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Tokunoshima

2025-05-13T12:03:14Z

2600:8800:311B:4100:990B:5491:9DD7:9311: Fixed grammar

{{Short description|Island within Ryukyu Islands}}
{{for|the indigenous language of the island|Tokunoshima language}}
{{Infobox islands
| name = Tokunoshima
| image_name = Tokunoshima zenkei.jpg
| image_caption = Aerial view of the island. (2011)
| image_size =
| map_image = Satsunan-Islands-Kagoshima-Japan.png
| map_caption =
| native_name = 徳之島, ''Tokunoshima''<br>Tukunushima
| native_name_link = Japanese language
| nickname =
| location = [[East China Sea]]
| coordinates = {{coord|27|49|12|N|128|55|56|E|region:JP_type:isle|display=inline,title}}
| archipelago = [[Amami Islands]]
| total_islands =
| major_islands =
| area_km2 = 247.77
| length_km = 25
| width_km = 18
| coastline_km = 80
| highest_mount = Inokawadake
| elevation_m = 645
| country = Japan
| country_admin_divisions_title = [[Prefectures of Japan|Prefectures]]
| country_admin_divisions = Kagoshima Prefecture
| country_admin_divisions_title_1 = [[Districts of Japan|District]]
| country_admin_divisions_1 = [[Ōshima District, Kagoshima|Ōshima District]]
| population = 27,000
| population_as_of = 2013
| density_km2 = 108.97
| ethnic_groups = [[Ryukyuan people|Ryukyuan]], [[Japanese people|Japanese]]
| additional_info =
| footnotes = {{Infobox UNESCO World Heritage Site
|child = yes
|Part_of = [[Amami-Ōshima Island, Tokunoshima Island, northern part of Okinawa Island, and Iriomote Island]]
|ID = 1574-002
|Year = 2021
|Criteria = Natural: x
}}
}}
{{nihongo|'''Tokunoshima'''|徳之島|lead=yes||[[Tokunoshima language|Tokunoshima]]: {{lang|tkn|トゥクヌシマ}}, ''Tukunushima''}}, also known in English as {{nowrap|'''Tokuno Island''',}} is an island in the [[Amami Islands|Amami archipelago]] of the southern [[Satsunan Islands]] of [[Kagoshima Prefecture]], [[Japan]].<ref>''Teikoku's Complete Atlas of Japan'', Teikoku-Shoin Co., Ltd., Tokyo, {{ISBN|4-8071-0004-1}}</ref>

The island, {{convert|247.77|km2|sp=us|abbr=on}} in area, has a population of approximately 27,000. The island is divided into three administrative [[List of towns in Japan|towns]]: [[Tokunoshima, Kagoshima|Tokunoshima]], [[Isen, Kagoshima|Isen]], and [[Amagi, Kagoshima|Amagi]]. The largest population center on the island is the town of Kametsu, located along the eastern shore of the island within the administrative town of Tokunoshima. Much of the island is within the borders of [[Amami Guntō National Park]].

The island is known for having the highest [[Total fertility rate|fertility rate]] in Japan (2.25 between 2018 and 2022)<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.asahi.com/ajw/articles/15238339 |title=Small island in Kyushu boasts the nation's highest birth rate |work=[[The Asahi Shimbun]] |date=20 April 2024 |access-date=22 February 2025}}</ref> as well as a significant population of [[supercentenarians]] (people living significantly beyond the age of 100).

==Geography==
[[File:Tokunoshima Relief Map, SRTM-1.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Tokunoshima relief map]]
Tokunoshima is the second largest island in the Amami islands, after [[Amami Ōshima]], and the 15th largest island in Japan. It is more generally included within the Satsunan and [[Ryukyu Islands|Ryukyu]] archipelagos. Isolated from the other Amami islands, Tokunoshima is located halfway between Amami Ōshima and [[Okinoerabujima]].

