wiki143 - User contributions [en]

Hedge

2025-10-31T12:24:42Z

207.72.1.91: /* Species */ so japan was listed twice and the listing was odd so i changed it

{{Short description|Planted row of shrubs}}
{{other uses}}
{{Redirect|Hedgerow}}
{{Lead too short|date=April 2023}}
[[File:Rotbuchenhecke in der Eifel.jpg|thumb|right|240 px|A typical clipped [[European beech]] hedge in the [[Eifel]], [[Germany]]]]
[[File:Senecio angulatus shrub form.jpg|thumb|right|240px|A round hedge of [[creeping groundsel]]]]

A '''hedge''' or '''hedgerow''' is a line of closely spaced (3 feet or closer) [[shrub]]s and sometimes [[tree]]s, planted and trained to form a barrier or to mark the boundary of an area, such as between neighbouring properties. Hedges that are used to separate a road from adjoining fields or one field from another, and are of sufficient age to incorporate larger trees, are known as hedgerows. Often they serve as [[windbreak]]s to [[microclimate|improve conditions]] for the adjacent [[crop]]s, as in [[bocage]] country. When clipped and maintained, hedges are also a simple form of [[topiary]].

A hedge often operates as, and sometimes is called, a "live [[fence]]". This may either consist of individual fence posts connected with wire or other fencing material, or it may be in the form of densely planted hedges without interconnecting wire. This is common in tropical areas where low-income farmers can demarcate properties and reduce maintenance of fence posts that otherwise deteriorate rapidly. Many other benefits can be obtained depending on the species chosen.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ppath.cornell.edu/mba_project/livefence.html|title=Live Fences|access-date=2007-07-01|last= Cherry|first=Stefan D.|author2=Erick C.M. Fernandes|year=1998|publisher=Cornell University|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140529130456/http://www.ppath.cornell.edu/mba_project/livefence.html|archive-date=May 29, 2014}}</ref>

==History==
[[File:Littlestane march dyke.JPG|thumb|left|A typical old [[Scottish march]] dyke, but without boundary trees]]

The development of hedges over the centuries is preserved in their structure. The first hedges enclosed land for cereal crops during the [[Neolithic Age]] (4000–6000 years ago). The farms were of about {{convert|5|to|10|ha|acre}}, with fields about {{convert|0.1|ha|acre}} for hand cultivation. Some hedges date from the [[Bronze Age|Bronze]] and [[Iron Age]]s, 2000–4000 years ago, when traditional patterns of landscape became established. Others were built during the [[Medieval]] field rationalisations; more originated in the industrial boom of the 18th and 19th centuries, when [[heath (habitat)|heaths]] and uplands were [[enclosure|enclosed]].

Many hedgerows separating fields from lanes in the [[United Kingdom]], [[Ireland]] and the [[Low Countries]] are estimated to have been in existence for more than seven hundred years, originating in the medieval period. The root word of 'hedge' is much older: it appears in the [[Old English language]], in German (''Hecke''), and Dutch (''haag'') to mean 'enclosure', as in the name of the Dutch city [[The Hague]], or more formally'' 's Gravenhage'', meaning ''The [[Count]]'s hedge''. [[Charles the Bald]] is recorded as complaining in 864, at a time when most official fortifications were constructed of wooden [[palisade]]s, that some unauthorized men were constructing ''haies et fertés''; tightly interwoven hedges of [[Common hawthorn|hawthorn]]s.<ref>Rouche, Michel, "Private life conquers state and society," in ''A History of Private Life'' vol I, Paul Veyne, editor, Harvard University Press 1987 {{ISBN|0-674-39974-9}}, p. 428</ref>

In parts of Britain, early hedges were often destroyed to make way for the manorial [[open field system|open-field system]]. Many were replaced after the [[inclosure act]]s, then removed again during modern agricultural intensification, and now some are being replanted for wildlife. As of 2024 in a study using [[Lidar]] by the [[UK Centre for Ecology & Hydrology]] England alone was found to have a total of 390,000 km of hedgerows, which would span the circumference of the earth 10 times.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-01-30 |title=High-tech aerial mapping reveals England's hedgerow landscape |url=https://www.ceh.ac.uk/press/high-tech-aerial-mapping-reveals-englands-hedgerow-landscape |access-date=2024-02-04}}</ref><ref name="bbc">{{Cite news |last=Briggs |first=Helen |date=2024-01-30 |title=England's hedges would go around Earth ten times |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-68132688 |access-date=2024-02-04 |work=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref>

==Composition==
A hedge may consist of a single species or several, typically mixed at random. In many newly planted British hedges, at least 60 per cent of the shrubs are [[Common hawthorn|hawthorn]], [[blackthorn]], and (in the southwest) [[Corylus avellana|hazel]], alone or in combination. The first two are particularly effective barriers to livestock. In North America, ''[[Maclura pomifera]]'' (i.e., hedge apple) was grown to form a barrier to exclude free-range livestock from vegetable gardens and corn fields.<ref>Barlow, Connie. "Anachronistic fruits and the ghosts who haunt them." Arnoldia 61, no. 2 (2001): 14–21.</ref> Other shrubs and trees used include [[Ilex aquifolium|holly]], [[Fagus sylvatica|beech]], [[Quercus robur|oak]], [[Fraxinus excelsior|ash]], and [[willow]]; the last three can become very tall.<ref>{{cite book |title=Hedgerow Planting: Answers to 18 Common Questions |author=The Tree Council |publisher=[[Natural England]] |year=2008 |isbn=978-1-84754-051-5 }}</ref> Of the hedgerows in the [[Normandy]] region of France, Martin Blumenson said,

<blockquote>The hedgerow is a fence, half earth, half hedge. The wall at the base is a dirt parapet that varies in thickness from one to four or more feet and in height from three to twelve feet. Growing out of the wall is a hedge of hawthorn, brambles, vines, and trees, in thickness from one to three feet. Originally property demarcations, hedgerows protect crops and cattle from the ocean winds that sweep across the land.<ref>{{cite book |title= Breakout and Pursuit |last= Blumenson|first= Martin|year= 1993|publisher= Center of Military History|location= Washington D.C.|page= 11}}</ref></blockquote>

The hedgerows of [[Normandy]] became barriers that slowed the advance of [[Allies of World War II|Allied]] troops following the [[D-Day]] invasion during World War II. Allied armed forces modified their [[Rhino tank|armored vehicles]] to facilitate breaking out of their [[beachhead]]s into the Normandy [[bocage]].

