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Death by burning

2025-06-27T11:18:30Z

131.111.5.201:

{{short description|Execution or murder method}}
{{redirect|Burned at the stake|the 1981 horror film|Burned at the Stake}}
{{redirect|Burned alive|the book about honor killing|Burned Alive}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2024}}
[[File:Avvakum by Pyotr Yevgenyevich Myasoyedov.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|An 1892 painting showing the 1682 burning of [[Old Believer]] leader [[Avvakum]] and others in [[Pustozersk]], Russia]]
'''Death by burning''' is an [[list of execution methods|execution]], [[murder]], or [[suicide]] method involving [[combustion]] or exposure to extreme heat. It has a long history as a form of public [[capital punishment]], and many societies have employed it as a punishment for and warning against crimes such as [[treason]], [[heresy]], and [[witchcraft]]. The best-known execution of this type is '''burning at the stake''', where the condemned is bound to a large wooden stake and a fire lit beneath. A holocaust is a religious animal sacrifice that is completely consumed by fire, also known as a burnt offering. The word derives from the ancient Greek holokaustos, the form of sacrifice in which the victim was reduced to ash, as distinguished from an animal sacrifice that resulted in a communal meal.

== Effects ==
In the process of being burned to death, a body experiences burns to tissue, changes in content and distribution of [[body fluid]], [[fixation (histology)|fixation]] of tissue, and shrinkage (especially of the skin).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Bohnert |first1=Michael |title=Forensic Pathology Reviews |chapter=Morphological Findings in Burned Bodies |publisher=Humana Press |pages=3–27 |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-1-59259-786-4_1 |date=2004|volume=1 |isbn=978-1617375507 }}</ref> Internal organs may be shrunken due to fluid loss. Shrinkage and contraction of the muscles may cause joints to flex and the body to adopt the "pugilistic stance" (boxer stance), with the elbows and knees flexed and the fists clenched.<ref>{{cite web |title=What happens to human bodies when they are burned |url=https://www.futurelearn.com/courses/forensic-archaeology-and-anthropology/0/steps/67911 |website=FutureLearn}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Pugilistic attitude (posture) |url=https://www.interfire.org/termoftheweek.asp?term=1660 |website=interfire.org}}</ref> Shrinkage of the skin around the neck may be severe enough to [[strangling|strangle]] a victim.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Maxeiner |first1=H. |title=[Hemorrhage of the head and neck in death by burning] |journal=Zeitschrift für Rechtsmedizin. Journal of Legal Medicine |pages=61–80 |doi=10.1007/BF00200288 |year=1988|volume=101 |issue=2 |pmid=3055743 |s2cid=42121516 }}</ref> Fluid shifts, especially in the [[skull]] and in the hollow organs of the [[abdominal cavity|abdomen]], can cause pseudo-hemorrhages in the form of [[epidural hematoma|heat hematomas]]. The [[organic matter]] of the body may be consumed as [[fuel]] by a fire. The cause of death is frequently determined by the respiratory tract, where [[edema]] or bleeding of [[mucous membranes]] and patchy or vesicular detachment of the [[mucosa]] may be indicative of inhalation of hot gases. Complete [[cremation]] is only achieved under extreme circumstances.

The amount of pain experienced is greatest at the beginning of the burning process before the flame burns the [[nerves]], after which the skin does not hurt.<ref>{{cite web |author=Guardian Staff |title=What does death by burning mean? |url=https://www.theguardian.com/theguardian/2003/apr/26/theeditorpressreview |website=The Guardian |date=26 April 2003}}</ref> Many victims die quickly from suffocation as hot gases damage the respiratory tract. Those who survive the burning frequently die within days as the [[lung]]s' [[pulmonary alveolus|alveoli]] fill with fluid and the victim dies of [[pulmonary edema]].{{citation needed|date=March 2024}} 

==Historical use==
===Antiquity===
====Ancient Near East====

====Old Babylonia====
The 18th-century BCE law code promulgated by [[Babylonian King]] [[Hammurabi]] specifies several crimes in which death by burning was thought appropriate. Looters of houses on fire could be cast into the flames, and priestesses who abandoned cloisters and began frequenting inns and taverns could also be punished by being burnt alive. Furthermore, when a man committed [[incest]] with his mother after the death of his father, both mother and son could be ordered to be burned alive.<ref>''Roth'' (2010), [https://books.google.com/books?id=awrOHv-gtqQC&pg=PA5 p. 5]</ref><ref>''Cuneiform Digital Library Initiative'' (2024), [https://cdli.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/artifacts/464358]</ref>

====Ancient Egypt====
In [[Ancient Egypt]], several incidents of burning perceived rebels alive are attested to. [[Senusret I]] (r. 1971–1926 BC) is said to have rounded up the rebels in campaign, and burnt them as human torches. Under the civil war flaring under [[Takelot II]] more than a thousand years later, the [[Osorkon III|Crown Prince Osorkon]] showed no mercy, and burned several rebels alive.<ref>''Wilkinson'' (2011): Senusret I incident, [https://books.google.com/books?id=P07rgiJjsk4C&pg=PA169 p. 169] Osorkon incident, [https://books.google.com/books?id=P07rgiJjsk4C&pg=PA412 p. 412]</ref> On the statute books, at least, women committing adultery might be burned to death. [[Jon Manchip White]], however, did not think capital judicial punishments were often carried out, pointing to the fact that the [[pharaoh]] had to personally [[Ratification|ratify]] each verdict.<ref>''White'' (2011), [https://books.google.com/books?id=GVhQ_lDWq0EC&pg=PA167 p. 167]</ref>

====Assyria====
In the [[Middle Assyrian period]], paragraph 40 in a preserved law text concerns the obligatory unveiled face for the professional prostitute, and the concomitant punishment if she violated that by veiling herself (the way wives were to dress in public):
{{blockquote|A prostitute shall not be veiled. Whoever sees a veiled prostitute shall seize her ... and bring her to the palace entrance. ... they shall pour hot [[Pitch (resin)|pitch]] over her head.<ref>''Schneider'' (2008), [https://books.google.com/books?id=4hHLe60cYBcC&pg=PA154 p. 154]</ref>}}

For the [[Neo-Assyrian Empire|Neo-Assyrians]], mass executions seem to have been not only designed to instill terror and to enforce obedience, but also as proof of their might. Neo-Assyrian King [[Ashurnasirpal II]] (r. 883–859 BC) was evidently proud enough of his executions that he committed them to monument as follows:<ref>''Olmstead'' (1918) [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1946342 p. 66]</ref>{{blockquote|I cut off their hands, I burned them with fire, a pile of the living men and of heads over against the city gate I set up, men I impaled on stakes, the city I destroyed and devastated, I turned it into mounds and ruin heaps, the young men and the maidens in the fire I burned.}}

====Jewish tradition====
In [[Book of Genesis|Genesis]] 38, [[Judah (biblical person)|Judah]] orders [[Tamar (Genesis)|Tamar]]—the widow of his son, living in her father's household—to be burned when she is believed to have become pregnant via extramarital sexual relations. Tamar saves herself by proving that Judah is himself the father of her child. In the [[Book of Jubilees]], the same story is told, with some differences. In Genesis, Judah is exercising his patriarchal power at a distance, whereas he and the relatives seem more actively involved in Tamar's impending execution.<ref>''Reeder'' (2012), [https://books.google.com/books?id=PiNSpBdtsCgC&pg=PA82 p. 82]</ref>

In [[Halakha|Hebraic law]], death by burning was prescribed for ten forms of sexual crimes: the imputed crime of Tamar, namely that a married daughter of a priest commits adultery, and nine versions of relationships considered as incestuous, such as having sex with one's own daughter, or granddaughter, but also having sex with one's mother-in-law or with one's wife's daughter.<ref>Full list in ''Quint'' (2005), [https://books.google.com/books?id=2nEZQXWsXG4C&pg=PA257 p. 257]</ref>

In the [[Mishnah]], the following manner of burning the criminal is described:
{{blockquote|The obligatory procedure for execution by burning: They immersed him in dung up to his knees, rolled a rough cloth into a soft one and wound it about his neck. One pulled it one way, one the other until he opened his mouth. Thereupon one ignites the (lead) wick and throws it in his mouth, and it descends to his bowels and sears his bowels.}}

That is, the person dies from being fed molten lead.<ref>Quotation from ''Ben-Menahem, Edrei, Hecht'' (2012), [https://books.google.com/books?id=J-ZE_BJpJnIC&pg=PA111 p. 111]</ref>

====Ancient Rome====
[[File:Siemiradski Fackeln.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Nero's Torches]]]]
According to [[Christian legend]], [[Roman Empire|Roman]] authorities executed many of the early [[Martyr#Christianity|Christian martyrs]] by burning, including the [[military saint|warrior saint]] [[Theodore Tiron|Theodore]] and [[Polycarp]], the earliest recorded martyr.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf01.iv.iv.html|title=ANF01. The Apostolic Fathers with Justin Martyr and Irenaeus – Christian Classics Ethereal Library|website=ccel.org}}</ref> Sometimes Roman immolation was carried out using the ''[[tunica molesta]]'',<ref>[[Juvenal]] has an extended description of the tunica molesta, the punishment as meted out by Emperor [[Nero]] as contained in [[Tacitus]] matches the concept. See ''Pagán'' (2012), [https://books.google.com/books?id=bHzMYrWHjVoC&pg=PA53 p. 53]</ref> a flammable tunic:<ref>''Miley'' (1843), [https://books.google.com/books?id=iSsLAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA223 pp. 223–224]</ref>

{{blockquote|... the Christian, stripped naked, was forced to put on a garment called the tunica molesta, made of papyrus, smeared on both sides with wax, and was then fastened to a high pole, from the top of which they continued to pour down burning pitch and lard, a spike fastened under the chin preventing the excruciated victim from turning the head to either side, so as to escape the liquid fire, until the whole body, and every part of it, was literally clad and cased in flame.}}

In 326, [[Constantine the Great]] promulgated a law that increased the penalties for parentally non-sanctioned "abduction" of their girls, and concomitant sexual intercourse/rape. The man would be burnt alive without the possibility of appeal, and the girl would receive the same treatment if she had participated willingly. Nurses who had corrupted their female wards and led them to sexual encounters would have molten lead poured down their throats.<ref>[[Codex Theodosianus]] [http://ancientrome.ru/ius/library/codex/theod/liber09.htm#24 9,24]. Law text found in ''Pharr'' (2001), [https://books.google.com/books?id=-ROBb7SIvYgC&pg=PA244 pp. 244–245] The full law was changed in context to the penalties just 20 years later by Constantine's son, [[Constantius II]], for free citizens aiding and abetting in the abduction, to an unspecified "capital punishment". The full severity of the law was to be kept, however, for slaves. [https://books.google.com/books?id=-ROBb7SIvYgC&pg=PA245 p. 245], ''ibidem''</ref> In the same year, Constantine also passed a law that said if a woman had sexual relations with her own slave, both would be subjected to capital punishment, the slave by burning (if the slave himself reported the {{nowrap|offense—}}presumably having been {{nowrap|raped—}}he was to be set free).<ref>Law text in [[Codex Justinianus]] [https://droitromain.univ-grenoble-alpes.fr/Anglica/CJ9_Scott.gr.htm#11 9.11.1], as referred to in ''Winroth, Müller, Sommar'' (2006), [https://books.google.com/books?id=4smZ4JjGJcsC&pg=PA107 p. 107]</ref> In 390 AD, Emperor [[Theodosius I|Theodosius]] issued an edict against [[male prostitute]]s and brothels offering such services; those found guilty should be burned alive.<ref>''Pickett'' (2009), [https://books.google.com/books?id=XH-SMq-NKf0C&pg=PR21 p. xxi]</ref>

In the 6th-century collection of the sayings and rulings of the pre-eminent jurists from earlier ages, the [[Digest (Roman law)|Digest]], a number of crimes are regarded as punishable by death by burning. The 3rd-century jurist [[Ulpian]] said that enemies of the state and deserters to the enemy were to be burned alive. His rough contemporary, the juristical writer [[Callistratus (jurist)|Callistratus]], mentions that arsonists are typically burnt, as well as slaves who have conspired against the well-being of their masters (this last also, on occasion, being meted out to free persons of "low rank").<ref>See ''Watson'' (1998) '''Ulpian''', section 48.19.8.2, p. 361. '''Callistratus''', sections 48.19.28.11–12, p. 366</ref> The punishment of burning alive arsonists (and traitors) seems to have been particularly ancient; it was included in the [[Twelve Tables]], a mid-5th-century BC law code, that is, about 700 years prior to the times of Ulpian and Callistratus.<ref>''Kyle'' (2002), [https://books.google.com/books?id=x4vekGBc_McC&pg=PA53 p. 53]</ref>

====Ritual child sacrifice in Carthage====
{{further|Tophet|Moloch}}
[[File:Bardo National Museum tanit.jpg|left|thumb|100px|Tanit with a lion's head]]

Beginning in the early 3rd century BC, Greek and Roman writers commented on the purported institutionalized [[child sacrifice]] the North African [[Carthaginians]] are said to have performed in honour of the gods [[Baal Hammon]] and [[Tanit]]. The earliest writer, [[Cleitarchus]], is among the most explicit. He says live infants were placed in the arms of a bronze statue, the statue's hands over a brazier, so that the infant slowly rolled into the fire. As it did so, the limbs of the infant contracted and the face was distorted into a sort of laughing grimace, hence called "the act of laughing". Other, later authors such as [[Diodorus Siculus]] and [[Plutarch]] say the throats of the infants were generally cut before they were placed in the statue's embrace<ref>On ritual description, Plutarch, and in general, see ''Markoe'' (2000), [https://books.google.com/books?id=smPZ-ou74EwC&pg=PA132 pp. 132–136] On Diodorus, see ''Schwartz, Houghton, Macchiarelli, Bondioli'' (2010), [http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0009177 Skeletal remains..do not support] on phrase "the act of laughing", see ''Decker'' (2001), [http://ancienthistory.about.com/library/bl/uc_decker_carthrel3.htm p. 3] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090315024147/http://ancienthistory.about.com/library/bl/uc_decker_carthrel3.htm |date=15 March 2009 }}</ref> In the vicinity of ancient Carthage, large scale graveyards containing the incinerated remains of infants, typically up to the age of 3, have been found; such graves are called "tophets". However, some scholars have argued that these findings are not evidence of ''systematic'' child sacrifice, and that estimated figures of ancient natural infant mortality (with cremation afterwards and reverent separate burial) might be the real historical basis behind the hostile reporting from non-Carthaginians. A late charge of the imputed sacrifice is found by the North African bishop [[Tertullian]], who says that child sacrifices were still carried out, in secret, in the countryside at his time, 3rd century AD.<ref>'''Generally accepting''' the tradition of child sacrifice, see ''Markoe'' (2000), [https://books.google.com/books?id=smPZ-ou74EwC&pg=PA132 pp. 132–136] '''Generally skeptical''', see ''Schwartz, Houghton, Macchiarelli, Bondioli'' (2010), [http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0009177 Skeletal remains..do not support]</ref>

====Celtic traditions====
[[File:The Wicker Man of the Druids crop.jpg|thumb|right|267px|An 18th-century illustration of a wicker man. Engraving from ''A Tour in Wales'' written by [[Thomas Pennant]]]]
According to [[Julius Caesar]], the ancient [[Celts]] practised the burning alive of humans in a number of settings. In Book 6, chapter 16, he writes of the [[Druid]]ic sacrifice of criminals within huge [[Wicker man|wicker frames shaped as men]]:
{{blockquote|Others have figures of vast size, the limbs of which formed of [[Salix viminalis|osiers]] they fill with living men, which being set on fire, the men perish enveloped in the flames. They consider that the [[oblation]] of such as have been taken in theft, or in robbery, or any other offence, is more acceptable to the immortal gods; but when a supply of that class is wanting, they have recourse to the oblation of even the innocent.}}

Slightly later, in Book 6, chapter 19, Caesar also says the Celts perform, on the occasion of death of great men, the funeral sacrifice on the pyre of living slaves and dependents ascertained to have been "beloved by them". Earlier on, in Book 1, chapter 4, he relates of the conspiracy of the nobleman [[Orgetorix]], charged by the Celts for having planned a ''coup d'état'', for which the customary penalty would be burning to death. It is said Orgetorix committed suicide to avoid that fate.<ref>''Julius Caesar, McDevitt, Bohn'' (1851) '''On penalty for conspiracy''', [https://books.google.com/books?id=7FsIAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA4 p. 4] '''On criminals in large wicker frames''', [https://books.google.com/books?id=7FsIAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA149 p. 149] '''On funeral human sacrifice''', [https://books.google.com/books?id=7FsIAAAAQAAJ&pg=P150 pp. 150–151]</ref>

====Baltic====
Throughout the 12th–14th centuries, a number of non-Christian peoples living around the Eastern [[Baltic Sea]], such as [[Old Prussians]] and [[Lithuanians]], were charged by Christian writers with performing human sacrifice. [[Pope Gregory IX]] issued a [[papal bull]] denouncing an alleged practice among the Prussians, that girls were dressed in fresh flowers and wreaths and were then burned alive as offerings to evil spirits.<ref>This case, and a number of others in ''Pluskowski'' (2013), pp.[https://books.google.com/books?id=-8NykshHHesC&pg=PA77 77–78]</ref>

===Christian states===
[[File:Filip2 albigensti.jpg|thumb|The burning of the [[Catharism|Cathar]] heretics]]
====Eastern Roman Empire====
Under 6th-century Emperor [[Justinian I]], the death penalty had been decreed for impenitent [[Manicheans]], but a specific punishment was not made explicit. By the 7th century, however, those found guilty of "dualist heresy" could risk being burned at the stake.<ref>''Hamilton, Hamilton, Stoyanov'' (1998), [https://books.google.com/books?id=uH-8AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA13 p. 13, footnote 42]</ref> Those found guilty of performing magical rites, and corrupting sacred objects in the process, might face death by burning, as evidenced in a 7th-century case.<ref>''Haldon'' (1997), [https://books.google.com/books?id=pSHmT1G_5T0C&pg=PA333 p. 333, footnote 22]</ref> In the 10th century AD, the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantines]] instituted death by burning for [[parricides]], i.e. those who had killed their own relatives, replacing the older punishment of ''[[poena cullei]]'', the stuffing of the convict into a leather sack, along with a rooster, a viper, a dog and a monkey, and then throwing the sack into the sea.<ref>''Trenchard-Smith, Turner'' (2010), [https://books.google.com/books?id=2ombkgpGt_AC&pg=PA48 p. 48, footnote 58]</ref>

====Medieval Inquisition and the burning of heretics====
[[File:Templars Burning.jpg|right|thumb|Burning of the [[Knights Templar]], 1314]]

The first recorded case of heretics being burnt in Western Europe in the [[Middle Ages]] occurred in 1022 at [[Orléans]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Rice |first=Joshua |date=1 June 2022 |title=Burn in Hell |journal=History Today |volume=72 |issue=6 |pages=16–18}}[https://www.historytoday.com/archive/history-matters/burn-hell]</ref> Civil authorities burned persons judged to be [[Heresy|heretics]] under the [[medieval]] [[Inquisition]]. Burning heretics had become customary practice in the latter half of the twelfth century in continental Europe, and death by burning became statutory punishment from the early 13th century. Death by burning for heretics was made positive law by [[Pedro II of Aragon]] in 1197. In 1224, [[Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor]], made burning a legal alternative, and in 1238, it became the principal punishment in the Empire. In [[Sicily]], the punishment was made law in 1231.

In England at the start of the 15th century, the teachings of [[John Wycliffe]] and the [[Lollards]] began to be seen as a threat to the establishment, and draconic punishments were enacted. In 1401, Parliament passed the ''[[De heretico comburendo]]'' Act, which can be loosely translated as "Regarding the burning of heretics." Lollard persecution would continue for over a hundred years in England. The [[Fire and Faggot Parliament]] met in May 1414 at [[Grey Friars Priory]] in [[Leicester]] to lay out the notorious [[Suppression of Heresy Act 1414]], enabling the burning of heretics by making the crime enforceable by the [[justices of the peace]]. [[John Oldcastle]], a prominent Lollard leader, was not saved from the gallows by his old friend King [[Henry V of England|Henry V]]. Oldcastle was hanged and his gallows burned in 1417. [[Jan Hus]] was burned at the stake after being accused at the Roman Catholic [[Council of Constance]] (1414–18) of heresy. The council also decreed that the remains of [[John Wycliffe]], dead for 30 years, should be exhumed and burned. This [[posthumous execution]] was carried out in 1428.

====Burnings of Jews====
[[File:Doutielt1.jpg|thumb|Representation of a massacre of the Jews in the 1349 Anti-Jew riots, that was justified by allegations that Jews were behind the [[Black Death|Black Death Epidemic]]. ''Antiquitates Flandriae'' ([[Royal Library of Belgium]] manuscript 1376/77).]]

Several incidents are recorded of massacres on [[Jews]] from the 12th through 16th centuries in which they were burned alive, often on account of the [[blood libel]]. In 1171 in [[Blois]], 51 Jews were burned alive (the entire adult community). In 1191, King [[Philip Augustus]] ordered around 100 Jews burnt alive.<ref>Both incidents in ''Weiss'' (2004), [{{Google books |plainurl=yes |id=oJOvpkHg7msC |page=104 }} p. 104]</ref> That Jews purportedly performed [[host desecration]] also led to mass burnings; In 1243 in [[Beelitz]], the entire Jewish community was burnt alive, and in 1510 in [[Berlin]], 26 Jews were burnt alive for the same crime.<ref>''Prager, Telushkin'' (2007), {{Google books |plainurl=yes |id=VK0llzUqQ2YC |page=87 }}</ref> During the "[[Black Death]]" in the mid-14th century a spate of large-scale [[Persecution of Jews during the Black Death|massacres]] occurred. One libel was that the Jews had [[well poisoning|poisoned the wells]]. In 1349, as panic grew along with the increasing death toll from the plague, general massacres, but also specifically mass burnings, began to occur. Six hundred Jews were burnt alive in [[Basel]] alone. A large mass burning occurred in [[Strasbourg]], where several hundred Jews were burnt alive in what became known as the [[Strasbourg massacre]].<ref>{{cite web | url=https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/jewish/1348-jewsblackdeath.asp | title=Internet History Sourcebooks Project }}</ref>

A Jewish man, Johannes Pfefferkorn, met a particularly gruesome death in 1514 in [[Halle (Saale)|Halle]]. He had been accused of having impersonated a priest for twenty years, performing [[host desecration]], stealing Christian children to be tortured and killed by other Jews, poisoning 13 people and poisoning wells. He was lashed to a pillar in such a way that he could run about it. Then, a ring of glowing coal was made around him, and gradually pushed ever closer to him, until he was roasted to death.<ref>''Bülau'' (1860), {{Google books |plainurl=yes |id=z4YBAAAAQAAJ |page=423–424 }}</ref>

====Lepers' Plot of 1321====
Not only Jews could be victims of mass hysteria. The charge of well-poisoning was the basis for a [[1321 lepers' plot|large-scale hunt of lepers in 1321 France]]. In the spring of 1321, in [[Périgueux]], people became convinced that the local lepers had poisoned the wells, causing ill-health among the normal populace. The lepers were rounded up and burned alive. The action against the lepers had repercussions throughout France, not least because King [[Philip V of France|Philip V]] issued an order to arrest all lepers, those found guilty to be burnt alive. Jews became tangentially included as well; at [[Chinon]] alone, 160 Jews were burnt alive.<ref>''Richards'' (2013), [https://books.google.com/books?id=saXbAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA161 pp. 161–163]</ref> All in all, around 5,000 lepers and Jews are recorded in one tradition to have been killed during the Lepers' Plot hysteria.<ref>''John, Pope'' (2003), [https://books.google.com/books?id=-_fnv5pmECsC&pg=PA177 p. 177]</ref>

The charge of the lepers' plot was not wholly confined to France; extant records from England show that on [[Jersey]] the same year, at least one family of lepers was burnt alive for having poisoned others.<ref>''Smirke'' (1865), [https://books.google.com/books?id=G4dbAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA326 pp. 326–331]</ref>

====Spanish Inquisition====
{{See| Auto-da-fé}}
[[File:Anneken Hendriks, Dam, Amsterdam, by Jan Luyken.jpg|thumb|The burning of a 16th-century Dutch [[Anabaptist]], [[Anneken Hendriks]], who was charged with heresy]]
The [[Spanish Inquisition]] was established in 1478, with the aim of preserving Catholic orthodoxy; some of its principal targets were "[[Marranos]]", formally converted Jews thought to have relapsed into [[Judaism]], or the [[Moriscos]], formally converted Muslims thought to have relapsed into [[Islam]]. The public executions of the Spanish Inquisition were called [[autos-da-fé]]; convicts were "released" (handed over) to secular authorities in order to be burnt.