The island is of volcanic origin with a length of approximately {{convert|25|km|mi|sp=us}} and width of {{convert|18|km|mi|sp=us}}. Most of the administrative towns of Tokunoshima and Amagi are covered in mountains and rolling hills, with Mount Inokawadake at {{convert|645|m|ft|sp=us}} above sea level as the island's highest peak. Mount Amagidake in the north has a height of {{convert|533|m|ft|sp=us}}. The administrative town of Isen along the southwestern slope of the island is more flat, with fertile soil suitable for agriculture. The coast of the island is largely rugged and rocky with small sandy beaches scattered throughout as well as a series of large cliffs on the southwest edge of the island. The island is surrounded by a [[coral reef]].

A series of large offshore rocks known as Tonbura Rocks are a prominent feature in the ocean off the northeastern coast of the island. The neighboring islands of Amami Ōshima, [[Kakeromajima]], [[Yoroshima]], [[Ukejima]] to the northeast and Okinoerabujima to the southwest are all visible from the island. On exceptionally clear days, the twin volcanoes of [[Iōtorishima]], in [[Okinawa Prefecture]], can be seen to the west.

The island falls within a [[Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests|
subtropical moist broadleaf forest]] [[ecoregion]]. Although Tokunoshima is subtropical, it receives sufficient rainfall that it has rainforests.<ref>{{cite web |title=Geological and Biological History of the Amami Islands |url=http://www.amami.or.jp/isan/eng/nature_e.html |accessdate=13 September 2019}}</ref> Much of the island remains covered in [[laurel forest]]s, although many areas have been extensively cleared for agriculture. There are many caves on the island, the longest of which measures {{convert|2,052|m|sp=us}} and is located in the area of Isen.

The climate of Tokunoshima is classified as a [[humid subtropical climate]] ([[Köppen climate classification]] ''Cfa'') with very warm summers and mild winters. The rainy season lasts from May through September. The island is subject to frequent [[typhoon]]s.

==Fauna==
[[File:Warning sign for Amami-kurousagi (Black hare) in Tokunoshima 02.jpg|thumb|left|alt=A sign with a cartoon black rabbit|A sign warning of [[Amami rabbit]]s crossing the road]]
Tokunoshima is home to several rare species [[Endemism|endemic]] to the island itself or more generally to the Amami islands. The [[Amami rabbit]] is found only on Tokunoshima and Amami Ōshima and is listed as endangered. The Amami rabbit is sometimes called a [[living fossil]] because it represents an ancient Asian lineage that has elsewhere disappeared. Also endangered is the [[Tokudaia tokunoshimensis|Tokunoshima spiny rat]], found only on the island. Several bird species endemic to Tokunoshima and Amami Ōshima, such as [[Lidth's jay]], are also found. The island is also home to the venomous [[Trimeresurus flavoviridis|habu snake]]. The presence of habu has kept the forests on the island largely unvisited and more rugged areas relatively untouched.

==History==
It is uncertain when Tokunoshima was first settled. It is mentioned in the ancient Japanese chronicle ''[[Nihon Shoki]]'' in the 720s.

Starting in the 11th century, Tokunoshima was the primary producer of a grey stoneware called [[Kamui ware]] that has been found in hundreds of archaeological sites throughout the Ryukyu Islands and southern [[Kyūshū]]. Several archaeological sites where Kamui ware was produced have been found on the island. These sites are now national historic sites.

Until 1624, Tokunoshima was part of the [[Ryukyu Kingdom]]. The island was invaded by [[samurai]] from [[Satsuma Domain]] in 1609 and its incorporation into the official holdings of that domain was recognized by the [[Tokugawa shogunate]] in 1624. Satsuma rule was harsh, with the inhabitants of the island reduced to serfdom and forced to raise [[sugar cane]] to meet high taxation, which often resulted in famine. In a famine in 1755, some 3000 islanders perished. [[Saigō Takamori]] was exiled to Tokunoshima in 1862 for less than two months, before he was resentenced to harsher conditions on [[Okinoerabujima]].

After the [[Meiji Restoration]] it was incorporated into [[Ōsumi Province]] and later became part of [[Kagoshima Prefecture]]. Following [[World War II]], with the other Amami Islands, it was occupied by the [[United States]] until 1953, at which time it reverted to the control of Japan.

