoga]]
** [[Battle of Camden]]
{{tree list/end}}
| awards =
| relations =
| laterwork =
| signature = Signature of Horatio Lloyd Gates (1727–1806).png
}}

'''Horatio Lloyd Gates''' (July 26, 1727{{spaced ndash}}April 10, 1806) was a British-born American army officer who served as a general in the [[Continental Army]] during the early years of the [[American Revolutionary War|Revolutionary War]]. He took credit for the American victory in the [[Battles of Saratoga]] (1777) – a matter of contemporary and historical controversy – and was blamed for the defeat at the [[Battle of Camden]] in 1780. Gates has been described as "one of the Revolution's most controversial military figures" because of his role in the [[Conway Cabal]], which attempted to discredit and replace [[General George Washington]]; the battle at Saratoga; and his actions during and after his defeat at Camden.<ref name=B80>Billias, p. 80</ref><ref>[[Barbara W. Tuchman|Tuchman, Barbara W.]] ''The First Salute: A View of the American Revolution''. New York: Ballantine Books, 1988. p.192</ref>

Born in the town of [[Maldon, Essex|Maldon]] in Essex, Gates served in the [[British Army]] during the [[War of the Austrian Succession]] and the [[French and Indian War]]. Frustrated by his inability to advance in the army, Gates [[Purchase of commissions in the British Army|sold his commission]] and established a small [[plantation]] in [[Virginia]]. On Washington's recommendation, the [[Continental Congress]] made Gates the [[Adjutant general|Adjutant General]] of the [[Continental Army]] in 1775. He was assigned command of [[Fort Ticonderoga]] in 1776 and command of the [[Departments of the Continental Army|Northern Department]] in 1777. Shortly after Gates took charge of the Northern Department, the Continental Army defeated the British at the crucial Battles of Saratoga. After the battles, some members of Congress considered replacing Washington with Gates, but Washington ultimately retained his position as [[commander-in-chief]] of the Continental Army.

Gates took command of the Southern Department in 1780, but was removed from command later that year after the disastrous American defeat at Camden. Gates's military reputation was destroyed by the battle and he did not hold another command for the remainder of the war. Gates retired to his Virginian estate after the war, but eventually decided to [[Manumission|free]] his [[slavery in the United States|slaves]] and move to New York. He was elected to a single term in the [[New York State Legislature]] and died in 1806.

==Early life and education==
Horatio Gates was born on July 26, 1727, in [[Maldon]], in the English county of [[Essex]]. His parents (of record) were Robert and Dorothea Gates. Evidence suggests that Dorothea was the granddaughter of John Hubbock Sr. (died 1692) postmaster at Fulham, and the daughter of John Hubbock Jr., listed in 1687 sources as a vintner. She had a prior marriage, to Thomas Reeve, whose family was well situated in the royal Customs service. Dorothea Reeve was housekeeper for the second [[Duke of Leeds]], [[Peregrine Osborne, 2nd Duke of Leeds|Peregrine Osborne]] (died June 25, 1729), which in the social context of England at the time was a patronage plum. Marriage into the Reeve family opened the way for Robert Gates to get into and then up through the Customs service. So too, Dorothea Gates's appointment circa 1729 to housekeeper for the third [[Charles Powlett, 3rd Duke of Bolton|Duke of Bolton]] provided Horatio Gates with otherwise off-bounds opportunities for education and social advancement. Through Dorothea Gates's associations and energetic networking, young [[Horace Walpole]] was enlisted as Horatio's godfather and namesake.<ref name=B80/>

In 1745, Horatio Gates obtained a military commission with financial help from his parents, and political support from the Duke of Bolton. Gates served with the [[20th Foot]] in Germany during the [[War of the Austrian Succession]]. He arrived in [[Halifax, Nova Scotia]], under [[Edward Cornwallis]] and later was promoted to captain in the [[45th Foot]], under the command of [[Hugh Warburton]], the following year.<ref>[https://archive.org/stream/selectionsfrompu00nova#page/n345/mode/2up ''Selections from the public documents of the province of Nova Scotia''] p.627</ref> He participated in several engagements against the [[Mi'kmaq]] and [[Acadians]], particularly the [[Battle at Chignecto]]. He married the daughter of [[Erasmus James Philipps]], Elizabeth, at [[St. Paul's Church (Halifax)]] in 1754. Leaving Nova Scotia, he sold his commission in 1754 and purchased a captaincy in one of the New York Independent Companies. One of his mentors in his early years was [[Edward Cornwallis]], the uncle of [[Charles Cornwallis, 1st Marquess Cornwallis|Charles Cornwallis]], against whom the Americans would later fight. Gates served under Cornwallis when the latter was governor of [[Nova Scotia]], and also developed a friendship with the lieutenant governor, [[Robert Monckton]].<ref name=B81>Billias, p. 81</ref>

==Career==

===Seven Years' War===
[[File:Horatio Gates at National Portrait Gallery crop.jpg|left|thumb|General Gates as he appears at the [[National Portrait Gallery (United States)|National Portrait Gallery]] in Washington, D.C.]]
{{Further|Great Britain in the Seven Years War}}

During the [[French and Indian War]], Gates served General [[Edward Braddock]] in America. In 1755 he accompanied the ill-fated [[Braddock Expedition]] in its attempt to control access to the [[Ohio River|Ohio Valley]]. This force included other future Revolutionary War leaders such as [[Thomas Gage]], [[Charles Lee (general)|Charles Lee]], [[Daniel Morgan]], and [[George Washington]]. Gates didn't see significant combat, since he was severely injured early in the action. His experience in the early years of the war was limited to commanding small companies, but he apparently became quite good at military administration. In 1759 he was made [[brigade major]] to Brigadier General [[John Stanwix]], a position he continued when General [[Robert Monckton]] took over Stanwix's command in 1760.<ref name=B82>Billias, p. 82</ref> Gates served under Monckton in the [[British expedition against Martinique|capture of Martinique]] in 1762, although he saw little combat. Monckton bestowed on him the honor of bringing news of the success to England, which brought him a promotion to major. The end of the war also brought an end to Gates' prospects for advancement, as the army was demobilized and he did not have the financial wherewithal to purchase commissions for higher ranks.<ref name=B82/>

In November 1755, Gates married Elizabeth Phillips and had a son, Robert, in 1758. Gates' military career stalled, as advancement in the British army required money or influence. Frustrated by the British [[Social structure of the United Kingdom|class hierarchy]], he sold his major's commission in 1769, and came to North America. In 1772 he re-established contact with George Washington, and purchased a modest [[plantations in the American South|plantation]] in [[Colony of Virginia|Virginia]] the following year.