===Species===
Formal, or modern garden hedges are grown in many varieties, including the following species:

* ''[[Berberis thunbergii]]'' – native to Japan and eastern Asia
* ''[[Buxus sempervirens]]'' (box) – native to western and southern Europe, northwest Africa, and southwest Asia, from southern England south to northern Morocco, and east through the northern Mediterranean region to Turkey.
* ''[[Carpinus betulus]]'' (European hornbeam) – native to Western Asia and central, eastern, and southern Europe, including southern England.
* ''[[Crataegus monogyna]]'' (hawthorn) – native to Europe, northwestern Africa, and West Asia
* ''[[Fagus sylvatica]]'' (European green beech) – native from northern Europe, in Sweden, Denmark, Norway, Germany, Poland, Switzerland, Bulgaria, eastern parts of Russia, Romania, through central Europe to France, southern England, northern Portugal, central Spain, and east to northwest Turkey where it intergrades with the oriental beech (Fagus orientalis)
* ''Fagus sylvatica'' 'Purpurea' (European purple beech) – a variant of the above
* ''[[Ilex aquifolium]]'' (European holly) – native to western and southern Europe, northwest Africa, and southwest Asia
* ''[[Ligustrum ovalifolium]]'' (privet) – native to Japan and Korea
* [[Ligustrum × ibolium|''Ligustrum'' × ''ibolium'']] (north privet) – native to Japan and Korea
* [[Photinia × fraseri|''Photinia'' × ''fraseri'']] (red robin) – a hybrid between ''[[Photinia glabra]]'' and ''[[Photinia serratifolia]]'', native to Japan, China, Taiwan, the Philippines, Indonesia, and India, respectively
* ''[[Prunus laurocerasus]]'' (common cherry-laurel) – native to regions bordering the Black Sea in southwestern Asia and southeastern Europe, from Albania and Bulgaria east through Turkey to the Caucasus Mountains and northern Iran
* ''[[Prunus lusitanica]]'' (Portuguese cherry-laurel) – native to southwestern France, Spain, Portugal, Morocco, and Macaronesia (the Azores, Canary Islands and Madeira)
* ''[[Quercus ilex]]'' (holm oak) – native to the Mediterranean region
* ''[[Taxus baccata]]'' (yew) – native to Western Europe, Central Europe and Southern Europe (including Great Britain and Ireland), Northwest Africa, northern Iran, and Southwest Asia
* ''[[Thuja occidentalis]]'' (yellow ribbon; northern white cedar) – native to eastern Canada and much of the north-central and northeastern United States
* ''[[Thuja plicata]]'' (western red cedar) – native to the Pacific Northwest of North America

=== Hedgerow trees ===
[[Image:FieldWindbreaks.JPG|right|thumb|Hedgerows between fields in [[North Dakota]]]]
[[File:Oak and beech hedgerow.jpg|thumb|upright|Oak and beech hedges are common in [[Great Britain]]]]

Hedgerow trees are trees that grow in hedgerows but have been allowed to reach their full height and width. There are thought to be around 1.8 million hedgerow trees in Britain (counting only those whose [[canopy (biology)|canopies]] do not touch others) with perhaps 98% of these being in England and Wales.<ref name="18questions"/> Hedgerow trees are both an important part of the English landscape and valuable habitats for wildlife.<ref name="18questions">{{cite book |title=Hedgerow trees: answers to 18 common questions |author=The Tree Council |publisher=[[Natural England]] |year=2008 |isbn=978-1-84754-051-5 |url=http://naturalengland.etraderstores.com/NaturalEnglandShop/Product.aspx?ProductID=e44eea0a-9651-440d-bb8d-14382f35d5d5 |access-date=2009-08-06 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110710204550/http://naturalengland.etraderstores.com/NaturalEnglandShop/Product.aspx?ProductID=e44eea0a-9651-440d-bb8d-14382f35d5d5 |archive-date=2011-07-10 }}</ref> Many hedgerow trees are [[veteran tree]]s and therefore of great wildlife interest.

The most common species are [[English oak]] (''Quercus robur'') and [[Fraxinus excelsior|ash]] (''Fraxinus excelsior''), though in the past [[Ulmus minor 'Atinia'|field elm]] (''Ulmus minor'' 'Atinia') would also have been common. Around 20 million elm trees, most of them hedgerow trees, were felled or died through [[Dutch elm disease]] in the late 1960s. Many other species are used, notably including [[Fagus sylvatica|common beech]] (''Fagus sylvatica'') and various [[nut (fruit)|nut]] and [[fruit tree]]s.<ref name="18questions"/>

The age structure of British hedgerow trees is old because the number of new trees is not sufficient to replace the number of trees that are lost through age or disease.<ref name="18questions"/>

New trees can be established by planting but it is generally more successful to leave standard trees behind when laying hedges. Trees should be left at no closer than {{Convert|10|m|ft}} apart and the distances should vary so as to create a more natural landscape.<ref name="18questions"/> The distance allows the young trees to develop full crowns without competing or producing too much shade.<ref name="18questions"/>

It is suggested that hedgerow trees cause gaps in hedges but it has been found that cutting some lower branches off lets sufficient light through to the hedge below to allow it to grow.<ref name="18questions"/>

==Importance of hedgerows==
Hedges are recognised as part of a cultural heritage and historical record and for their great value to wildlife<ref name="Montgomery-et-al-2020">{{cite journal | last1=Montgomery | first1=Ian | last2=Caruso | first2=Tancredi | last3=Reid | first3=Neil | title=Hedgerows as Ecosystems: Service Delivery, Management, and Restoration | journal=[[Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics]] | publisher=[[Annual Reviews (publisher)|Annual Reviews]] | volume=51 | issue=1 | date=2020-11-02 | issn=1543-592X | doi=10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-012120-100346 | pages=81–102| s2cid=218843016 }}</ref> and the landscape. Increasingly, they are valued too for the major role they have to play in preventing soil loss and reducing pollution, and for their potential to regulate water supply and to reduce flooding.<ref name=Hedgelink>{{cite web |url=http://www.hedgelink.org.uk/index.php?page=16#Cultural |title=About Hedgerows |website=Hedgelink.org |access-date=January 15, 2017}}</ref> There is increased [[earthworm]] diversity in the soils under hedgerows which also help to store organic carbon and support distinct communities of [[arbuscular mycorrhizal]] (AM) fungi.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Holden|first1=J.|last2=Grayson|first2=R. P.|last3=Berdeni|first3=D.|last4=Bird|first4=S.|last5=Chapman|first5=P. J.|last6=Edmondson|first6=J. L.|last7=Firbank|first7=L. G.|last8=Helgason|first8=T.|last9=Hodson|first9=M. E.|last10=Hunt|first10=S. F. P.|last11=Jones|first11=D. T.|date=2019-03-01|title=The role of hedgerows in soil functioning within agricultural landscapes|url=http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/139532/2/The%20role%20of%20hedgerows%20in%20soil%20functioning%20revisedclean.pdf|journal=Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment|language=en|volume=273|pages=1–12|doi=10.1016/j.agee.2018.11.027|bibcode=2019AgEE..273....1H |s2cid=92152004 |issn=0167-8809}} [http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/139532/ Alt URL]</ref>

In addition to maintaining the health of the environment, hedgerows also play a huge role in providing shelter for smaller animals like birds and insects.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Phoebe|first=Weston|date=2021-02-02|title='Reservoirs of life': how hedgerows can help the UK reach net zero in 2050|url=http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/feb/02/reservoirs-of-life-hedgerows-help-uk-net-zero-2050-aoe|access-date=2021-02-03|website=The Guardian|language=en}}</ref> A recent study by Emma Coulthard mentioned the possibility that hedgerows may act as guides for moths, like ''[[Acronicta rumicis]]'', when flying from one location to another. As moths are nocturnal, it is highly unlikely that they use visual aids as guides, but rather are following sensory or olfactory markers on the hedgerows.<ref>Coulthard, E., 2015. ''Habitat and landscape-scale effects on the abundance and diversity of macromoths (Lepidoptera) in intensive farmland''. The University of Northampton.</ref> Larkin et al. 2013 find 100% of [[northwest Europe]]an farms have hedges, providing 43% of the wildlife habitat there.<ref name="Montgomery-et-al-2020" />

Historically, hedges were used as a source of firewood, and for providing shelter from wind, rain and sun for crops, farm animals and people. Today, mature hedges' uses include screening unsightly developments.<ref name="Hedgelink" />

In [[England and Wales]] agricultural hedgerow removal is controlled by the [[Hedgerows Regulations 1997]], administered by the [[local planning authority]].