In 2006, an agreement was drafted to allow the United States to relocate [[Marine Corps Air Station Futenma]] to Tokunoshima. In 2010, reports emerged that [[Prime Minister of Japan|Prime Minister]] [[Yukio Hatoyama]]'s government had decided to resolve outstanding disputes regarding the agreement, leading to widespread protests and opposition from local officials. A protest against this plan drew over 10,000 people, nearly half of the island's population.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.taipeitimes.com/News/world/archives/2010/04/15/2003470605 |title=Japanese mayors to reject US base in letter to Obama |work=[[Taipei Times]] |date=15 April 2010 |access-date=22 February 2025}}</ref>

==Culture==
Tokunoshima has a culture that reflects a mix of Japanese and Ryukyuan influences, with much influence from the neighboring Amami islands and from Okinawa to the south. The local cuisine of the island combines standard Japanese fare with Okinawan dishes such as ''[[chanpurū|goya chanpurū]]''. A popular musical instrument on the island is the ''[[sanshin]]'', an Okinawan relative of the Japanese ''[[shamisen]]'', and the Okinawan folk dance ''[[Eisa (dance)|eisa]]'' is practiced.

The indigenous language of the island, the [[Ryukyuan languages|Ryukyuan language]] called [[Tokunoshima language|Tokunoshima]], is known on the island as ''sïmagucï'' or, in Japanese, ''shimaguchi'' ("island language"). However, the language has now largely been supplanted by standard Japanese. The Tokunoshima words for "thank you," ''oboradaren'' (Tokunoshima and Amagi towns) and ''oboradanii'' (Isen town) are widely known even among Japanese speakers.

Tokunoshima is known for ''[[tōgyū]]'', a Japanese style of bullfighting in which human coaches encourage bulls with locked horns to push each other out of a ring. ''Tōgyū'' is a major event on the island and much of the island's culture revolves around the bullfights. Because of the importance of ''tōgyū'', Tokunoshima's mascot and main icon is a ''tōgyū'' bull.

==Economy==
The economy of the island revolves around agriculture, primarily the growth of [[sugar cane]]. [[Sweet potato]]es, [[rice]], [[ginger]], and tropical fruit, such as [[mango]]es, [[papaya]], and [[banana]]s, are also grown. Sugar cane is processed at several factories into [[brown sugar]] and at several distilleries into brown sugar [[shōchū]]. [[Commercial fishing]] is also important, as is tourism and some light manufacturing.

==Transportation==
The port of Kametoku, located adjacent to Kametsu in the administrative town of Tokunoshima, has regular ferry service to the towns of [[Naze, Kagoshima|Naze]] on Amami and [[Wadomari, Kagoshima|Wadomari]] on Okinoerabu. From Amami, the ferry continues to Kagoshima. From Okinoerabu, the ferry continues to [[Yoronjima|Yoron]] and Okinawa. Ferries exist to [[Kobe]] as well. The smaller port of Hetono, in the town of Amagi, has ferries to Kagoshima and to [[Setouchi, Kagoshima|Setouchi]] on Amami. When waves are too strong on the Pacific side of the island, where Kametoku is located, the Kametoku ferries will instead land at Hetono port. Small ports primarily used by fishing or sightseeing boats exist elsewhere along the shoreline.

[[Tokunoshima Airport]], located in Amagi, is connected to Kagoshima, Amami, and Okinoerabu (with the flight continuing to Okinawa) by [[Japan Airlines]] and [[Japan Air Commuter]].

The main highway on the island is Kagoshima Prefecture Highway 80, which traverses the island from Tokunoshima Airport and Amagi to Kametsu and then follows the southeastern coast of the island to Isen. From Isen, Highway 83 crosses the southeast area of the island to Amagi. Highway 629 follows the northern coast of the island from Tokunoshima Airport to the village of Kedoku. Highway 617 is an inland route between Kametsu and the village of Itokina, while Highway 618 connects Kedoku to the village of Matsubara through the village of Todoroki.

==Local attractions==
Tokunoshima is a popular tourist destination. Hiking is discouraged because of the habu snake, but the mountain trails are exotic and beautiful. The beaches are also quite stunning, and the island's coastline includes several notable natural landmarks.

On the island's north coast, Mushiroze, a striking area of chiseled stone slabs set against the ocean, is a rare example of granite rock on a predominantly volcanic and coral island. The area is named for the way the flat stone slabs resemble ''mushiro'', a Japanese term for woven straw mats.