===American Revolutionary War===
When the word reached Gates of the [[American Revolutionary War|outbreak of war]] in late May 1775, he rushed to [[Mount Vernon (plantation)|Mount Vernon]] and offered his services to Washington. In June, the [[Continental Congress]] began organizing the [[Continental Army]]. In accepting command, Washington urged the appointment of Gates as adjutant of the army. On June 17, 1775, Congress commissioned Gates as a [[brigadier general]] and [[adjutant general]] of the [[Continental Army]]. He is considered to be the first Adjutant General of the [[United States Army]].<ref>{{cite book| last = Horgan| first = Lucille E.| title = Forged in War: The Continental Congress and the Origin of Military Supply and Acquisition Policy| year = 2002| publisher = Greenwood Publishing Group| page = 32| isbn = 978-0-313-32161-0 }}</ref>

Gates's previous wartime service in administrative posts was invaluable to the fledgling army, as he, Washington and [[Charles Lee (general)|Charles Lee]] were the only men with significant experience in the British regular army. As adjutant, Horatio Gates created the army's system of records and orders and helped standardize regiments from the various colonies. During the [[siege of Boston]], he was a voice of caution, speaking in war councils against what he saw as overly risky actions.{{sfn|Billias|1994|p=85}}

Although his administrative skills were valuable, Gates longed for a field command. By June 1776, he had been promoted to [[major general]] and given command of the [[Departments of the Continental Army|Canadian Department]] to replace [[John Sullivan (general)|John Sullivan]]. This unit of the army was then in disorganized retreat from Quebec, following the arrival of British reinforcements at [[Quebec City]]. Furthermore, disease, especially [[smallpox]], had taken a significant toll on the ranks, which also suffered from poor morale and dissension over pay and conditions. The retreat from Quebec to [[Fort Ticonderoga]] also brought Gates into conflict with the authority of Major General [[Philip Schuyler]], commander of the army's Northern Department, which retained jurisdiction over Ticonderoga. During the summer of 1776, this struggle was resolved, with Schuyler given command of the department as a whole and Gates command of Ticonderoga and the defense of [[Lake Champlain]].{{sfn|Billias|1994|p=63}}

Gates spent the summer of 1776 overseeing the enlargement of the American fleet that would be needed to prevent the British from taking control of Lake Champlain. Much of this work eventually fell to [[Benedict Arnold]], who had been with the army during its retreat and was also an experienced seaman. Gates rewarded Arnold's initiative by giving him command of the fleet when it sailed to meet the British. The American fleet was defeated at the [[Battle of Valcour Island]] in October 1776, although the defense of the lake was sufficient to delay a British advance against Ticonderoga until 1777.<ref>* {{cite book|title=Sea of Glory: The Continental Navy fights for Independence|first=Nathan|last=Miller|publisher=David McKay|year=1974|page=172|isbn=0-679-50392-7|ref=Miller|oclc=844299|location=New York|url=https://archive.org/details/seaofglorycontin0000mill}}</ref>

====Battle at Saratoga====
When it was clear that the British were not going to make an attempt on Ticonderoga in 1776, Gates marched some of the army south to join Washington's army in [[Pennsylvania]], where it had retreated after [[New York and New Jersey campaign|the fall of New York City]]. Though his troops were with Washington at the [[Battle of Trenton]], Gates was not. Always an advocate of defensive action, Gates argued that Washington should retreat further rather than attack. When Washington dismissed this advice, Gates claimed illness as an excuse not to join the nighttime attack and instead traveled on to [[Baltimore]], where the Continental Congress was meeting. Gates had always maintained that he, not Washington, should have commanded the Continental Army. This opinion was supported by several wealthy and prominent New England delegates to the Continental Congress. Although Gates actively lobbied Congress for the appointment, Washington's stunning successes at Trenton and [[Battle of Princeton|Princeton]] subsequently left no doubt as to who should be commander-in-chief. Gates was then sent back north with orders to assist Schuyler in the Northern Department.

But in 1777, Congress blamed Schuyler and [[Arthur St. Clair|St. Clair]] for the [[Siege of Fort Ticonderoga (1777)|loss of Fort Ticonderoga]], though Gates had exercised a lengthy command in the region. Congress finally gave Gates command of the Northern Department on August 4.

[[File:Surrender of General Burgoyne.jpg|thumb|right|425px|''[[Surrender of General Burgoyne]]'' by [[John Trumbull]] Gates is in the center, with arms outstretched]]

Gates assumed command of the Northern Department on August 19 and led the army during the defeat of British General [[John Burgoyne|Burgoyne's]] invasion in the [[Battles of Saratoga]]. While Gates and his supporters took credit for the victory, military action was directed by a cohort of field commanders led by [[Benedict Arnold]], [[Enoch Poor]], [[Benjamin Lincoln]], and [[Daniel Morgan]]. Arnold in particular took the field against Gates' orders and rallied the troops in a furious attack on the British lines, suffering serious injuries to his leg. [[John Stark]]'s defeat of a sizable British raiding force at the [[Battle of Bennington]]–Stark's forces killed or captured over 900 British soldiers–was also a substantial factor in the outcome at Saratoga.

Gates stands front and center in [[John Trumbull]]'s painting of the ''[[Surrender of General Burgoyne]]'' at Saratoga,<ref>[http://www.aoc.gov/cc/art/rotunda/surrender_burgoyne.cfm Surrender of General Burgoyne]</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Key to the Surrender of General Burgoyne |url=http://americanrevolution.org/burgkey.html|access-date=January 20, 2008}}</ref> which hangs in the [[U.S. Capitol Rotunda]]. By Congressional resolution, a gold medal was presented to Gates to commemorate his victories over the British in the Battles of [[Battle of Bennington|Bennington]], [[Battle of Fort Stanwix|Fort Stanwix]] and Saratoga. Gold and bronze replicas of that medal are still awarded by the [[Adjutant General]]'s Corps Regimental Association in recognition of outstanding service.<ref>[http://www.agcra.com/wp/awards/ Adjutant General's Corps Regimental Association Awards] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150406235014/http://www.agcra.com/wp/awards/ |date=April 6, 2015 }}. Retrieved December 9, 2009</ref>

Gates followed up the victory at Saratoga with a proposal to invade Quebec, but his suggestion was rejected by Washington.<ref>Mintz p. 228</ref>

====Conway Cabal====
Gates attempted to maximize his political return on the victory, particularly as George Washington was having no present successes with the main army. In fact, Gates insulted Washington by sending reports directly to Congress instead of to Washington, his commanding officer. At the behest of Gates's friends and the delegates from New England, Congress named Gates to president of the [[Board of War]], a post he filled while retaining his field command—an unprecedented conflict of interest. The post technically made Gates Washington's civilian superior, conflicting with his lower military rank. At this time, some members of Congress briefly considered replacing Washington with Gates as commander-in-chief, supported by military officers also in disagreement with Washington's leadership.