Estimates of how many were executed on behest of the Spanish Inquisition have been offered from early on; historian [[Hernando del Pulgar]] (1436–{{circa|1492}}) estimated that 2,000 people were burned at the stake between 1478 and 1490.<ref>[[Henry Kamen]], ''The Spanish Inquisition: A Historical Revision.'', p. 62, (Yale University Press, 1997).</ref> Estimates ranging from 30,000 to 50,000 burnt at the stake (alive or not) at the behest of the Spanish Inquisition during its 300 years of activity have previously been given and are still to be found in popular books.<ref>On mercy, and 50,000 estimate, for Marranos ''Telchin'' (2004), [https://books.google.com/books?id=4K7QH76_HdIC&pg=PA41 p. 41] On 30,000 estimate of Marranos ''killed'', see ''Pasachoff, Littman'' (2005), [https://books.google.com/books?id=z4eaj09hscAC&pg=PA151 p. 151]</ref>

In February 1481, in what is said to be the first auto-da-fé, six Marranos were burnt alive in [[Seville]]. In November 1481, 298 Marranos were burnt publicly at the same place, their property confiscated by the Church.{{citation needed|date=August 2019}} Not all Marranos executed by being burnt at the stake seem to have been burnt alive. If the Jew confessed his heresy, the Church would show mercy, and he would be strangled prior to the burning. Autos-da-fé against Marranos extended beyond the Spanish heartland. In Sicily, in 1511–15, 79 were burnt at the stake, while from 1511 to 1560, 441 Marranos were condemned to be burned alive.<ref>''Cipolla'' (2005), [https://books.google.com/books?id=Sggys-_O-2cC&pg=PA91 p. 91]</ref> In Spanish American colonies, autos-da-fé were held as well. In 1664, a man and his wife were burned alive in [[Río de la Plata]], and in 1699, a Jew was burnt alive in [[Mexico City]].<ref>''Stillman, Zucker'' (1993) '''On the Río de la Plata incident''', see ''Matilde Gini de Barnatan'', [https://books.google.com/books?id=yq7VUKWz5dwC&pg=PA144 p. 144], '''on Mexico City incident''', see ''Eva Alexandra Uchmany'', [https://books.google.com/books?id=yq7VUKWz5dwC&pg=PA128 p. 128]</ref>

In 1535, five Moriscos were burned at the stake on [[Majorca]]; the images of a further four were also burnt in [[effigy]], since the actual individuals had managed to flee. During the 1540s, some 232 Moriscos were paraded in autos-da-fé in [[Zaragoza]]; five of those were burnt at the stake.<ref>''Carr'' (2009), [https://archive.org/details/bloodfaithpurgin00carr/page/101 p. 101]</ref> The claim that out of 917 Moriscos appearing in autos of the Inquisition in [[Granada]] between 1550 and 1595, just 20 were executed<ref>{{cite web|url=https://archive.org/details/spanishinquisition2|title=The Spanish Inquisition A Historical Revision 4th Ed. By Henry Kamen|last=Henry Kamen|via=Internet Archive}}</ref> seems at odds with the English government's state papers which claim that, while at war with Spain, they received a report from Seville of 17 June 1593 that over 70 of the richest men of Granada were burnt.<ref>List And Analysis of State Papers Foreign, Jul 1593 – Dec 1594. v. 5; p. 444 (595): by Public Record Office ({{ISBN|978-0114402181}})</ref> As late as 1728 as many as 45 Moriscos were recorded as having been burned for heresy.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Matar |first=Nabil |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z2QRd_rbWu8C&pg=PR21 |title=Europe Through Arab Eyes, 1578–1727 |date=2008-11-12 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-51208-4 |page=xxi |language=en}}</ref> In the May 1691 "bonfire of the Jews", Rafael Valls, Rafael Benito Terongi and [[Caterina Tarongí|Catalina Terongi]] were burned alive.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/05/07/world/europe/07iht-spain07.html|title=In Majorca, Atoning for the Sins of 1691|first=Doreen|last=Carvajal|newspaper=The New York Times|date=7 May 2011|access-date=20 October 2018}}</ref><ref>[[Nachman Seltzer]], ''Incredible'', Shaar Press, 2016</ref>

====Portuguese Inquisition at Goa====
In 1560, the [[Portuguese Inquisition]] opened offices in the Indian colony [[Goa]], known as [[Goa Inquisition]]. Its aim was to protect Catholic orthodoxy among new converts to Christianity, and retain its hold on the old, particularly against "Judaizing" deviancy. From the 17th century, Europeans were shocked at the tales of how brutal and extensive the activities of the Inquisition were.{{Citation needed|date=June 2017}} Modern scholars have established that some 4,046 individuals in the time 1560–1773 received some sort of punishment from the Portuguese Inquisition, of whom 121 persons were condemned to be burned alive; 57 actually suffered that fate, while the rest escaped it, and were burnt in effigy instead.<ref>Already noted originally by ''Hunter'' (1886), [https://books.google.com/books?id=Vdv7AQAAQBAJ&pg=PA253 pp. 253–254], see also ''Salomon, Sassoon, Saraiva'' (2001), pp. 345–347</ref> For the Portuguese Inquisition in total, not just at Goa, modern estimates of persons actually executed on its behest is about 1,200, whether burnt alive or not.<ref>See extensive table at [[Portuguese Inquisition]], ''de Almeida'' (1923), in particular p. 442</ref>

===="Crimes against nature"====
[[File:Burning of Sodomites.jpg|left|thumb|Burning of two [[homosexuals]], [[Richard Puller von Hohenburg]] and Anton Mätzler, at the stake outside [[Zürich]], 1482 ([[Spiezer Schilling]])]]

From the 12th to the 18th centuries, various European authorities legislated (and held judicial proceedings) against sexual crimes such as [[sodomy]] or [[bestiality]]; often, the prescribed punishment was that of death by burning. Many scholars think that the first time death by burning appeared within explicit codes of law for the crime of sodomy was at the ecclesiastical 1120 [[Council of Nablus]] in the [[Crusades|crusader]] [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]]. Here, if public repentance were done, the death penalty might be avoided.<ref>See for '''first time''' ''Heng'' (2013), [https://books.google.com/books?id=pRXvHbNLPQ0C&pg=PA56 p. 56] on '''option of public repentance''' ''Puff, Bennett, Karras'' (2013), [https://books.google.com/books?id=QThLAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA387 p. 387]</ref> In Spain, the earliest records for executions for the crime of sodomy are from the 13th to 14th centuries, and it is noted there that the preferred mode of execution was death by burning. The Partidas of King [[Alfonso X of Castile|Alfonso "El Sabio"]] condemned sodomites to be castrated and hung upside down to die from the bleeding, following the Old Testament phrase "their blood shall be upon them".<ref>''Pickett'' (2009), [https://books.google.com/books?id=XH-SMq-NKf0C&pg=PA178 p. 178]</ref> At [[Geneva]], the first recorded burning of sodomites occurred in 1555, and up to 1678, some two dozen met the same fate. In [[Venice]], the first burning took place in 1492, and a monk was burnt as late as 1771.<ref>'''On Geneva and Venice''', see ''Coward, Dynes, Donaldson'' (1992), [https://books.google.com/books?id=y8_Ya2s3zN8C&pg=PA36 p. 36]</ref> The last case in France where two men were condemned by court to be burned alive for engaging in consensual homosexual sex was in 1750 (although, it seems, they were actually strangled prior to being burned). The last case in France where a man was condemned to be burned for a murderous rape of a boy occurred in 1784.<ref>''Crompton'' (2006), [https://books.google.com/books?id=TfBYd9xVaXcC&pg=PA450 p. 450]</ref>

Crackdowns and the public burning of a homosexual couple sometimes led others to flee out of fear of a similar fate. The traveller [[William Lithgow (traveller and author)|William Lithgow]] witnessed such a dynamic when he visited [[Malta]] in 1616 :{{blockquote|''The fifth day of my staying here, I saw a Spanish soldier and a Maltezen boy burnt in ashes, for the public profession of sodomy; and long before night, there were above an hundred bardassoes, whorish boys, that fled away to Sicily in a galliot, for fear of fire; but never one bugeron stirred, being few or none there free of it.''<ref>''Lithgow'' (1814), [https://books.google.com/books?id=whMwAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA305 p. 305]</ref>}}

In 1409 and 1532 in [[Augsburg]] two [[pederasts]] were burned alive for their offenses.<ref>''Osenbrüggen'' (1860), [https://archive.org/details/dasalamannische00osengoog/page/n308 p. 290]</ref>

====Penal code of Charles V====
In 1532, Holy Roman Emperor [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]] promulgated his penal code [[Constitutio Criminalis Carolina]]. A number of crimes were punishable with death by burning, such as coin [[forgery]], [[arson]], and sexual acts "contrary to nature".<ref>specified as men or women found guilty of same-sex sexual behaviour or guilty of having had sex with animals.</ref> Also, those guilty of aggravated theft of sacred objects from a church could be condemned to be burnt alive.<ref>As late as in 1730 [[Poznań|Posen]], a church robber had his right hand cut off, and the stump covered in pitch. Then, the pitch was ignited, and the person was burnt alive on a pyre as well. ''Oehlschlaeger'' (1866), [https://books.google.com/books?id=F41aAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA55 p. 55]</ref> Only those found guilty of ''malevolent'' witchcraft<ref>No fixed penalty was placed on performing acts of witchcraft that had caused no harm</ref> could be punished by death by fire.<ref>All in ''Koch'' (1824) '''Coin forgers''': [https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_q_o6AAAAcAAJ/page/n125  Article 111, p. 52], '''Malevolent witchcraft''': [https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_q_o6AAAAcAAJ/page/n68  Article 109, p. 55] '''Sexual acts contrary to nature''':[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_q_o6AAAAcAAJ/page/n61  Article 116, p. 58], '''Arson''':[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_q_o6AAAAcAAJ/page/n64  Article 125, p. 61], '''Theft of sacred objects''': [https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_q_o6AAAAcAAJ/page/n157  Article 172, p. 84]</ref>

====Witches and heretics====
[[File:Wickiana5.jpg|thumb|Burning of three witches in [[Baden, Switzerland|Baden]] (1585), from the [[Wickiana]] Collection|alt=]]
Burning was used during the [[Witch-hunt#Early Modern Europe and Colonial America|witch-hunts of Europe]], although hanging was the preferred style of execution in England and Wales. The penal code known as the [[Constitutio Criminalis Carolina]] (1532) decreed that sorcery throughout the [[Holy Roman Empire]] should be treated as a criminal offence, and if it purported to inflict injury upon any person the witch was to be burnt at the stake. In 1572, [[Augustus, Elector of Saxony]] imposed the penalty of burning for witchcraft of every kind, including simple [[fortunetelling]].<ref>''Thurston'' (1912) [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15674a.htm%20New%20Advent Witchcraft], 2010 web resource.{{dead link|date=June 2016|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> From the latter half of the 18th century, the number of "[[Witch trials in the early modern period|nine million witches]] burned in Europe" has been bandied about in popular accounts and media, but has never had a following among specialist researchers.<ref>Professional researchers in the 19th, and early 20th century tended to ''refuse'' giving any quantification at all but, when pushed, typically landed on about 100,000 to 1 million victims</ref> Today, based on meticulous study of trial records, ecclesiastical and inquisitorial registers and so on, as well as on the utilization of modern statistical methods, the specialist research community on witchcraft has reached an agreement for roughly 40,000–50,000 people executed for witchcraft in Europe in total, and by no means all of them executed by being burned alive. Furthermore, it is solidly established that the peak period of witch-hunts was the century 1550–1650, with a slow increase preceding it, from the 15th century onward, as well as a sharp drop following it, with "witch-hunts" having basically fizzled out by the first half of the 18th century.<ref>See [[Wolfgang Behringer]] (1998) on the history of witch-counting, and on specialist academic consensus, [http://www.historicum.net/themen/hexenforschung/thementexte/rezeption/art/Neun_Millionen/html/ca/0e43e9dea3a4144c50997da6aa74bd34/ Neun Millionen Hexen] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190128080612/https://www.historicum.net/themen/hexenforschung/thementexte/rezeption/art/Neun_Millionen/html/ca/0e43e9dea3a4144c50997da6aa74bd34/ |date=28 January 2019 }} Originally published in GWU 49 (1998) pp. 664–685, web publication 2006</ref>
[[File:Jan Hus at the Stake.jpg|thumb|left|[[Jan Hus]] burnt at the stake]]
[[File:Stilke Hermann Anton - Joan of Arc's Death at the Stake.jpg|upright|thumb|''Joan of Arc's Death at the Stake'', by [[Hermann Stilke]] (1843)]]
Notable individuals executed by burning include [[Jacques de Molay]] (1314),<ref>Contemporary description of the burning at Ile-des-Javiaux in ''Barber'' (1993), [https://books.google.com/books?id=GEu58-OIT1MC&pg=PA241 p. 241]</ref> [[Jan Hus]] (1415),<ref>Extracts of eyewitness report at website of Columbia University, ''Peter from Mladonovic'' (2003), [http://www.columbia.edu/~js322/misc/hus-eng.html How was executed Jan Hus] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130306132946/http://www.columbia.edu/~js322/misc/hus-eng.html |date=6 March 2013 }}</ref> [[Joan of Arc]] (1431),<ref>Reconstruction of Joan of Arc's death scene in ''Mooney, Patterson'' (2002), [https://books.google.com/books?id=0hYWzuecyHMC&pg=PA1 pp. 1–2] excerpt from ''Mooney'' (1919)</ref> [[Girolamo Savonarola]] (1498),<ref>Eyewitness account provided in ''Landucci, Jarvis'' (1927), [https://archive.org/stream/ldpd_10273453_000#page/n169/mode/2up pp. 142–143]</ref> [[Patrick Hamilton (martyr)|Patrick Hamilton]] (1528),<ref>According to eyewitness [[Alexander Ales]], Hamilton entered the pyre at noon, and died after six hours burning, see ''Tjernagel'' (1974, web reprint), [http://www.wlsessays.net/node/1535 p. 6] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100707174042/http://www.wlsessays.net/node/1535 |date=7 July 2010 }}</ref> [[John Frith (martyr)|John Frith]] (1533),<ref>Description of John Frith's death in ''Foxe, Townsend, Cattley'' (1838), [https://books.google.com/books?id=5hA5AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA15 p. 15]</ref> [[William Tyndale]] (1536), [[Michael Servetus]] (1553),<ref>Detailed description of Servetus' death at ''Kurth'' (2002) [http://www.salon.com/2002/11/12/goldstone/ Out of the Flames]</ref> [[Giordano Bruno]] (1600),<ref>A perfunctory official notice of the manner of his death 17 February 1600, is contained in ''Rowland'' (2009), [https://books.google.com/books?id=Gus_rugtLN0C&pg=PA10 p. 10]</ref> [[Urbain Grandier]] (1634),<ref>Apparently, Grenadier had been promised to be strangled prior to his burning, but his executioners reneged on that promise as he was fastened to the stake. See '''modern monograph''' ''Rapley'' (2001), in particular [https://books.google.com/books?id=lxlHuai91ZsC&pg=PA195 pp. 195–198], for a '''classic description''', see [[Alexandre Dumas]] on the execution details in ''Dumas'' (1843), [https://books.google.com/books?id=t64SAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA424 pp. 424–426]</ref> and [[Avvakum]] (1682).<ref>Alan Wood describes Avvakum's execution as follows: ''Avvakum and three fellow prisoners were led from their icy cells to an elaborate pyre of pinewood billets and there burned alive. The tsar had finally rid himself of "this turbulent priest"'', ''Wood'' (2011), [https://books.google.com/books?id=VZZLAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA44 p. 44]</ref> Anglican martyrs [[John Rogers (Bible editor and martyr)|John Rogers]],<ref>''Foxe, Milner, Cobbin'' (1856), [https://archive.org/details/foxesbookofmarty00fo/page/608 pp. 608–609]</ref> [[Hugh Latimer]] and [[Nicholas Ridley (martyr)|Nicholas Ridley]] were burned at the stake in 1555.<ref>''Foxe, Milner, Cobbin'' (1856), [https://archive.org/details/foxesbookofmarty00fo/page/864 pp. 864–865]</ref> [[Thomas Cranmer]] followed the next year (1556).<ref>''Foxe, Milner, Cobbin'' (1856), [https://archive.org/details/foxesbookofmarty00fo/page/925 pp. 925–926]</ref>

====Denmark====
In Denmark, after the 1536 [[Reformation]], [[Christian IV of Denmark]] (r. 1588–1648) encouraged the practice of burning witches, in particular by the law against witchcraft in 1617. In [[Jutland]], the mainland part of Denmark, more than half the recorded cases of witchcraft in the 16th and 17th centuries occurred after 1617. Rough estimates says about a thousand persons were executed due to convictions for [[witchcraft]] in the 1500–1600s, but it is not wholly clear if all of the transgressors were burned to death.<ref>For Denmark, see ''Burns'' (2003), [https://books.google.com/books?id=Qr6_q-chR6MC&pg=PA64 pp. 64–65]</ref>

====England====
[[Mary I]] ordered hundreds of [[Protestants]] burnt at the stake during her reign (1553–1558) in what would be known as the "[[List of Protestant martyrs of the English Reformation#List of Marian Martyrs|Marian Persecutions]]" earning her the epithet of "Bloody" Mary.<ref>[[John Foxe]] is particularly mentioned in being assiduous at documenting such cases of persecutions. See, ''Miller'' (1972), [https://books.google.com/books?id=3S89AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA72 p. 72]</ref> Many of those executed by Mary are listed in ''[[Foxe's Book of Martyrs|Actes and Monuments]]'', written by [[John Foxe|Foxe]] in 1563 and 1570.

[[Edward Wightman]], a radical Anabaptist from [[Burton on Trent]], who publicly denied the Trinity and the divinity of [[Christ]] was the last person burned at the stake for [[heresy]] in England in [[Lichfield|Lichfield, Staffordshire]] on 11 April 1612.<ref>For a claim of the last heretic burned at the stake, see ''Durso'' (2007), [https://books.google.com/books?id=68jfRYQo3zsC&pg=PA29 p. 29]</ref> Although cases can be found of burning heretics in the 16th and 17th centuries in England, that penalty for heretics was historically relatively new. It did not exist in 14th-century England, and when the bishops in England petitioned King [[Richard II]] to institute death by burning for heretics in 1397, he flatly refused, and no one was burnt for heresy during his reign.<ref>''Sayles'' (1971) [https://books.google.com/books?id=HVQLAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA31 p. 31]</ref> Just one year after his death, however, in 1401, [[William Sawtrey]] was burnt alive for heresy.<ref>''Richards'' (1812), [https://books.google.com/books?id=JRkwAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA1190 p. 1190]</ref> Death by burning for heresy was formally abolished by Parliament during the reign of King [[Charles II of England|Charles II]] in 1676.<ref>''Willis-Bund'' (1982), [https://books.google.com/books?id=2gA9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA95 p. 95]</ref>

The traditional punishment for women found guilty of treason was to be [[Burning of women in England|burned at the stake]], where they did not need to be publicly displayed naked, whereas men were [[hanged, drawn and quartered]]. The jurist [[William Blackstone]] argued as follows for the different punishments for females and males:
{{blockquote|For as the decency due to sex forbids the exposing and public mangling of their bodies, their sentence (which is to the full as terrible to sensation as the other) is to be drawn to the gallows and there be burned alive<ref>Direct citation in ''McLynn'' (2013), [https://books.google.com/books?id=Ylf8t7uSGJEC&pg=PA122 p. 122]</ref>}}

However, as described in Camille Naish's "Death Comes to the Maiden", in practice, the woman's clothing would burn away at the beginning, and she would be left naked anyway.{{citation needed|date=June 2018}} There were two types of treason: [[high treason]], for crimes against the sovereign; and [[petty treason]], for the murder of one's lawful superior, including that of a husband by his wife. Commenting on the 18th-century execution practice, Frank McLynn says that most convicts condemned to burning were not burnt alive, and that the executioners made sure the women were dead before consigning them to the flames.<ref>''McLynn'' (2013), [https://books.google.com/books?id=Ylf8t7uSGJEC&pg=PA122 p. 122]</ref>

The last person condemned to death for "petty treason" was Mary Bailey, whose body was burned in 1784. The last woman to be convicted for "high treason", and have her body burnt, in this case for the crime of coin forgery, was [[Catherine Murphy (counterfeiter)|Catherine Murphy]] in 1789.<ref>Comprehensive list at capitalpunishmentuk.org, [http://www.capitalpunishmentuk.org/burning.html Burning at the stake].</ref> The last case where a woman was actually burnt alive in England is that of [[Catherine Hayes (murderer)|Catherine Hayes]] in 1726, for the murder of her husband. In this case, one account says this happened because the executioner accidentally set fire to the pyre before he had hanged Hayes properly.<ref>''O'Shea'' (1999), [https://books.google.com/books?id=YvdKyEJo0osC&pg=PA3 p. 3]</ref> The historian [[Rictor Norton]] has assembled a number of contemporary newspaper reports on the actual death of Mrs. Hayes, internally somewhat divergent. The following excerpt is one example: {{blockquote|The fuel being placed round her, and lighted with a torch, she begg'd for the sake of Jesus, to be strangled first: whereupon the Executioner drew tight the halter, but the flame coming to his hand in the space of a second, he let it go, when she gave three dreadful shrieks; but the flames taking her on all sides, she was heard no more; and the Executioner throwing a piece of timber into the Fire, it broke her skull, when her brains came plentifully out; and in about an hour more she was entirely reduced to ashes.<ref>See website article, [http://rictornorton.co.uk/grubstreet/hayes.htm The Case of Catherine Hayes] at [http://rictornorton.co.uk/ rictornorton.co.uk] See also the detailed synthesis at capitalpunishmentuk.org, [http://www.capitalpunishmentuk.org/hayes.html Catherine Hayes burnt for Petty Treason]</ref>}}

====Scotland====
[[James VI of Scotland]] (later James I of England) shared the Danish king's interest in witch trials. This special interest of the king resulted in the [[North Berwick witch trials]], which led more than seventy people to be accused of witchcraft. James sailed in 1590 to Denmark to meet his betrothed, [[Anne of Denmark]], who, ironically, is believed by some to have secretly converted to Roman Catholicism herself from [[Lutheranism]] around 1598, although historians are divided on whether she ever was received into the Roman Catholic faith.<ref>"Some time in the 1590s, Anne became a Roman Catholic." ''Wilson'' (1963), p. 95 "Some time after 1600, but well before March 1603, Queen Anne was received into the Catholic Church in a secret chamber in the royal palace" ''Fraser'' (1997), p. 15 "The Queen ... [converted] from her native Lutheranism to a discreet, but still politically embarrassing Catholicism which alienated many ministers of the Kirk" ''Croft'' (2003), pp. 24–25 "Catholic foreign ambassadors—who would surely have welcomed such a situation—were certain that the Queen was beyond their reach. 'She is a Lutheran', concluded the [[Republic of Venice|Venetian]] envoy Nicolo Molin in 1606." ''Stewart'' (2003), p. 182 "In 1602 a report appeared, claiming that Anne ... had converted to the Catholic faith some years before. The author of this report, the Scottish [[Jesuit]] [[Robert Abercromby (missionary)|Robert Abercromby]], testified that James had received his wife's desertion with equanimity, commenting, 'Well, wife, if you cannot live without this sort of thing, do your best to keep things as quiet as possible.' Anne would, indeed, keep her religious beliefs as quiet as possible: for the remainder of her life—even after her death—they remained obfuscated." ''Hogge'' (2005), pp. 303–304</ref>

The last to be executed as a witch in Scotland was [[Janet Horne]] in 1727, condemned to death for using her own daughter as a flying horse in order to travel. Horne was burnt alive in a tar barrel.<ref>''Pavlac'' (2009), [https://books.google.com/books?id=KCjlptFEMZsC&pg=PA145 p. 145]</ref>