Cape Inutabu, the westernmost point of the island, features a stunning ocean view and a memorial, built in April 1968, to the Japanese battleship {{ship|Japanese battleship|Yamato||2}} and her escorts, which were sunk near Tokunoshima during the final stages of World War II.

Another notable seaside attraction is Innojofuta, an area of jagged, eroded coral rock with dramatic ocean vistas. At Innojofuta, a distinctive pair of eroded windows in the rock known as Megane-Iwa (Spectacles Rock) overlooks the ocean.

Much of the island is included within Amami Guntō National Park, established in 2017 (replacing Amami Guntō Quasi-National Park, established in 1974).

==References==
{{reflist}}
*Eldridge, Mark. ''The Return of the Amami Islands: The Reversion Movement and U.S.-Japan Relati''ons. Levington Books (2004) {{ISBN|0739107100}}
*Hellyer. Robert. Defining Engagement: Japan and Global Contexts, 1640–1868. Harvard University Press (2009) {{ISBN|0674035771}}
*Turnbull, Stephen. ''The Most Daring Raid of the Samurai''. Rosen Publishing Group (2011) {{ISBN|978-1-4488-1872-3}}
*Ravina, Mark. ''The Last Samurai: The Life and Battles of Saigo Takamori''.　Whiley (2011) {{ISBN|1118045564}}
*Yeo, Andrew. ''Activists, Alliances, and Anti-U.S. Base Protests''. Cambridge University Press. (2011) {{ISBN|1107002478}}

==External links==
{{commons category|Tokunoshima}}
*[http://kic-update.com/en/travel/tokunoshima/ Tokunoshima Visitors Guide]
* {{cite journal |author1=Tamao Maeda |author2=Rumiko Nakashita |author3=Kazumi Shionosaki |author4=Fumio Yamada |author5=Yuya Watari |date=7 November 2019 |title=Predation on endangered species by human-subsidized domestic cats on Tokunoshima Island |journal=Scientific Reports |volume=9 |doi=10.1038/s41598-019-52472-3 |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-019-52472-3 |doi-access=free|pmc=6838317 }}
* {{cite journal |author1=Kazuaki Kazato |author2=Yuya Watari |author3=Tadashi Miyashita |date=25 August 2020 |title=Identification of the population source of free-ranging cats threatening endemic species on Tokunoshima Island, Japan |journal=Mammal Research |volume=65 |pages=719-727 |doi=10.1007/s13364-020-00528-5 |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s13364-020-00528-5 |doi-access=free}}

{{Amami Islands}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Amami Islands]]
[[Category:Islands of Kagoshima Prefecture]]
[[Category:Cat islands in Japan]]

Airline Deregulation Act

2025-05-13T06:57:26Z

2600:8800:311B:4100:990B:5491:9DD7:9311: Fixed grammar

{{short description|1978 U.S. federal law deregulating the airline industry}}
{{More footnotes|date=January 2012}}
{{Infobox U.S. legislation
| name = Airline Deregulation Act
| fullname = An Act to amend the [[Federal Aviation Act of 1958]], to encourage, develop, and attain an air transportation system which relies on competitive market forces to determine the quality, variety, and price of air services, and for other purposes.
| acronym =
| nickname =
| enacted by = 95th
| effective date =
| public law url =
| cite public law = {{USPL|95|504}}
| cite statutes at large = {{USStat|92|1705}}
| acts amended =
| title amended = 49 (Transportation)
| sections created = 1371 ''et seq.''
| sections amended =
| leghisturl = http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/bdquery/z?d095:SN02493:@@@S
| introducedin = Senate
| introducedbill = "Air Transportation Regulatory Reform Act" ([http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/bdquery/z?d095:S.2493: S. 2493])
| introducedby = [[Howard Cannon]] ([[Democratic Party (United States)|D]]-[[Nevada|NV]])
| introduceddate = February 6, 1978
| committees = [[United States Senate Committee on Commerce, Science and Transportation|Senate Commerce]], [[United States House Committee on Public Works and Transportation|House Public Works]]
| passedbody1 = Senate
| passeddate1 = April 19, 1978
| passedvote1 = [https://www.govtrack.us/congress/votes/95-1978/s763 83–9]
| passedbody2 = House
| passeddate2 = September 21, 1978
| passedvote2 = [https://www.govtrack.us/congress/votes/95-1978/h1425 363-8] as [http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/bdquery/z?d095:HR12611: H.R. 12611]
| conferencedate = October 12, 1978
| passedbody3 = House
| passeddate3 = October 14, 1978
| passedvote3 = [https://www.govtrack.us/congress/votes/95-1978/h1532 356–6]
| passedbody4 = Senate
| passeddate4 = October 14, 1978
| passedvote4 = [https://www.govtrack.us/congress/votes/95-1978/s1141 82–4]
| signedpresident = [[Jimmy Carter]]
| signeddate = October 24, 1978
| amendments =
| SCOTUS cases =
}}
[[Image:AirlineDeregulationAct.png|thumb|President [[Jimmy Carter]] signs the Airline Deregulation Act.]]