===Dating===
[[File:March dyke sourlie.JPG|upright|thumb|Beech planted on a march dyke (boundary hedge) of the 18th century.]]

Hedges that have existed for hundreds of years are colonised by additional species. This may be useful as a means of determining the age of the hedge. Hooper's rule (or Hooper's law, named after Dr. [[Max Hooper (naturalist)|Max Hooper]]) is based on ecological data obtained from hedges of known age, and suggests that the age of a hedge can be roughly estimated by counting the number of woody species in a thirty-yard section and multiplying by 110 years.<ref name="hedgerowdating">{{cite book |chapter=The Hedgerow Landscape : Hedgerow Dating |chapter-url=http://handbooks.btcv.org.uk/handbooks/content/section/253 |url=http://handbooks.btcv.org.uk/handbooks/index/book/6|title=Hedging |author=Alan Brooks and Elizabeth Agate |isbn=0-946752-17-6 |publisher=BCTV |access-date=2009-08-06 |year=1998}}</ref>

Max Hooper published his original formula in the book ''Hedges'' in 1974. This method is only a rule of thumb, and can be off by a couple of centuries; it should always be backed up by documentary evidence, if possible, and take into account other factors. Caveats include the fact that planted hedgerows, hedgerows with [[elm]], and hedgerows in the north of England tend not to follow the rule as closely. The formula also does not work on hedges more than a thousand years old.

Hooper's scheme is important not least for its potential use in determining what an important hedgerow is, given their protection in The Hedgerows Regulations (1997; No. 1160) of the [[Secretary of State for the Environment|Department of the Environment]], based on age and other factors.<ref>{{cite book |chapter=Statutory Instrument 1997 No. 1160 |publisher=[[Office of Public Sector Information|OPSI]] |title=The Hedgerows Regulations 1997 |url=http://www.opsi.gov.uk/si/si1997/19971160.htm#4 |access-date=2009-08-06}}</ref>

===Removal===
{{unreferenced section|date=January 2018}}
Hedgerow removal is part of the transition of [[arable land]] from low-intensity to [[intensive farming|high-intensity]] [[farming]]. The removal of hedgerows gives larger fields making the sowing and harvesting of crops easier, faster and cheaper, and giving a larger area to grow the crops, increasing yield and profits.

Hedgerows serve as important [[wildlife corridor]]s, especially in the [[United Kingdom]] where they link the country's fractured ancient [[woodland]]. They also serve as a [[habitat (ecology)|habitat]] for [[bird]]s and other animals. As the land within a few metres of hedges is difficult to plough, sow, or spray with [[herbicide]]s, the land around hedges also typically includes high plant [[biodiversity]]. Hedges also serve to stabilise the soil and on slopes help prevent [[erosion#Gravity|soil creep]] and [[Leaching (pedology)|leaching]] of [[minerals]] and plant nutrients. Removal thus weakens the soil and leads to erosion.

In the United Kingdom hedgerow removal has been occurring since [[World War I]] as technology made intensive farming possible, and the increasing population demanded more food from the land. The trend has slowed down somewhat since the 1980s when cheap food imports reduced the demand on British farmland, and as the [[European Union]] [[Common Agricultural Policy]] made environmental projects financially viable. Under reforms to national and EU agricultural policies, the environmental impact of farming features more highly and in many places hedgerow conservation and replanting is taking place.

In England and Wales agricultural hedgerow removal is controlled by the [[Hedgerows Regulations 1997]], administered by the [[local planning authority]].

==Hedge laying==
{{Main|Hedgelaying}}
[[File:Newly laid hedge.jpg|thumb|left|A stretch of newly laid traditional hedging near [[Middleton, Northamptonshire]]]]

If hedges are not maintained and trimmed regularly, gaps tend to form at the base over many years. In essence, hedgelaying consists of cutting most of the way through the stem of each plant near the base, bending it over and interweaving or [[pleaching]] it between wooden stakes. This also encourages new growth from the base of each plant. Originally, the main purpose of hedgelaying was to ensure the hedge remained stock-proof. Some side branches were also removed and used as firewood.<ref name=moa-1942>{{cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WoprVhpOKIk |title=Hedging |publisher=Ministry of Agriculture |work=Realist Film Unit |people=Thomson, Margaret S. (direction); Hay, Roy (commentator) |via=British Film Institute/YouTube |year=1942 |access-date=17 April 2025}}</ref>

The maintenance and laying of hedges to form an impenetrable barrier for farm animals is a skilled art. In Britain there are many local hedgelaying traditions, each with a distinct style.<ref>{{Cite web |title=NHLS |url=https://www.hedgelaying.org.uk/pg/info/styles.aspx |access-date=2024-01-16 |website=www.hedgelaying.org.uk}}</ref> Hedges are still being laid today<ref>[http://bhha.info/ Blackdown Hills Hedge Association]</ref> not only for aesthetic and functional purposes but also for their ecological role in helping [[wildlife]] and protecting against [[soil erosion]].

===Hedge trimming===
[[Image:Hedges at Mission San Juan Capistrano, CA DSCN0057.JPG|right|thumb|Trimmed hedges at [[Mission San Juan Capistrano]] in [[California]]]]

An alternative to hedge laying is trimming using a tractor-mounted [[flail cutter]] or circular saw, or a [[hedge trimmer]].<ref>{{cite web | title=Tractor trimming hedges in lane | work=YouTube | url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tVYh_JL9qmM | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200417024447/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tVYh_JL9qmM&gl=US&hl=en| archive-date=2020-04-17 | url-status=dead| access-date=3 August 2017}}</ref> The height of the cutting can be increased a little every year. Trimming a hedge helps to promote bushy growth. If a flail cutter is used, then the flail must be kept sharp to ensure that the cutting is effective on the hedge. The disadvantage of this is that the hedge species takes a number of years before it will flower again and subsequently bear fruit for wildlife and people.<ref>Hedge Course at [http://locksparkfarm.wordpress.com/ Locks Park Farm] 13 November 2009</ref> If the hedge is trimmed repeatedly at the same height, a 'hard knuckle' will start to form at that height – similar to the shape of a [[pollarded]] tree. Additionally, hedge trimming causes [[habitat destruction]] to species like the [[Eriogaster lanestris|small eggar moth]] which spend nearly their entire life cycle in blackthorn and hawthorn hedgerow. This has led to a decline in the moth's population. It is now nationally scarce in Britain.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://butterfly-conservation.org/1866-1688/small-eggar.html|title=Small Eggar|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171003143230/https://butterfly-conservation.org/1866-1688/small-eggar.html|archive-date=2017-10-03|url-status=dead}}</ref>

===General hedge management===
A 'hedgerow management' scale has been devised by an organisation called [http://www.hedgelink.org.uk/ Hedgelink UK]<ref>The hedgerow management cycle by [http://www.hedgelink.org.uk/ Hedgelink UK]</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Garden Landscapers HA8 Edgware |url=https://homegarden.org.uk/edgware-garden-landscapers-HA8/landscape-gardening-edgware.html |access-date=13 August 2023}}</ref> ranging from 1 to 10. '1' describes the action to take for a heavily over trimmed hedge, '5' is a healthy dense hedgerow more than 2 metres in height, and '10' is a hedge that has not been managed at all and has become a line of trees.