====Ireland====
[[Petronilla de Meath]] ({{circa|1300}}–1324) was the maidservant of Dame [[Alice Kyteler]], a 14th-century [[Hiberno-Norman]] noblewoman. After the death of Kyteler's fourth husband, the widow was accused of practicing [[witchcraft]] and Petronilla of being her accomplice. Petronilla was tortured and forced to proclaim that she and Kyteler were guilty of witchcraft. Petronilla was then flogged and eventually burnt at the stake on 3 November 1324, in [[Kilkenny]], Ireland.<ref name=":1">''de Ledrede, Wright'' (1843)</ref><ref>de ''Ledrede, Davidson, Ward'' (2004)</ref> Hers was the first known case in the history of the [[British Isles]] of death by fire for the crime of [[heresy]]. Kyteler was charged by the [[Bishop of Ossory]], [[Richard de Ledrede]], with a wide slate of crimes, from [[Magic (paranormal)|sorcery]] and [[demonism]] to the murders of several husbands. She was accused of having illegally acquired her wealth through [[witchcraft]], which accusations came principally from her stepchildren, the children of her late husbands by their previous marriages. The trial predated any formal witchcraft statute in Ireland, thus relying on [[ecclesiastical law]] (which treated witchcraft as [[heresy]]) rather than [[common law]] (which treated it as a [[felony]]). Under torture, Petronilla claimed she and her mistress applied a magical ointment to a wooden beam, which enabled both women to fly. She was then forced to proclaim publicly that Lady Alice and her followers were guilty of witchcraft.<ref name=":1"/> Some were convicted and whipped, but others, Petronilla included, were burnt at the stake. With the help of relatives, Alice Kyteler fled, taking with her Petronilla's daughter, Basilia.<ref>Story of flight in contemporary chronicle ''Gilbert'' (2012), [https://books.google.com/books?id=R_w-CZ0eXnYC&pg=PR134 p. cxxxiv]</ref>

In 1327 or 1328, [[Adam Duff O'Toole]] was burned at the stake in Dublin for [[heresy]] after branding [[Christian scripture]] a fable and denying the [[resurrection of Jesus]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.irishcentral.com/roots/history/burnt-at-the-stake-was-the-original-punishment-for-blasphemy-in-ireland|title=Burned at the stake was the original punishment for blasphemy in Ireland|date=11 May 2017|website=IrishCentral.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.independent.ie/regionals/wicklowpeople/news/heretic-was-burned-at-the-stake-27855759.html|title=Heretic was burned at the stake|website=The Irish Independent|date=11 August 2010 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.irishexaminer.com/ireland/blasphemy-from-being-burned-at-the-stake-in-1328-to-a-25000-fine-in-2017-449655.html|title=Blasphemy: From being burned at the stake in 1328 to a €25,000 fine in 2017|date=9 May 2017|website=Irish Examiner}}</ref>

The brothel madam [[Darkey Kelly]] was convicted of murdering shoemaker John Dowling in 1760 and burned at the stake in Dublin on 7 January 1761. Later legends claimed that she was a [[serial killer]] and/or [[witch]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://georgianera.wordpress.com/2018/02/15/darkey-kelly-brothel-keeper-of-dublin/|title='Darkey Kelly', Brothel Keeper of Dublin|first=Sarah|last=Murden|date=15 February 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Cathy Hayes |url=http://www.irishcentral.com/news/was-irish-witch-darkey-kelly-really-irelands-first-serial-killer-113340849-237364711.html |title=Was Irish witch Darkey Kelly really Ireland's first serial killer? |publisher=IrishCentral.com |date=12 January 2011 |access-date=4 March 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://nosmokewithouthellfire1.podomatic.com/ |title=PodOmatic | Podcast – No Smoke Without Hellfire |publisher=Nosmokewithouthellfire1.podomatic.com |date=19 January 2011 |access-date=4 March 2015}}</ref>

In 1895, [[Bridget Cleary]] (née Boland), a [[County Tipperary]] woman, was burnt by her husband and others, the stated motive for the crime being the belief that the real Bridget had been abducted by [[fairy|fairies]] with a [[changeling]] left in her place. Her husband claimed to have slain only the changeling. The gruesome nature of the case prompted extensive press coverage. The trial was closely followed by newspapers in both Ireland and Britain.<ref name="McCullough-NYT">''McCullough'' (2000), [https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9D0CE4D91E3AF93BA35753C1A9669C8B63 The Fairy Defense]</ref> As one reviewer commented, nobody, with the possible exception of the presiding judge, thought it was an ordinary murder case.<ref name="McCullough-NYT"/>

====Greece====
The [[Greek War of Independence]] in the 1820s contained several instances of death by burning. When the Greeks in April 1821 captured a [[corvette]] near [[Hydra (island)|Hydra]], the Greeks chose to roast to death the 57 [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] crew members. After the fall of [[Siege of Tripolitsa|Tripolitsa]] in September 1821, European officers were horrified to note that not only were Muslims suspected of hiding money being slowly roasted after having had their arms and legs cut off but also, in one instance, three Muslim children were roasted over a fire while their parents were forced to watch. On their part, the Ottomans committed many similar acts. In retaliation they gathered up Greeks in [[Constantinople]], throwing several of them into huge ovens, baking them to death.<ref>[[William St Clair]], ''That Greece Might Still Be Free'' (2008) ''Hydra incident'', p. xxiv, ''those suspected of hiding money'', p. 45, ''the three Turkish children'', p. 77, ''baked in ovens'', p. 81</ref>

====Last judicial burnings====
According to the jurist {{Interlanguage link multi|Eduard Osenbrüggen|de}}, the last case he knew of where a person had been judicially burned alive on account of arson in Germany happened in 1804, in [[:de:Hötzelsroda|Hötzelsroda]], close by [[Eisenach]].<ref>''Osenbrüggen'' (1854), [https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_C-4PAAAAYAAJ/page/n33 p. 21] For a similar, more modern assessment, as well as locating the incident to Hötzelsroda, see Dietze (1995)</ref> The manner in which Johannes Thomas<ref>Last name "Mothas" used in extended account in ''Bischoff, Hitzig'' (1832), real name "Thomas" given in ''Herden'' (2005), [https://books.google.com/books?id=wVNuf9VEhGkC&pg=PA89 p. 89]</ref> was executed on 13 July that year is described as follows: Some feet above the actual pyre, attached to a stake, a wooden chamber had been constructed, into which the delinquent was placed. Pipes or chimneys filled with sulphuric material led up to the chamber, and that was first lit, so that Thomas died from inhaling the sulphuric smoke, rather than being strictly burnt alive, before his body was consumed by the general fire. Some 20,000 people had gathered to watch Thomas' execution.<ref>On the manner of execution according to the original account, see ''Bischoff, Hitzig'' (1832), [https://books.google.com/books?id=88dCAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA178 p. 178] Contemporary newspaper notice, ''Hübner'' (1804), [https://books.google.com/books?id=jyVEAAAAcAAJ&pg=PT964 p. 760, column 2]</ref>

Although Thomas is regarded as the last to have been actually executed by means of fire (in this case, through suffocation), the couple Johann Christoph Peter Horst and his lover [[Friederike Luise Delitz|Friederike Louise Christiane Delitz]], who had made a career of robberies in the confusion made by their acts of arson, were condemned to be burnt alive in Berlin 28 May 1813. They were, however, according to [[Gustav Radbruch]], secretly strangled just prior to being burnt, namely when their arms and legs were tied fast to the stake.<ref>'''Original account''' by investigating police officer Heinrich L. Hermann, ''Hermann'' (1818) '''Gustav Rudbrach's mention''' ''Rudbrach'' (1992), [https://books.google.com/books?id=3JOVbGPdrjYC&pg=PA247 p. 247] '''Precise moment of strangulation''' ''Gräff'' (1834), [https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_ucZDAAAAcAAJ/page/n61 p. 56] '''Modern newspaper article''' ''Springer'' (2008), [http://www.welt.de/regionales/berlin/article2489746/Das-letzte-Feuer.html Das Letzte Feuer]</ref>

Although these two cases are the last where execution by burning might be said to have been ''carried out'' in some degree, Eduard Osenbrüggen mentions that ''verdicts'' to be burned alive were given in several cases in different German states afterwards, such as in cases from 1814, 1821, 1823, 1829 and finally in a case from 1835.<ref>''Osenbrüggen'' (1854), [https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_C-4PAAAAYAAJ/page/n33 pp. 21–22, footnote 83]</ref>

=== Colonial Americas ===
[[File:Execution of Mariana de Carabajal.jpg|thumb|Execution of [[Francisca Nuñez de Carabajal|Mariana de Carabajal]] (converted Jew), [[Mexico City]], 1601]]

====North America====
[[File:Modocs Scalping and Torturing Prisoners.jpg|thumb|Native Americans scalping and roasting their prisoners, published in 1873]]
[[Indigenous peoples|Indigenous]] North Americans often used burning as a form of execution, against members of other tribes or white settlers during the 18th and 19th centuries. Roasting over a slow fire was a customary method.<ref>''Scott'' (1940) p. 41</ref> (See [[Captives in American Indian Wars]].)

In [[Massachusetts]], there are two known cases of burning at the stake. First, in 1681, a [[Slavery in British America|slave]] named Maria was accused of trying to kill her owner by setting his house on fire. She was convicted of arson and burned at the stake in [[Roxbury, Massachusetts|Roxbury]].<ref name="Maria, Burned at the Stake">CelebrateBoston.com (2014), [http://www.celebrateboston.com/crime/puritan-burned-at-stake-maria.htm "Maria, Burned at the Stake"]</ref> Concurrently, a slave named Jack, convicted in a separate arson case, was hanged at a nearby gallows, and after death his body was thrown into the fire with that of Maria. Second, in 1755, a group of slaves accused of having conspired and killed their enslaver, Mark and Phillis were executed for his murder. Mark was hanged and his body [[gibbet]]ed, and Phillis burned at the stake, at [[Cambridge, Massachusetts|Cambridge]].<ref name="Mark and Phillis Executions">[http://www.celebrateboston.com/crime/puritan-mark-and-phillis-executions.htm Mark and Phillis Executions] (2014)</ref>

In [[Montreal]], then part of the colony of [[New France]], [[Marie-Joseph Angélique]], a slave, was sentenced to being burned alive for an arson which destroyed 45 homes and a hospital in 1734. The sentence was commuted on appeal to burning after death by strangulation.

In [[New York City|New York]], several burnings at the stake are recorded, particularly following suspected [[Slave rebellion|slave revolt]] plots. In 1708, one woman was burnt and one man hanged. In the aftermath of the [[New York Slave Revolt of 1712]], 20 slaves were burnt (one of the leaders slowly roasted, before he died after 10 hours of torture)<ref>''McManus'' (1973), [https://books.google.com/books?id=2H3S1OLtmagC&pg=PA86 p. 86]</ref> and during the alleged [[New York Conspiracy of 1741|slave conspiracy of 1741]], at least 13 slaves were burnt at the stake.<ref>''Hoey'' (1974),[http://www.americanheritage.com/content/terror-new-york--1741 Terror in New York–1741]{{Dead link|date=July 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

In 1731, 51-year-old [[Delaware]] housewife Catherine Bevan was burned for murder, and in 1746, Esther Anderson was burned in [[Maryland]] for another murder.<ref>{{Cite web |title=DeathPenaltyUSA, the database of executions in the United States |url=https://deathpenaltyusa.org/usa1/other.htm |access-date=9 May 2022 |website=deathpenaltyusa.org}}</ref>

In an opinion piece published in the [[Washington Post]], [[Emory University]] historian [[Kali Nicole Gross]] asserted that 87% percent of the women executed by burning at the stake in the US and its predecessor colonies between 1681 and 1805 were Black.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Gross |first=Kali Nicole |date=25 February 2022 |title=The historical truth about women burned at the stake in America? Most were Black. |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/2022/02/25/black-women-history-burned-at-stake/ |newspaper=[[Washington Post]] |quote=In his diary entry on Sept. 22, 1681, Increase Mather - father of the legendary clergyman Cotton Mather and later a president of Harvard College - wrote of "a negro woman who burnt 2 houses at Roxbury July 12." The woman, Maria, described as a servant - often a euphemism for a slave at the time - of Joshua Lambe, was convicted of arson for using a hot coal to set fire to the house of a local doctor and Lambe's home...Beginning with Maria's execution and ending with the last known woman burned at the stake - which, according to the Espy File on U.S. executions from 1608 to 2002, was a Black woman in North Carolina in 1805 - the overwhelming majority of women to face the fatal fires of justice, 87 percent, were Black.}}</ref>

====South America====
The last known burning by the Spanish colonial government in [[Latin America]] was of Mariana de Castro, during the [[Peruvian Inquisition]] in [[Lima]] on 22 December 1736<ref>René Millar Carvacho, ''La Inquisición de Lima: Signos de su Decadencia, 1726–1750'' (DIBAM, 2004)</ref> after she had been convicted on 4 February 1732 of being a [[Judaizers|''judaizante'']] (a person who was privately practicing the Jewish faith after having publicly converted to Roman Catholicism).

In 1855 the Dutch [[abolitionist]] and historian [[:nl:Julien Wolbers|Julien Wolbers]] spoke to the Anti Slavery Society in Amsterdam. Painting a dark picture of the condition of slaves in [[Suriname]], he mentions in particular that in 1853, "three Negroes were burnt alive".<ref>''Woblers'' (1855), [https://books.google.com/books?id=WqcNAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA205 p. 205]</ref>

==== West Indies ====
In 1760, the slave rebellion known as [[Tacky's War]] broke out in [[Jamaica]]. Apparently, some of the defeated rebels were burned alive, while others were gibbeted alive, left to die of thirst and starvation.<ref>''Waddell'' (1863), [https://archive.org/details/twentynineyears00waddgoog/page/n30 p. 19]</ref>

In 1774, nine enslaved Africans in [[Tobago]] were found complicit of murdering a white man. Eight of them had first their right arms chopped off, and were then burned alive bound to stakes, according to the report of an eyewitness.<ref>''Blake'' (1857), [https://archive.org/details/historyofslavery1857blak/page/154 pp. 154–155]</ref>

In [[Saint-Domingue]], enslaved Africans found guilty of committing crimes were sometimes punished by being burnt at the stake, particularly if the crime was attempting to foment a slave rebellion.<ref>{{cite book|title=Written in Blood: The Story of the Haitian People, 1492–1995|last1=Heinl|first1=Robert Debs|last2=Heinl|first2=Michael|last3=Heinl|first3=Nancy Gordon|year=2005|orig-year=1996|edition=2nd|publisher=Univ. Press of America|location=Lanham, Md; London|isbn=0761831770|oclc=255618073|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/writteninbloodst00hein}}</ref>

===Islamic countries===
Execution by burning is forbidden in [[Sharia Law]].<ref>'' Marsham, Andrew'' (2017), "Attituded to the Use of Fire in Executions in Late Antiquity and Early Islam: The Burning of Heretics abd Rebels in Lay Umayyad IraqA." In I. Kristó-Nagy & R. Gleave (Eds.), ''Violence in Islamic Thought from the Qur'an to the Mongols'' (pp. 106–127). Edinburgh University Press.</ref>

====Followers of a false claimant of prophethood====
The Arab chieftain [[Tulayha|Tulayha ibn Khuwaylid ibn Nawfal al-Asad]] set himself up as a prophet in 630 AD. Tulayha had a strong following which was, however, soon quashed in the so-called [[Ridda Wars]]. He himself escaped, though, and later was reconverted to Islam, but many of his rebel followers were burnt to death; his mother chose to embrace the same fate.<ref>''Zurkhana, Houtsma'' (1987), [https://books.google.com/books?id=wpM3AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA830 p. 830]</ref>{{Citation needed|reason=Please refer to a trustworthy sources, such as Muslims' classical books|date=December 2016}}

====Catholic monks in 13th-century Tunis and Morocco====
A number of monks are said to have been burnt alive in [[Tunis]] and [[Morocco]] in the 13th century. In 1243, two English monks, Brothers Rodulph and Berengarius, after having secured the release of some 60 captives, were charged with being spies for the [[English Crown]], and were burnt alive on 9 September. In 1262, Brothers Patrick and William, again having freed captives, but also sought to [[proselytize]] among [[Muslims]], were burnt alive in Morocco. In 1271, 11 Catholic monks were burnt alive in Tunis. Several other cases are reported.<ref>''Digby'' (1853), [https://books.google.com/books?id=4K06AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA342 pp. 342–345]</ref>

====Converts to Christianity====

[[Apostasy in Islam|Apostasy]], i.e. the act of converting to another religion, was (and remains so in a few countries) punishable with death.

The French traveller [[Jean de Thevenot]], traveling the East in the 1650s, says: ''"Those that turn Christians, they burn alive, hanging a bag of Powder about their neck, and putting a [[Pitch (resin)|pitched]] Cap upon their Head."''<ref>''De Thevenot, Lovell'' (1687), [https://books.google.com/books?id=6q9EAAAAcAAJ p. 69]</ref> Travelling the same regions some 60 years earlier, [[Fynes Moryson]] writes:
{{blockquote|''A Turke forsaking his Fayth and a Christian speaking or doing anything against the law of [[Muhammad|Mahomett]] are burnt with fyer.''<ref>''Moryson, Hadfield'' (2001), [https://books.google.com/books?id=fl6gkL5h6A0C&pg=PA171 p. 171]</ref>}}

====Muslim heretics====

''[[Certain accursed ones of no significance]]'' is the term used by [[Taş Köprü Zade]] in the ''Şakaiki Numaniye'' to describe some members of the [[Hurufiyya]] who became intimate with the Sultan [[Mehmed II]] to the extent of initiating him as a follower. This alarmed members of the [[Ulema]], particularly Mahmut Paşa, who then consulted Mevlana Fahreddin. Fahreddin hid in the Sultan's palace and heard the [[Hurufi]]s propound their doctrines. Considering these heretical, he reviled them with curses. The Hurufis fled to the Sultan, but Fahreddin's denunciation of them was so virulent that [[Mehmed II]] was unable to defend them. Farhreddin then took them in front of the [[Üç Şerefeli Mosque]], [[Edirne]], where he publicly condemned them to death. While preparing the fire for their execution, Fahreddin accidentally set fire to his beard. However, the Hurufis were burnt to death.

====Barbary States, 18th century====
[[John Braithwaite (author)|John Braithwaite]], staying in [[Morocco]] in the late 1720s, says that apostates from Islam would be burnt alive:
{{blockquote|''THOSE that can be proved after Circumcision to have revolted, are stripped quite naked, then anointed with Tallow, and with a Chain about the Body, brought to the Place of Execution, where they are burnt.''}}

Similarly, he notes that non-Muslims entering mosques or being blasphemous against Islam will be burnt, unless they convert to Islam.<ref>''Braithwaite'' (1729) On apostates citation, see [https://archive.org/details/historyrevoluti00braigoog p. 366], on the conditional fate of non-Muslims, see [https://archive.org/details/historyrevoluti00braigoog p. 355]</ref> The chaplain for the English in [[Algiers]] at the same time, [[Thomas Shaw (divine and traveller)|Thomas Shaw]], wrote that whenever capital crimes were committed either by Christian slaves or Jews, the Christian or Jew was to be burnt alive.<ref>''Shaw'' (1757), [https://archive.org/details/travelsorobserv01shawgoog/page/n282 p. 253]</ref> Several generations later, in Morocco in 1772, a Jewish interpreter for the British, and a merchant in his own right, sought from the [[Mohammed ben Abdallah|Emperor of Morocco]] restitution for some goods confiscated, and was burnt alive for his impertinence. His widow made her woes clear in a letter to the British government.<ref>''Stillman'' (1979), [https://archive.org/details/jewsofarablands00stil/page/310 pp. 310–311]</ref>

In 1792 in [[Ifrane]], Morocco, 50 Jews preferred to be burned alive, rather than convert to Islam.<ref>''Kantor'' (1993), [https://books.google.com/books?id=1SD_AQAAQBAJ&pg=PA230 p. 230]</ref> In 1794 in [[Algiers]], the Jewish Rabbi Mordecai Narboni was accused of having maligned Islam in a quarrel with his neighbour. He was ordered to be burnt alive unless he converted to Islam, but he refused and was therefore executed on 14 July 1794.<ref>[http://data.jewishgen.org/wconnect/wc.dll?jg~jgsys~josdates JOS Calendar Conversion Results], ''Hirschberg'' (1981), [https://books.google.com/books?id=g_mh5fuel0QC&pg=PA20 p. 20]</ref>

In 1793, [[Trabluslu Ali Pasha|Ali Pasha]] made a short-lived ''coup d'état'' in [[Tripoli, Libya|Tripoli]], deposing the ruling [[Karamanli dynasty]]. During his short, violent reign he seized the two interpreters for the Dutch and English consuls, both of them Jews, and roasted them over a slow fire, on charges of conspiracy and espionage.<ref>''Tully'' (1817), [https://books.google.com/books?id=QBkQAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA365 p. 365]</ref>

====Persia====
During a famine in [[Persia]] in 1668, the government took severe measures against those trying to profiteer from the misfortune of the populace. Restaurant owners found guilty of profiteering were slowly roasted on spits, and greedy bakers were baked in their own ovens.<ref>''Ferrier'' (1996), [https://books.google.com/books?id=5CLkDgmVs1QC&pg=PA94 p. 94]</ref>

Dr C. J. Wills, a physician traveling through Persia in 1866–81, wrote that:<ref>''Wills'' (1891), [https://openlibrary.org/books/OL7180554M/In_the_land_of_the_lion_and_sun p. 204]</ref>
{{blockquote|''Just prior to my first arrival in Persia, the "Hissam-u-Sultaneh", another uncle of the king, had burned a priest to death for a horrible crime and murder; the priest was chained to a stake, and the matting from the mosques piled on him to a great height, the pile of mats was lighted and burnt freely, but when the mats were consumed the priest was found groaning, but still alive. The executioner went to Hissam-u-Sultaneh who ordered him to obtain more mats, pour [[naphtha]] on them, and apply a light, which 'after some hours' he did.''}}

==== Malaya ====
Although not burning with the use of fire, a practice was documented in 19th-century Malaya of sewing a live human in a buffalo hide and left it exposed to the burning sun which caused the hide to shrink and led the person to be squeezed to death.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Winstedt |first=Richard Olof |url=http://archive.org/details/historyofmalaya0000wins/page/180 |title=A History of Malaya |publisher=Marican |year=1962 |location=Singapore |pages=180 |language=en}}</ref>

===Roasting by means of heated metal===
The previous cases concern primarily death by burning through contact with open fire or burning material; a slightly different principle is to enclose an individual within, or attach him to, a metal contraption which is subsequently heated. In the following, some reports of such incidents, or anecdotes about such are included.