The '''Airline Deregulation Act''' is a 1978 [[United States federal law]] that [[Airline deregulation|deregulated the airline industry]] in the United States, removing [[US federal government|federal]] control over such areas as fares, routes, and market entry of new airlines. The act gradually phased out and disbanded the [[Civil Aeronautics Board]] (CAB), but the regulatory powers of the [[Federal Aviation Administration]] (FAA) over all aspects of [[aviation safety]] were not diminished.

==History==
Since 1938, the federal CAB had regulated all domestic interstate [[Aviation|air transport]] routes as a [[public utility]], setting fares, routes, and schedules.<ref>{{cite web |title=Air Transportation: Deregulation and Its Consequences |url=https://www.centennialofflight.net/essay/Commercial_Aviation/Dereg/Tran8.htm |website=www.centennialofflight.net}}</ref><ref name ="Barnum">{{cite web |title=What Prompted Airline Deregulation 20 Years Ago? What Were the Objectives of That Deregulation and How Were They Achieved? |url=https://corporate.findlaw.com/law-library/what-prompted-airline-deregulation-20-years-ago-what-were-the.html |website=Findlaw}}</ref> Airlines that flew only [[intrastate airline|intrastate]] routes, however, were not regulated by the CAB but were regulated by the governments of the states in which they operated. One way that the CAB promoted air travel was generally attempting to hold fares down in the short-haul market, which would be subsidized by higher fares in the long-haul market. The CAB also had to ensure that the airlines had a reasonable [[profit (accounting)|rate of return]].

The CAB had earned a reputation for bureaucratic complacency; airlines were subject to lengthy delays when they applied for new routes or fare changes, and were often not approved. For example, [[World Airways]] applied to begin a low-fare New York City–to–Los Angeles route in 1967; the CAB studied the request for over six years, only to dismiss it because the record was "stale".<ref name="Barnum" /> [[Continental Airlines]] began service between [[Denver]] and [[San Diego]] after eight years only because a [[United States Court of Appeals]] ordered the CAB to approve the application.<ref>{{cite court|litigants=Continental Air Lines, Inc. v. Civil Aeronautics Board|vol=519|reporter=F.2d|opinion=944|court=C.A.D.C.|date=1975|url=https://law.justia.com/cases/federal/appellate-courts/F2/519/944/85466/}}</ref><ref name="Barnum" />

This rigid system encountered tremendous pressure in the 1970s. The [[1973 oil crisis]] and [[stagflation]] radically changed the economic environment, as did technological advances such as the [[Wide-body aircraft|jumbo jet]]. Most major airlines, whose profits were virtually guaranteed, favored the rigid system, but passengers who were forced to pay escalating fares were against it and were joined by communities that subsidized air service at ever-higher rates. The [[United States Congress]] became concerned that air transport, in the long run, might follow the nation's [[Rail transport in the United States|railroads]] into trouble. The [[Penn Central Transportation Company|Penn Central Railroad]] had collapsed in 1970, which was at that time the largest [[bankruptcy]] in history; this resulted in a huge taxpayer-funded bailout and the creation of the government-owned corporations [[Consolidated Rail Corporation|Conrail]] and [[Amtrak]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Stover |first=John F. |title=American Railroads |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aPNQXN9Onv4C&pg=PA234 |publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]] |year=1997 |page=234 |isbn=978-0-226-77658-3}}</ref>