Washington learned of the campaign against him by Gates's adjutant, [[James Wilkinson]]. Following a drunken party, Wilkinson repeated the remarks of General [[Thomas Conway]] to Gates, which were critical of Washington, to aides of General [[William Alexander (American general)|William Alexander]], who passed them on to Washington.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Cox |first=Howard |title=American Traitor: General James Wikinson's Betrayal of the Republic and Escape From Justice |publisher=Georgetown University Press |year=2023 |isbn=9781647123420 |location=Washington, DC |pages=43–61 |language=en}}</ref> Gates (then unaware of Wilkinson's involvement) accused persons unknown of copying his mail and forwarded Conway's letter to the president of Congress, [[Henry Laurens]]. Washington's supporters in Congress and the army rallied to his side, ending the "[[Conway Cabal]]".<ref>Some historians doubt the existence of an organized effort of Washington's opponents that might be called a cabal. One of those historians, Christopher Ward, nonetheless wrote: "The actual existence of such a conspiracy is of little importance in comparison with the general belief in its existence, which prevailed among Washington's friends in the army and elsewhere. Lafayette asserted it was a fact." Ward, Christopher. John Richard Alden, ed. ''The War of the Revolution''. New York: Skyhorse Publishing, 2011. {{ISBN|978-1-61608-080-8}}. Originally published Old Saybrook, CT: Konecky & Konecky, 1952. p. 560.</ref><ref>Historian John Ferling wrote: "In all likelihood the supposed intrigue never amounted to more than a handful of disgruntled individuals who grumbled to one another about Washington's shortcomings. It is almost certain that Conway never belonged to any cabal, although he doubtless said harsh things about Washington." [[John E. Ferling|Ferling, John]]. ''Almost a Miracle: The American Victory in the War of Independence''. New York: Oxford University Press, 2009. {{ISBN|978-0-19-538292-1}}. (pbk.) Originally published in hard cover in 2007. p. 282.</ref> Gates then apologized to Washington for his role in the affair, resigned from the Board of War, and took an assignment as commander of the Eastern Department in November 1778.

====Camden====
In May 1780, news of the [[Siege of Charleston|fall]] of [[Charleston, South Carolina]], and the capture of General [[Benjamin Lincoln]]'s southern army reached Congress.<ref>Ward, 2011 (1952), p. 715.</ref> It voted to place Gates in command of the Southern Department.<ref>Ward, 2011 (1952), p. 716.</ref> He learned of his new command at his home near [[Shepherdstown, Virginia]] (now [[West Virginia]]), and headed south to assume command of the remaining Continental forces near the [[Deep River (North Carolina)|Deep River]] in [[North Carolina]] on July 25, 1780.<ref>Ward, 2011 (1952), p. 717.</ref>

Gates led Continental forces and militia south and prepared to face the British forces of [[Charles Cornwallis, 1st Marquess Cornwallis|Charles Cornwallis]], who had advanced to [[Camden, South Carolina]]. In the [[Battle of Camden]] on August 16, Gates's army was routed, with nearly 1,000 men captured, along with the army's baggage train and artillery. Analysis of the debacle suggests that Gates greatly overestimated the capabilities of his inexperienced militia, an error magnified when he lined those forces against the British right, traditional position of the strongest troops. He also failed to make proper arrangements for an organized retreat. Gates's principal accomplishment in the unsuccessful campaign was to cover {{convert|170|mi|km}} in three days on horseback, heading north in retreat. His disappointment was compounded by news of his son Robert's death in combat in October. [[Nathanael Greene]] replaced Gates as commander on December 3, and Gates returned home to Virginia. Gates's devastating defeat at Camden not only ruined his new American army, but it also ruined his military reputation.

====Board of inquiry====
Because of the debacle at Camden, Congress passed a resolution calling for a board of inquiry, the prelude to a [[court-martial]], to look into Gates's conduct. Always one to support a court-martial of other officers, particularly those with whom he was in competition for advancement, such as Benedict Arnold, Gates vehemently opposed the inquiry into his own conduct. Although he never was again placed in field command, Gates's New England supporters in Congress came to his aid in 1782, repealing the call for an inquiry. Gates then rejoined Washington's staff at [[Newburgh, New York]]. Rumors implicated some of his aides in the [[Newburgh Conspiracy]] of 1783. Gates may have agreed to involve himself, though this remains unclear.<ref>{{cite book |last=Knight |first=Peter |title=Conspiracy Theories in American History: An Encyclopedia, Volume 1 |year=2003 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qMIDrggs8TsC |publisher=ABL-CIO |page=540 |isbn=978-1-57607-812-9 |via=Google Books}}</ref>

==Later life and death==
[[File:Traveler's Rest WV1.jpg|thumb|right|Traveller's Rest]]

Gates' wife Elizabeth died in the summer of 1783. He retired in 1784 and again returned to his estate, [[Traveller's Rest (Kearneysville, West Virginia)|Traveller's Rest]], in Virginia (near present-day [[Kearneysville, West Virginia|Kearneysville]], [[Jefferson County, West Virginia]]). Gates served as vice president of the [[Society of the Cincinnati]], the organization of former Continental Army officers, and president of its Virginia chapter, and worked to rebuild his life. He proposed marriage to Janet Montgomery, the widow of General [[Richard Montgomery]], but she refused.<ref>{{cite book |last=Royster |first=Charles |chapter=PROLOGUE The Call to War, 1775–1783 |title=A Revolutionary People at War: The Continental Army and American Character, 1775–1783 |publisher=University of North Carolina Press |year=1979 |page=95 |isbn=0-8078-1385-0}}</ref>

In 1786, Gates married Mary Valens, a wealthy [[Liverpool|Liverpudlian]] who had come to the colonies in 1773 with her sister and Rev. [[Bartholomew Booth]], who ran a boys' boarding school in [[Maryland]].<ref>Whitehead, Maurice. ''The Academies of the Reverend Bartholomew Booth in Georgian England and Revolutionary America'', [[Lewiston, New York]]: [[Edwin Mellen Press]], 1996</ref> Booth had been the curate for the "Chapel in the Woods," later to become [[Saint John's Church (Hagerstown, Maryland)|Saint John's Church]] at Hagerstown, Maryland. Many have suggested that Gates freed his slaves at the urging of his friend [[John Adams]] along with the sale of Traveller's Rest in 1790.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3A1giyFWrYQC&pg=PA47 |pages=47–48 |title=An Argument on the Unconstitutionality of Slavery |first=G. W. F. |last=Mellen |year=1841 |publisher=Saxton & Peirce}}</ref> This narrative was popularized in 1837 by the Anti-Slavery Record, an abolitionist publication.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|date=July 28, 2015|title=Horatio Gates, Samuel Washington, and America's Original Sin|url=http://blog.nyhistory.org/horatio-gates-samuel-washington-and-americas-original-sin/|access-date=October 15, 2020|website=New-York Historical Society|language=en-US}}</ref> The paper produced an account of the event in which Gates supposedly “summoned his numerous family and slaves about him, and amidst their tears of affection and gratitude, gave them their freedom.”<ref name=":0" /> In fact, the terms of the deed of sale for Traveller's Rest indicate that Gates sold his slaves for £800 together with the plantation.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|last=Procknow|first=Gene|date=November 7, 2017|title=Slavery through the Eyes of Revolutionary Generals|url=https://allthingsliberty.com/2017/11/slavery-eyes-revolutionary-generals/|access-date=October 15, 2020|website=Journal of the American Revolution|language=en-US}}</ref> The deed did not immediately free any of Gates's slaves, rather it stipulated that five would be free after five years; the remaining eleven would have to wait until they reached the age of twenty-eight.<ref name=":1" /> Nevertheless, even this limited gesture toward emancipation surpassed the other major generals of the revolutionary era; for none but Gates made any efforts to emancipate their slaves during their lifetimes.<ref name=":1" />