The RSPB suggest that hedges in Britain not be cut between March and August. This is to protect nesting birds, which are protected by law.<ref name="Tackling Hedges">[http://www.gardenroots.co.uk Tackling Hedges]</ref>

===Coppicing===
The techniques of [[coppicing]] and hard [[pollarding]] can be used to rejuvenate a hedge where hedge laying is not appropriate.<ref>Croxton P.J., Franssen W., Myhill D.G. & Sparks T.H. (2004). "[http://www.conservationevidence.com/individual-study/244 The restoration of neglected hedges: a comparison of management treatments]". ''Biological Conservation'', 117, 19–23</ref>

==Types==
=== Instant hedge ===
The term ''instant hedge'' has become known since early this century for hedging plants that are planted collectively in such a way as to form a mature hedge from the moment they are planted together, with a height of at least 1.2 metres. They are usually created from hedging elements or individual plants which means very few are actually hedges from the start, as the plants need time to grow and entwine to form a real hedge.

An example of an instant hedge can be seen at the [[Elveden Hall]] Estate in East Anglia,<ref>{{Cite web|title = Hedges – Elveden Estate|url = http://www.elveden.com/hedges/|website = Elveden Estate|access-date = 2015-12-09|language = en-US|archive-date = 2016-01-06|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160106044610/http://www.elveden.com/hedges/|url-status = dead}}</ref> where fields of hedges can be seen growing in cultivated rows, since 1998. The development of this type of mature hedge has led to such products being specified by landscape architects, garden designers, property developers, insurance companies, sports clubs, schools and local councils, as well as many private home owners. Demand has also increased from planning authorities in specifying to developers that mature hedges are planted rather than just whips (a slender, unbranched shoot or plant).
[[File:Elveden instant hedges production site.jpg|alt=A picture shows a large area which is dedicated to the growing of instant hedge in rows, in different species at the Elveden Estate in East Anglia|thumb|Instant hedge growing in fields at Elveden Estate]]
A 'real' instant hedge could be defined as having a managed root growth system allowing the hedge to be sold with a continuous rootstrips (rather than individual plants) which then enables year-round planting. During its circa 8-year production time, all stock should be irrigated, clipped and treated with controlled-release nutrients to optimise health.

===Quickset hedge===
{{redirect|Quickset|the lock manufacturer|Kwikset|the software and cloud product|Universal Electronics Inc}}

A quickset hedge is a type of hedge created by planting live whitethorn (common hawthorn) cuttings directly into the earth (hazel does not sprout from cuttings).<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://smallwoods.org.uk/information/hawthorn/ |title=Hawthorn – Small Woods |access-date=2020-02-24 |archive-date=2020-02-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200224103427/http://smallwoods.org.uk/information/hawthorn/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> Once planted, these cuttings root and form new plants, creating a dense barrier. The technique is ancient, and the term ''quickset hedge'' is first recorded in 1484.<ref>Oxford English Dictionary</ref> The word ''quick'' in the name refers to the fact that the cuttings are living (as in "[[The quick and the dead (idiom)|the quick and the dead]]"), and not to the speed at which the hedge grows, although it will establish quite rapidly. An alternative meaning of quickset hedging is any hedge formed of living plants or of living plants combined with a fence. The technique of quicksetting can also be used for many other shrubs and trees.

===Devon hedge===
{{main|Devon hedge}}
[[File:Stone Faced Hedge Beaford.JPG|thumb|upright|A traditional stone-faced [[Devon hedge]] at [[Beaford]], with stones placed on edge]]

A Devon hedge is an [[Berm|earth bank]] topped with shrubs. The bank may be faced with [[Sod|turf]] or stone. When stone-faced, the stones are generally placed on edge, often laid flat around gateways.

A quarter of [[Devon]]'s hedges are thought to be over 800 years old.<ref name="ref1">[http://www.devon.gov.uk/index/environment/natural_environment/biodiversity/devon_hedges/the_devon_hedge.htm The Devon Hedge] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090527225321/http://www.devon.gov.uk/index/environment/natural_environment/biodiversity/devon_hedges/the_devon_hedge.htm |date=2009-05-27 }} on the [[Devon County Council]] website.</ref> There are approximately 33,000 miles (53,000 km) of Devon hedge,<ref name="ref1" /> which is more than any other county. Traditional farming throughout the county has meant that fewer Devon hedges have been removed than elsewhere.

Devon hedges are particularly important for wildlife habitat. Around 20% of the UK's species-rich hedges occur within Devon.<ref name="ref2">[http://www.northdevon.gov.uk/species_rich_hedgerows.pdf Species rich hedgerows] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090304074123/http://www.northdevon.gov.uk/species_rich_hedgerows.pdf |date=2009-03-04 }} from [http://www.northdevon.gov.uk/index/lgcl_leisure_and_culture/lgcl_parks_and_recreation/lgcl_countryside/nonlgcl_natures_space_biodiversity_action_plans.html North Devon Biodiversity Action Plan] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060927032024/http://www.northdevon.gov.uk/index/lgcl_leisure_and_culture/lgcl_parks_and_recreation/lgcl_countryside/nonlgcl_natures_space_biodiversity_action_plans.html |date=2006-09-27 }}</ref> Over 600 species of flowering plants, 1500 species of insects, 65 species of birds and 20 species of mammals have been recorded living or feeding in Devon hedges.<ref name="ref2" />

[[Hedge laying]] in Devon is usually referred to as steeping and involves cutting and laying steepers (the stems) along the top of the bank and securing them with crooks (forked sticks).

===Cornish hedge===
{{main|Cornish hedge}}
A [[Cornish hedge]] is an earth bank with stones.<ref>{{cite book |title=Children's Green Detective Guide to Cornwall |chapter=A Walk in the Country |last=Rooney |first=Debs |year=2002 |publisher=Agenda 21 Publishing Ltd |isbn=0-9543925-0-7}}</ref> It normally consists of large stone blocks constructed either side of a narrow earth bank, and held in place with interlocking stones. The neat rows of square stones at the top are called "edgers". The top of the hedge is planted with grass turf.<ref>{{Cite news |title=New course will try to save traditional Cornish Skill |newspaper=[[The West Briton]] Falmouth edition |date=2007-05-10 |pages=24}}</ref>

Sometimes hedging plants or trees are planted on the hedge to increase its [[windbreak]]ing height. A rich flora develops over the lifespan of a Cornish hedge. The Cornish hedge contributes to the distinctive field-pattern of the Cornish landscape and its semi-natural wildlife habitat. There are about {{convert|30000|mi|km}} of hedges in Cornwall today.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.cornwall.gov.uk/hedges|title=Hedges – Cornwall Council|website=www.cornwall.gov.uk|language=en|access-date=2017-02-12}}</ref>

Hedges suffer from the effects of tree roots, burrowing rabbits, rain, wind, farm animals and people. How often repairs are needed depends on how well the hedge was built, its stone, and what has happened to it since it was last repaired. Typically a hedge needs a cycle of repair every 150 years or so, or less often if it is fenced. Building new hedges, and repairing existing hedges, is a skilled craft, and there are professional hedgers in Cornwall. The Cornish Hedge Research and Education Group (CHREG) supports the development of traditional skills and works with [[Cornwall Council]], FWAG (Farming and Wildlife Advisory Group), Stone Academy Bodmin, Cornwall AONB, Country Trust and professional hedgers to ensure the future of Cornish Hedges in the landscape.