Leading economists had argued for several decades that the regulation led to inefficiency and higher costs. The [[Presidency of Jimmy Carter|Carter administration]] argued that the industry and its customers would benefit from new entrants, the abolishing of price regulation, and reduced control over routes and hub cities.<ref>{{cite book |title=Up in the Air: How Airlines Can Improve Performance by Engaging their Employees |last=Bamber |first=Greg J. |author2=Jody Hoffer Gittell |author3=Thomas A. Kochan |author4=Andrew Von Nordenflycht |year=2009 |publisher=[[Cornell University Press]] |location=Ithaca, NY |isbn=978-0-8014-4747-1 |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780801447471}} Ch. 5.</ref>

In 1970 and 1971, the [[Council of Economic Advisers]] in the [[Presidency of Richard Nixon|Nixon administration]], along with the [[United States Department of Justice Antitrust Division|Antitrust Division]] of the [[United States Department of Justice]] and other agencies, proposed legislation to diminish [[Price fixing|price collusion]] and entry barriers in rail and [[Trucking industry in the United States|trucking]] transportation. While the initiative was in process in the [[Presidency of Gerald Ford|Ford administration]], the [[United States Senate Judiciary Committee|Senate Judiciary Committee]], which had jurisdiction over [[antitrust law]], began hearings on airline [[deregulation]] in 1975. Senator [[Ted Kennedy|Edward "Ted" Kennedy]] took the lead in the hearings.

The committee was deemed a friendlier forum than what likely would have been the more appropriate venue, the [[United States Senate Commerce Subcommittee on Aviation Operations, Safety, and Security|Aviation Subcommittee]] of the [[United States Senate Committee on Commerce, Science and Transportation|Commerce Committee]]. The Ford administration supported the Judiciary Committee initiative.

In 1977, President [[Jimmy Carter]] appointed [[Alfred E. Kahn]], a professor of [[economics]] at [[Cornell University]], to be chair of the CAB. A concerted push for the legislation had developed from leading economists, leading [[think-tank]]s in Washington, a civil society coalition advocating the reform (patterned on a coalition earlier developed for the truck-and-rail-reform efforts), the head of the regulatory agency, Senate leadership, the Carter administration, and even some in the airline industry. The coalition swiftly gained legislative results in 1978.<ref>{{cite book|last=McCraw|first=Thomas K.|title=Prophets of Regulation|isbn=0674716078|publisher=Belknap Press|location=Cambridge, Massachusetts|year=1984|chapter=Chapter Seven: Kahn and the Economist's Hour|url=https://archive.org/details/prophetsofregula00thom}}</ref>

Dan McKinnon would be the last chairman of the CAB and would oversee its final closure on January 1, 1985.

== Legislative terms ==
Senator [[Howard Cannon]] of [[Nevada]] introduced S. 2493 on February 6, 1978. The bill was passed and was signed by Carter on October 24, 1978.<ref>Airline Deregulation Act, {{USPL|95|504}}, {{usc|49|1371}} ''et seq.'' Approved October 24, 1978.</ref>

The stated goals of the Act included the following:
* the maintenance of safety as the highest priority in air commerce;
* placing maximum reliance on competition in providing air transportation services;
* the encouragement of air service at major urban areas through secondary ([[FAA airport categories|nonprimary]]) or satellite airports;
* the avoidance of unreasonable industry concentration which would tend to allow one or more air carriers to unreasonably increase prices, reduce services, or exclude competition; and
* the encouragement of entry into air transportation markets by new air carriers, the encouragement of entry into additional markets by existing air carriers, and the continued strengthening of small air carriers.

The Act intended for various restrictions on airline operations to be removed over four years, with complete elimination of restrictions on domestic routes and new services by December 31, 1981, and the end of all domestic fare regulation by January 1, 1983. In practice, changes came rather more rapidly than that.