The couple thereupon moved to an estate at [[Rose Hill, Manhattan|Rose Hill]] in present-day [[midtown Manhattan]], where the local authorities received him warmly.<ref>(1) {{cite web|url=https://ephemeralnewyork.wordpress.com/2018/09/03/what-remains-of-manhattans-rose-hill-enclave/|title=What remains of Manhattan's Rose Hill enclave|work=Ephemeral New York|date=September 3, 2018|format=blog|via=[[WordPress]]|access-date=January 23, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190123024836/https://ephemeralnewyork.wordpress.com/2018/09/03/what-remains-of-manhattans-rose-hill-enclave/|archive-date=January 23, 2019|url-status=dead}} (2) {{cite journal|title=Horatio Gates|last=Brandow|first=Rev. John H.|journal=Proceedings of the New York State Historical Association|volume=3|year=1903|pages=17–18|jstor=42889819|oclc=862849155}}</ref> His later support for [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson's]] presidential candidacy ended his friendship with Adams. Gates and his wife remained active in New York City society, and he was elected to a single term in the [[New York State Legislature]] in 1800.<ref>Billias, pp. 103–104</ref> He died in his Rose Hill home on April 10, 1806, and was buried in the [[Trinity Church (Manhattan)|Trinity Church]] graveyard at the foot of [[Wall Street]], though the exact location of his grave is unknown.<ref>Luzader, p. xxiii</ref>

==Legacy==
* The town of [[Gates, New York|Gates]] in [[Monroe County, New York]], is named in Gates' honor, as is Horatio Street in [[Manhattan]]'s [[Greenwich Village]], New York City,<ref>{{cite streetbook}}</ref> Gates Avenue, which runs from [[Ridgewood, Queens]], to around [[Bedford-Stuyvesant, Brooklyn]],<ref>[http://www.brooklynrevealed.com/ Brooklyn Revealed]</ref> Gates Avenue in [[Jersey City]], Gates Place in [[The Bronx]], NY<ref>{{cite book |last=McNamara |first=John |author-link= |date=1991 |title=''History in Asphalt'' |url= |location=Harrison, NY |publisher=Harbor Hill Books |page=109 |isbn=0-941980-15-4}}</ref> and [[Gates County]], [[North Carolina]].
* The [[Golden Plough Tavern|Gen. Horatio Gates House]] was his home during the [[Second Continental Congress]] at [[York, Pennsylvania]].<ref name="arch">{{cite web |url=https://www.dot7.state.pa.us/ce/SelectWelcome.asp |title=National Historic Landmarks & National Register of Historic Places in Pennsylvania |publisher=CRGIS: Cultural Resources Geographic Information System |format=Searchable database |access-date=December 19, 2011 |archive-date=July 21, 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070721014609/https://www.dot7.state.pa.us/ce/SelectWelcome.asp |url-status=dead }} ''Note:'' This includes {{cite web |url=https://www.dot7.state.pa.us/ce_imagery/phmc_scans/H001123_01H.pdf |title=National Register of Historic Places Inventory Nomination Form: Gen. Horatio Gates House and Golden Plough Tavern |access-date=December 18, 2011 |author=Pennsylvania Register of Historic Sites and Landmarks |date=July 1971 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120615220310/https://www.dot7.state.pa.us/ce_imagery/phmc_scans/H001123_01H.pdf |archive-date=June 15, 2012 }}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Sources==
*{{Cite book |last=Billias |first=George Athan |title=George Washington's Generals and Opponents |publisher=Da Capo Press |year=1994 |isbn=9780306805608 |url=https://archive.org/details/georgewashington0000unse_q7a0}}
* Cox, Howard W. (2023). ''American Traitor: General James Wilkinson's Betrayal of the Republic and Escape From Justice''. Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press. ISBN 9781647123420.
* [[John E. Ferling|Ferling, John]]. ''Almost a Miracle: The American Victory in the War of Independence''. New York: Oxford University Press, 2009. {{ISBN|978-0-19-538292-1}}. (pbk.) Originally published in hard cover in 2007.
* {{Cite book|title=Saratoga: A Military History of the Decisive Campaign of the American Revolution|first=John F|last=Luzader|ref=Luzader|location=New York|publisher=Savas Beatie|isbn=978-1-932714-44-9|date=October 6, 2008}}
* {{Cite book|last=Mintz|first=Max M|title=The Generals of Saratoga: John Burgoyne and Horatio Gates|year=1990|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0-300-04778-3|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/generalsofsarato0000mint}}
* Nelson, Paul David. ''General Horatio Gates: A Biography''. Louisiana State Univ Pr; First edition, 1976. {{ISBN|0807101591}}.
* Ward, Christopher. John Richard Alden, ed. ''The War of the Revolution''. New York: Skyhorse Publishing, 2011. {{ISBN|978-1-61608-080-8}}. Originally published Old Saybrook, CT: Konecky & Konecky, 1952.

==External links==
*{{Commons category-inline|Horatio Gates}}
*[http://dlib.nyu.edu/findingaids/html/nyhs/gates/index.html The Horatio Gates papers, 1726-1828 at the New York Historical Society]
*[https://www.jstor.org/stable/42889819?seq=2 Horatio Gates, 1903, Cornell University Press]



{{S-start}}
{{S-mil}}
{{s-new|position}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[List of Adjutant Generals of the U.S. Army|Adjutant General of the Continental Army]]|years=June 17, 1775 – June 5, 1776}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Joseph Reed (politician)|Joseph Reed]]}}
{{s-new|position}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Board of War|President of the Board of War]]|years=November 24, 1777 – November 25, 1779}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Benjamin Lincoln]] (as [[United States Secretary of War|Secretary at War]])}}
{{S-end}}
{{American Revolutionary War|state=collapsed}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Gates, Horatio}}
[[Category:1727 births]]
[[Category:1806 deaths]]
[[Category:Adjutants general of the United States Army]]
[[Category:American slave owners]]
[[Category:British Army personnel of the War of the Austrian Succession]]
[[Category:British Army personnel of the French and Indian War]]
[[Category:Congressional Gold Medal recipients]]
[[Category:American people of English descent]]
[[Category:Continental Army generals]]
[[Category:Continental Army officers from Virginia]]
[[Category:Continental Army staff officers]]
[[Category:British emigrants to the Thirteen Colonies]]
[[Category:Lancashire Fusiliers officers]]
[[Category:People from Shepherdstown, West Virginia]]
[[Category:People from Maldon, Essex]]
[[Category:Military personnel from Manhattan]]
[[Category:Members of the New York State Assembly]]
[[Category:Sherwood Foresters officers]]
[[Category:People from colonial New York]]
[[Category:People from Kearneysville, West Virginia]]
[[Category:People of Father Le Loutre's War]]
[[Category:Burials at Trinity Church Cemetery]]
[[Category:Military personnel from Essex]]
[[Category:Continental Army officers from England]]