====The brazen bull====
[[File:Pierre Woeiriot Phalaris.jpg|thumb|Perillos being forced into the brazen bull that he built for Phalaris]]

Perhaps the most infamous example of a [[brazen bull]], which is a hollow metal structure shaped like a bull within which the condemned is put, and then roasted alive as the metal bull is gradually heated up, is the one allegedly constructed by Perillos of [[Athens]] for the 6th-century BC tyrant [[Phalaris]] at [[Agrigentum]], [[Sicily]]. As the story goes, the first victim of the bull was its constructor Perillos himself. The historian George Grote was among those regarding this story as having sufficient evidence behind it to be true, and points particularly to that the Greek poet [[Pindar]], working just one or two generations after the times of Phalaris, refers to the brazen bull. A bronze bull was, in fact, one of the spoils of victory when the [[Carthaginians]] conquered Agrigentum.<ref>''Grote'' (2013), [https://books.google.com/books?id=62HlSNN2lqQC&pg=PA305 p. 305, footnote 1]</ref> The story of a brazen bull as an execution device is not unique. About 1,000 years later in 497 AD, it can be read in an old chronicle about the [[Visigoths]] on the [[Iberian Peninsula]] and the south of France:
{{blockquote|[[Burdunellus]] became a tyrant in Spain and a year later was ... handed over by his own men and having been sent to [[Toulouse]], he was placed inside a bronze bull and burnt to death.<ref>Quote and extrapolation to be found in ''Collins'' (2004), p. 35</ref>}}

====Fate of a Scottish regicide====
[[Walter Stewart, Earl of Atholl]] was a Scottish nobleman complicit in the murder of King [[James I of Scotland]]. On 26 March 1437 a red hot iron crown was placed upon his head, was cut in pieces alive, his heart was taken out, and his body was thrown into a fire. A papal [[nuncio]], the later Pope [[Pius II]] witnessed the execution of Stewart and his associate [[Sir Robert Graham]], and, reportedly, said he was at a loss to determine whether the crime committed by the regicides, or the punishment of them was the greater.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VoJnKgmUH54C|title=Encyclopaedia Perthensis; or, Universal Dictionary of the Arts, Sciences, Literature, &c.|chapter=Scotland|volume=20|year=1816|location=Edinburgh|publisher=John Brown, Anchor Close|page=131}}</ref>

====György Dózsa on the iron throne====
[[File:GeorgheDoja.jpg|thumb|right|Dózsa's execution (contemporary woodcut)]]
[[György Dózsa]] led a peasants' revolt in [[Hungary]], and was captured in 1514. He was bound to a glowing iron throne and a likewise hot iron crown was placed on his head, and he was roasted to death.<ref>''Klein'' (1833), [https://books.google.com/books?id=ppwAAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA351 p. 351]</ref>

====The tale of the murderous midwife====
In a few English 18th- and 19th-century newspapers and magazines, a tale was circulated about the particularly brutal manner in which a French midwife was put to death on 28 May 1673 in Paris. No fewer than 62 infant skeletons were found buried on her premises, and she was condemned on multiple accounts of abortion/[[infanticide]]. One detailed account of her supposed execution runs as follows:
{{blockquote|A gibbet was erected, under which a fire was made, and the prisoner being brought to the place of execution, was hung up in a large iron cage, in which were also placed sixteen wild cats, which had been catched in the woods for the purpose.—When the heat of the fire became too great to be endured with patience, the cats flew upon the woman, as the cause of the intense pain they felt.—In about fifteen minutes they had pulled out her entrails, though she continued yet alive, and sensible, imploring, as the greatest favour, an immediate death from the hands of some charitable spectator. No one however dared to afford her the least assistance; and she continued in this wretched situation for the space of thirty-five minutes, and then expired in unspeakable torture. At the time of her death, twelve of the cats were expired, and the other four were all dead in less than two minutes afterwards.}}

The English commentator adds his own view on the matter:{{blockquote|However cruel this execution may appear with regard to the poor animals, it certainly cannot be thought too severe a punishment for such a monster of iniquity, as could calmly proceed in acquiring a fortune by the deliberate murder of such numbers of unoffending, harmless innocents. And if a method of executing murderers, in a manner somewhat similar to this was adapted in England, perhaps the horrid crime of murder might not so frequently disgrace the annals of the present times.<ref>''Stevens'' (1764), [https://books.google.com/books?id=DIsfAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA522 pp. 522–523]</ref> }}
The English story is derived from a pamphlet published in 1673.<ref>For full title and provenance, see item 357 in ''Nassau'' (1824), [https://books.google.com/books?id=MDlbAAAAQAAJ&pg=RA1-PA17 p. 17]</ref>

===Pouring molten metal down the throat or ears===

====Molten gold poured down the throat====
In 88 BC, [[Mithridates VI of Pontus]] captured the Roman general [[Manius Aquillius (consul 101 BCE)|Manius Aquillius]], and executed him by pouring molten gold down his throat.<ref>''Steel'' (2013), [https://books.google.com/books?id=Ae63Gjp21SgC&pg=PA98 p. 98]</ref> A popular but unsubstantiated rumor also had the [[Parthian Empire|Parthian]]s executing the famously greedy Roman general [[Marcus Licinius Crassus]] in this manner in 53 BC.<ref>[[Marcus Licinius Crassus]]</ref>
[[File:HulaguInBagdad.JPG|thumb|[[Hulagu Khan|Hulagu]] (left) imprisons Caliph Al-Musta'sim among his treasures to starve him to death (medieval depiction from "Le livre des merveilles", 15th century)]]

[[Genghis Khan]] is said to have ordered the execution of [[Inalchuq]], the perfidious [[Khwarazmian dynasty|Khwarazmian]] governor of [[Otrar]], by pouring molten gold or silver down his throat in {{circa|1220}},<ref>''Saunders'' (2001), [https://books.google.com/books?id=nFx3OlrBMpQC&pg=PA57 p. 57] According to the 13th-century historian [[Shihab al-Din Muhammad al-Nasawi|al-Nasawi]], the governor Inal Khan (who had assassinated the [[Mongol]] ambassadors and thus given Genghis Khan cause to invade), had the molten gold poured into his eyes and ears, rather than down his throat. ''Cameron, Sela'' (2010), [https://books.google.com/books?id=SAX5ohFkcVgC&pg=PA128 p. 128]</ref> and an early-14th-century chronicle mentions that his grandson [[Hulagu Khan]] did likewise to the sultan [[Al-Musta'sim]] after the [[Siege of Baghdad (1258)|fall of Baghdad in 1258]] to the Mongol army.<ref>Crawford regards the Hulagu story as a legend ''Crawford'' (2003), [https://books.google.com/books?id=BfNqgYlo9fMC&pg=PA149 p. 149]</ref> ([[Marco Polo]]'s version is that [[Al-Musta'sim]] was locked without food or water to starve in his treasure room)
[[File:Theodor de Bry 78.jpeg|thumb|[[Theodor de Bry]] engraving of a Conquistador being executed by gold]]
The Spanish in 16th-century Americas gave horrified reports that the Spanish who had been captured by the natives (who had learnt of the Spanish thirst for gold) had their feet and hands bound, and then molten gold poured down their throats as the victims were mocked: "Eat, eat gold, Christians".<ref>''Cummins, Cole, Zorach'' (2009), [https://books.google.com/books?id=IUKBQfzKlIYC&pg=PA99 p. 99]</ref>

From the 19th-century reports from the [[Rattanakosin Kingdom (1782–1932)|Kingdom of Siam]] (present-day [[Thailand]]) stated that those who have defrauded the public treasury could have either molten gold or silver poured down their throat.<ref>''Begbie'' (1834), [https://books.google.com/books?id=0MwNAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA447 p. 447]</ref>

====As punishment for inebriation and tobacco smoking====
The 16th-/early-17th-century prime minister [[Malik Ambar]] in the [[Deccan Plateau|Deccan]] [[Ahmadnagar Sultanate]] would not tolerate inebriation among his subjects, and would pour molten lead down the mouths of those caught in that condition.<ref>''Eaton'' (2005), [https://books.google.com/books?id=DNNgdBWoYKoC&pg=PA121 p. 121]</ref> Similarly, in the 17th-century [[Sultanate of Aceh]], Sultan [[Iskandar Muda]] (r. 1607–36) is said to have poured molten lead into the mouths of at least two drunken subjects.<ref>''Peletz'' (2002), [https://books.google.com/books?id=q4TA4hjqjJ0C&pg=PA28 p. 28]</ref> Military discipline in 19th-century [[Burma]] was reportedly harsh, with strict prohibition of smoking [[opium]] or drinking [[arrack]]. Some monarchs had ordained pouring molten lead down the throats of those who drank, "but it has been found necessary to relax this severity, in order to conciliate the army."<ref>''Buckingham'' (1835), [https://books.google.com/books?id=qrhHAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA250 p. 250]</ref>

Shah [[Safi of Persia|Safi I]] of Persia is said to have abhorred [[Tobacco smoking|tobacco]], and apparently in 1634, he prescribed the punishment of pouring molten lead into the throats of smokers.<ref>''Berger, Sicker'' (2009), [https://books.google.com/books?id=4jjhnbu8ytEC&pg=PA6 p. 6]</ref>

====Mongol punishment for horse thieves====
According to historian Pushpa Sharma, stealing a horse was considered the most heinous offence within the Mongol army, and the criminal would either have molten lead poured into his ears, or alternatively, his punishment would be the breaking of the spinal cord or beheading.<ref>''Sharma, Srivastava'' (1981), [https://books.google.com/books?id=nKJiBUFrmfoC&pg=PA361 p. 361]</ref>

===Chinese tradition of Buddhist self-immolation===
Apparently, for many centuries, a tradition of devotional [[self-immolation]] existed among [[Buddhist]] monks in [[China]]. One monk who immolated himself in 527 AD explained his intent a year before, in the following manner:
{{blockquote|The body is like a poisonous plant; it would really be right to burn it and extinguish its life. I have been weary of this physical frame for many a long day. I vow to worship the buddhas, just like Xijian.<ref>''Benn'' (2007), [https://books.google.com/books?id=dWL6EEkL8goC&pg=PA3 p. 3]</ref>}}

A severe critic in the 16th century wrote the following comment on this practice:
{{blockquote|There are demonic people ... who pour on oil, stack up firewood, and burn their bodies while still alive. Those who look on are overawed and consider it the attainment of enlightenment. This is erroneous.<ref>''Benn'' (2007), [https://books.google.com/books?id=dWL6EEkL8goC&pg=PA198 pp. 198–199]</ref>}}

===Japan===

While the earliest record of death by burning in Japan appears in "[[Nihonshoki]]", on [[:ja:石川楯|Ishikawa no Tate]] and [[:ja:池津媛|Iketsuhime]] during the reign of [[Emperor Yuryaku]], the contemporary code of law hasn't survived and the historical authenticity of this event is uncertain. The oldest preserved written code, [[Yōrō Code]] didn't mention death by burning. It still included capital punishment but it was either death by strangulation or death by cutting with sword.

The historically reliable earliest record of death by burning was ruled by [[Oda Nobukatsu]].

In the first half of the 17th century, Japanese authorities sporadically persecuted [[Kirishitan|Christians]], with some executions seeing persons being burnt alive. At [[Nagasaki]] in 1622 some 25 monks were burnt alive,<ref>''Lee'' (2010),[https://books.google.com/books?id=LKj2B9vd7HsC&pg=PA121 pp. 121–122]</ref> and in [[Edo]] in 1624, 50 Christians were burnt alive.<ref>''Matsumoto'' (2009), [https://books.google.com/books?id=kF1sTidtP_sC&pg=PA73 p. 73]</ref>

Tokugawa Shogunate included death by burning alive into their criminal code. Arsonists were often sentenced to death by burning but not always. They might be sentenced to exile instead.

At [[Meiji Restoration]] death by burning was abolished in 1868[https://www.moj.go.jp/content/000096623.pdf].

===Mughal Empire===
[[Bhai Sati Das]], a [[Martyrdom in Sikhism|Sikh martyr]] was burned with [[cotton wool]] soaked in oil on the orders of [[Emperor Aurangzeb]] after he refused to convert to Islam.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Corduan |first1=Winfried |title=Neighboring Faiths: A Christian Introduction to World Religions |date=2013 |publisher=InterVarsity Press |isbn=978-0830871971 |page=383}}</ref>

===Indian widow burning===
{{main|Sati (practice)|l1=Sati}}
[[File:A Hindoo Widow Burning Herself with the Corpse of her Husband.jpg|thumb|A [[Hindu]] widow burning herself with the corpse of her husband, 1820s]]
[[File:Burning of a Widow.jpg|thumb|''Ceremony of Burning a Hindu Widow with the Body of her Late Husband'', from ''Pictorial History of China and India'', 1851]]

''Sati'' refers to a [[funeral]] practice among some communities of [[Indian subcontinent]] in which a recently widowed woman [[Self-immolation|immolates herself]] on her husband's [[funeral pyre]]. The first reliable evidence for the practice of ''sati'' appears from the time of the [[Gupta Empire]] (400 AD), when instances of sati began to be marked by inscribed memorial stones.<ref name="Shastri">Shakuntala Rao Shastri, ''Women in the Sacred Laws''{{snd}}the later law books (1960), also reproduced online at [http://www.hindubooks.org/women_in_the_sacredlaws/] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140408222221/http://www.hindubooks.org/women_in_the_sacredlaws/|date=8 April 2014}}.</ref>

According to one model of history thinking, the practice of ''sati'' only became really widespread with the [[Muslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent|Muslim invasions of India]], and the practice of ''sati'' now acquired a new meaning as a means to preserve the honour of women whose men had been slain. As S. S. Sashi lays out the argument, "The argument is that the practice came into effect during the Islamic invasion of India, to protect their honor from Muslims who were known to commit mass rape on the women of cities that they could capture successfully."<ref>''Sashi'' (1996), p.115</ref> It is also said that according to the memorial stone evidence, the practice was carried out in appreciable numbers in western and southern parts of India, and even in some areas, during pre-Islamic times.<ref>For Yang's full discussion back and forth, see ''Yang, Sarkar, Sarkar'' (2008), [https://books.google.com/books?id=GEPYbuzOwcQC&pg=PA21 pp. 21–23]</ref> Some of the rulers and activists of the time sought actively to suppress the practice of ''sati''.<ref name="Columbia">S.M. ''Ikram, Embree'' (1964) [http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00islamlinks/ikram/part2_17.html XVII. "Economic and Social Developments under the Mughals"] This page maintained by Prof. Frances Pritchett, [[Columbia University]]</ref>

The [[East India Company]] began to compile statistics of the incidences of ''sati'' for all their domains from 1815 and onwards. The official statistics for [[Bengal]] represents that the practice was much more common here than elsewhere, recorded numbers typically in the range 500–600 per year, up to the year 1829, when Company authorities banned the practice.<ref>These statistics are further researched and discussed by other scholars, for their reliability (in particular, ''objections'' to that) and representation, see '''For detailed official statistical information 1815–1829''',''Yang, Sarkar, Sarkar'' (2008), [https://books.google.com/books?id=GEPYbuzOwcQC&pg=PA23 pp. 23–25] see pages 24 and 25 in particular, history behind them, p. 23</ref> Since the 19th and 20th centuries, the practice remains outlawed in the Indian subcontinent.

[[Jauhar]] was a practice among royal Hindu women to prevent capture by Muslim conquerors.

In [[Nepal]], the practice was not banned until 1920.<ref>''Mittra, Kumar'' (2004), [https://books.google.com/books?id=hYEQGam5hVgC&pg=PA200 p. 200]</ref>

The practice of burning widows has not been restricted to the Indian subcontinent; at [[Bali]], the practice was called ''masatia'' and, apparently, restricted to the burning of royal widows. This practice is probably resulted from the spread of Hindu culture into Southeast Asia. Although the Dutch colonial authorities had banned the practice, one such occasion is attested as late as in 1903, probably for the last time.<ref>For notice of estimate of last time, see ''Schulte Nordholt'' (2010), [https://books.google.com/books?id=ZUVlAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA211 pp. 211–212, footnote 56] For estimate of restriction to royal widows, see ''Wiener'' (1995), [https://books.google.com/books?id=GE1uc1UNXNYC&pg=PA267 p. 267]</ref>

===Sub-Saharan Africa===
C. H. L. Hahn<ref>Biographical entry of C. H. L. Hahn at [http://www.klausdierks.com/Biographies/Biographies_H.htm BIOGRAPHIES OF NAMIBIAN PERSONALITIES]</ref> wrote that within the O-ndnonga tribe among the [[Ovambo people]] in modern-day [[Namibia]], abortion was not used at all (in contrast to among the other tribes), and that furthermore, if two young unwed individuals had sex resulting in pregnancy, then both the girl and the boy were "taken out to the bush, bound up in bundles of grass and ... burnt alive."<ref>''Hahn'' (1966), [https://books.google.com/books?id=Z8Z3FQXOiNEC&pg=PA33 p. 33]</ref>

===Indigenous cannibalism===
====Americas====
Even fateful encounters with [[Human cannibalism|cannibal]]s are recorded: in 1514, in the Americas, Francis of Córdoba and five companions were, reportedly, caught, impaled on spits, roasted and eaten by the natives. In 1543, such was also the end of a previous bishop, [[Vincente de Valverde|Vincent de Valle Viridi]].<ref name="Perckmayr">Perckmayr, Reginbald (1738). ''Geschicht- und Predigbuch'', [https://books.google.com/books?id=3lpBAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA628 p. 628]</ref>

====Fiji====
In 1844, the missionary John Watsford wrote a letter about the [[internecine war]]s on [[Fiji]], and how captives could be eaten, after being roasted alive:
{{blockquote|At [[Mbau]], perhaps, more human beings are eaten than anywhere else. A few weeks ago they ate twenty-eight in one day. They had seized their wretched victims while fishing, and brought them alive to Mbau, and there half-killed them, and then put them into their ovens. Some of them made several vain attempts to escape from the scorching flame.<ref>''Calvert, Rowe'' (1858), [https://archive.org/details/fijiandfijiansi00rowegoog/page/n290 p. 258]</ref>}}

The actual manner of the roasting process was described by the missionary pioneer David Cargill, in 1838:
{{blockquote|When about to be immolated, he is made to sit on the ground with his feet under his thighs and his hands placed before him. He is then bound so that he cannot move a limb or a joint. In this posture he is placed on stones heated for the occasion (and some of them are red-hot), and then covered with leaves and earth, to be roasted alive. When cooked, he is taken out of the oven and, his face and other parts being painted black, that he may resemble a living man ornamented for a feast or for war, he is carried to the temple of the gods and, being still retained in a sitting posture, is offered as a propitiatory sacrifice.<ref>See ''Hogg'' (1980)</ref>}}

===Legislation against the practice===
In 1790, Sir [[Benjamin Hammett]] introduced a bill into the British [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|Parliament]] to end the practice of judicial burning. He explained that the year before, as [[Sheriff]] of London, he had been responsible for the burning of [[Catherine Murphy (counterfeiter)|Catherine Murphy]], found guilty of [[counterfeit]]ing, but that he had allowed her to be hanged first. He pointed out that as the law stood, he himself could have been found guilty of a crime in not carrying out the lawful punishment and, as no woman had been burnt alive in the kingdom for more than half a century, so could all those still alive who had held an official position at all of the previous burnings. The [[Treason Act 1790]] was duly passed by Parliament and given [[royal assent]] by King [[George III]] (30 George III. C. 48).<ref>''Wilson'' (1853), [https://books.google.com/books?id=JdkHAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA4 p. 4]</ref> The [[Parliament of Ireland]] subsequently passed the similar [[Treason by Women Act (Ireland) 1796]].{{fact|date=October 2023}}

==Modern burnings==
In the modern era, deaths by burning are largely [[extrajudicial killings|extrajudicial]] in nature. These killings may be committed by mobs, small numbers of criminals, or [[paramilitary]] groups.

===The Holocaust and German war crimes===
In 1941, Polish natives—in cooperation with German police—locked 340 Jews in a barn and set it on fire during the [[Jedwabne pogrom]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=On This Day: Poles kill 340 Jews in Jedwabne pogrom 81 years ago |url=https://www.jpost.com/diaspora/antisemitism/article-711642 |access-date=10 May 2023 |website=The Jerusalem Post {{!}} JPost.com |date=10 July 2022 |language=en-US}}</ref> During the 1943 [[Khatyn massacre]], the [[Dirlewanger Brigade|SS-Sonderbataillon Dirlewanger]] and the [[Schutzmannschaft Battalion 118]]—a German-sponsored battalion of Ukrainian partisans—locked 149 villagers into a shed and set it on fire.<ref name="ZurGeschichte">Zur Geschichte der Ordnungspolizei 1936–1942, Teil II, Georg Tessin, Dies Satbe und Truppeneinheiten der Ordnungspolizei, Koblenz 1957, s. 172–173</ref><ref name="Grenkevich">{{cite book | author =Leonid D. Grenkevich |author2=David M. Glantz | title =The Soviet Partisan Movement, 1941–1944: A Critical Historiographical Analysis | year =1999 | pages =133–134 | publisher =Routledge | location =London | isbn =0714648744 | url =https://books.google.com/books?id=spJ4XXyBHewC&q=%22Khatyn+massacre%22&pg=PA133|author2-link=David M. Glantz }}</ref><ref>Per A. Rudling, "Terror and Local Collaboration in Occupied Belorussia: The Case of Schutzmannschaft Battalion 118. Part One: Background", Historical Yearbook of the Nicolae Iorga History Institute (Bucharest) 8 (2011), pp. 202–203</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=21 July 2018|title="Khatyn" – The tragedy of Khatyn |url=https://www.khatyn.by/en/tragedy/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180721192111/https://www.khatyn.by/en/tragedy/|url-status=dead|archive-date=21 July 2018|access-date=22 March 2021}}</ref> The [[Jewish Restitution Successor Organization|World Jewish Restitution Organisation]] reported to ''[[The Jerusalem Post]]'' that the German staff of [[Auschwitz concentration camp|Auschwitz]] burnt children alive in 1944.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Auschwitz children 'burnt alive' |url=https://www.irishtimes.com/news/auschwitz-children-burnt-alive-1.179084 |access-date=10 May 2023 |newspaper=The Irish Times |language=en}}</ref> In another 1944 atrocity, the [[Waffen SS]] [[Oradour-sur-Glane massacre|locked 452 French women and children in a church and set it on fire.]] German prosecutors charged an alleged perpetrator of that massacre in 2014.<ref>{{Cite news |date=8 January 2014 |title=Former SS soldier, 88, charged over 1944 village massacre in France |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-germany-nazi-massacre-idUSBREA071G320140108 |access-date=10 May 2023}}</ref> SS-{{lang|de|[[Sturmbannführer]]}} Adolf Diekmann—commander of the 1st Battalion, 4th SS Panzer Grenadier Regiment—ordered the massacre, claiming retaliation against French partisans for burning SS-''Sturmbannführer'' Helmut Kämpfe alive.<ref name="ddef">{{cite book|title=Defenders of Fortress Europe: The Untold Story of the German Officers During the Allied Invasion|first=Samuel W.|last= Mitcham|publisher=Potomac Books, Inc.|year= 2009|isbn= 978-1597972741|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=CpLfa-OjX9EC&dq=Helmut+K%C3%A4mpfe+body&pg=PT81 66]}}</ref> In April 1945, the [[SS-Totenkopfverbände|SS camp guards]] of [[Mittelbau-Dora concentration camp|Dora-Mittelbau]]—along with local civilian and military authorities—[[Gardelegen massacre|set a barn on fire with more than a thousand inmates trapped inside.]]<ref>United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. (n.d.). Gardelegen. United States holocaust memorial museum. Retrieved 14 August 2022, from https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/gardelegen</ref>

===Revenge against Germans===
[[Benjamin B. Ferencz]], one of the prosecutors in the [[Nuremberg trials]] after the end of [[World War II]] who, in May 1945, investigated occurrences at the [[Ebensee concentration camp]], narrated them to Tom Hofmann, a family member and biographer. Ferencz was outraged at what the Germans had done there. When people discovered an SS guard who attempted to flee, they tied him to one of the metal trays used to transport bodies into the [[crematorium]]. They then lit the oven and slowly roasted the SS guard to death, taking him in and out of the oven several times. Ferencz said to Hofmann that at the time, he was in no position to stop the proceedings of the mob, and frankly admitted that he had not been inclined to try. Hofmann adds, "There seemed to be no limit to human brutality in wartime."<ref>''Hofmann'' (2013), [https://books.google.com/books?id=JXZzAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA86 p. 86]</ref>

===Lynching of Germans in Czechoslovakia===
During the post-World War II [[expulsion of Germans from Czechoslovakia]], a number of attacks against the German minority occurred. In one case in [[Prague]] in May 1945, a Czech mob hanged several Germans upside down on lampposts, doused them in fuel and set them on fire, burning them alive.<ref>Wilfried F. Schoeller: [http://www.deutschlandfunk.de/rueckkehr-in-die-verschollene-geschichte.700.de.html?dram:article_id=83403 ''Rückkehr in die verschollene Geschichte''] [[Deutschlandfunk]].de, 16 December 2007.</ref><ref>Gernot Facius: [https://www.welt.de/debatte/kolumnen/Meine-Woche/article6060701/Kleines-Wunder-an-der-Moldau.html ''Kleines Wunder an der Moldau''] ''[[Die Welt]]'', 10 November 2008.</ref><ref name="ullrich-demetz">[[Volker Ullrich]]: Acht Tage im Mai. Die letzte Woche des Dritten Reiches, Munich 2020, p. 159.</ref> The future literature scholar [[Peter Demetz]], who grew up in Prague, later reported on this.<ref name="ullrich-demetz"/>

===Japanese war crimes of WWII===
[[File:The decaying corpse of a person burned to death.jpg|thumb|The decaying corpse of a person burned to death in [[Hebei]], about 1938–1939]]
Immolation was a commonly reported execution method among [[Imperial Japanese Army|Imperial Japanese troops]] during [[World War II]]. During the [[Nanjing Massacre]] after Japanese forces [[Battle of Nanking|captured the city of Nanjing in 1937]], immolation was a commonly used method of execution and brutality towards the Chinese people in Nanjing during the Imperial Japanese Army's occupation of the city.<ref>[https://www.nytimes.com/1996/12/12/world/at-the-rape-of-nanking-a-nazi-who-saved-lives.html At the Rape of Nanking: A Nazi Who Saved Lives]</ref>

The most infamous case of the Imperial Japanese military utilizing this method of execution on Allied [[prisoners of war]] was the [[Palawan massacre]] in the [[Philippines]] in the midst of the [[Philippines campaign (1944–1945)|United States military's campaign to retake the Philippines]]. To prevent the rescue of the POWs by liberating American forces, the 150 American POWs in the Palawan prison camp; Camp 10-A<ref>[https://arsof-history.org/articles/v14n1_palawan_massacre_page_1.html Catalyst For Action: The Palawan Massacre]</ref> were herded into air raid shelters via [[Civil defense siren|air raid sirens]]. The Japanese guards, taking advantage of the POWs being confined in the shelters, then doused the shelter entrances with gasoline before lighting them on fire. They then fired a few shots into the entrances to hit the POWs standing near the entrances in order to use their bodies to trap the other POWs that were deeper inside the shelter and engulf them all in the inferno. Any POWs who did manage to dig themselves out of the trench and escape the flames were hunted down. At the end of the ordeal, only 11 POWs managed to escape to friendly lines.