Among its many terms, the act did the following:
* the CAB's authority to set fares was gradually eliminated;
* the CAB was required to expedite processing of various requests;
* standards were liberalized for the establishment of new airlines;
* airlines were allowed to take over service on routes underutilized by competitors or on which the competitor received a local service subsidy;
* American-owned international carriers were allowed to offer domestic service;
* the evidentiary burden was placed on the CAB to block a route as inconsistent with "public convenience";
* the CAB was prohibited from introducing new regulation of [[charter airline|charter]] trips;
* certain subsidies for carrying mail were terminated effective January 1, 1986, and [[Essential Air Service]] subsidies effective 10 years from enactment (however, {{as of|2013|lc=y}}, the EAS is still in existence, serving 160 communities in the US);
* existing mutual aid agreements were terminated between air carriers;
* the CAB was allowed to grant [[antitrust]] immunity to carriers;
* the FAA was directed to develop safety standards for [[commuter airline]]s;
* [[Intrastate airline|intrastate carriers]] were allowed to enter into through service and joint fare agreements with interstate air carriers;
* air carriers, in hiring employees, were required to give preference to terminated or furloughed employees of another carrier for 10 years after enactment; and
* remaining regulatory authority were transferred to the [[United States Department of Transportation]] (DOT) and the CAB itself was dissolved in 1984.

Safety inspections and air traffic control remained in the hands of the FAA, and the act also required the [[United States Secretary of Transportation|Secretary of Transportation]] to report to Congress about air safety and any implications that deregulation would have in that matter.

The ADA (along with the [[Montreal Convention]] with regard to international flights) also has the effect of [[federal preemption|preempting]] state law with regard to claims against airlines for delays, discrimination, consumer protection violations and other allegations of passenger mistreatment.<ref>{{cite web|last=Nemsick|first=Judith R.|title=Recent Rulings Find Preemption Of State Law Claims And Enforce Airline Contracts Of Carriage|url=http://www.mondaq.com/unitedstates/x/266328/Aviation/Recent+Rulings+Find+Preemption+of+State+Law+Claims+and+Enforce+Airline+Contracts+of+Carriage&email_access=on|publisher=[[Holland & Knight]]|access-date=4 October 2013|author2=Sarah Gogal Passeri|date=1 October 2013}}</ref>

== Effects ==
{{see also|Airline deregulation}}

A 1996 [[Government Accountability Office]] report found that the average fare per passenger mile was about nine percent lower in 1994 than in 1979. Between 1976 and 1990 the paid fare had declined approximately thirty percent in [[inflation]]-adjusted terms. Passenger loads have risen, partly because airlines can now transfer larger aircraft to longer, busier routes and replace them with smaller ones on shorter, lower-traffic routes.

However, these trends have not been distributed evenly throughout the national air transportation network. Costs have fallen more dramatically on higher-traffic, longer-distance routes than on shorter ones.{{Citation needed|date=December 2021}}

Exposure to competition led to heavy losses and conflicts with [[trade union|labor union]]s for a number of carriers. Between 1978 and mid-2001, eight major carriers (including [[Eastern Air Lines|Eastern]], [[Midway Airlines (1976-1991)|Midway]], [[Braniff International Airways|Braniff]], [[Pan American World Airways|Pan Am]], [[Continental Airlines|Continental]], [[Northwest Airlines]], and [[Trans World Airlines|TWA]]) and more than 100 smaller airlines went bankrupt or were liquidated, including most of the dozens of new airlines founded in deregulation's aftermath.{{Citation needed|date=January 2012}}<ref>{{Cite news|last=Peterson|first=Robert|date=May 2018|title=Impacts of Airline Deregulation|work=TR News 315|url=http://onlinepubs.trb.org/onlinepubs/trnews/trnews315airlinedereg.pdf|access-date=February 26, 2021}}</ref>