==In gardening==
Hedges, both clipped and unclipped, are often used as ornament in the layout of [[garden]]s. Typical woody plants for clipped hedges include [[privet]], [[Crataegus|hawthorn]], [[beech]], [[Taxaceae|yew]], [[Leyland Cypress|leyland cypress]], [[Tsuga|hemlock]], [[Thuja occidentalis|arborvitae]], [[Berberis|barberry]], [[Buxus|box]], [[holly]], [[oleander]], [[lavender]], among others. An early 20th-century fashion was for '''tapestry hedges''', using a mix of golden, green and glaucous dwarf [[conifer]]s, or beech and copper beech. Unclipped hedges take up more space, generally at a premium in modern gardens, but compensate by flowering. ''[[Rosa multiflora]]'' is widely used as a dense hedge along the [[central reservation]] of dual-carriageway [[road]]s, such as [[parkway]]s in the United States. In mild [[climate]]s, more exotic flowering hedges are formed, using ''[[Ceanothus]]'', ''[[Hibiscus]]'', ''[[Camellia]]'', orange jessamine (''[[Murraya paniculata]]''),[http://weeds.brisbane.qld.gov.au/weeds/mock-orange] or lillypilly (''[[Syzygium]]'' species).
It is also possible to prepare really nice and dense hedge from other [[deciduous]] plants, however they do not have decorative [[flower]]s as the [[Shrub|bush]]es mentioned before.
[[File:Höfen hecke1.jpg|thumb|left|A clipped beech hedge in Germany, grown as high as a house for privacy and to serve as a windbreak]]
Hedges of clipped trees forming [[avenue (landscape)|avenue]]s are a feature of 16th-century [[Italian garden]]s such as the [[Boboli Gardens]] in [[Florence]], and of formal French gardens in the manner of [[André Le Nôtre]], e.g. in the [[Gardens of Versailles]], where they surround [[bosquet]]s or areas formalized woodland. The English version of this was the [[Wilderness (garden history)|wilderness]], normal in large gardens until the [[English landscape garden]] style and the rise of the [[shrubbery]] began to sweep them away from about 1750.<ref>''[https://heald.nga.gov/mediawiki/index.php/Project_Introduction History of Early American Landscape Design]'', Center for Advanced Study in the Visual Arts, National Gallery of Art (Washington DC). "Wilderness" by Anne L. Helmreich</ref> The 'hedge on stilts' of clipped [[hornbeam]]s at [[Hidcote Manor Garden]], [[Gloucestershire]], is famous and has sometimes been imitated; it is fact a standard French and Italian style of the bosquet.

Hedges below knee height are generally thought of as borders. Elaborately shaped and interlaced borders forming [[knot garden]]s or [[parterre]]s were fashionable in Europe during the 16th and early 17th centuries. Generally they were appreciated from a raised position, either the windows of a house, or a [[Terrace (gardening)|terrace]].

Clipped hedges above eye level may be laid out in the form of a [[labyrinth]] or [[Hedge maze|garden maze]]. Few such mazes survived the change of fashion towards more naturalistic plantings in the 18th and 19th centuries, but many were replanted in 20th-century restorations of older gardens. An example is behind the [[Governor's Palace (Williamsburg, Virginia)|Governor's Palace]], [[Colonial Williamsburg]], Virginia.

[[File:Hedges and lawn Santa Clara California.jpg|thumb|right|Hedges trimmed in a California lawn]]
Hedges and [[pruning]] can both be used to enhance a garden's [[privacy]], as a [[Buffer zone|buffer]] to [[visual pollution]] and to hide [[fence]]s. A hedge can be aesthetically pleasing, as in a tapestry hedge, where alternate species are planted at regular intervals to present different colours or textures.

In America, fences have always been more common than hedges to mark garden boundaries. The English radical [[William Cobbett]] was already complaining about this in 1819:

<blockquote>And why should America not possess this most beautiful and useful plant [the [[Crataegus monogyna|Haw-Thorn]]]? She has English gew-gaws, English Play-Actors, English Cards and English Dice and Billiards; English fooleries and English vices enough in all conscience; and why not English Hedges, instead of post-and-rail and board fences? If, instead of these steril-looking and cheerless enclosures the gardens and meadows and fields, in the neighbourhood of New York and other cities and towns, were divided by quick-set hedges, what a difference would the alteration make in the look, and in the real value too, of those gardens, meadows and fields!<ref>''The American Gardener'', 1819, Quoted [https://heald.nga.gov/mediawiki/index.php/Fence History of Early American Landscape Design, Center for Advanced Study in the Visual Arts, National Gallery of Art (Washington DC). "Hedge" by Elizabeth Kryder-Reid]</ref></blockquote>

== Regulation ==
In the US, some local [[jurisdiction]]s may strictly regulate the placement or height of a hedge, such as the case where a [[Palo Alto]] city resident was arrested for allowing her [[xylosma]] hedge to grow above two feet.<ref>{{cite web|title=When Law Goes Out on a Limb |url=http://www.heritage.org/crime-and-justice/commentary/when-law-goes-out-limb |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180115072713/https://www.heritage.org/crime-and-justice/commentary/when-law-goes-out-limb |url-status=unfit |archive-date=January 15, 2018 |publisher=[[The Heritage Foundation]]}}</ref>

In the UK the owner of a large hedge that is adversely affecting the reasonable enjoyment of neighbouring domestic property can be made to reduce it in height. In England and Wales, high hedges are covered under [[Part 8 of the Anti-Social Behaviour Act 2003]]. For a hedge to qualify for reduction, it must be made up wholly or mainly of a line of two or more evergreen or semi-evergreen trees or shrubs and be over 2 metres high. To some degree, it must be a barrier to light or access. It must be adversely affecting the complainant's reasonable enjoyment of their domestic property (either their house or garden) because of its height.<ref name="Tackling Hedges"/> Later legislation with similar effect was introduced in Northern Ireland, Isle of Man and Scotland.

==Significant hedges==
The 19th-century [[Great Hedge of India]] was probably the largest example of a hedge used as a barrier. It was planted and used to collect taxes by the British.

The [[Willow Palisade]], constructed during the early [[Qing dynasty]] (17th century) to control people's movement and to collect taxes on [[ginseng]] and timber in southern [[Manchuria]], also had hedge-like features. The palisade included two dikes and a moat between them, the dikes topped by rows of willow trees, tied to one another with their branches.<ref name=edmonds56>{{cite book|title=Northern Frontiers of Qing China and Tokugawa Japan: A Comparative Study of Frontier Policy|first=Richard Louis|last=Edmonds|publisher=University of Chicago, Department of Geography; Research Paper No. 213|isbn=0-89065-118-3|year=1985|pages=56–57}}</ref>
Gradually decaying throughout the late 18th and 19th centuries, the palisade disappeared in the early 20th century, its remaining willows cut during the [[Russo-Japanese War]] of 1904–1905 by the two countries' soldiers.<ref name=edmonds80>Edmonds (1985), pp. 80–82</ref>

The [[Meikleour Beech Hedges]], located near [[Meikleour]] in [[Scotland]], are noted in the [[Guinness World Records]] as the tallest and longest hedge on earth, reaching {{Convert|30|m|ft}} in height and {{Convert|530|m|mi}} in length. The beech trees were planted in 1745 by Jean Mercer on the [[Marquess of Lansdowne]]'s Meikleour estate.