===Extrajudicial burnings in Latin America===
In [[Rio de Janeiro]], Brazil, burning people [[Necklacing|standing inside a pile of tires]] is a common form of murder used by drug dealers to punish those who have supposedly collaborated with the police. This form of burning is called ''micro-ondas'' (microwave oven).<ref>''Grellet'' (2010) [http://www1.folha.uol.com.br/cotidiano/740136-autorizado-a-visitar-familia-condenado-por-morte-de-tim-lopes-foge-da-prisao.shtml Autorizado a visitar família..]</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.fenapef.org.br/fenapef/noticia/index/17079|title=Polícia encontra 4 corpos que seriam de traficantes queimados com pneus|language=pt|work=O Globo|publisher=Federação Nacional dos Policiais Federais|date=18 September 2008|access-date=6 July 2013|location=Rio de Janeiro|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130925094951/http://www.fenapef.org.br/fenapef/noticia/index/17079|archive-date=25 September 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wordreference.com/pten/micro-ondas|title=micro-ondas|publisher=WordReference|access-date=6 July 2013}}</ref> The film ''Tropa de Elite'' (''[[Elite Squad]]'') and the video game ''[[Max Payne 3]]'' contain scenes depicting this practice.<ref name="A Revista Veja, o PT e as Tendências">''França'' (2002), [http://veja.abril.com.br/300102/p_094.html Como na Chicago de Capone] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071015082422/http://veja.abril.com.br/300102/p_094.html |date=15 October 2007 }}</ref>

During the [[Guatemalan Civil War]], the [[Guatemalan Army]] and security forces carried out an unknown number of extrajudicial killings by burning. In one instance in March 1967, Guatemalan [[guerrilla]] and poet [[Otto René Castillo]] was captured by Guatemalan government forces and taken to [[Zacapa]] army barracks alongside one of his comrades, Nora Paíz Cárcamo. The two were interrogated, tortured for four days, and burned alive.<ref>''Paige'' (1983), pp. 699–737</ref> Other reported instances of immolation by Guatemalan government forces occurred in the Guatemalan government's rural counterinsurgency operations in the [[Guatemalan Highlands|Guatemalan Altiplano]] in the 1980s. In April 1982, 13 members of a [[Qʼanjobʼal people|Qʼanjobʼal]] Pentecostal congregation in Xalbal, [[Ixcan]], were burnt alive in their church by the Guatemalan Army.<ref>''Garrard-Burnett'' (2010), [https://books.google.com/books?id=BXWwm7jo-hEC&pg=PA141 p. 141]</ref>

On 31 August 1996, a Mexican man, Rodolfo Soler Hernandez, was burned to death in [[Playa Vicente]], Mexico, after he was accused of raping and strangling a local woman to death. Local residents tied Hernandez to a tree, doused him in a flammable liquid and then set him ablaze. His death was also filmed by residents of the village. Shots taken before the killing showed that he had been badly beaten.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://apnews.com/111dfce7fad65c327bccd8abf93c3536 |date=5 September 1996 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190128080614/https://apnews.com/111dfce7fad65c327bccd8abf93c3536 |archive-date=28 January 2019 |access-date=13 August 2011|title=Uproar in Mexico over footage of accused killer being burned alive |work=Associated Press News}}</ref> On 5 September 1996, Mexican television stations broadcast footage of the murder. Locals carried out the killing because they were fed up with crime and believed that the police and courts were both incompetent. Footage was also shown in the 1998 [[shockumentary]] film, [[Banned from Television]].

A young Guatemalan woman, Alejandra María Torres, was attacked by a mob in [[Guatemala City]] on 15 December 2009. The mob alleged that Torres had attempted to rob passengers on a bus. Torres was beaten, doused with gasoline, and set on fire, but was able to put the fire out before sustaining life-threatening burns. Police intervened and arrested Torres. Torres was forced to go topless throughout the ordeal and subsequent arrest, and many photographs were taken and published.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.reuters.com/news/picture/vigilante-attack-idUSRTXRZM6|title=Alejandra María Torres|website=[[Reuters]]|date=18 December 2009 }}</ref> Approximately 219 people were lynched in Guatemala in 2009, of whom 45 died.{{Citation needed|date=July 2021}}

In May 2015, a sixteen-year-old girl was allegedly burned to death in [[Río Bravo, Suchitepéquez|Río Bravo]], Guatemala, by a vigilante mob after being accused of involvement in the killing of a taxi driver earlier in the month.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cnn.com/2015/05/27/americas/guatemala-girl-burned-mob/index.html|title=Video of mob burning teen in Guatemala spurs outrage|author1=Annie Rose Ramos |author2=Catherine E. Shoichet |author3=Richard Beltran|date=27 May 2015|publisher=CNN|access-date=20 October 2018}}</ref>

In [[Chile]] during public mass protests held against the military regime of General [[Augusto Pinochet]] on 2 July 1986, engineering student [[Carmen Gloria Quintana]], 18, and Chilean-American photographer [[Rodrigo Rojas de Negri]], 19, were arrested by a [[Chilean Army]] patrol in the [[Los Nogales]] neighborhood of [[Santiago]]. The two were searched and beaten before being doused in gasoline and burned alive by Chilean troops. Rojas was killed, while Quintana survived but with severe burns.<ref>Annual Report of the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, 1987–1988. Case # 01a/88; Case 9755. Chile, 12 September 1988.</ref>

===Lynchings and killings by burning in the United States===

[[File:Lynching of Jesse Washington, 1916 (cropped).jpg|thumb|right|[[Lynching of Jesse Washington]] in [[Waco, Texas]], on 15 May 1916. He was repeatedly lowered and raised onto a fire for about two hours.]]
Burnings continued as a method of [[lynching in the United States]] in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, particularly in the [[Southern United States|South]]. One of the most notorious extrajudicial burnings in modern history occurred in [[Waco, Texas]] on 15 May 1916. [[Jesse Washington lynching|Jesse Washington]], an African-American [[farmhand]], after having been convicted of the rape and subsequent murder of a white woman, was taken by a mob to a bonfire, castrated, doused in [[coal oil]], and hanged by the neck from a chain over the bonfire, slowly burning to death. A postcard from the event still exists, showing a crowd standing next to Washington's charred corpse with the words on the back "This is the barbecue we had last night. My picture is to the left with a cross over it. Your son, Joe". This attracted international condemnation and is remembered as the "[[Waco Horror]]".<ref>''DuBois'' (1916), [http://dl.lib.brown.edu/pdfs/1292363091648500.pdf pp. 1–8] ([https://web.archive.org/web/20131227153035/http://dl.lib.brown.edu/pdfs/1292363091648500.pdf Archive])</ref><ref>[[Wade Goodwyn|Goodwyn, Wade]]. "[https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=5401868 Waco Recalls a 90-Year-Old 'Horror']." ''[[National Public Radio]]''. 13 May 2006. ([https://www.npr.org/templates/transcript/transcript.php?storyId=5401868 Transcript of radio story])</ref>

More recently, during the 1980 [[New Mexico State Penitentiary riot]], a number of inmates were burnt to death by fellow prisoners, who threw flammable liquids into locked cells and ignited the fuel using [[blowtorch]]es.<ref>{{cite report |url=https://www.ojp.gov/pdffiles1/Digitization/72933NCJRS.pdf |title=Report of the Attorney General on the February 2 and 3, 1980 Riot at the Penitentiary of New Mexico |last=Bingaman |first=Jeff |date=June 1980 |publisher=State of New Mexico Office of the Attorney General |page=26 |author-link=Jeff Bingaman }}</ref>

===Cases from Africa===
In [[South Africa]], [[extrajudicial]] executions by burning were carried out via "[[necklacing]]", wherein a mob would fill a rubber tire with [[kerosene]] (or gasoline) and place it around the neck of a live person. The fuel was then ignited, the rubber melted, and the victim burnt to death.<ref name=sanctions>[http://www.etsu.edu/cas/history/docs/southafrica.htm U.S. Sanctions against South Africa, 1986] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071014220823/http://www.etsu.edu/cas/history/docs/southafrica.htm |date=14 October 2007 }}, College of Arts and Sciences, East Tennessee State University. Retrieved 14 October 2007.</ref><ref name=hilton>Hilton, Ronald. [http://wais.stanford.edu/LatinAmerica/latinaDerivative worksmerica_latinamerica03102004.htm "Latin America]{{dead link|date=September 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}", World Association of International Studies, Stanford University. Retrieved 14 October 2007.{{dead link|date=June 2016|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> The method was most commonly used during the 1980s and early 1990s by anti-[[Apartheid]] opposition. In 1986, [[Winnie Mandela]], wife of the then-imprisoned ANC ([[African National Congress]]) leader [[Nelson Mandela]], stated, "With our boxes of matches, and our necklaces, we shall liberate this country", which was widely seen as an explicit endorsement of necklacing.<ref>{{cite web|title=Winnie Madikizela-Mandela|url=http://www.sahistory.org.za/people/winnie-madikizela-mandela|publisher=South African History Online|date=17 February 2011|access-date=14 May 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://century.guardian.co.uk/1980-1989/Story/0,,110268,00.html|title=Row over 'mother of the nation' Winnie Mandela|work=[[The Guardian]]|date=27 January 1989|last=Beresford|first=David |author-link=David Beresford (journalist) |access-date=1 May 2008}}</ref> This caused the ANC to initially distance itself from her,<ref name="africafiles">{{cite magazine|last=Meintjes |first=Sheila |title=Winnie Madikizela Mandela: Tragic Figure? Populist Tribune? Township Tough?|url=https://projects.kora.matrix.msu.edu/files/210-808-4551/SAR13-4opt.pdf#page=16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210410054043/https://projects.kora.matrix.msu.edu/files/210-808-4551/SAR13-4opt.pdf |archive-date=10 April 2021 |url-status=live|magazine=Southern Africa Report |volume=13|issue=4 |date=August 1998|pages=14–20 |issn=0820-5582|access-date=7 December 2013}}</ref> although she later took on a number of official positions within the party.<ref name="africafiles"/>

It was reported that in [[Kenya]], on 21 May 2008, a mob had burned to death at least 11 accused [[witchcraft|witches]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/latestCrisis/idUSL21301127|title=Mob burns to death 11 Kenyan 'witches'|first=Wangui|last=Kanina|publisher=[[Reuters]]|date=21 May 2008|access-date=14 April 2021}}</ref>

===Cases from the Middle East and Indian subcontinent===
Immolation was a common execution method for Armenian children, particularly orphans, with [[Ottoman Army (1861–1922)|Ottoman troops]] during the [[Armenian genocide]].<ref>[https://medium.com/illumination-curated/the-children-were-burnt-alive-317d153678de The Children Were Burnt Alive]</ref> Armenian children would be herded into a building to a secluded area outside the city in batches, doused in gasoline, and lit on fire. This practice took place in [[Deir ez-Zor camps|Der Zor]], [[Harpoot|Kharpert]] and [[Diyarbakır|Diarbekir]] provinces, and most infamously, at a German run orphanage in [[Muş|Mush]].<ref>[http://www.genocide-museum.am/eng/online_exhibition_3.php Armenian Children Victims of Genocide]</ref>

[[Graham Staines|Dr Graham Stuart Staines]], an Australian Christian [[missionary]], and his two sons Philip (aged ten) and Timothy (aged six), were burnt to death by a gang while the three slept in the family car (a station wagon), at [[Manoharpur]] village in [[Keonjhar|Keonjhar District, Odisha, India]] on 22 January 1999. Four years later, in 2003, a [[Bajrang Dal]] activist, [[Dara Singh (Hindu nationalist)|Dara Singh]], was convicted of leading the gang that murdered Staines and his sons, and was sentenced to life in prison. Staines had worked in Odisha with the tribal poor and [[leprosy|lepers]] since 1965. Some Hindu groups made allegations that Staines had forcibly converted or lured many Hindus into [[Christianity]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/264326.stm|title=Missionary widow continues leprosy work|publisher=[[BBC News]]|date=27 January 1999|access-date=14 April 2021}}</ref><ref>''Sangvi'' (1999) [http://www.rediff.com/news/1999/feb/08vir.htm A Kill Before Dying]</ref>

On 19 June 2008, the [[Taliban]], at Sadda, [[Lower Kurram]], Pakistan, burned three truck drivers of the [[Turi (Pashtun tribe)|Turi]] tribe alive after attacking a convoy of trucks en route from [[Kohat]] to [[Parachinar]], possibly for supplying the [[Pakistan Armed Forces]].{{citation needed|date=April 2022}}

In January 2015, Jordanian pilot [[Moaz al-Kasasbeh]] was burned in a cage by the [[Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant]] (ISIS). The pilot was captured when his plane crashed near [[Raqqa]], Syria, during a mission against IS in December 2014.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-31121160|title=Jordanian pilot 'burned alive' by IS|date=3 February 2015|access-date=20 October 2018|publisher=[[BBC News]]}}</ref> This became known on 4 February 2015 after ISIS published a 22-minute video online showing the burning of a Jordanian pilot.<ref>{{Cite web |date=4 February 2015 |title=Burned Alive: ISIS Video Purports to Show Murder of Jordanian Pilot |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/storyline/isis-uncovered/burned-alive-isis-video-purports-show-murder-jordanian-pilot-n299361 |access-date=22 February 2024 |website=NBC News |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Woolf |first=Nicky |date=4 February 2015 |title=Fox News site embeds unedited Isis video showing brutal murder of Jordanian pilot |url=https://www.theguardian.com/media/2015/feb/04/fox-news-shows-isis-video-jordan-pilot |access-date=22 February 2024 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}</ref>

In August 2015, ISIS burned to death four Iraqi [[Shia]] prisoners.<ref>{{cite news|title=Isis releases graphic video showing four men burning alive in 'act of vengeance'|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/isis-releases-graphic-video-showing-four-shia-spies-being-burned-alive-in-anbar-iraq-10479626.html|work=The Independent|date=31 August 2015}}</ref>

In December 2016, [[Murders of Sefter Taş and Fethi Şahin|ISIS burned to death two Turkish soldiers]],<ref>{{cite news|title=ISIL video shows 'Turkish soldiers burned alive'|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2016/12/isil-burns-turkish-soldiers-alive-shocking-video-161223035619947.html|publisher=Al Jazeera|date=23 December 2016}}</ref> publishing video of the atrocity.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://heavy.com/news/2016/12/new-isis-islamic-state-amaq-news-cross-shield-syrian-arab-army-russian-turkey-turkish-soldiers-burned-to-death-execution-wilayat-halab-aleppo-syria-video/|title= New ISIS Video Burns 2 Caged Turkish Soldiers to Death in Aleppo|publisher=Heavy|date=22 December 2016|author=S. J. Prince|format=video}} The victims are shown burning to death in the last three minutes of the film.</ref>

=== Bride-burning ===
{{main|Bride burning}}
'''Bride burning''' is a form of [[domestic violence]] involving burning. The wife is typically doused with [[kerosene]], [[gasoline]], or other flammable liquid, and set alight, leading to death by fire. Kerosene is often used as the cooking fuel for small petrol stoves, some of which being dangerous, so it allows the claim that the crime was an accident.

On 20 January 2011, a 28-year-old woman, Ranjeeta Sharma, was found burning to death on a road in rural [[New Zealand]]. The police confirmed the woman was alive before being covered in an accelerant and set on fire.<ref name="Stuff.co.nz_4573912">''Feek'' (2011), [http://www.stuff.co.nz/national/4573912/Burnt-body-victim-named-as-search-goes-offshore Burnt body victim named]</ref> Sharma's husband, Davesh Sharma, was charged with her murder.<ref name="NZ_Herald_10702860">{{cite web|url=http://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/news/article.cfm?c_id=1&objectid=10702860|title=Husband of burnt woman charged with murder|date=29 January 2011|work=[[The New Zealand Herald]]|access-date=27 September 2011}}</ref>

==See also==
{{commons category|Execution by burning}}
* [[Jungle justice]]
* [[Muath al-Kasasbeh]]
* [[List of people burned as heretics]]
* [[Relaxado en persona]]
* [[Self-immolation]]
* [[Spontaneous human combustion]]
* [[Witchcraft Acts]]
* [[Yaoya Oshichi]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

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* {{cite book|last=Stevens|first=George A.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DIsfAAAAMAAJ|title=The Beauties of All Magazines Selected for the Year 1764 (including several Comic Pieces)|publisher=T. Waller|location=London|volume=3|year=1764}}
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* {{cite book|last1=De Thévenot|first1=Jean|last2=Lovell|first2=Archibald|title=The Travels of Monsieur De Thevenot into The Levant|volume=1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6q9EAAAAcAAJ|year=1687|publisher=Faithorne|location=London}}
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{{refend}}

==External links==
{{EB1911 poster|Burning to Death}}
* [http://www.capitalpunishmentuk.org/burning.html CapitalPunishmentUK.org]
* [http://www.monkeychicken.com/fir.htm List of deaths by fire throughout history]

{{Capital punishment}}
{{Fire}}

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Death By Burning}}
[[Category:Execution methods|Burning]]
[[Category:Fire]]
[[Category:Torture]]
[[Category:Causes of death]]
[[Category:People executed by burning| ]]
[[Category:Traditions involving fire]]

Clay

2025-06-26T10:29:35Z

131.111.5.201: Correcting capitalisation error

{{Short description|Fine grained natural soil}}
{{Other uses}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2020}}
{{Use British English|date=March 2021}}

'''Clay''' is a type of fine-grained natural [[soil]] material containing [[clay mineral]]s{{sfn|Olive|Chleborad|Frahme|Shlocker|1989}} (hydrous aluminium phyllosilicates, e.g. [[kaolinite]], {{chem2|[[Al]]2[[Si]]2[[O]]5([[hydroxide|OH]])4}}). Most pure clay minerals are white or light-coloured, but natural clays show a variety of colours from impurities, such as a reddish or brownish colour from small amounts of [[iron oxide]].{{sfn|Klein|Hurlbut|1993|pp=512–514}}{{sfn|Nesse|2000|pp=252–257}}

Clays develop [[plasticity (physics)|plasticity]] when wet but can be hardened through [[Pottery#Firing|firing]].{{sfn|Guggenheim|Martin|1995|pp=255–256}}{{sfn|Science Learning Hub|2010}}{{sfn|Breuer|2012}} Clay is the longest-known [[ceramic]] material. Prehistoric humans discovered the useful properties of clay and used it for making [[pottery]]. Some of the earliest pottery shards have been [[radiocarbon dating|dated]] to around 14,000 BCE,{{sfn|Scarre|2005|p=238}} and [[Clay tablet|clay tablets]] were the first known writing medium.{{sfn|Ebert|2011|p=64}} Clay is used in many modern industrial processes, such as [[paper]] making, [[cement]] production, and chemical [[filtration|filtering]]. Between one-half and two-thirds of the world's population live or work in buildings made with clay, often baked into brick, as an essential part of its load-bearing structure.{{citation needed|date=June 2025}} In agriculture, clay content is a major factor in determining land [[arable land|arability]]. Clay soils are generally less suitable for crops due to poor natural drainage; however, clay soils are more fertile, due to higher [[cation-exchange capacity]].<ref name="v874">{{cite book | title=Lockhart and Wiseman' s Crop Husbandry Including Grassland | chapter=Soil health and management | publisher=Elsevier | date=2023 | isbn=978-0-323-85702-4 | doi=10.1016/b978-0-323-85702-4.00023-6 | pages=49–79}}</ref><ref name="x742">{{cite web | title=Cation Exchange Capacity and Base Saturation | website=UGA Cooperative Extension | date=2014-02-26 | url=https://extension.uga.edu/publications/detail.html?number=C1040&title=cation-exchange-capacity-and-base-saturation | access-date=2025-01-08}}</ref>

Clay is a very common substance. [[Shale]], formed largely from clay, is the most common sedimentary rock.{{sfn|Boggs|2006|p=140}} Although many naturally occurring deposits include both silts and clay, clays are distinguished from other fine-grained soils by differences in size and mineralogy. [[Silt]]s, which are fine-grained soils that do not include clay minerals, tend to have larger particle sizes than clays. Mixtures of [[sand]], [[silt]] and less than 40% clay are called [[loam]]. Soils high in ''swelling clays'' ([[expansive clay]]), which are clay minerals that readily expand in volume when they absorb water, are a major challenge in [[civil engineering]].{{sfn|Olive|Chleborad|Frahme|Shlocker|1989}}

== Properties ==
[[File:Clay magnified.jpg|thumb|A 23,500 times magnified electron micrograph of [[smectite]] clay]]
The defining mechanical property of clay is its plasticity when wet and its ability to harden when dried or fired. Clays show a broad range of water content within which they are highly plastic, from a minimum water content (called the [[Atterberg limits|plastic limit]]) where the clay is just moist enough to mould, to a maximum water content (called the liquid limit) where the moulded clay is just dry enough to hold its shape.{{sfn|Moreno-Maroto|Alonso-Azcárate|2018}} The plastic limit of kaolinite clay ranges from about 36% to 40% and its liquid limit ranges from about 58% to 72%.{{sfn|White|1949}} High-quality clay is also tough, as measured by the amount of mechanical work required to roll a sample of clay flat. Its toughness reflects a high degree of internal cohesion.{{sfn|Moreno-Maroto|Alonso-Azcárate|2018}}

Clay has a high content of clay minerals that give it its plasticity. Clay minerals are [[hydrate|hydrous]] [[aluminium]] [[Silicate minerals#Phyllosilicates|phyllosilicate minerals]], composed of aluminium and silicon ions bonded into tiny, thin plates by interconnecting oxygen and [[hydroxide]] ions. These plates are tough but flexible, and in moist clay, they adhere to each other. The resulting aggregates give clay the cohesion that makes it plastic.{{sfn|Bergaya|Theng|Lagaly|2006|pp=1-18}} In [[kaolinite]] clay, the bonding between plates is provided by a film of water molecules that [[hydrogen bond]] the plates together. The bonds are weak enough to allow the plates to slip past each other when the clay is being moulded, but strong enough to hold the plates in place and allow the moulded clay to retain its shape after it is moulded. When the clay is dried, most of the water molecules are removed, and the plates form direct hydrogen bonds with each other, making the dried clay rigid but still fragile. If the clay is moistened again, it will once more become plastic. When the clay is fired to the [[earthenware]] stage, a [[dehydration reaction]] removes additional water from the clay, causing clay plates to irreversibly adhere to each other via stronger [[covalent bonding]], which strengthens the material. The clay mineral kaolinite is transformed into a non-clay material, [[metakaolin]], which remains rigid and hard if moistened again. Further firing through the [[stoneware]] and [[porcelain]] stages further recrystallizes the metakaolin into yet stronger minerals such as [[mullite]].{{sfn|Breuer|2012}}

The tiny size and plate form of clay particles gives clay minerals a high surface area. In some clay minerals, the plates carry a negative electrical charge that is balanced by a surrounding layer of positive ions ([[cation]]s), such as sodium, potassium, or calcium. If the clay is mixed with a solution containing other cations, these can swap places with the cations in the layer around the clay particles, which gives clays a high capacity for [[ion exchange]].{{sfn|Bergaya|Theng|Lagaly|2006|pp=1-18}} The chemistry of clay minerals, including their capacity to retain nutrient cations such as potassium and ammonium, is important to soil fertility.{{sfn|Hodges|2010}}

Clay is a common component of [[sedimentary rock]]. [[Shale]] is formed largely from clay and is the most common of sedimentary rocks.{{sfn|Boggs|2006|p=140}} However, most clay deposits are impure. Many naturally occurring deposits include both silts and clay. Clays are distinguished from other fine-grained soils by differences in size and mineralogy. [[Silt]]s, which are fine-grained soils that do not include clay minerals, tend to have larger particle sizes than clays. There is, however, some overlap in particle size and other physical properties. The distinction between silt and clay varies by discipline. [[Geologist]]s and [[soil scientist]]s usually consider the separation to occur at a particle size of 2 [[Micrometre|μm]] (clays being finer than silts), [[sedimentologist]]s often use 4–5 μm, and [[colloid]] [[chemist]]s use 1 μm.{{sfn|Guggenheim|Martin|1995|pp=255–256}} Clay-size particles and clay minerals are not the same, despite a degree of overlap in their respective definitions. [[Geotechnical engineering|Geotechnical engineers]] distinguish between silts and clays based on the plasticity properties of the soil, as measured by the soils' [[Atterberg limits]]. [[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]] 14688 grades clay particles as being smaller than 2 μm and silt particles as being larger. Mixtures of [[sand]], [[silt]] and less than 40% clay are called [[loam]].