Maldon

2025-06-14T04:57:30Z

2A00:23C7:C8BC:C501:507C:445E:62F7:256D: /* Sport */Added hyphen

{{short description|Town in Essex, England}}
{{about|the town in England}}
{{Distinguish|text = various places named [[Malden (disambiguation)|Malden]]}}
{{Use British English|date=May 2016}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2018}}
{{Infobox UK place
|country = England
|official_name = Maldon
|coordinates = {{coord|51.7318|0.6758|display=inline,title}}
|population = 14,941
|population_ref = (2021 Census)<ref name="bua2011">{{cite web |title=Maldon|url=https://www.citypopulation.de/en/uk/eastofengland/admin/maldon/E04004056__maldon/ |access-date=25 October 2022}}</ref>
|civil_parish = Maldon
|shire_district = [[Maldon District|Maldon]]
|shire_county = [[Essex]]
|region = East of England
|static_image_name = Maldon 060309-2.jpg
|static_image_caption = Maldon viewed from the north east
|constituency_westminster = [[Maldon (UK Parliament constituency)|Maldon]]
|post_town = MALDON
|postcode_area = CM
|postcode_district = CM9
|dial_code = 01621
|os_grid_reference = TL848070
}}
[[File:Maldon Moot Hall.jpg|thumb|upright=1.22|[[Moot Hall, Maldon|Maldon Moot Hall]] on the High Street]]
'''Maldon''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|m|ɔː|l|d|ən}}, locally {{IPAc-en|ˈ|m|ɒ|l|d|ən}}) is a town and [[civil parish]] on the [[Blackwater Estuary]] in [[Essex]], England. It is the seat of the [[Maldon District]] and starting point of the [[Chelmer and Blackwater Navigation]]. It is known for [[Maldon Sea Salt]] which is produced in the area. In 2011 the parish had a population of 14,220 and the district had a population of 61,700.


==History==
===Early and medieval history===
The place-name ''Maldon'' is first attested in 913 in the ''[[Anglo-Saxon Chronicle]]'',<ref>{{cite web|url=http://unlockingessex.essexcc.gov.uk/uep/custom_pages/monument_detail.asp?content_page_id=89&monument_id=24719&content_parents=48|title=Seax Archeaology – Unlocking Essex's Past|website=Essex County Council|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170828191236/http://unlockingessex.essexcc.gov.uk/uep/custom_pages/monument_detail.asp?content_page_id=89&monument_id=24719&content_parents=48|archive-date=28 August 2017|url-status=dead|access-date=6 February 2019}}</ref> where it appears as ''Maeldun''. Maldon's name comes from ''mǣl'', meaning 'monument or cross', and ''dūn'' meaning 'hill', so translates as 'monument hill'.<ref>[[Eilert Ekwall]], ''Concise Oxford Dictionary of English Place-names'', p. 312.</ref> East Saxons settled the area in the 5th century and the area to the south is still known as the [[Dengie Peninsula]] after the Dæningas. It became a significant [[Anglo-Saxon England|Saxon]] port with a hythe or quayside and [[artisan]] quarters. Evidence of imported pottery from this period has been found in [[archaeological]] digs. From 958 there was a [[royal mint]] issuing coins for the late [[Anglo-Saxon England|Anglo-Saxon]] and early [[Norman dynasty|Norman]] kings.<ref>{{cite web |title=Anglo-Saxon England's Realm of Essex |url=http://www.ancientworlds.net/aw/Places/Place/337631 |website=Ancient Worlds |access-date=15 February 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111223134007/http://www.ancientworlds.net/aw/Places/Place/337631 |archive-date=23 December 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Moneyers of the late Anglo-Saxon Coinage|url=http://etheses.nottingham.ac.uk/1818/1/481170.pdf|website=University of Nottingham|access-date=15 February 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140224001635/http://etheses.nottingham.ac.uk/1818/1/481170.pdf|archive-date=24 February 2014|df=dmy-all}}</ref>

[[File:St. Peters Church Maldon.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Tower of St Peter's Church]]
It was one of the only two towns in [[Essex]] ([[Colchester]] was the other), and King [[Edward the Elder]] is thought to have lived here while combating the [[Danes (Germanic tribe)|Danish]] settlers who had overrun North Essex and parts of [[East Anglia]]. A [[Viking]] raid was beaten off in 924, but in another raid in 991 the defenders were defeated in the [[Battle of Maldon]] and the Vikings received [[Danegeld|tribute]] but apparently did not attempt to sack the town. It became the subject of the celebrated [[Old English]] poem "[[The Battle of Maldon]]". The battle is commemorated by a window in St Mary's Church and by a statue at the end of the Maldon Promenade Walk (facing the battle site of Northey Island and the Causeway) of the slain Saxon warrior [[Byrhtnoth]].

According to the [[Domesday Book]] of 1086, there were 54 households<ref>{{cite web |url=http://domesdaymap.co.uk/place/TL8507/maldon/ |title=Maldon – Domesday Book |website=Domesdaymap.co.uk |access-date=1 December 2013}}</ref> and an estimated 180 townsmen in 1086. The town still had the mint and supplied a warhorse and warship for the king's service in return for its privileges of self-government. The town was awarded a charter by [[Henry II of England|Henry II]] in 1171, stating the rights of the town as well as defining its borders and detailing its duty to provide a ship for the monarch "when necessary".<ref>{{cite web |title=Maldon Town Council: History & Heritage |url=http://maldontowncouncil.gov.uk/history-heritage |website=Maldon Town Council |access-date=18 August 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100820132956/http://www.maldontowncouncil.gov.uk/history-heritage |archive-date=20 August 2010 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> The town's All Saints' Church, unique in England in having a triangular tower,<ref>{{cite web |author=Alexis Brown |date=10 July 2013 |url=http://www.maldon.gov.uk/info/200139/explore_the_district/389/churches |title=All Saints' Church, Maldon – Churches – Maldon District Council |publisher=[[Maldon District Council]] |access-date=1 December 2013 }}</ref> dates from around this period. While the precise building date is unknown, the church existed by 1180, the date of the foundation of nearby [[Beeleigh Abbey]]. A Charter of [[Richard I]] of December 1189 confirms "certain grants to Beeleigh Abbey, including the Church of Blessed Peter in Maldon and the Church of All Saints' in the same town". St Mary's Church, on the Hythe Quay has a grade I listed Norman nave from 1130, though evidence exists of an earlier church on the site from at least a hundred years before. The hotel and public house now called The Blue Boar Hotel dates back to the latter half of the 14th century, having been built by the [[Edward de Vere, 17th Earl of Oxford|de Veres]] family headed by the Earl of Oxford and used as an occasional residence supplementary to their main seat, [[Hedingham Castle]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=About Us – The Blue Boar |url=https://blueboarmaldon.co.uk/about-us/ |access-date=2025-03-27 |language=en-US}}</ref> Meanwhile, [[Moot Hall, Maldon|Maldon Moot Hall]] dates back to around 1420.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.themoothall.co.uk/about|title=About us|publisher=The Moot Hall|access-date=27 May 2021}}</ref>