The hedgerows and sunken lanes in [[Normandy]], France, posed a problem to Allied [[tank]]s after [[Operation Overlord]], the invasion of Europe, in World War 2. The hedgerows prevented the tanks from freely moving about the area, until they were fitted with [[Rhino tank|tusks]].

<gallery widths="200px" heights="160px">
File:CEM-44-La-Chine-la-Tartarie-Chinoise-et-le-Thibet-1734-Liaodong-2755.jpg|An early-18th-century French [[Jesuit missions in China|Jesuit]] map showing the [[Willow Palisade]] ({{lang|fr|Barriere de Pieux}}) surrounding [[Liaodong]] ({{lang|fr|Leao-tong}}), with an additional branch going northeast, to separate the [[Mongols]] and the [[Manchus]]
Image:Meikleour.jpg|[[Meikleour Beech Hedges]]
</gallery>

==See also==
* [[Bocage]]
* [[Cactus fence]]
* [[Dead hedge]]
* [[Drovers' road]]
* [[Enclosure]]
* [[Green wall]]
* [[Hedgehog]]
* [[Shelterbelt]]
* [[Topiary]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist|28em}}

==References==
* Brooks, Alan and Agate, Elizabeth Agate (1998). ''Hedging, a Practical handbook''. British Trust for Conservation Volunteers. {{ISBN|978-0-946-75217-1}}
* Pollard, E., Hooper, M.D. and Moore, N.W. (1974). ''Hedges''. London: Collins.
* [[Rackham, Oliver]] (1986). ''The History of the Countryside''. London: J.M. Dent and Sons.
* {{Cite book |last=van Der Horst |first=Arend Jan |year=1995 |orig-year=1994 |chapter=Hedges |title=Art of the Formal Garden |translator=Mary Charles (from Dutch) |location=London |publisher=Cassell |isbn=0-304-34742-6}}

== Further reading ==
{{Main|Bibliography of hedges and topiary}}

== External links ==
{{NIE Poster|year=1905}}
* [http://www.hedgelaying.org.uk/ The British Hedgelaying Society]
* [http://www.hedgerows.co.uk/ The English Hedgerow Trust]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20150923214150/http://www.devon.gov.uk/environment/natural_environment/biodiversity/devon_hedges.htm Devon Hedge Group]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070310225245/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1510/is_n86/ai_17002621 "The age of hedges"] – "Botanist Max Hooper correlates number of species in English hedgerows with centuries in age", by Charles Elliott. ''Whole Earth Review'', Summer 1995.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20081120205644/http://www.binghamheritage.org.uk/natural/binghams_hedges_date.htm How to Date Hedges] – Bingham Heritage.
* {{Cite Americana|wstitle=Hedge |short=x}}
* [http://www.naturenet.net/trees/hedgerow/index.html About the Hedgerows Regulations 1997]
* [https://www.telegraph.co.uk/gardening/5932880/Divide-and-rule-best-fencing-and-hedges.html "Divide and rule: best fencing and hedges"]—Bunny Guinness in ''[[The Daily Telegraph]]''
* [http://www.express.co.uk/life-style/garden/598396/Alan-Titchmarsh-s-tip-new-trees-instant-lived-in-look "Giving trees a lived-in look comes at a price"]—Alan Titchmarsh in the ''[[Daily Express]]''
* [http://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/gareth-james/choosing-the-right-hedge_b_6659796.html "How to Choose the Right Hedge for an Urban Garden"]—Gareth James in ''[[The Huffington Post]]''
* [https://www.telegraph.co.uk/gardening/3336471/Bring-on-the-screen-stars.html "Bring on the screen stars"]—Jo Morrison in ''The Daily Telegraph''

{{Garden features}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Fences]]
[[Category:Garden features]]
[[Category:Landscape architecture]]

Kaiser-Frazer

2025-03-06T16:30:08Z

207.72.1.91: /* Brands and products */

{{Short description|American automobile company}}
{{Infobox company
| name = Kaiser-Frazer
| former_names =
| logo =
| logo_size =
| type =
| industry = [[automotive industry|Automotive]]
| predecessor = 
| founded = 1945
| founder = [[Henry J. Kaiser]]<br>[[Joseph W. Frazer]]
| defunct = {{end date and age|1953}}
| fate = Merged to [[Willys|Willys-Overland]]
| successor = [[Kaiser Jeep]]
| hq_location_city =
| hq_location_country = [[United States|U.S.]]
| area_served = 
| key_people = [[Edgar Kaiser Sr.|Edgar F. Kaiser]]
| products = [[Automobile]]s
| owner = 
| num_employees =
| num_employees_year = 
| parent =
| website = 
}}

The '''Kaiser-Frazer Corporation''' (1947–1953 as Kaiser-Frazer) was an American automobile company. It was founded jointly by industrialist [[Henry J. Kaiser]] and automobile executive [[Joseph W. Frazer]].<ref name=allpar>[https://www.allpar.com/threads/kaiser-cars-1947-1955.228280/ Kaiser Cars, 1947–1955] by Kelsey Wright at AllPar, 16 Nov 2020</ref> In 1947, the company acquired the automotive assets of [[Graham-Paige]], of which Frazer had become president near the end of World War II. Kaiser-Frazer was one of a few US automakers to achieve success after [[World War II]], if only for a few years. Joseph W. Frazer left the company in 1949, replaced as president by Henry's son [[Edgar Kaiser Sr.|Edgar F. Kaiser]].

In 1953, Kaiser bought the ailing [[Willys|Willys-Overland]] company, mainly for its [[Jeep]] brand, and merged the Kaiser and Willys operations under the "Kaiser-Willys Corporation". The Willys-Overland branch was renamed "Willys Motors", until ten years later, in 1963, it was renamed [[Kaiser Jeep]].

==History==
[[File:Kaiser-Frazer Corp. 1947.jpg|thumb|Fifty shares of the Kaiser-Frazer Corp., issued 4. January 1947]]

The company was founded on 25 July 1945, and in 1946 Kaiser-Frazer displayed prototypes of their two new cars at the Waldorf Astoria Hotel in New York City. The Kaiser had an advanced [[front-wheel drive]] design, while the Frazer was an upscale, conventional rear-wheel drive car. However, production costs and development time constraints prevented the front-wheel drive design from entering production, so the new 1947 model year Kaiser and Frazer sedans shared their bodies and [[Drivetrain#Powertrain|power-trains]]. Being some of the first newly designed cars on the market while the "[[Big Three automobile manufacturers|Big Three]]" were still marketing their pre-war designs, the Kaisers and Frazers made an exciting entrance. Kaiser and Frazer continued to share bodies and engines through 1950 with different exterior and interior trim.

[[File:Kaiser Darrin (rear angle).jpg|thumb|1953 Kaiser Darrin in Anachrome 3D. The doors slide into the front fender]]

Henry Kaiser had no automotive marketing experience, but Joseph Frazer had held positions with Packard, GM, Chrysler, and Willys-Overland. Kaiser believed in pressing forward in the face of adversity, while Frazer was more pragmatic. As the market for Kaiser-Frazer products slowed in 1949 with the introduction of new designs from the Big Three, Kaiser pushed to increase production, creating an oversupply that took until mid-1950 to sell. Kaiser and Frazer had repeated disagreements over production until, finally, Joseph Frazer left the company in 1951 and the Frazer nameplate was dropped after a short 10,000 unit production run in 1951 that used up the remaining inventory of the 1949–50 bodies.