Some clay minerals (such as [[smectite]]) are described as swelling clay minerals, because they have a great capacity to take up water, and they increase greatly in volume when they do so. When dried, they shrink back to their original volume. This produces distinctive textures, such as [[mudcrack]]s or "popcorn" texture, in clay deposits. Soils containing swelling clay minerals (such as [[bentonite]]) pose a considerable challenge for civil engineering, because swelling clay can break foundations of buildings and ruin road beds.{{sfn|Olive|Chleborad|Frahme|Shlocker|1989}}

=== Agriculture ===
Clay is generally considered undesirable for agriculture, although some amount of clay is a necessary component of good soil. Compared to other soils, clay soils are less suitable for crops due to their tendency to retain water, and require artificial [[drainage]] and [[tillage]] to make suitable for planting. However, clay soils are often more fertile and can hold onto nutrients better due to their higher [[cation-exchange capacity]], allowing more land to remain in production rather than being left [[fallow]]. As clay tends to retain nutrients for longer before leaching them, this also means plants may require more fertilizer in clay soils.<ref name="v874"/><ref name="x742"/>

== Formation ==
[[File: Italian and African-American Clay Miners in Mine Shaft.jpg|thumb|Italian and African-American clay miners in mine shaft, 1910]]

Clay minerals most commonly form by prolonged chemical [[weathering]] of silicate-bearing rocks. They can also form locally from [[hydrothermal]] activity.{{sfn|Foley|1999}} Chemical weathering takes place largely by acid hydrolysis due to low concentrations of [[carbonic acid]], dissolved in rainwater or released by plant roots. The acid breaks bonds between aluminium and oxygen, releasing other metal ions and silica (as a gel of [[orthosilicic acid]]).){{sfn|Leeder|2011|pp=5-11}}

The clay minerals formed depend on the composition of the source rock and the climate. Acid weathering of [[feldspar]]-rich rock, such as [[granite]], in warm climates tends to produce kaolin. Weathering of the same kind of rock under alkaline conditions produces [[illite]]. [[Smectite]] forms by weathering of [[igneous rock]] under alkaline conditions, while [[gibbsite]] forms by intense weathering of other clay minerals.{{sfn|Leeder|2011|pp=10-11}}

There are two types of clay deposits: primary and secondary. Primary clays form as residual deposits in soil and remain at the site of formation. Secondary clays are clays that have been transported from their original location by water erosion and [[Deposition (geology)|deposited]] in a new [[sedimentary]] deposit.{{sfn|Murray|2002}} Secondary clay deposits are typically associated with very low energy [[Depositional environment|depositional environments]] such as large lakes and marine basins.{{sfn|Foley|1999}}

== Varieties ==
The main groups of clays include [[kaolin]]ite, [[montmorillonite]]-[[smectite]], and [[illite]]. [[Chlorite group|Chlorite]], [[vermiculite]],{{sfn|Nesse|2000|p=253}} [[talc]], and [[pyrophyllite]]{{sfn|Klein|Hurlbut|1993|pp=514-515}} are sometimes also classified as clay minerals. There are approximately 30 different types of "pure" clays in these categories, but most "natural" clay deposits are mixtures of these different types, along with other weathered minerals.{{sfn|Klein|Hurlbut|1993|p=512}} Clay minerals in clays are most easily identified using [[Clay mineral X-ray diffraction|X-ray diffraction]] rather than chemical or physical tests.{{sfn|Nesse|2000|p=256}}

[[Varve]] (or ''varved clay'') is clay with visible annual layers that are formed by seasonal deposition of those layers and are marked by differences in [[erosion]] and organic content. This type of deposit is common in former [[glacial lake]]s. When fine sediments are delivered into the calm waters of these glacial lake basins away from the shoreline, they settle to the lake bed. The resulting seasonal layering is preserved in an even distribution of clay sediment banding.{{sfn|Foley|1999}}

[[Quick clay]] is a unique type of [[marine clay]] indigenous to the glaciated terrains of Norway, North America, Northern Ireland, and Sweden.{{sfn|Rankka|Andersson-Sköld|Hultén|Larsson|2004}} It is a highly sensitive clay, prone to [[Soil liquefaction|liquefaction]], and has been involved in several deadly [[landslide]]s.{{sfn|Natural Resources Canada|2005}}

== Uses ==
[[File: Clay In A Construction Site.jpg|thumb|Clay layers in a construction site in [[Auckland]], New Zealand. Dry clay is normally much more stable than sand in excavations.]]
[[File:Diósgyőr - 2015.02.07 (145).JPG|thumb|upright|left|A 14th-century [[Stopper (plug)|bottle stopper]] made of [[fire clay|fired clay]]]]
[[Modelling clay]] is used in art and handicraft for [[sculpting]].
Clays are used for making [[pottery]], both utilitarian and decorative, and construction products, such as bricks, walls, and floor tiles. Different types of clay, when used with different minerals and firing conditions, are used to produce earthenware, stoneware, and porcelain. Prehistoric humans discovered the useful properties of clay. Some of the earliest pottery shards recovered are from central [[Honshu]], [[Japan]]. They are associated with the [[Jōmon period|Jōmon]] culture, and recovered deposits have been [[radiocarbon dating|dated]] to around 14,000 BCE.{{sfn|Scarre|2005|p=238}} Cooking pots, art objects, dishware, [[smoking pipe (tobacco)|smoking pipes]], and even [[musical instrument]]s such as the [[ocarina]] can all be shaped from clay before being fired.

Ancient peoples in [[Mesopotamia]] adopted clay tablets as the first known writing medium.{{sfn|Ebert|2011|p=64}} Clay was chosen due to the local material being easy to work with and widely available.<ref>{{Cite web |title=British Library |url=https://www.bl.uk/history-of-writing/articles/a-brief-history-of-writing-materials-and-technologies#:~:text=The%20earliest%20material%20used%20to,drawn%20into%20with%20a%20stylus. |access-date=2023-05-09 |website=www.bl.uk |archive-date=12 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220912141816/https://www.bl.uk/history-of-writing/articles/a-brief-history-of-writing-materials-and-technologies#:~:text=The%20earliest%20material%20used%20to,drawn%20into%20with%20a%20stylus. |url-status=dead }}</ref> Scribes wrote on the tablets by inscribing them with a script known as [[cuneiform]], using a blunt [[reed (plant)|reed]] called a [[stylus]], which effectively produced the wedge shaped markings of their writing. After being written on, clay tablets could be reworked into fresh tablets and reused if needed, or fired to make them permanent records. Nowadays, clay is added as a filler to [[graphite]], in pencil lead, to change the hardness and blackness of the [[pencil]]. Purpose-made clay balls were used as [[sling (weapon)#Ammunition|sling ammunition]].{{sfn|Forouzan|Glover|Williams|Deocampo|2012}} Clay is used in many industrial processes, such as [[paper]] making, [[cement]] production, and chemical [[filter (chemistry)|filtering]].{{sfn|Nesse|2000|p=257}} [[Bentonite]] clay is widely used as a mold binder in the manufacture of [[sand casting]]s.{{sfn|Boylu|2011}}{{sfn|Eisenhour|Brown|2009}}
{{external media
| title = Mass bathing in liquid clay
| topic = as a type of relaxation
| float =
| width = 230px
| video1 = {{YouTube|id=m7-vA-zOvJM|title=Video (10 minutes)}}
}}
[[File:Bain d'argile à Gogotinkpon au Bénin 01.jpg|thumb|Clay bath near [[lake Ahémé]] in [[Benin]]]]

=== Materials ===

Clay is a common filler used in polymer [[nanocomposites]]. It can reduce the cost of the composite, as well as impart modified behavior: increased [[stiffness]], decreased [[Permeation|permeability]], decreased [[electrical conductivity]], etc.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kotal |first1=M. |last2=Bhowmick |first2=A. K. |title=Polymer nanocomposites from modified clays: Recent advances and challenges |journal=Progress in Polymer Science |date=2015 |volume=51 |pages=127–187 |doi=10.1016/j.progpolymsci.2015.10.001}}</ref>

=== Medicine ===
Traditional uses of [[medicinal clay|clay as medicine]] go back to prehistoric times. An example is [[Armenian bole]], which is used to soothe an upset stomach. Some animals such as parrots and pigs ingest clay for similar reasons.{{sfn|Diamond|1999}} [[Kaolin|Kaolin clay]] and [[attapulgite]] have been used as anti-diarrheal medicines.{{sfn|Dadu|Hu|Cleeland|Busaidy|2015}}

=== Construction ===
[[File:WMEE-exp2019-(113).jpg|thumb|left|A clay building in [[South Estonia]]]]
Clay as the defining ingredient of [[loam]] is one of the oldest [[building material]]s on [[Earth]], among other ancient, naturally occurring geologic materials such as stone and organic materials like wood.{{sfn|Grim|2016}} {{cn span|date=December 2020|Between one-half and two-thirds of the world's population, in both traditional societies as well as developed countries, still live or work in buildings made with clay, often baked into brick, as an essential part of their load-bearing structure.}} Also a primary ingredient in many [[natural building]] techniques, clay is used to create [[adobe]], [[cob (material)|cob]], [[cordwood]], and structures and building elements such as [[wattle and daub]], clay plaster, clay render case, clay floors and clay [[paints]] and [[ceramic building material]]. Clay was used as a [[mortar (masonry)|mortar]] in brick [[chimneys]] and stone walls where protected from water.

Clay, relatively [[permeability (fluid)|impermeable]] to water, is also used where [[Puddling (civil engineering)|natural seals]] are needed, such as in pond linings, the cores of [[dam]]s, or as a barrier in [[landfill]]s against toxic seepage (lining the landfill, preferably in combination with [[geotextile]]s).{{sfn|Koçkar|Akgün|Aktürk|2005}} Studies in the early 21st century have investigated clay's [[sorption|absorption]] capacities in various applications, such as the removal of [[heavy metals]] from waste water and air purification.{{sfn|García-Sanchez|Alvarez-Ayuso|Rodriguez-Martin|2002}}{{sfn|Churchman|Gates|Theng|Yuan|2006}}

== See also ==
{{div col}}
* {{annotated link|Argillaceous minerals}}
* {{annotated link|Industrial plasticine}}
* {{annotated link|Clay animation}}
* {{annotated link|Clay chemistry}}
* {{annotated link|Clay court}}
* {{annotated link|Clay panel}}
* {{annotated link|Clay pit}}
* {{annotated link|Geophagia}}
* {{annotated link|Graham Cairns-Smith}}
* {{annotated link|London Clay}}
* {{annotated link|Modelling clay}}
* {{annotated link|Paper clay}}
* {{annotated link|Particle size}}
* {{annotated link|Plasticine}}
* {{annotated link|Vertisol}}
* {{annotated link|Clay–water interaction}}
{{div col end}}

== Notes ==
{{reflist}}

== References ==
* [http://www.minsocam.org/msa/collectors_corner/arc/nomenclaturecl1.htm Clay mineral nomenclature] ''American Mineralogist''.
* {{cite book |last1=Bergaya |first1=Faïza |last2=Theng |first2=B. K. G. |last3=Lagaly |first3=Gerhard |title=Handbook of Clay Science |date=2006 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-08-044183-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uVbam9Snw5sC |language=en}}
* {{cite book |last1=Boggs |first1=Sam |title=Principles of sedimentology and stratigraphy |date=2006 |publisher=Pearson Prentice Hall |location=Upper Saddle River, N.J. |isbn=0131547283 |edition=4th}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Boylu |first1=Feridun |title=Optimization of foundry sand characteristics of soda-activated calcium bentonite |journal=Applied Clay Science |date=1 April 2011 |volume=52 |issue=1 |pages=104–108 |doi=10.1016/j.clay.2011.02.005|bibcode=2011ApCS...52..104B }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Breuer |first1=Stephen |title=The chemistry of pottery |journal=Education in Chemistry |date=July 2012 |pages=17–20 |url=https://www.qvevriproject.org/Files/2012.07.00_RSC_Breuer_ChemistryOfPottery.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.qvevriproject.org/Files/2012.07.00_RSC_Breuer_ChemistryOfPottery.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |access-date=8 December 2020}}
* {{cite journal|title = Chapter 11.1 Clays and Clay Minerals for Pollution Control|publisher = Elsevier|journal = Developments in Clay Science|date = 2006|pages = 625–675|volume = 1|series = Handbook of Clay Science|first1 = G. J.|last1 = Churchman|first2 = W. P.|last2 = Gates|first3 = B. K. G.|last3 = Theng|first4 = G.|last4 = Yuan|editor-first = Benny K. G. Theng and Gerhard Lagaly|editor-last = Faïza Bergaya|doi=10.1016/S1572-4352(05)01020-2|isbn = 9780080441832}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Dadu |first1=Ramona |last2=Hu |first2=Mimi I. |last3=Cleeland |first3=Charles |last4=Busaidy |first4=Naifa L. |last5=Habra |first5=Mouhammed |last6=Waguespack |first6=Steven G. |last7=Sherman |first7=Steven I. |last8=Ying |first8=Anita |last9=Fox |first9=Patricia |last10=Cabanillas |first10=Maria E. |title=Efficacy of the Natural Clay, Calcium Aluminosilicate Anti-Diarrheal, in Reducing Medullary Thyroid Cancer–Related Diarrhea and Its Effects on Quality of Life: A Pilot Study |journal=Thyroid |date=October 2015 |volume=25 |issue=10 |pages=1085–1090 |doi=10.1089/thy.2015.0166|pmid=26200040 |pmc=4589264 }}
* {{cite web |url = http://cogweb.ucla.edu/Abstracts/Diamond_99.html |title = Diamond on Geophagy |first1 = Jared M. |last1 = Diamond |work = ucla.edu |year = 1999 |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150528185034/http://cogweb.ucla.edu/Abstracts/Diamond_99.html |archive-date = 28 May 2015 |df = dmy-all}}
* {{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HNHyiDm3__kC&q=Clay+tablets+were+the+first+known+writing+medium&pg=PA64|title=The New Media Invasion: Digital Technologies and the World They Unmake|last=Ebert|first=John David|date=31 August 2011|publisher=McFarland|isbn=9780786488186|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171224225732/https://books.google.com/books?id=HNHyiDm3__kC&pg=PA64&dq=Clay+tablets+were+the+first+known+writing+medium&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj-mMuxz5XVAhXixVQKHUpZCPQQ6AEIKTAB#v=onepage&q=Clay%20tablets%20were%20the%20first%20known%20writing%20medium&f=false|archive-date=24 December 2017}}
* Ehlers, Ernest G. and Blatt, Harvey (1982). 'Petrology, Igneous, Sedimentary, and Metamorphic' [[San Francisco]]: W.H. Freeman and Company. {{ISBN|0-7167-1279-2}}.
* {{cite journal |last1=Eisenhour |first1=D. D. |last2=Brown |first2=R. K. |title=Bentonite and Its Impact on Modern Life |journal=Elements |date=1 April 2009 |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=83–88 |doi=10.2113/gselements.5.2.83|bibcode=2009Eleme...5...83E }}
* {{cite web|url=http://pubs.usgs.gov/info/clays/|last1=Foley |first1=Nora K.|date=September 1999|title=Environmental Characteristics of Clays and Clay Mineral Deposits|work=usgs.gov|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081208055734/http://pubs.usgs.gov/info/clays/|archive-date=8 December 2008}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Forouzan |first1=Firoozeh |last2=Glover |first2=Jeffrey B. |last3=Williams |first3=Frank |last4=Deocampo |first4=Daniel |title=Portable XRF analysis of zoomorphic figurines, "tokens," and sling bullets from Chogha Gavaneh, Iran |journal=Journal of Archaeological Science |date=1 December 2012 |volume=39 |issue=12 |pages=3534–3541 |doi=10.1016/j.jas.2012.04.010|bibcode=2012JArSc..39.3534F }}
* {{cite journal|title = Sorption of As(V) by some oxyhydroxides and clay minerals. Application to its immobilization in two polluted mining soils|journal = Clay Minerals|date = 1 March 2002|pages = 187–194|volume = 37|issue = 1|doi = 10.1180/0009855023710027|first1 = A.|last1 = García-Sanchez|first2 = E.|last2 = Alvarez-Ayuso|first3 = F.|last3 = Rodriguez-Martin|df = dmy-all|bibcode = 2002ClMin..37..187G|s2cid = 101864343}}
* {{cite web|last1=Grim|first1=Ralph|year=2016|title=Clay mineral|url=https://www.britannica.com/science/clay-mineral|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|access-date=10 January 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151209182021/https://www.britannica.com/science/clay-mineral|archive-date=9 December 2015}}
* {{Citation| last1 =Guggenheim| first1 =Stephen| last2 =Martin| first2 =R. T.| title =Definition of clay and clay mineral: Journal report of the AIPEA nomenclature and CMS nomenclature committees| journal =Clays and Clay Minerals| volume =43| pages =255–256| year =1995| doi =10.1346/CCMN.1995.0430213| issue =2|bibcode = 1995CCM....43..255G | s2cid =129312753| doi-access = }}
* Hillier S. (2003) "Clay Mineralogy." pp 139–142 In Middleton G.V., Church M.J., Coniglio M., Hardie L.A. and Longstaffe F.J. (Editors) ''Encyclopedia of Sediments and Sedimentary Rocks''. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht.
* {{cite web |last1=Hodges |first1=S.C. |year=2010 |title=Soil fertility basics |publisher=Soil Science Extension, North Carolina State University |url=http://www2.mans.edu.eg/projects/heepf/ilppp/cources/12/pdf%20course/38/Nutrient%20Management%20for%20CCA.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www2.mans.edu.eg/projects/heepf/ilppp/cources/12/pdf%20course/38/Nutrient%20Management%20for%20CCA.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |access-date=8 December 2020}}
* {{cite book |last1=Klein |first1=Cornelis |last2=Hurlbut | first2=Cornelius S. Jr. |title=Manual of mineralogy : (after James D. Dana) |date=1993 |publisher=Wiley |location=New York |isbn=047157452X |edition=21st}}
* {{cite web |last1=Koçkar |first1=Mustafa K. |last2=Akgün |first2=Haluk |last3=Aktürk |first3=Özgür |date=November 2005|url=http://www2.widener.edu/~sxw0004/abstract34.html |title=Preliminary evaluation of a compacted bentonite / sand mixture as a landfill liner material (Abstract)] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081204075553/http://www2.widener.edu/~sxw0004/abstract34.html |archive-date=4 December 2008 |website=Department of Geological Engineering, [[Middle East Technical University]], [[Ankara]], [[Turkey]]}}
* {{cite book |last1=Leeder |first1=M. R. |title=Sedimentology and sedimentary basins : from turbulence to tectonics |date=2011 |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |location=Chichester, West Sussex, UK |isbn=978-1-40517783-2 |edition=2nd}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Moreno-Maroto |first1=José Manuel |last2=Alonso-Azcárate |first2=Jacinto |title=What is clay? A new definition of "clay" based on plasticity and its impact on the most widespread soil classification systems |journal=Applied Clay Science |date=September 2018 |volume=161 |pages=57–63 |doi=10.1016/j.clay.2018.04.011|bibcode=2018ApCS..161...57M |s2cid=102760108 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Murray |first1=H. |year=2002 |title=Industrial clays case study |journal=Mining, Minerals and Sustainable Development |volume=64 |pages=1–9 |url=http://whitemudresources.com/public/Hayn%20Murray%20Clays%20Case%20Study.pdf |access-date=8 December 2020 |archive-date=20 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210420140406/http://whitemudresources.com/public/Hayn%20Murray%20Clays%20Case%20Study.pdf |url-status=dead }}
* {{cite web | url=http://geoscape.nrcan.gc.ca/ottawa/landslides_e.php | title=Landslides | publisher=[[Natural Resources Canada]] | work=Geoscape Ottawa-Gatineau | date=7 March 2005 | access-date=2016-07-21 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051024191116/http://geoscape.nrcan.gc.ca/ottawa/landslides_e.php | archive-date=24 October 2005 | url-status=dead |ref={{harvid|Natural Resources Canada|2005}}}}
* {{cite book |last1=Nesse |first1=William D. |title=Introduction to mineralogy |date=2000 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York |isbn=9780195106916}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Olive |first1=W.W. |last2=Chleborad |first2=A.F. |last3=Frahme |first3=C.W. |last4=Shlocker |first4=Julius |last5=Schneider |first5=R.R. |last6=Schuster |first6=R.L. |year=1989 |url=https://ngmdb.usgs.gov/Prodesc/proddesc_10014.htm |access-date=8 December 2020 |title=Swelling Clays Map of the Conterminous United States |journal=U.S. Geological Survey Miscellaneous Investigations Series Map |volume=I-1940|page=5 |doi=10.3133/i1940 |bibcode=1989usgs.rept....5O |url-access=subscription }}
* {{cite web | url=http://www.swedgeo.se/publikationer/Rapporter/pdf/SGI-R65.pdf | title=Quick clay in Sweden | publisher=Swedish Geotechnical Institute | work=Report No. 65 | date=2004 | access-date=20 April 2005 | last1=Rankka | first1=Karin | last2=Andersson-Sköld | first2=Yvonne | last3=Hultén | first3=Carina | last4=Larsson | first4=Rolf | last5=Leroux | first5=Virginie | last6=Dahlin | first6=Torleif | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050404064431/http://www.swedgeo.se/publikationer/Rapporter/pdf/SGI-R65.pdf | archive-date=4 April 2005 | url-status=dead}}
* {{cite book |last1=Scarre |first1=C. |year=2005 |title=The Human Past |publisher=Thames and Hudson |location=London |isbn=0500290636}}
* {{cite web|title=What is clay|url=http://sciencelearn.org.nz/Contexts/Ceramics/Science-Ideas-and-Concepts/What-is-clay|website=Science Learning Hub|publisher=[[University of Waikato]]|access-date=10 January 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160103182308/http://sciencelearn.org.nz/Contexts/Ceramics/Science-Ideas-and-Concepts/What-is-clay|archive-date=3 January 2016 |ref={{harvid|Science Learning Hub|2010}} }}
* {{cite journal |last1=White |first1=W.A. |year=1949 |title=Atterberg plastic limits of clay minerals |journal=American Mineralogist |volume=34 |issue=7–8 |pages=508–512 |url=http://www.minsocam.org/ammin/AM34/AM34_508.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.minsocam.org/ammin/AM34/AM34_508.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |access-date=7 December 2020}}

== External links ==
{{Wiktionary}}
{{Commons category|Clay}}
{{EB1911 poster|Clay}}
{{Wikiquote}}
* [http://www.minersoc.org/pages/groups/cmg/cmg.html The Clay Minerals Group of the Mineralogical Society] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170926234633/http://www.minersoc.org/pages/groups/cmg/cmg.html |date=26 September 2017 }}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090217000619/http://stoke.gov.uk/ccm/museums/museum/2006/gladstone-pottery-museum/information-sheets/clays-used-in-the-pottery-industry.en Information about clays used in the UK pottery industry]
* [http://www.clays.org/ The Clay Minerals Society]
* [http://digitalfire.com/4sight/education/organic_matter_in_clays_detailed_overview_325.html Organic Matter in Clays]

{{soil type}}
{{Geotechnical engineering|state=collapsed}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Clay| ]]
[[Category:Types of soil]]
[[Category:Sculpture materials]]
[[Category:Natural materials]]
[[Category:Sedimentology]]
[[Category:Sediments]]
[[Category:Phyllosilicates]]
[[Category:Soil-based building materials]]

Robert Aske (merchant)

2025-06-26T09:21:22Z

131.111.5.201: Correcting punctuation error

{{Short description|Merchant & haberdasher (1619–1689)}}
{{Other people|Robert Aske}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2022}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Robert Aske
| image = Robertaske.jpg
| caption = '''Alderman Robert Aske'''
| birth_name = Robert Aske
| birth_date = {{birth date|1619|2|24|df=y}}
| birth_place =
| death_date = {{death date and age|1689|1|27|1619|2|24|df=y}}
| death_place = [[London]], England
| death_cause =
| other_names =
| known_for =
| education =
| employer =
| occupation = Silk merchant
| title = [[Livery company#Governance|Master Haberdasher]]
| height =
| term =
| predecessor =
| successor =
| party =
| boards =
| spouse =
| partner =
| children =
| parents =
| relatives = [[Aske baronets]]
| signature =
| website =
| footnotes =
| nationality =
}}
'''Robert Aske''' (24 February 1619 – 27 January 1689) was a 17th-century English [[philanthropist]], [[merchant]] and [[haberdasher]], who served as an [[Alderman]] of [[City of London|London]].

Aske is remembered primarily for the charitable foundation he endowed nowadays operating two
[[Ranking|leading]] [[Private school|schools]] at [[Elstree]], [[Haberdashers' Boys' School]] and [[Haberdashers' School for Girls]] and the non-fee paying Haberdashers' Aske's Hatcham school in New Cross, as well as others in the [[South London|London]] area.