===Renaissance and modern eras===
There were strong urban traditions, with two members elected to the Commons and three guilds which hosted lavish religious plays until they were suppressed by [[Puritans]] in 1576. Then, until 1630, professional actors were invited to perform plays, which were also stopped by Puritans. From 1570 to about 1800 a rival tradition of inviting prominent clergy to visit the town also existed. In 1629 a series of [[Maldon grain riots|grain riots]] took place, led by the wife of a local butcher.<ref>{{cite web |last=Lindley Keith |title=Review: Crowds and Popular Politics in Early Modern England |url=http://www.history.ac.uk/reviews/review/618 |publisher=[[Institute of Historical Research]] |access-date=9 August 2013}}</ref>

[[File:St. Mary's church in Maldon - geograph.org.uk - 1493693.jpg|thumb|St. Mary's Church]]
In the 17th century [[Thomas Plume]] started the Plume Library to house over 8,000 books and pamphlets printed between 1487 and his death in 1704; the collection has been added to at various times since 1704. The Plume Library is to be found at St Peter's Church. Only the original tower survives, the rest of the building having been rebuilt by Thomas Plume to house his library (on the first floor) and what was Maldon Grammar School (on the ground floor).

In the church of All Saints is a memorial window to [[George Washington]], whose great-great grandfather, [[Lawrence Washington (1602–1653)|Lawrence Washington]], is buried here. Unveiled by an American diplomat on 5 July 1928, the window displays Saint Nicholas with the ''[[Mayflower]]'', [[Saint George]] and [[Saint Joan of Arc]] in the centre. At the top are the [[Coat of arms of the Washington family|arms of the Washington family]], and the arms of the USA, England, Scotland and Wales. At the bottom are depictions of George Washington, the landing of the [[Mayflower]], the signing of the [[United States Declaration of Independence|Declaration of Independence]] and the [[Statue of Liberty]].<ref>{{cite web |title=All Saint's Church Maldon |url=http://www.itsaboutmaldon.co.uk/allsaints/ |website=It's About Maldon |access-date=30 December 2023}}</ref>

Also in Maldon are Maldon Baptist Church in Butt Lane, Maldon Methodist Church in the High Street, and Maldon United Reformed Church on Market Hill. Maldon Mosque is in Church Street.

During [[World War II]], Maldon was featured in the German invasion plan for Britain, [[Operation Sea Lion]]. The plan called for the Germans to advance to a line between Maldon and the [[River Severn]] after they had landed in the southern coast of England.<ref>{{cite book|last=Wheatley|first=Ronald|title=Operation Sea Lion: German Plans for the Invasion of England, 1939–1942|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kzdnAAAAMAAJ|year=1958|publisher=Clarendon Press|location=Oxford|oclc=458977803|page=40}}</ref>

==Geography and geology==
[[File:Maldon's name comes from Mael meaning 'monument or cross' and dun meaning 'hill' - Wiki (20205950760).jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|Maldon waterfront on the River Blackwater]]
Maldon is on the tidal [[River Chelmer]] by the [[Blackwater Estuary]]. It is on the [[A414 road|A414]] {{convert|10|mi|km}} east of [[Chelmsford]] and {{convert|49|mi|km}} north-east of [[Charing Cross]], London, via the [[A13 road (England)|A13]] road.

Essex is a county built on [[London Clay]], overlain with pockets of [[gravel]] deposited by [[riparian]] action; the lowest land is made up of river alluvium and salt marsh. At Maldon, the railway cutting (now a road cutting) provided a reference section for geologists. There are three landslips on the north-facing river cliff of the Blackwater at Maldon. The middle slip is called the West Maldon Landslip, which was caused by repeated rotational slips of the bedrock London Clay,<ref>(Bristow 1985, Hutchinson 1965).</ref> which is trying to reach a stable angle.<ref>{{cite web|title=Geology Site Account: West Maldon landslip|url=http://www.essexfieldclub.org.uk/portal/p/Geology+Site+Account/s/West+Maldon+landslip/o/West+Maldon+landslip|website=Essex Field Club|access-date=9 May 2017}}</ref>

Hythe Quay at the confluence of the Chelmer and Blackwater, which flanks the northern edge of the town, was an important port and [[Cooks Yard]] remains significant for Thames barges. The [[River Blackwater, Essex|River Blackwater]], that was diverted into the [[Chelmer and Blackwater Navigation]], re-emerges into the [[Blackwater Estuary]], through locks at the [[Heybridge Basin]], the stream bed passes down Heybridge Creek.<ref name="Foxearth">{{cite web|last1=Clarke|first1=Vernon|last2=Clarke|first2=Joan|title=Down the Chelmer and up the Blackwater|url=http://www.foxearth.org.uk/ChelmerAndBlackwater.html|publisher=Foxearth and District Local History Society|date=1979|access-date=30 December 2023}}</ref> Here it delineates the border between Maldon Town and [[Heybridge, Maldon|Heybridge Parish Council]].

==Transport==
===Rail===
[[File:ECR(1851) p61b - Maldon Railway Station.jpg|thumb|[[Maldon East and Heybridge railway station|Maldon East railway station]] in 1851]]

Maldon was previously served by two railway lines. Today, the nearest railway stations to Maldon are [[Hatfield Peverel railway station|Hatfield Peverel]], [[Witham railway station|Witham]] and [[North Fambridge railway station|North Fambridge]]. Hatfield Peverel is the closest railway station to the north of the town, whilst North Fambridge is closest to southern parts of the town.

Maldon's first railway link was a [[Witham to Maldon branch line|branch line to Witham]] opened in 1846. Later, a second line linked Maldon with [[South Woodham Ferrers railway station|Woodham Ferrers]] on the [[Crouch Valley line]] between [[Southminster railway station|Southminster]] and [[Wickford railway station|Wickford]]. Whilst Wickford is itself on the line between [[Shenfield railway station|Shenfield]] and [[Southend Victoria railway station|Southend]] (thus providing Maldon with another route into [[Liverpool Street railway station|London Liverpool Street]]), a short-lived spur line at Wickford also gave direct access towards Southend.

Edward Arthur Fitch, writing in about 1895, states that from London's Liverpool Street station to [[Maldon East and Heybridge railway station|Maldon East]] via [[Witham railway station|Witham]] there were eight trains on weekdays and three on Sundays and that, via Wickford, there were five trains on weekdays and none on Sundays. The fastest train took 85 minutes via Witham and 82 minutes via Wickford.<ref name="Fitch">Fitch, Edward Arthur: ''Maldon and the River Blackwater''. Gowers 1895.</ref>

[[Maldon West railway station]] was opened in 1889 by the [[Great Eastern Railway]]. The line between Maldon and South Woodham Ferrers closed to passengers in 1939, the Maldon and Witham line closed in 1966.