In 1953, the Kaiser-Frazer Corporation was renamed [[Kaiser Motors|Kaiser Motors Corporation]] and continued building passenger cars through 1955. In 1955 Kaiser Motors Corporation had another name change to Kaiser Industries when it became a holding company for the major assets of the Henry J. Kaiser Company. The business then established a very broad base of activities, including a group of television stations.

In 1953, Kaiser bought the [[Willys-Overland]] company for US$63,381,175 and merged the Kaiser and Willys operations under the name Kaiser-Willys Corporation. The company left the passenger car market at the end of the 1955 model year.

By 1956, Willys Motors built only utility vehicles, many for export, and was turning a healthy profit as a company 100% owned by Kaiser Industries Corporation. This operation (which included stakes in Willys-Overland du Brasil and [[Industrias Kaiser Argentina]]) became Kaiser Jeep Corporation in 1963 and remained 100% owned by Kaiser Industries. In 1970 Kaiser-Jeep Corporation was sold to [[American Motors Corporation]] through purchase of certain assets and assumption of certain liabilities by AMC. In 1987 American Motors was sold to the Chrysler Corporation in a lock-stock-barrel (acquiring all assets and assuming all liabilities of American Motors) transaction.

==Production==
Production of Kaiser-Frazer (K-F) models was centered at [[Willow Run|Willow Run, Michigan]], then the world's largest building. It was built by the U.S. government just prior to World War II for [[Henry Ford]] to make [[B-24 Liberator]] bombers. When the war ended Ford had no interest in the facility, and the [[War Assets Administration]] searched for a lessee or buyer. K-F expressed interest in the facility and the WAA offered them an attractive five-year lease rate. K-F also had manufacturing facilities in Jefferson MI; Long Beach CA; Portland OR; Leaside, Ontario, Canada; Haifa, Israel; Kawasaki, Japan;<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=ytwDAAAAMBAJ&dq=1954+Popular+Mechanics+January&pg=PA164 "U.S. Cars Roll Off Tokyo Assembly Lines."] ''Popular Mechanics'', April 1952, p. 164, bottom of page.</ref> Mexico City and Rotterdam (known as "[[Nekaf]]", for Nederlandse Kaiser-Frazer fabrieken). U.S. production was concentrated at Toledo, Ohio, upon the purchase of Willys-Overland starting in 1953; the Willow Run facility was sold to General Motors after GM suffered a disastrous fire at their [[Livonia, Michigan]], Hydramatic automatic transmission plant and needed a facility quickly to resume production.

== Brands and products ==
* '''Kaiser''' includes Custom, Deluxe, Virginian, Carolina and Manhattan sedans, as well as the Traveler and Vagabond 3 door hatchback utility sedan. First post-war production car to offer [[Supercharger|supercharging]] (the 1954 Kaiser Manhattan).
* '''[[Henry J]]''', a small economy car including Corsair and Vagabond.
* '''[[Kaiser Darrin|Darrin]]''', the first production fiberglass sports car in the United States, beating Corvette to market by one month.
* '''[[Frazer (automobile)|Frazer]]''' includes Standard, Deluxe and Manhattan sedans and the Vagabond hatchback. The 1951 Frazer Manhattan convertible was the last four-door American convertible until the 1961 Lincoln Continental. Early production 1947 Frazers were marketed and identified as a Graham-Paige product.
* '''[[Willys]]''', including "[[Willys Aero|Aero-Willys]]" and all sub-trim levels include Aero-Lark, Aero Ace.
* '''[[Jeep]]''', including pick-ups, CJ Vehicles, all steel wagons, Wagoneer and Jeepster models.
* '''[[Allstate (automobile)|Allstate]]''', designed to sell through [[Sears|Sears-Roebuck]] department stores in the southern United States, was a slightly restyled Henry J. The cars were equipped with Allstate products (tires, battery, etc.). The modest styling changes distinguishing the Allstate from the Henry J were executed by [[Alex Tremulis]], stylist of the [[Tucker 48|1948 Tucker Sedan]].
* Kaiser-Frazer also produced the C-119 "flying boxcar" airplane under licence from fairchild, they were produced at willow run from 1951 to 1955. they produced 71 flying boxcars, although fairchild did not like Kaiser-Frazer producing them. they blocked Kaiser-Frazer from purchasing the Pratt & Whitney R-4360 engines, so Kaiser-Frazer purchased the wright 3350 duplex cyclone engines since wright had an abundance of them from the decommissioning of the B-29 bomber. <ref>https://www.ruudleeuw.com/c119-info-p4.htm</ref>

== Gallery ==
<gallery mode="packed" heights="160">
File:1948 Kaiser (17246444056).jpg|1948 Kaiser Special Sedan
File:Flickr - Hugo90 - 1949 Kaiser.jpg|1949 Kaiser Deluxe Four-Door Convertible<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.lemaymarymount.org/vehicle.php?vID=753|title=LeMay Family Collection Foundation {{!}} Marymount Event Center|website=www.lemaymarymount.org|access-date=2016-04-01|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160413232532/http://www.lemaymarymount.org/vehicle.php?vID=753|archive-date=2016-04-13}}</ref> at the [[LeMay Family Collection Foundation|LeMay Family Collection]]
File:Frazer Manhattan at Mahy Mobiles, Leuze.jpg|1949 Frazer Manhattan four-door convertible
File:Ypsilanti Automotive Heritage Museum May 2015 099 (1947 Frazer Manhattan interior).jpg|1947 Frazer Manhattan
File:Kaiser Manhattan 4-D Sedan 1953.jpg|Kaiser Manhattan 4-Door Sedan 1953
File:Kasier Darrin.jpg|1953 Kaiser Darrin sports car in 3D Anachrome. Body design by Dutch Darrin and Bill Tritt
</gallery>

==International operations==

=== Argentina ===
[[File:Kaiser carabela.jpg|thumb|Kaiser Carabela (local name given to Kaiser Manhattan) manufactured in Argentina, 1962]]
In 1951, Argentina sent their emissary, Brigadier General Juan Ignacio San Martín, to the US to convince an auto manufacturer to build cars in Argentina. In 1954, Kaiser was the only one to accept the offer, with the remainder believing the market was too small to justify the investment. Also, they did not have the rugged products Kaiser did. On January 19, 1955, Kaiser and the government of Argentina signed an agreement to permit Kaiser to manufacture automobiles and trucks in Argentina. In February, Kaiser created a wholly owned subsidiary named Kaiser Automotores, the holding company which in turn owned part of the newly created [[Industrias Kaiser Argentina]] S.A. (IKA), the manufacturing and marketing arm. Other partners in IKA included the government-owned vehicle manufacturer [[Industrias Aeronáuticas y Mecánicas del Estado]] (IAME) and private investors. In August, Kaiser applied for and received an import license to bring in 1,021 completed cars, manufacturing equipment and spare parts from the US. Groundbreaking for the new factory was in March 1955 with the first Jeep vehicle rolling out of the plant on 27 April 1956.