==Life==
Originally from [[Scarborough, North Yorkshire|Scarborough]] in [[Yorkshire]], his father Robert Aske was an affluent [[draper]] who [[apprentice]]d him to John Trott, a [[City of London|London]] [[haberdasher]] (dealer in [[raw silk]]) and [[British East India Company|East India Company]] [[merchant]]. Admitted to the [[freedom]] of the [[Haberdashers' Company]] in 1643, Aske was elected an [[Alderman]] of the [[City of London Corporation|City of London]] in 1666, becoming [[Livery company#Governance|Master Haberdasher]] in 1685.<ref>[https://www.british-history.ac.uk/no-series/london-aldermen/hen3-1912/pp75-119 www.british-history.ac.uk]</ref>

===Royal African Company===
From 1671 Aske held £500 of original stock in the [[History of slavery#British and French Caribbean|slave-trading]] [[Royal African Company]],<ref>{{cite book |chapter=Abrahall - Ayray |title=The Rulers of London 1660-1689 A Biographical Record of the Aldermen and Common Councilment of the City of London |first=J. R. |last=Woodhead |pages=14–21 |location=London |date=1966 |via=British History Online|url=https://www.british-history.ac.uk/no-series/london-rulers/1660-89/pp14-21#h3-0039
|access-date=2021-02-01}}</ref> where he was one of 198 stockholders, entitling him to a single vote.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Scott |first1=W. R. |date=1903 |title=The Constitution And Finance Of The Royal African Company Of England From Its Foundation Till I720 |url=https://memory.loc.gov/service/gdc/scd0001/2013/20130530001co/20130530001co.pdf |journal=American Historical Review |volume=VIII |issue=2 |pages=245 |doi= |access-date=13 March 2021}}</ref> Elected [[Superior (hierarchy)|Master]] of the Haberdashers' Company, he was removed from that position by [[James II of England|James II]] in 1687 when the [[Catholic]] [[King]] lost faith in Aske, a [[Protestant]].

Aske made an investment of £500 (c. £{{inflation|UK|0.5|1672|r=0}}K as of {{inflation-year|UK}}{{Inflation/fn|UK}}) in the Royal African Company (RAC) in 1672. This was made under the provisions of the original RAC charter of 1672 which stipulated that individual investors were entitled to one vote for each £100 share. To be elected an Assistant, or director, of the RAC, a shareholder had to hold at least £400 of shares, a regulation requiring those who wished to be entitled to vote as a shareholder in the RAC to show some financial commitment.

Aske may have voted and participated in discussion about policy decisions, but there is no evidence that he was appointed an Assistant, or director, of the company. At the time of his death, Aske's estate included £650 (c. £{{inflation|UK|0.65|1689|r=0}}K as of {{inflation-year|UK}}{{Inflation/fn|UK}}) of RAC stock. This represents 1.3% of the total value of his estate.<ref name="Haberdashers">{{Cite web |url=https://haberdashers.co.uk/robert-aske|title = Robert Aske |website=The Haberdashers' Company}}</ref> During the 21st century many long-established European organizations have reviewed their historical legacy with respect to the transatlantic [[Atlantic slave trade|slave trade]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Transatlantic Slave Trade |url=https://heritagecollections.parliament.uk/stories/the-transatlantic-slave-trade/ |website=Heritage Collections at United Kingdom Parliament}}</ref> as part of a global campaign, including the governing body of the [[Haberdashers' Boys' School|Haberdashers' Boys']] and [[Haberdashers' Girls' School|Haberdashers' Girls']] schools.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Reaidi |first=Joseph |date=2021-09-06 |title=New motto for private schools that dropped slave trader links revealed |url=https://www.watfordobserver.co.uk/news/19559363.new-motto-haberdashers-askes-schools-revealed/ |access-date=2024-06-07 |website=Watford Observer |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite news |date=2021-09-03 |title=Haberdashers' Aske schools drop slave trade investor's name |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-beds-bucks-herts-58436989 |access-date=2024-06-07 |work=[[BBC News]] |language=en-GB}}</ref> This review of the perceived connections with Aske and the slave-trade resulted in his name being dropped from the two Haberdashers' Schools at Elstree in 2021 and the Haberdasher College in South London, although it has been retained by the governing body.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite news|title=Haberdashers' Aske's schools change name over link to slave trade|url=https://www.thetimes.com/article/haberdashers-askes-schools-change-name-over-link-to-slave-trade-3b558w6qg|last=Woolcock|first=Nicola|date=2021-09-04|access-date=2021-09-09|work=[[The Times]] |url-access=subscription}}</ref>

===Charity{{anchor|Robert Ask's Charity Act 1690|Haberdashers' Aske's Charity Act 2016}}===
{{Infobox UK legislation
| short_title = Robert Ask's Charity Act 1690
| type = Act
| parliament = Parliament of England
| long_title = An Act for settling a charity given by Robert Aske Esq. to the Company of Haberdashers of London.
| year = 1690
| citation = [[2 Will. & Mar. Sess. 2]]. c. ''18'' {{small|Pr.}}
| introduced_commons =
| introduced_lords =
| territorial_extent =
| royal_assent = 20 December 1690
| commencement =
| expiry_date =
| repeal_date =
| amends =
| replaces =
| amendments = Haberdashers' Aske's Charity Act 2016
| repealing_legislation =
| related_legislation =
| status = amended
| legislation_history =
| theyworkforyou =
| millbankhansard =
| original_text =
| revised_text =
| use_new_UK-LEG =
| UK-LEG_title =
| collapsed = yes
}}
{{Infobox UK legislation
| short_title = Haberdashers' Aske's Charity Act 2016
| type = Act
| parliament = Parliament of the United Kingdom
| long_title = An Act to make provision regarding the identity of the corporators of the Aske Corporation and the status of the Corporation; to provide for property held on trust by the Corporation to be subject to the same legal controls as apply generally to charity property; to make formal provision for internal procedures; and for related purposes.
| year = 2016
| citation = [[List of acts of the Parliament of the United Kingdom from 2016|2016]] c. ii
| introduced_commons =
| introduced_lords =
| territorial_extent =
| royal_assent = 15 September 2016
| commencement =
| expiry_date =
| repeal_date =
| amends = Robert Ask's Charity Act 1690
| replaces =
| amendments =
| repealing_legislation =
| related_legislation =
| status = current
| legislation_history =
| theyworkforyou =
| millbankhansard =
| original_text = https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukla/2016/2/contents/enacted
| revised_text =
| use_new_UK-LEG =
| UK-LEG_title =
| collapsed = yes
}}
Despite marrying twice, Aske had no children and bequeathed the bulk of his sizeable estate for charitable purposes, [[pound sterling|£]]32,000
(equivalent to £{{inflation|UK|0.032|1689|r=1}}m as of {{inflation-year|UK}}{{Inflation/fn|UK}}), to the [[livery company]] which launched his career. Instructing £20,000 to be used to buy land within one [[mile]] of [[London|the City]] upon which was to be built a "hospital" ([[almshouses]]) for 20 poor members of the [[Worshipful Company of Haberdashers]]<ref>[https://collections.vam.ac.uk/item/O767592/askes-hospital-print-unknown/ www.vam.ac.uk]</ref> and a school for 20 sons of poor freemen of the Company, the remaining £12,000 established the Haberdashers' Aske's Foundation, of which the Haberdashers' Company remains a [[trustee]], a charity [[Incorporation (business)|incorporated]] by a [[Local and personal acts of Parliament (United Kingdom)|private act of Parliament]] ([[2 Will. & Mar. Sess. 2]]. c. ''18'' {{small|Pr.}}) in 1690.<ref>[https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/privbill/201516/haberdashers/002/15002--a.htm www.parliament.uk]</ref>

==Legacy==
{{further|Haberdashers' Boys' School|Haberdashers' Girls' School|Haberdashers' Hatcham College}}
[[Almshouse]]s and a school, [[Haberdashers' Boys' School|Haberdashers' Aske's Boys' School]], were built on 21 [[acre]]s in [[Hoxton]] by 1692 to the design of [[Robert Hooke]]. A further 1,500 acres (6 km²) in [[Kent]] were acquired to provide an annual income of over £700. The buildings were demolished in 1824 and reconstructed in 1825 to a design by the architect, David Riddell Roper.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=98243 |title=www.british-history.ac.uk |publisher=www.british-history.ac.uk |date=2003-06-22 |access-date=2013-07-21}}</ref> The almshouses were closed to enable the school to expand in 1874 to take 300 boys and 300 girls, and a second and third school were opened at [[Hatcham]], [[Surrey]], in 1875. Haberdashers' Aske's School, [[Hoxton]] was relocated (to [[Hampstead]] for the boys and [[Acton, London|Acton]] for the girls) in 1898. Whilst the Haberdashers' Company retained the [[St John the Baptist, Hoxton|parish]] [[advowson]], the boys' school moved to [[Elstree]], opening there in 1961, and both schools were reunited in 1974 when the girls' school opened on an adjoining site. The Hatcham schools are now merged as a single [[state school]], an [[Academy (England)|academy]] known as [[Haberdashers' Hatcham College]].

==See also==
* [[Haberdashers' Company]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
*[http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.asp?compid=22132 Haberdashers' Schools history]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100203165638/http://www.oldhabs.com/WebArchive/RobertAske.html www.oldhabs.com]
*[http://www.haberdashers.co.uk/ www.haberdashers.co.uk]

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Aske, Robert}}
[[Category:1619 births]]
[[Category:1689 deaths]]
[[Category:Businesspeople from London]]
[[Category:People from Yorkshire]]
[[Category:Haberdashers]]
[[Category:17th-century English merchants]]
[[Category:Councilmen and Aldermen of the City of London]]
[[Category:Cloth merchants]]
[[Category:Philanthropists from London]]
[[Category:Founders of English schools and colleges]]
[[Category:Worshipful Company of Haberdashers]]
[[Category:17th-century philanthropists]]
[[Category:Haberdashers' Schools]]

Brisbane River

2025-06-24T15:14:18Z

131.111.5.201: Deleted sentence that is unsourced and incorrect.

{{Short description|River in Queensland, Australia}}
{{Redirect|Maiwar|the state electoral district|Electoral district of Maiwar}}
{{Use Australian English|date=June 2020}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2019}}
{{Infobox river
| name = Brisbane River
| native_name = {{native name|und|Maiwar|paren=omit|italics=off}}<ref>{{cite web |last1=Moore |first1=Tony |title=Morphing Maiwar: Brisbane River's new look emerges |url=https://www.brisbanetimes.com.au/national/queensland/morphing-maiwar-brisbane-river-s-new-look-emerges-20220608-p5aryt.html |website=[[Brisbane Times]] |publisher=[[Nine Entertainment]] |access-date=3 January 2023 |date=9 June 2022 |archive-date=3 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230103101937/https://www.brisbanetimes.com.au/national/queensland/morphing-maiwar-brisbane-river-s-new-look-emerges-20220608-p5aryt.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
| name_other = Maiwar
| name_etymology = [[Thomas Brisbane]]
| image = Skylines of Brisbane in winter misty morning seen from Kangaroo Point, Queensland 04.jpg
| image_size = 300
| image_caption = Brisbane River from [[Kangaroo Point, Queensland|Kangaroo Point]]
| map =
| map_size =
| map_caption =
| pushpin_map = Australia Queensland
| pushpin_map_size =
| pushpin_map_caption= Location of [[river mouth]] in Queensland

| subdivision_type1 = Country
| subdivision_name1 = [[Australia]]
| subdivision_type2 = State
| subdivision_name2 = [[Queensland]]
| subdivision_type3 = Region
| subdivision_name3 = [[South-East Queensland]]
| subdivision_type4 =
| subdivision_name4 =
| subdivision_type5 = City
| subdivision_name5 = [[Brisbane]]

| length = {{convert|344|km|mi|abbr=on}}
| width_min =
| width_avg =
| width_max =
| depth_min =
| depth_avg =
| depth_max =
| discharge1_location= Near mouth
| discharge1_min =
| discharge1_avg = {{cvt|51.2|m3/s|GL/year|abbr=on}}<ref name="Brisbane">{{cite web|url=https://www.riversnetwork.org/MAPS/AUSTRALIA/AUSTRALIA%20SE%20COAST_BRISBANE/index.html|title=Brisbane|access-date=5 December 2023|archive-date=17 August 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220817233916/https://www.riversnetwork.org/MAPS/AUSTRALIA/AUSTRALIA%20SE%20COAST_BRISBANE/index.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
| discharge1_max =

| source1 = [[Mount Stanley, Queensland|Mount Stanley]]
| source1_location = east of [[Nanango]]
| source1_coordinates= {{coord|26|39|S|152|22|E|display=inline}}
| source1_elevation = {{convert|213|m|abbr=on}}
| mouth = [[Moreton Bay]]
| mouth_location = east of Brisbane
| mouth_coordinates = {{coord|27|24|S|153|9|E|display=inline,title}}
| mouth_elevation = {{convert|0|m|abbr=on}}
| progression =
| river_system = Brisbane River
| basin_size =
{{cvt|13,652.3|km2|mi2|abbr=on}}<ref name="Brisbane"/>
| tributaries_left = [[Stanley River (Queensland)|Stanley River]], [[Moggill Creek]], [[Breakfast Creek]]
| tributaries_right = [[Lockyer Creek]], [[Bremer River (Queensland)|Bremer River]], [[Oxley Creek]], [[Norman Creek (Queensland)|Norman Creek]], [[Bulimba Creek]]
| custom_label =
| custom_data =
| extra =
}}

The '''Brisbane River''' ([[Turrbal language|Turrbal]]: {{Lang|xby|Maiwar}}) is the longest river in [[South East Queensland]], Australia. It flows through the city of [[Brisbane]], before emptying into [[Moreton Bay]] on the [[Coral Sea]]. [[John Oxley]], the first European to explore the river, named it after the [[Governors of New South Wales|Governor of New South Wales]], Sir [[Thomas Brisbane]] in 1823. The [[Moreton Bay Penal Colony|penal colony of Moreton Bay]] later adopted the same name, eventually becoming the present city of Brisbane. The river is a [[tide|tidal]] [[estuary]] and the water is [[brackish water|brackish]] from its mouth through the majority of the Brisbane metropolitan area westward to the [[Mount Crosby Weir]]. The river is wide and [[navigability|navigable]] throughout the Brisbane metropolitan area. It is affectionately known by locals as the "Brown Snake", on account of its silty waters and long, winding course.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Carvalho |first=Karina |date=22 November 2017 |title=Why is the Brisbane River brown and not blue? |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2017-11-22/curious-brisbane-why-is-the-brisbane-river-brown/9160864 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20250607172218/https://www.abc.net.au/news/2017-11-22/curious-brisbane-why-is-the-brisbane-river-brown/9160864 |archive-date=7 June 2025 |access-date=8 June 2025 |work=ABC News}}</ref>

The river travels {{convert|344|km|abbr=on}} from Mount Stanley. The river is dammed by the [[Wivenhoe Dam]], forming [[Lake Wivenhoe]], the main water supply for Brisbane. The waterway is a habitat for the rare [[Queensland lungfish]], [[Brisbane River cod]] (extinct), and [[bull shark]]s.

Early travellers along the waterway admired the natural beauty, abundant fish and rich vegetation along its banks. From 1862 the Brisbane River has been dredged for navigation purposes. The river served as an important carriageway between Brisbane and [[Ipswich, Queensland|Ipswich]] before a railway linking the towns was built in 1875. By the late 1920s, water quality in the river had significantly deteriorated.

Multiple major floods occurred in 1893. In 1974, the most damaging flood on record occurred, causing the 66,000-tonne vessel ''Robert Miller'' (largest ship ever built on the river) to break free from its mooring. Other major floods occurred in [[2010–2011 Queensland floods|January 2011]] and [[2022 eastern Australia floods|February 2022]].

Extensive port facilities have been constructed on the Fisherman Islands, now known as the [[Port of Brisbane]], located at the mouth of the river on [[Moreton Bay]]. There are 16 major bridges that cross the river. The [[Clem Jones Tunnel]], opened in 2010, is the river's first underground crossing for road transport. The [[CityCat]] and KittyCat ferry services deliver passengers along the inner-city reaches of the river.

==Name==
In 1823 [[John Oxley]] named the river after the [[Governor of New South Wales|Governor]] [[Thomas Brisbane]] while surveying the area to locate a new penal settlement.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Brisbane Australia.com |title=Brisbane River History |url=https://www.brisbane-australia.com/brisbane-river-history.html |website=Brisbane Australia.com |access-date=3 January 2023 |archive-date=3 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230103120117/https://www.brisbane-australia.com/brisbane-river-history.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite QPN|4560|Brisbane River|river in the City of Brisbane|access-date=14 July 2022}}</ref> The name is of Scottish origin, dating from at least 1643, from their family lands at Rothiebrisbane, [[Aberdeenshire]].{{Citation needed|date=July 2022}} This is the name now used by the Queensland Government.<ref>{{Cite QPN|4560|Brisbane River|access-date=3 January 2023}}</ref>

Maiwar is the name of the river in the [[Turrbal language]] (the language of an Aboriginal group native to the Brisbane area).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lauer |first1=Peter K |title=Aboriginal Alien Ethnic |date=1987 |publisher=Brisbane History Group |isbn=0959293043 |page=9 |url=https://espace.library.uq.edu.au/data/UQ_297113/Papers_Brisbane_History_Group_5.pdf?dsi_version=10ada971086337ed6d813ab060e2873b&Expires=1672745995&Key-Pair-Id=APKAJKNBJ4MJBJNC6NLQ&Signature=W3PiaEHXo9qkDM0ykd5Hf518aDylJOyxIZJeilZp3IvLWsFws6EHIg2MbWVvixsyJKA7V4WXgbMozUmuvr2capVFzu7Yc6OYbvSvtEGerAvrbIPNRiP2UK1RstdGjewAwPHO6nNsdhJs8zEHUsQAhbJgGJRXQVxqxoUwawZ5SMqq2GlIQoUxBVxCf~YCauap2jUnvsEeLAcr76RUt1EXNYnqm6EKFz7bi4QNp4vI1gEYsnyDSysFk0LiDZHTUwk0fz0r5QcHfnQagEy0CIrUlU68LEDOO8hqVIQkShKbYad469596zvocp2IgDkGXPVr8hj8WTxgWV57VmoSJT4tMw__ |access-date=3 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170820132747/https://espace.library.uq.edu.au/data/UQ_297113/Papers_Brisbane_History_Group_5.pdf?Expires=1503322057&Signature=PMZZksM0WCAucthDuLhDi5JwrLe4MAbRPt9Ulw7eLGP5SyiJesBYAd84r~gwulrNGDUWG8dSR7u77x3PdgMZMyz3j-lGhbJQ8PvJqLPuJSkhw7LirTK5p0KTbaruLL4fCssRGuEPpDnuFEEdzU3xT7SvcR~fTcVrmw8XL3ymZzWslej-IExCnneltmabOIaNSUT5ItGVc6~uDYBO24V~vAVDVgHEeBn2pzAfvqvrzhOMEd1JaoQhiXH117dh6d7X1Wo-8YW-FvXrHKgcbJmBXb3lZcBVRi3SNRxYihnUH~fbU9kWzXklmx3LW~Nab8FTkEpoFo-~vrjk8w~sop-dEQ__&Key-Pair-Id=APKAJKNBJ4MJBJNC6NLQ |url-status=live |archive-date=20 August 2017 |chapter=1}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Moore |first1=Tony |title=Morphing Maiwar: Brisbane River's new look emerges |url=https://www.brisbanetimes.com.au/national/queensland/morphing-maiwar-brisbane-river-s-new-look-emerges-20220608-p5aryt.html |website=[[Brisbane Times]] |publisher=[[Nine Entertainment]] |access-date=3 January 2023 |date=9 June 2022 |archive-date=3 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230103101937/https://www.brisbanetimes.com.au/national/queensland/morphing-maiwar-brisbane-river-s-new-look-emerges-20220608-p5aryt.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The name is also used for the inner-western state electorate of [[Electoral district of Maiwar|Maiwar]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Green |first1=Antony |title=Maiwar - QLD Election 2020 |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/elections/qld/2020/guide/maiw |website=ABC |publisher=[[Australian Broadcasting Corporation]] |access-date=3 January 2023 |archive-date=3 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230103120117/https://www.abc.net.au/news/elections/qld/2020/guide/maiw |url-status=live }}</ref>

According to [[Archibald Meston]] and [[Thomas Petrie|Tom Petrie]] in 1901, the Aboriginal people of the Brisbane area did not have a single name for the river, but rather they named individual reaches and bends.<ref>{{cite news |date=17 August 1901 |title=NATIVE NAME OF THE BRISBANE RIVER |volume=LXI |page=328 |newspaper=[[The Queenslander]] |issue=1343 |location=Queensland, Australia |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article21265538 |via=National Library of Australia |accessdate=14 July 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=31 August 1901 |title=ETHNOLOGY |volume=LXI |page=436 (Unknown) |newspaper=[[The Queenslander]] |issue=1345 |location=Queensland, Australia |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article21265850 |via=National Library of Australia |accessdate=14 July 2022}}</ref>

==Course==
[[Image:Brisbane-River-Bridges-Map-New.jpg|thumb|right|Course of the lower reaches of the Brisbane River from Ipswich to Moreton Bay. '''Legend''' 
{{legend|#45a5ff|[[w:Brisbane River|Brisbane River]] and [[w:Moreton Bay|Moreton Bay]]}}
{{legend|#b20000|[[w:Bridge|Road bridges]]}}
{{legend|#000000|[[w:Bridge|Rail bridges]]}}
{{legend|#4cbc00|[[w:Bridge|Pedestrian only bridges]]}}
{{legend|#932ec2|[[w:Bridge|Bus and pedestrian only bridges]]}}]]

The Brisbane River East and West branches traditionally have their headwaters in the ranges east of [[Kingaroy, Queensland|Kingaroy]].<ref>{{cite map |publisher=Royal Automobile Club of Queensland |title=Brisbane Sunshine Coast |edition=Fourteenth |date=July 2002 }}</ref> The two branches merge into a single watercourse south of Mount Stanley. Using an alternative modern definition, the [[River source|source]] is located at the top of Fig Tree Gully in the [[Bunya Mountains]], which are the headwaters of the river's longest tributary Cooyar Creek. Water from the highest point in the catchment has fallen on the Bunya Mountains, 992m above sea level.

The junction of Cooyar Creek and Brisbane River is south of [[Avoca Vale]], and the river then makes its way south past townships including [[Linville, Queensland|Linville]], [[Moore, Queensland|Moore]] and [[Toogoolawah, Queensland|Toogoolawah]] before being joined by the [[Stanley River (Queensland)|Stanley River]], just south of [[Lake Somerset|Somerset Dam]].

The river runs from there into [[Wivenhoe Dam|Lake Wivenhoe]], created by the Wivenhoe Dam. Beyond the dam, the river meanders eastward, meeting the [[Bremer River (Queensland)|Bremer River]] near [[Ipswich, Queensland|Ipswich]], then making its way through Brisbane's western suburbs, including [[Jindalee, Queensland|Jindalee]], [[Indooroopilly, Queensland|Indooroopilly]] and [[Toowong, Queensland|Toowong]].

The Brisbane River then flows past wharves including [[Pinkenba Wharf]] and [[Portside Wharf]], past [[Bulwer Island]] and [[Myrtletown, Queensland#Luggage Point|Luggage Point]] through the [[Port of Brisbane]] and into southern [[Bramble Bay]] an embayment of [[Moreton Bay]].

===Kangaroo Point Cliffs===
On the southern side of the river, opposite [[Gardens Point, Brisbane|Gardens Point]], are the [[Kangaroo Point Cliffs]]; made from [[Triassic]] aged volcanic rock of [[rhyolite]] composition called [[Brisbane tuff]]. The Kangaroo Point Cliffs were created by a quarrying operation that, according to Allan Cunninghams' Field Book, was underway prior to 1829 when he observed a ''"stone wharf presumably used for landing the blocks of stone ferried across the river for the construction of buildings in the settlement".'' This was in the vicinity of [[Edward Street, Brisbane|Edward Street]] ferry terminal. Quarrying this volcanic rock formed part of the hard labour undertaken by the convicts of the [[Moreton Bay Penal Settlement]], which not only provided the convicts with the punishment of hard labour but also provided the settlement with a useful building material. Many of the early buildings including the [[Commissariat Store, Brisbane]] were built by convicts using tuff from this quarry. After the penal settlement was closed, the [[Andrew Petrie|Petrie]] family leased the cliffs and quarried the tuff for use in their construction projects, but ultimately quarrying this material became uneconomic without the free labour of the convicts.

The [[volcanic rock]] [[Ignimbrite]] which formed the cliffs was deposited in the [[Triassic]] period about 220 million years ago.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.vnc.qld.edu.au/enviro/college/env-ch1b.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110409005903/http://www.vnc.qld.edu.au/enviro/college/env-ch1b.htm |url-status=dead |title=Geology – South East Brisbane|archive-date=9 April 2011}}</ref> They currently form the banks of the Brisbane River.