For the most part, smaller markets did not suffer the erosion of service that had been predicted by some opponents of deregulation. However, until the advent of [[low-cost carrier]]s, point-to-point air transport declined in favor of a more pronounced [[spoke-hub distribution paradigm|hub-and-spoke system]]. A traveler starting from a non-hub airport (a spoke) would fly into the hub, then reach the final destination by flying from the hub to another airport, the spoke. While more efficient for serving smaller markets, this system has enabled some airlines to drive out competition from their "fortress hubs." The growth of low-cost carriers such as [[Southwest Airlines]] has brought more point-to-point service back into the United States air transport system, and contributed to the development of a wider range of aircraft types that are better adaptable to markets of varying sizes.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Airline Deregulation|url=https://www.econlib.org/library/Enc/AirlineDeregulation.html|access-date=2021-02-26|website=Econlib|language=en-US}}</ref>

In 2011, [[United States Supreme Court|Supreme Court]] Justice member [[Stephen Breyer]], who was a special counsel to the U.S. Senate [[United States Senate Committee on the Judiciary|Committee on the Judiciary]] in the 1970s and worked with Senator Kennedy on the bill, wrote:

{{quote|What does the industry's history tell us? Was this effort worthwhile? Certainly it shows that every major reform brings about new, sometimes unforeseen, problems. No one foresaw the industry's spectacular growth, with the number of air passengers increasing from 207.5 million in 1974 to 721.1 million last year. As a result, no one foresaw the extent to which new bottlenecks would develop: a flight-choked Northeast corridor, overcrowded airports, delays, and terrorist risks consequently making air travel increasingly difficult. Nor did anyone foresee the extent to which change might unfairly harm workers in the industry. Still, fares have come down. Airline revenue per passenger mile has declined from an inflation-adjusted 33.3 cents in 1974, to 13 cents in the first half of 2010. In 1974 the cheapest round-trip New York-Los Angeles flight (in inflation-adjusted dollars) that regulators would allow: $1,442. Today one can fly that same route for $268. That is why the number of travelers has gone way up. So we sit in crowded planes, munch potato chips, flare up when the loudspeaker announces yet another flight delay. But how many now will vote to go back to the "good old days" of paying high, regulated prices for better service? Even among business travelers, who wants to pay "full fare for the briefcase?"<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Breyer |first1=Stephen |date=2011-01-20 |title=Airline Deregulation, Revisited |journal=Business Week |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2011-01-20/airline-deregulation-revisitedbusinessweek-business-news-stock-market-and-financial-advice |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201119005204/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2011-01-20/airline-deregulation-revisitedbusinessweek-business-news-stock-market-and-financial-advice |archive-date=2020-11-19 }}</ref>}}

==See also==
* [[Wright Amendment]], a US federal law to protect one Texas airport (Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport) from competition only months after the Airline Deregulation Act was signed into law.

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
{{refbegin}}
* Barnum, John W. "[https://corporate.findlaw.com/law-library/what-prompted-airline-deregulation-20-years-ago-what-were-the.html What Prompted Airline Deregulation 20 Years Ago? What Were the Objectives of That Deregulation and How Were They Achieved?]", Presentation to the Aeronautical Law Committee of the Business Law Section of the [[International Bar Association]], September 15, 1998.
* {{cite book |title=The Politics of Deregulation |last1=Derthick |first1=Martha |last2=Quirk |first2=Paul J. |year=1985 |publisher=Brookings Institution |location=Washington, DC |isbn=978-0-8157-1817-8 |url=https://archive.org/details/politicsofderegu00dert|url-access=registration}}
* {{cite book |title=Braking the Special Interests: Trucking Deregulation and the Politics of Policy Reform |last=Robyn |first=Dorothy |year=1987 |publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]] |isbn=978-0-226-72328-0 |url=https://archive.org/details/brakingspecialin00roby}}
* {{cite book |title=The Best Transportation System in the World: Railroads, Trucks, Airlines, and American Public Policy in the Twentieth Century |last1=Rose |first1=Mark H. |last2=Seely |first2=Bruce E. |last3=Barrett |first3=Paul F. |year=2006 |publisher=Ohio State University Press |isbn=978-0-8142-1036-9 |series=Historical Perspectives on Business Enterprise}}
{{refend}}

{{Presidency of Jimmy Carter}}
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[[Category:1978 in American law]]
[[Category:United States federal transportation legislation]]
[[Category:Aviation in the United States]]
[[Category:Economics of regulation]]
[[Category:1978 in aviation]]
[[Category:Aviation law]]
[[Category:Economic liberalization]]