===Bus===
Regular bus services in and around the town are operated primarily by [[First Essex]] and [[Hedingham & Chambers|Hedingham]]; key routes include the 31 from Chelmsford, the 75 from Colchester and the 90 from Witham.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Stops in Maldon |work=Bus Times |date=2023 |access-date=24 June 2023 |url= https://bustimes.org/localities/maldon |quote= }}</ref>

==Industry==
[[Maldon Sea Salt]] has been produced in the town since 1882 by the Maldon Crystal Salt Company; it is also the location of the first [[Tesco|Tesco store]] to be designated as a "supermarket" in the country, established in 1958.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.tescoplc.com/about/our-history/|title=Our History|access-date=2 November 2020}}</ref>

Maldon's Hythe Quay is the residence of a number of [[Thames sailing barge]]s, these are among the last cargo vessels in the world still operating under sail, albeit now used for education and leisure. Some ten to fifteen of the surviving fleet count Maldon as their home port, and many others are regular visitors alongside at the Quay. An annual sailing barge race ends with a parade of sail and prize-giving at the quay. [[Cooks Yard]], where barges were once built, is still working at the end of Maldon Quay.

==Culture==
The town holds the charitable [[Maldon mud race]] where competitors race across the Blackwater estuary at low tide, along the bank and back through the water. The race generated over £55,000<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.maldonmudrace.com/about/history/|title=History : The Maldon Mud Race|website=Maldon Mud Race|access-date=28 August 2017}}</ref> for charities in 2014. Maldon also hosts the international Maldon Festival,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.maldonfestival.org.uk/|title=Maldon Festival 2017 – Classical Music, Opera, Jazz and more.|website=Maldonfestival.org.uk|access-date=28 August 2017}}</ref> which takes place each year in late June and July.

The town holds an annual "Taxi Day" which sees mentally and physically disabled children from London driven to Maldon in London Black Cabs for a fun day of activities and a meal. The event dates back to 1952 when a London cab driver visited the Elizabeth Fry Special School (formerly Grange Road Special School) in [[Plaistow, Newham|Plaistow]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.newhamstory.com/node/1744 |title=Grange Road Special School | the Newham Story |access-date=19 August 2016 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160827181515/http://www.newhamstory.com/node/1744 |archive-date=27 August 2016 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> He wanted to do something special for the young patients he saw there. He wrote to every one of Essex's seaside towns to arrange an outing and the only town that was willing to help was Maldon; thus, Taxi Day has remained a tradition ever since.

Maldon is twinned with the Dutch town of [[Cuijk]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.britishembassy.gov.uk/servlet/Front?pagename=OpenMarket/Xcelerate/ShowPage&c=Page&cid=1042219939134 |title=The UK & the Netherlands: Town Twinning |access-date=24 January 2007 |website=British Embassy, The Hague |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070912094040/http://www.britishembassy.gov.uk/servlet/Front?pagename=OpenMarket%2FXcelerate%2FShowPage&c=Page&cid=1042219939134 |archive-date=12 September 2007 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> The charter between the two towns was signed in 1970 to cement the relationship.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://members.lycos.nl/jerom/maldon.htm |title=Maldon–Cuijk twinning|website=Members.lycos.nl |access-date=24 January 2007 }}</ref>

===Cultural references===
[[File:ECR(1851) p61 - Maldon.jpg|thumb|upright|350px|Maldon from ''The Eastern Counties Railway Illustrated Guide'', 1851]]
Maldon and the surrounding area are the setting for a series of books by the prolific author [[Samuel L. Bensusan]].<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.theindexer.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=77&Itemid=54|last=Vickers|first=John A|title=A Marshland index|journal=The Indexer – the International Journal of Indexing|volume=19|issue=4|date=October 1995|pages=276–278|doi=10.3828/indexer.1995.19.4.10 |access-date=28 August 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110717001435/http://www.theindexer.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=77&Itemid=54|archive-date=17 July 2011|df=dmy-all|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Bensusan's stories recall a lost way of life among the towns and villages in the area, and along the local coastline and marshland. In Bensusan's books, Maldon is called Market Waldron.

Maldon has been the setting for numerous television productions, including ''[[Lawless Heart]]'' (2001) starring [[Bill Nighy]], and [[BBC1]]'s ''[[The Murder Game (TV series)|The Murder Game]]'' (2003) where numerous Blackwater Estuary locations were used including Green's Flour Mill at the bottom of Market Hill and Steeple Marshes. An episode of the TV series ''[[Lovejoy]]'' featuring [[Ian McShane]] was also filmed there.

In [[H. G. Wells]]' ''[[The War of the Worlds]]'' (1898); Maldon is the town from which the narrator's brother and two female companions manage to escape across the Channel.

Maldon is a location mentioned in "[[The Rose Garden (short story)|The Rose Garden]]", a short ghost story by [[M. R. James]], and published in ''[[More Ghost Stories of an Antiquary]]'' (1911).

Maldon and its clock tower are featured in the young adult novel ''[[Timekeeper trilogy|Timekeeper]]'' by Tara Sim (2016).

Maldon is the hometown of two [[Marvel Comics]] superheroes: [[Brian Braddock]], the original [[Captain Britain]], and his twin sister [[Betsy Braddock]], longtime member of the [[X-Men]] as "Psylocke" and Brian's eventual successor as Captain Britain. It is also the home of their older brother, the X-Men villain [[Jamie Braddock|Jamie Braddock]]. Many early Captain Britain stories took place within their fictional childhood manor in Maldon, first seen in ''Captain Britain'' #8 (1976).

===Media===
Local news and television programmes are provided by [[BBC East]] and [[ITV Anglia]]. Television signals are received from the [[Sudbury transmitting station|Sudbury]] TV transmitter.{{Citation needed|date=October 2023}}

Local radio stations are [[BBC Essex]] on 103.5 FM, [[Heart East]] on 102.6 FM, [[Radio Essex]] on 107.7 FM, [[Greatest Hits Radio East]] on 100.2 FM, and Caroline Community Radio, a community based radio station that broadcast on 94.7 FM.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://carolinecommunityradio.co.uk/#home.html|title=Caroline Community Radio|access-date=15 October 2023}}</ref>

The town is served by the local newspaper, Maldon and Burnham Standard.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.britishpapers.co.uk/england-eang/maldon-burnham-standard/|title=Maldon and Burnham Standard|date=20 February 2014|website=British Papers|accessdate=15 October 2023}}</ref>

==Sport==
Maldon has a [[non-League football]] club [[Maldon & Tiptree F.C.]] who play at the Drewitt-Barlow Stadium.

There are youth football teams in Maldon, among them being Maldon Saints. The town has a cricket club, with several adult and colts' sides, who play at two grounds: The [[Promenade Park]], Maldon and the main ground at Drapers Farm, Heybridge. The ground includes a dual-lane enclosed all-weather net facility. Overseas players from Australia, South Africa and Sri Lanka have coached cricket in local primary schools as part of the "ECB [[Chance to Shine]]" programme. Drapers Farm is also the home of Maldon Rugby Union Football Club which was founded in 1947 by Tommy Harries, who was the landlord of the King's Head public house in Maldon High Street. The inaugural meeting was on 28 August 1947 at the Blue Boar Hotel. Maldon RFC run several senior male sides and one female side as well as all youth age groups from under 7s to under 18s.