[[File:Kaisercarabela1.jpg|thumb|Diagram of Carabela's measurements]]
The new Argentine factory was built in the city of Santa Isabel in the province of Córdoba with the Kaiser Manhattan being rechristened the "Kaiser Carabela" — named after [[Caravel|a type of Portuguese sailing ship]]. The US vinyl and fabric interior was replaced with a more rugged leather interior, the [[speedometer]] was recalibrated in kilometers with the temperature, oil, and [[fuel gauge]] annotations in Spanish and the spring rates were increased to accommodate unimproved Argentine roads. Oddly, the dash castings with annotations for vent, heater, headlight and wiper controls remained in English. No consideration was given to offering an automatic transmission due to the anticipated difficulty in obtaining service in remote towns. Production started on the Carabela on 25 July 1958 and, in the remaining months of that year, 2,158 cars were built. IKA was also building Jeep vehicles at the Cordoba factory and assembled 20,454 Jeeps in 1958 alone. The combined Carabela-Jeep production of 22,612 units was 81 percent of all vehicles manufactured in Argentina in 1958, with the only competition being the state-run utility vehicle manufacturer IAME. Many have questioned the wisdom of building IKA automobile factory in remote Santa Isabel which was far from ports and transportation hubs but the primary reason is that Córdoba was General San Martín's home province and he had a close, influential relationship with President Juan Perón.

In 1962, the Carabela, the "Gran coche argentino" (the Great Argentine Car), ended production with some 15,000 cars assembled providing elegant transportation for the doctors, bankers and other notables in Argentina. The Carabela had some stable mates in 1960-62 in the form of an Alfa Romeo 1900 sedan derivative named the Bergantín (another type of Spanish sailing ship) and an Argentine-manufactured Renault Dauphine (badged IKA Dauphine). In 1962, Rambler variants licensed from AMC would replace the Carabela and the Bergantín. The final form of the AMC variants was the potent Torino which saw a lot of racing on international circuits. Built until the early 1980s, the Torino was based on the 1964 Rambler American 2-door hardtop and 4-door sedan, but had its own engine, front and rear end styling, and a more European-styled interior. In 1970, Kaiser sold IKA to Renault.

=== Israel ===
With the founding of the State of Israel in 1948, the Ford Motor Company sought to invest in the new state, and to facilitate the production of a large number of vehicles Israel would need for the military and the government. Ford announced plans to build an assembly plant in Israel.

When Arab nations got word of Ford’s plans, they announced that if Ford didn't cancel the agreement, they’d boycott it by putting the company on the [[Arab League boycott of Israel|Arab League’s blacklist]].

Ford pulled out causing a moment of crisis for the Israeli government. While the government was searching for alternatives, Lord [[Marcus Sieff]] of London, contacted [[Efraim Ilin]], an Israeli security expert and tycoon, and put him in contact with [[Hickman Price]] of Kaiser-Frazer. The company had recently built an automobile plant in Holland, and were planning to build one in Greece. Ilin met Price and negotiated a $2.5 million project. Kaiser-Frazer invested half a million dollars, and Ilin formed a group that invested the other two million dollars.

Kaiser production began in Israel in 1951. By 1956, Kaiser-Frazer was responsible for 28% of Israeli exports.

The factory built Kaiser-Frazer products, along with Mack trucks, under license. By the end of the 1950s, the operation was known as Kaiser-Ilin, named after [[Efraim Ilin]], the Israeli entrepreneur who had negotiated the Haifa plant deal with [[Hickman Price]] Jr., the nephew of Joseph P. Frazer. In 1959, Kaiser-Ilin reached an agreement to assemble six-cylinder Studebaker Larks in Haifa, to help potential buyers bypass stiff Israeli duties on imported vehicles. Earlier that year, the Kaiser-Frazer plant at Haifa laid off 400 workers and suspended operations for two weeks because of a lack of parts.<ref>[http://www.jta.org/1959/12/02/archive/kaiser-frazer-plant-in-israel-suspends-operations-for-two-weeks#ixzz3Ex2QNHge Kaiser-frazer Plant in Israel Suspends Operations for Two Weeks] 2 December 1959 ''www.jra.org'' accessed 14 May 2022
</ref>

=== Netherlands ===
In 1947, the Dutch company Nederlandse Kaiser-Frazer Fabrieken (NEKAF) was created with a new factory constructed in Rotterdam. NEKAF assembled 6,000 1949 Kaiser [[knock-down kits]] imported from the US using some local content (batteries, tires, interior, carpets, glass) and ignition and electrical system parts from France and Great Britain. Kaiser cars were assembled through 1954 with NEKAF exporting to Europe, South America and the Middle East.

US-built Jeep vehicles were imported into The Netherlands by S.A. Ateliers de La Dyle under an agreement with Willys Overland. Once Willys was purchased by Kaiser, the Willys agreement was transferred to NEKAF. In March 1954, assembly of the Jeep [[Jeep CJ#CJ-3B|CJ-3B]] started and was followed by the [[Jeep Forward Control#FC-150|FC-150]], [[Jeep Forward Control#FC-170|FC-170]], the pickup truck, station wagon, [[Jeep CJ#CJ-5|CJ-5]] and [[Jeep DJ#DJ-3A|DJ-3A]]. On 21 January 1955, NEKAF signed a contract with the Royal Netherlands Army to supply 4,000 [[Willys M38A1|M38A1]] jeeps with the first delivery to the army on 28 May of the same year. The vehicles were knock down kits imported from the US with some local content as with the 1949 Kaiser assembly. NEKAF delivered an additional 1,624 vehicles to the army through 1959 until production was taken over by [[Kemper & Van Twist Diesel]] who delivered another 2,237 jeep vehicles through 1963 although these were still commonly known as NEKAFs.

The NEKAF jeeps differed from the US version by adding side reflectors (white in front and red at the rear), low intensity "city lights" on the front fenders and front and rear mounted directional signals. In a bid to reduce the costs, the Ministry of War, having invested already in clothing for the crews, ordered the cabin heaters to be deleted. This modification entailed considerable redesign of the engine cooling unit which eventually led to increased cost of the vehicles (some 12,000 [[Dutch guilder]]s each). The jeeps, dubbed NEKAF by the military, started to enter service in 1956 and remained so well into the 1990s albeit on reservist duties. The NEKAF jeep saw action in the brief Dutch Indonesian war in 1962, but particularly during the [[UNIFIL]] operation in which an armoured infantry battalion participated from 1979 till 1983, the NEKAF turned out to be a robust and reliable vehicle in South Lebanon. Upon withdrawal of the Dutch battalion all UNIFIL NEKAFs were dismantled and sold locally as scrap, save three NEKAFs that were secretly withheld and privately driven back to the Netherlands. One of these sole surviving UNIFIL NEKAFs is now in the collection of the Legermuseum Delft (the Dutch Army Museum).

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== Further reading ==
* {{Cite book |last=Langworth |first=Richard M. |year=1975 |title=Kaiser-Frazer, the Last Onslaught on Detroit: An Intimate Behind the Scenes Study of the Postwar American Car Industry |url=https://archive.org/details/kaiserfrazerlast0000lang/mode/2up |url-access=registration |location=Kutztown, Pa. |publisher=Automobile Quarterly Publications |isbn=0915038048 |oclc=1527324}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category}}
* [http://kfclubmembers.com/ Kaiser-Frazer Owner's Club International (KFOCI)]

{{Kaiser Motors}}
{{Automotive industry in the United States}}

[[Category:Kaiser Motors|*]]
[[Category:1945 establishments in Michigan]]
[[Category:1952 disestablishments in Michigan]]
[[Category:American companies established in 1945]]
[[Category:Cars introduced in 1947]]
[[Category:Defunct manufacturing companies based in Michigan]]
[[Category:Defunct motor vehicle manufacturers of the United States]]
[[Category:Henry J. Kaiser]]
[[Category:Motor vehicle manufacturers based in Michigan]]
[[Category:Vehicle manufacturing companies disestablished in 1952]]
[[Category:Vehicle manufacturing companies established in 1945]]