Blackwater Leisure Centre<ref>{{Cite web|title=Blackwater Leisure Centre {{!}} Maldon – Places Leisure|url=https://www.placesleisure.org/centres/blackwater-leisure-centre/|website=Places Leisure|date=2023|access-date=30 December 2023}}</ref> is the town's main leisure destination, located in the town's leisure quarter, adjacent to Madison Heights, with a 4 lane 25m swimming pool, 100+ station gym, group cycling studio, group exercise studio and sports hall with indoor courts.

Two short-lived [[Greyhound racing in the United Kingdom|greyhound racing]] tracks existed at Sealey Farm on the Fambridge Road (opening on 3 September 1932 and closing the same year)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://greyhoundracingtimes.co.uk/2019/04/27/maldon-sealey-farm/|title=Sealey Farm Maldon|publisher=Greyhound Racing Times}}</ref> and around the former Spital Road football ground in 1931.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://greyhoundracingtimes.co.uk/2019/04/27/maldon-spital-road/|title=Maldon Spital Road|publisher=Greyhound Racing Times}}</ref> The racing was independent (not affiliated to the sports governing body the [[National Greyhound Racing Club]]) and they were known as flapping tracks, which was the nickname given to independent tracks.<ref>{{cite book|last=Barnes|first=Julia|title=Daily Mirror Greyhound Fact File, page 417|year=1988|publisher=Ringpress Books|isbn=0-948955-15-5}}</ref>

==Notable people==
Essex and England cricketer [[Sir Alastair Cook]] (born 1984) played for Maldon Cricket Club throughout his early years. Brought up in nearby [[Wickham Bishops]], his brothers played for the club as well. Cook remains closely associated with the club, being an Honorary Life Member, while acting as a huge role model for the club's young players. Cook made his Essex debut in 2003, before making his international debut, aged 21, in 2006.

Singer/songwriter and TikTok star [[Sam Ryder (singer)|Sam Ryder]], born 1989, [[United Kingdom in the Eurovision Song Contest 2022|represented the UK]] in the [[Eurovision Song Contest 2022|2022 Eurovision Song Contest]] with his song "[[Space Man]]", where he came 2nd with 466 points.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2022-05-15 |title=Eurovision 2022: How Sam Ryder turned things around for the UK |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/entertainment-arts-61450874 |access-date=2022-05-15}}</ref>

Private David Embleton (1853–1912) won a [[Victoria Cross]], in his army name of [[Frederick Corbett]], in the [[Ahmed ʻUrabi|Arabi Pasha Rebellion]] in Egypt on 5 August 1882. He was buried in an unmarked grave in London Road Cemetery, Maldon, but in 2004 the regimental association provided a memorial and in 2005 the Essex Society for Family History provided another. He served in the [[King's Royal Rifle Corps]]. Although awarded the VC for standing by a wounded officer, he subsequently forfeited his VC after committing theft against another officer in 1884.

[[Edward Bright]] (1721–1750) was the "fat man of Maldon", a grocer who, at {{convert|47.5|stone}} was reputed to be the fattest man in England. His coat could encompass seven men. After his death, etchings of a painting of him were much sought after. His chair resides in Maldon Moot Hall.

[[John Cook (musician)|John Cook]] (1918–1984) was a prolific 20th-century Anglo-American composer, organist and church musician.
[[File:Sailing Barge Thalatta River Blackwater 2004.jpg|right|thumb|{{ship|Sailing barge|Thalatta}}, whose home port is Maldon, was built in 1906.]]
[[John Arthur Kemp|John Kemp]] (1926–1987): John Kemp's work on the preservation of Thames sailing barges in the 1960s was critical to re-establishing Maldon as the foremost sailing barge port in the country. John Kemp was responsible for the creation of the East Coast Sail Trust, a schoolship scheme for young people using the sailing barges [[sailing barge Thalatta|Thalatta]] and Sir Alan Herbert, operated from Maldon. He was author of three books and chronicler of the Maldon and Essex coastal scenes and the unique character of the marshland folk, especially in the Maldon and Burnham Standard, Essex Chronicle and [[Essex County Standard]] newspapers.

[[Myra Sadd Brown]] (1872–1938), [[Suffragette]], women's rights activist and internationalist was born in the town.

[[John William Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh|John Strutt]] (1842–1919) was a British mathematician who made extensive contributions to science. He was born in Langford Grove, Maldon, inherited the title [[Baron Rayleigh]] in 1873 and won the [[Nobel Prize in Physics]] in 1904, in part for discovering the inert gas [[argon]].

[[Horatio Gates]] (1727–1806), the English general who fought for Britain in the [[French and Indian War]] and the rebel side in the [[War of American Independence]], was born in Maldon.{{citation needed|date=November 2023}}

[[Ethan Lawrence]] (born 28 September 1992) is an English actor, born in Maldon. He is known for playing the roles of Joe Poulter in the BBC series Bad Education and James in the Netflix black comedy series After Life.

[[Virginia Crosbie]] (born 8 December 1966), former Member of Parliament for [[Ynys Môn (UK Parliament constituency)|Ynys Môn]], was born in Maldon before attending school in [[Colchester]].

== Twin towns ==
Maldon is [[sister city|twinned]] with:
* [[Villeparisis]], [[Île-de-France (region)|Île-de-France]], France
* [[Cuijk]], [[North Brabant]], Netherlands

==Gallery==

<gallery mode=nolines heights=220px widths=220px>
File:Brythnoth statue Maldon.jpg|[[Byrhtnoth]] statue marking the [[Battle of Maldon]] in 991, in which Byrhtnoth died
File:Maldon High Street.jpg|High Street
File:Brent at Maldon 1.jpg|Tugboat ''Brent'' moored on the River Chelmer
File:Maldon Market Hill.jpg|Market Hill
File:Sailing barges at Maldon.jpg|Promenade view north, with St Mary's Church at left
</gallery>

==Nearby places==
{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
* [[Beeleigh Abbey]]
* [[Brightlingsea]]
* [[Burnham-on-Crouch]]
* [[Chelmsford]]
* [[Danbury, Essex|Danbury]]
* [[Great Totham]]
* [[Hazeleigh]]
* [[Heybridge, Maldon|Heybridge]]
* [[Langford, Essex|Langford]]
* [[Little Totham]]
* [[Maylandsea]]
* [[Mundon]]
* [[North Fambridge]]
* [[South Woodham Ferrers]]
* [[Steeple, Essex|Steeple]]
* [[Tiptree]]
* [[Tollesbury]]
* [[Tolleshunt Major]]
* [[Tolleshunt Knights]]
* [[Tillingham]]
* [[Cold Norton]]
* [[Witham]]
* [[Woodham Mortimer]]
* [[Woodham Walter]]
{{div col end}}

==See also==

* [[Cooks Yard]] – barge building and repair yard on the River Chelmer at Maldon
* [[Plume School]] – secondary school in Maldon

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Maldon}}
{{Wikivoyage|Maldon}}
* [http://www.visitmaldon.co.uk/ Visit Maldon]
* [http://www.maldon.gov.uk/ Maldon District Council]
{{Essex}}
{{Maldon}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Maldon, Essex| ]]
[[Category:Towns in Essex]]
[[Category:Civil parishes in Essex]]
[[Category:Maldon District]]
[[Category:Populated coastal places in Essex]]