===Reaches===
A number of the [[Reach (geography)|reach]]es of the Brisbane River are named, including the following listed below (from upstream to downstream), together with their location relative to tributaries of the river and [[Bridges over the Brisbane River|river crossings]]:
{| class="wikitable"
! Reach name !! Suburb(s) !! Coordinates !! Image !! Notes
|-
|Dalys Reach
|
* [[Karalee, Queensland|Karalee]]
* [[Anstead, Queensland|Anstead]]
|{{Coord|-27.554|152.849|type:river_region:AU-QLD|name=11 December 2017}}
|
|<ref>{{Cite QPN|48211|Dalys Reach|reach in the City of Brisbane|access-date=11 December 2017}}</ref>
|-
| colspan=5 style="text-align:center;background:#ADD8E6;" |[[Bremer River (Queensland)|Bremer River]]
|-
|Moggill Reach
|
* [[Riverview, Queensland|Riverview]]
* [[Moggill, Queensland|Moggill]]
|{{Coord|-27.590|152.856|type:river_region:AU-QLD|name=Moggill Reach}}
|[[File:Moggill Ferry Not in Operation Following 2022 Flood.jpg|thumb|Moggill Ferry Reserve was completely under water after the 2022 Flood]]
|<ref>{{Cite QPN|48208|Moggill Reach|reach in City of Ipswich|access-date=11 December 2017}}</ref>
|-
| colspan="5" style="text-align:center;background:#ADD8E6;" |Six Mile Creek
|-
|Redbank Reach
|
* Moggill
* [[Redbank, Queensland|Redbank]]
|{{Coord|-27.590|152.865|type:river_region:AU-QLD|name=Redbank Reach}}
|[[File:Redbank Riverbank.jpg|thumb|Muddy Brisbane river covered with debris after days of raining]]
|<ref>{{Cite QPN|48207|Redbank Reach|reach in the City of Brisbane|access-date=11 December 2017}}</ref>
|-
| colspan=5 style="text-align:center;background:#ADD8E6;" |Goodna Creek
|-
|Goodna Reach
|
* [[Goodna, Queensland|Goodna]]
* Moggill
|{{Coord|-27.594|152.891|type:river_region:AU-QLD|name=Goodna Reach}}
|[[File:Brisbane River & Woogaroo Creek.jpg|thumb|Goodna Boat Ramp in May 2023]]
|<ref>{{Cite QPN|48204|Goodna Reach|reach in City of Ipswich|access-date=11 December 2017}}</ref>
|-
| colspan="5" style="text-align:center;background:#ADD8E6;" |Woogaroo Creek
|-
|Cockatoo Reach
|
* Moggill
* [[Wacol, Queensland|Wacol]]
|{{Coord|-27.588|152.898|type:river_region:AU-QLD|name=Cockatoo Reach}}
|[[File:Cockatoo Island near Wacol.jpg|thumb|Cockatoo Island of Brisbane River]]
|<ref>{{Cite QPN|48203|Cockatoo Reach|reach in the City of Brisbane|access-date=11 December 2017}}</ref>
|-
| colspan=5 style="text-align:center;background:#ADD8E6;" | Wolston Creek
|-
| Goggs Reach || {{bulleted list|{{QLDcity|Riverhills}}|{{QLDcity|Bellbowrie}}}} || {{coord|-27.565|152.898|type:river_region:AU-QLD|name=Goggs Reach}} || [[File:Riverbank of Bellbowrie.jpg|alt=Newcomb Park, Riverhills QLD|thumb|Newcomb Park, Riverhills QLD]]|| <ref>{{cite QPN|48202|Goggs Reach|reach in the City of Brisbane|access-date=10 December 2017}}</ref>
|-
| Popes Reach || {{bulleted list|{{QLDcity|Riverhills}}|{{QLDcity|Bellbowrie}}}} || {{coord|-27.558|152.901|type:river_region:AU-QLD|name=Popes Reach}} || || <ref>{{cite QPN|48201|Popes Reach|reach in the City of Brisbane|access-date=10 December 2017}}</ref>
|-
| colspan=5 style="text-align:center;background:#ADD8E6;" | Pullen Pullen Creek
|-
| Pullen Reach || {{bulleted list|{{QLDcity|Westlake}}|{{QLDcity|Pinjarra Hills}}|{{QLDcity|Bellbowrie}}}} || {{coord|-27.550|152.904|type:river_region:AU-QLD|name=Pullen Reach}} || [[File:Riverview Farm Park.jpg|thumb|Riverview Farm Park on 11 March 2022]]|| <ref>{{cite QPN|48200|Pullen Reach|reach in the City of Brisbane|access-date=10 December 2017}}</ref>
|-
| Two Mile Reach || {{bulleted list|{{QLDcity|Westlake}}|{{QLDcity|Pinjarra Hills}}}} || {{coord|-27.543|152.915|type:river_region:AU-QLD|name=Two Mile Reach}} || || <ref>{{cite QPN|48199|Two Mile Reach|reach in the City of Brisbane|access-date=10 December 2017}}</ref>
|-
| colspan=5 style="text-align:center;background:#ADD8E6;" | Mount Ommaney Creek
|-
| Mount Ommaney Reach || {{bulleted list|{{QLDcity|Jindalee}}|{{QLDcity|Mount Ommaney}}|{{QLDcity|Pinjarra Hills}}}} || {{coord|-27.535|152.927|type:river_region:AU-QLD|name=Mount Ommaney Reach}} || || <ref>{{cite QPN|48198|Mount Ommaney Reach|reach in the City of Brisbane|access-date=11 December 2017}}</ref>
|-
| colspan=5 style="text-align:center;background:#ADD8E6;" | [[Moggill Creek]]
|-
| colspan=5 style="text-align:center;background:#D3D3D3;" | [[Centenary Bridge]]
|-
| Mermaid Reach || {{bulleted list|{{QLDcity|Fig Tree Pocket}}|{{QLDcity|Kenmore}}|{{QLDcity|Jindalee}}|{{QLDcity|Indooroopilly}}}} || {{coord|-27.527|152.948|type:river_region:AU-QLD|name=Mermaid Reach}} || [[File:StateLibQld 1 166263 Quarry works on the Brisbane River at Darra, Brisbane, 1915.jpg|100px]] || <ref>{{cite QPN|21660|Mermaid Reach|reach in the City of Brisbane|access-date=22 January 2015}}</ref>
|-
|Sherwood Reach
|
* Fig Tree Pocket
* [[Sherwood, Queensland|Sherwood]]
|{{Coord|-27.528|152.971|type:river_region:AU-QLD|name=Sherwood Reach}}
|
|<ref>{{Cite QPN|48206|Sherwood Reach|reach in the City of Brisbane|access-date=11 December 2017}}</ref>
|-
| Chelmer Reach || {{bulleted list|{{QLDcity|Chelmer}}|Fig Tree Pocket|{{QLDcity|Indooroopilly}}}} || {{coord|-27.5108| 152.9675|type:river_region:AU-QLD|name=Chelmer Reach}} || [[File:Brisbane River at Chelmer, Queensland. 02.JPG|100px]] || <ref>{{cite QPN|6977|Chelmer Reach|reach in the City of Brisbane|access-date=22 January 2015}}</ref>
|-
| colspan=5 style="text-align:center;background:#D3D3D3;" | [[Walter Taylor Bridge]]
|-
| colspan=5 style="text-align:center;background:#D3D3D3;" | [[Indooroopilly Railway Bridge]]
|-
| colspan=5 style="text-align:center;background:#D3D3D3;" | [[Albert Bridge, Brisbane|Albert Bridge]]
|-
| colspan=5 style="text-align:center;background:#D3D3D3;" | [[Jack Pesch Bridge]]
|-
| Indooroopilly Reach || {{bulleted list|Indooroopilly|Chelmer}} || {{coord|-27.516|152.987|type:river_region:AU-QLD|name=Indooroopilly Reach}} || [[File:StateLibQld 1 44115 Brisbane River punt crossing from Chelmer to Indooroopilly in 1906.jpg|100px]]|| <ref>{{cite QPN|16669|Indooroopilly Reach|reach in the City of Brisbane|access-date=22 January 2015}}</ref>
|-
| Canoe Reach || {{bulleted list|Indooroopilly|{{QLDcity|Yeronga}}}} || {{coord|-27.521|153.009|type:river_region:AU-QLD|name=Canoe Reach}} || [[File:Queensland State Archives 191 Brisbane River at Yeronga c 1934.png|100px]] || <ref>{{cite QPN|6090|Canoe Reach|reach in the City of Brisbane|access-date=22 January 2015}}</ref>
|-
| Long Pocket Reach || {{bulleted list|Indooroopilly|Yeronga|{{QLDcity|Fairfield}}}} || {{coord|-27.510|152.999|type:river_region:AU-QLD|name=Long Pocket Reach}} || [[File:StateLibQld 1 213992 View of Yeronga from Dutton Park, 1929.jpg|100px]] || <ref>{{cite QPN|20015|Long Pocket Reach|reach in the City of Brisbane|access-date=22 January 2015}}</ref>
|-
| Cemetery Reach || {{bulleted list|{{QLDcity|St Lucia}}|{{QLDcity|Dutton Park}}}} || {{coord|-27.498|153.020|type:river_region:AU-QLD|name=Cemetery Reach}} || [[File:StateLibQld 2 161072 Rowboat on the river at Dutton Park, 1906.jpg|100px]] || <ref>{{cite QPN|6769|Cemetery Reach|reach in the City of Brisbane|access-date=22 January 2015}}</ref>
|-
| colspan=5 style="text-align:center;background:#D3D3D3;" | [[Eleanor Schonell Bridge]]
|-
| St Lucia Reach || {{bulleted list|St Lucia|{{QLDcity|Highgate Hill}}}} || {{coord|-27.491|153.003|type:river_region:AU-QLD|name=St Lucia Reach}} || [[File:Queensland State Archives 526 Looking from Highgate Hill towards Fairfield Annerley Yeronga and the University of Queensland St Lucia November 1948.png|100px]] || <ref>{{cite QPN|32110|St Lucia Reach|reach in the City of Brisbane|access-date=22 January 2015}}</ref>
|-
| Toowong Reach || {{bulleted list|{{QLDcity|Toowong}}|{{QLDcity|Auchenflower}}|{{QLDcity|West End}}}} || {{coord|-27.483|152.997|type:river_region:AU-QLD|name=Toowong Reach}} || [[File:Regatta ferry wharf after 2011 flood.jpg|100px]] || <ref>{{cite QPN|34969|Toowong Reach|reach in the City of Brisbane|access-date=22 January 2015}}</ref>
|-
| Milton Reach || {{bulleted list|{{QLDcity|Milton}}|Auchenflower|West End}} || {{coord|-27.474|153.005|type:river_region:AU-QLD|name=Milton Reach}} || [[File:StateLibQld 1 92932 Fishing from the northern bank of the Brisbane River at Toowong, along Milton Reach, Brisbane, 1948.jpg|100px]] || <ref>{{cite QPN|22137|Milton Reach|reach in the City of Brisbane|access-date=22 January 2015}}</ref>
|-
| colspan=5 style="text-align:center;background:#D3D3D3;" | [[Go Between Bridge]]
|-
| colspan=5 style="text-align:center;background:#D3D3D3;" | [[Merivale Bridge]]
|-
| colspan=5 style="text-align:center;background:#D3D3D3;" | [[William Jolly Bridge]]
|-
| colspan=5 style="text-align:center;background:#D3D3D3;" | [[Kurilpa Bridge]]
|-
| colspan=5 style="text-align:center;background:#D3D3D3;" | [[Victoria Bridge, Brisbane|Victoria Bridge]]
|-
| South Brisbane Reach || {{bulleted list|{{QLDcity|South Brisbane}}|[[Brisbane CBD]]}} || {{coord|-27.473|153.021|type:river_region:AU-QLD|name=South Brisbane Reach}} || [[File:StateLibQld 1 169607 South Brisbane Reach of the Brisbane River.jpg|100px]] || <ref>{{cite QPN|31435|South Brisbane Reach|reach in the City of Brisbane|access-date=22 January 2015}}</ref>
|-
| colspan=5 style="text-align:center;background:#D3D3D3;" | [[Goodwill Bridge]]
|-
| colspan=5 style="text-align:center;background:#D3D3D3;" | [[Captain Cook Bridge, Brisbane|Captain Cook Bridge]]
|-
| Town Reach || {{bulleted list|Brisbane CBD|{{QLDcity|Kangaroo Point}}}} || {{coord|-27.474|153.032|type:river_region:AU-QLD|name=Town Reach}} || [[File:Queensland State Archives 141 Town Reach Brisbane River looking from Kangaroo Point c 1932.png|100px]]|| <ref>{{cite QPN|35068|Town Reach|reach in the City of Brisbane|access-date=22 January 2015}}</ref>
|-
| [[Petrie Bight]] || {{bulleted list|Brisbane CBD|[[Fortitude Valley]]|Kangaroo Point}} || {{coord|-27.466|153.032|type:river_region:AU-QLD|name=Petrie Bight}} || [[File:Queensland State Archives 30 Circular Quay Petrie Bight Brisbane June 1927.png|100px]] || <ref>{{cite QPN|26538|Petrie Bight|reach in the City of Brisbane|access-date=22 January 2015}}</ref>
|-
| colspan=5 style="text-align:center;background:#D3D3D3;" | [[Story Bridge]]
|-
| Shafston Reach || {{bulleted list|Kangaroo Point|{{QLDcity|New Farm}}}} || {{coord|-27.47|153.039|type:river_region:AU-QLD|name=Shafston Reach}} || [[File:Brisbane ST 03.jpg|100px]] || <ref>{{cite QPN|30553|Shafston Reach|reach in the City of Brisbane|access-date=22 January 2015}}</ref>
|-
| colspan=5 style="text-align:center;background:#ADD8E6;" | [[Norman Creek (Queensland)|Norman Creek]]
|-
| Humbug Reach || {{bulleted list|New Farm|{{QLDcity|Norman Park}}|{{QLDcity|East Brisbane}}}} || {{coord|-27.473|153.051|type:river_region:AU-QLD|name=Humbug Reach}} || [[File:StateLibQld 1 117580 View of East Brisbane from New Farm Park, ca. 1930.jpg|100px]] || <ref>{{cite QPN|16437|Humbug Reach|reach in the City of Brisbane|access-date=22 January 2015}}</ref>
|-
| [[Bulimba Reach]] || {{bulleted list|{{QLDcity|Bulimba}}|{{QLDcity|Newstead}}}} || {{coord|-27.449|153.05|type:river_region:AU-QLD|name=Bulimba Reach}} || [[File:CityCat and Bulimba 09.2013 02.jpg|100px]] || <ref>{{cite QPN|4985|Bulimba Reach|reach in the City of Brisbane|access-date=22 January 2015}}</ref>
|-
| colspan=5 style="text-align:center;background:#ADD8E6;" | [[Breakfast Creek (Queensland)|Breakfast Creek]]
|-
| [[Hamilton Reach]] || {{bulleted list|{{QLDcity|Hamilton}}|Bulimba|{{QLDcity|Morningside}}}} || {{coord|-27.440|153.055|type:river_region:AU-QLD|name=Hamilton Reach}} || [[File:StateLibQld 1 158373 Hamilton Reach of the Brisbane River, ca. 1912.jpg|100px|]] || <ref>{{cite QPN|15283|Hamilton Reach|reach in the City of Brisbane|access-date=22 January 2015}}</ref>
|-
| Quarries Reach || {{bulleted list|{{QLDcity|Eagle Farm}}|{{QLDcity|Murarrie}}}} || {{coord|-27.446|153.094|type:river_region:AU-QLD|name=Quarries Reach}} || [[File:Gateway Bridge aerial3.JPG|100px]]|| <ref>{{cite QPN|27755|Quarries Reach|reach in the City of Brisbane|access-date=22 January 2015}}</ref>
|-
| colspan=5 style="text-align:center;background:#D3D3D3;" | [[Sir Leo Hielscher Bridges]]
|-
| colspan=5 style="text-align:center;background:#ADD8E6;" | [[Bulimba Creek]]
|-
| Lytton Reach || rowspan=2|{{bulleted list|{{QLDcity|Lytton}}|{{QLDcity|Pinkenba}}}} || {{coord|-27.427|153.126|type:river_region:AU-QLD|name=Lytton Reach}} || rowspan=2| [[File:Cargo ship and RML 64 pounder guns Fort Lytton Flickr 5825977624.jpg|100px]] || <ref>{{cite QPN|20323|Lytton Reach|reach in the City of Brisbane|access-date=22 January 2015}}</ref>
|-
| [[Lytton Quarantine Station|Quarantine Flats]] Reach || {{coord|-27.408|153.148|type:river_region:AU-QLD|name=Quarantine Flats Reach}} || <ref>{{cite QPN|43393|Quarantine Flats Reach|reach in the City of Brisbane|access-date=22 January 2015}}</ref>
|-
| colspan=5 style="text-align:center;background:#ADD8E6;" | [[Moreton Bay]]
|}

===Tributaries===
The following major tributaries flow into the Brisbane River from the north; [[Breakfast Creek, Queensland|Breakfast Creek]], [[Moggill Creek]] and the [[Stanley River (Queensland)|Stanley River]]. On the southside [[Bulimba Creek]], [[Norman Creek (Queensland)|Norman Creek]], [[Oxley Creek]], [[Bremer River (Queensland)|Bremer River]] and [[Lockyer Creek]] waterways enter the Brisbane River. The following smaller creeks also flow into the river; Cressbrook Creek, Cooyar Creek, Cubberla Creek, Black Snake Creek,<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://www.ipswich.qld.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0020/39026/Black-Snake-Creek-Summary.pdf|title = Upper Black Snake Creek Improvement Summary|publisher = Ipswich City Council|year = 2005|access-date = 2017-03-09|url-status = live|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160325223142/http://www.ipswich.qld.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0020/39026/Black-Snake-Creek-Summary.pdf|archive-date = 2016-03-25}}</ref> Wolston Creek, Woogaroo Creek, Goodna Creek, Six Mile Creek, Pullen Pullen Creek and Kholo Creek.

==History==
[[Image:BrisbaneRiver02 gobeirne-edit1.jpg|thumb|right|Aerial view of Brisbane and the Brisbane River]]
[[File:Brisbane River Downstream From Wivenhoe Dam 2010 While Spillway Is Open.JPG|thumb|right|The Brisbane River a short distance downstream of [[Wivenhoe Dam]] near [[Fernvale, Queensland|Fernvale]], while the spillway is open]]
[[File:Brisbane Docks 2004 - panoramio.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Port of Brisbane]] at the mouth of the Brisbane River on [[Moreton Bay]]]]

Before European settlement, the Brisbane River was spiritually important and a vital food source for the Aboriginal people of the [[Turrbal]] people, primarily through fishing in the tidal sections downstream. Additionally, fishing and [[fire-stick farming]] took place in the upper reaches of the river where there was freshwater, in some seasons.<ref name="Brmeanders">{{cite book |title=The Brisbane River story : meanders through time |author1=Gregory, Helen |year=1996 |publisher=Australian Marine Conservation Society |isbn=0-646-30132-2 }}</ref>

Four European [[navigators]], namely [[James Cook]], [[Matthew Flinders]], [[John Bingle]]<ref>{{cite dictionary |url=http://adbonline.anu.edu.au/biogs/A010094b.htm |title=Bingle, John (1796–1882) |author=Gray, Nancy |year=1966 |publisher=National Centre of Biography, Australian National University |dictionary=Australian Dictionary of Biography |access-date=16 March 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=http://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20110807004322/http://adbonline.anu.edu.au/biogs/A010094b.htm |archive-date=7 August 2011 }}</ref> and [[William Edwardson]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.brisbanelivingheritage.org/_dbase_upl/Contextual%20History-R.Fisher.pdf |title=Linking Heritage – Up, Down and Around the Brisbane River |author=Fisher, Rod |date=June 2007 |publisher=Brisbane's Living Heritage Network |access-date=16 March 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724013141/http://www.brisbanelivingheritage.org/_dbase_upl/Contextual%20History-R.Fisher.pdf |archive-date=24 July 2011 }}</ref> all visited Moreton Bay but failed to discover the river. The exploration by Flinders took place during his expedition from [[Port Jackson]] north to [[Hervey Bay (Queensland)|Hervey Bay]] in 1799. He spent a total of 15 days in the area, touching down at Woody Point and several other spots, but failed to discover the mouth of the river although there were suspicions of its existence. This is consistent with accounts of many other rivers along the east coast of Australia, which could not be found by seaward exploration but were discovered by inland travellers.<ref>[[s:The Life of Captain Matthew Flinders, R.N.|The Life of Captain Matthew Flinders, R.N.]]</ref>

On 21 March 1823, four ticket-of-leave convicts sailing south from Sydney on a timber getting mission to Illawarra, [[Thomas Pamphlett]], [[John Finnegan (convict)|John Finnegan]], [[Richard Parsons (convict)|Richard Parsons]] and [[John Thompson (convict)|John Thompson]] were blown north by a storm. They went 21 days without water, continuing north in the belief they had been blown south, during which time Thompson died. They landed on [[Moreton Island]] on 16 April and made it to the mainland on the south of the Brisbane River. They immediately began trekking north in order to return to Sydney, still believing themselves to be somewhere south of Jervis Bay.<ref>Field's New South Wales, p.89 (published 1825)</ref> Subsequently, they became the first known Europeans to discover the river, stumbling across it somewhere near the entrance. They walked upstream along its banks for nearly a month before making their first crossing at Canoe Reach, the junction of Oxley Creek. It was here they stole a small canoe left by the [[Turrbal]] people of the region.

John Oxley was Surveyor General of [[New South Wales]] when, in the same year and under orders from Governor Brisbane, he sailed into Moreton Bay looking for a suitable new site for a convict settlement to be established. An entry in Oxley's diary on 19 November 1823 describes his surprise meeting with one of the shipwrecked men:
:"We rounded the Point Skirmish about 5 o'clock and observed a number of natives running along the beach towards the vessel, the foremost much lighter in colour than the rest. We were to the last degree astonished when he came abreast the vessel to hear him hail us in good English."<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Oxley |first=J |date=1925 |title=Extract from the field books of Mr. John Oxley: Surveyor General of New South Wales, Relating to the Discovery of the Brisbane River on 2nd December, 1823 |url=https://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:207592 |journal=Journal of the Royal Historical Society of Queensland |volume=2 |issue=3 |pages=125 |via=UQ eSpace}}</ref>
By that time Pamphlett and Finnegan were living with natives near [[Bribie Island]]. Parsons, who had continued to travel north in search of Sydney, was picked up by Oxley on 11 September 1824.

On 2 December 1823, Oxley and Stirling, with Finnegan as a somewhat reluctant guide, entered the river and sailed upstream as far as present-day [[Goodna, Queensland|Goodna]].<ref name=McLeod>{{cite book |author=McLeod, G. Roderick |year=1990 |title=Some aspects of the History of the Brisbane River |editor1=Davie, Peter |editor2=Stock, Errol |editor3=Low Choy, Darryl |work=The Brisbane River: a source-book for the future |publisher=Australian Littoral Society in association with the [[Queensland Museum]] }}</ref>{{rp|191}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ourindooroopilly.com/brisbane-history.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927142807/http://www.ourindooroopilly.com/brisbane-history.html |url-status=dead |title=Brief History of Brisbane City in the 19th Century|archive-date=27 September 2007}}</ref> Oxley noted the abundant [[fish]] and tall [[pine tree]]s. Early European explorers marvelled at the sheer natural beauty they witnessed while travelling up the lower reaches.<ref name="Young p. 6 – 8">{{cite book |author=Young |title=1990 Task M2 State of the Brisbane River and Moreton Bay and Waterways |publisher=Gutteridge, Haskins & Davey Pty Ltd |pages=6–8 |year=1996 }}</ref>

Reports by early European explorers such as [[Allan Cunningham (botanist)|Allan Cunningham]] and Oxley indicate rainforest once fringed the Brisbane River and its major tributaries, especially on the broader floodplains such as [[St Lucia, Queensland|St Lucia]] and [[Seventeen Mile Rocks, Queensland|Seventeen Mile Rocks]]. The coastal lowlands were extensively vegetated with [[Melaleuca]] woodlands in low lying, poorly drained coastal areas. When first described by Europeans, the lower reaches of the Brisbane River were fringed by a mosaic of open forest, closed forest and rainforest.<ref name="Young p. 6 – 8"/>

[[File:StateLibQld 1 251308 Two young men having fun with their home-made watercraft on the Brisbane River.jpg|thumb|A historic photo of the Brisbane River]]
In the same year of 1823, the river was named after [[Thomas Brisbane|Sir Thomas Brisbane]], the then [[Governors of New South Wales|Governor of New South Wales]]. Upon the establishment of a local settlement in 1824, other explorers such as Allan Cunningham, [[Patrick Logan]] and [[Edmund Lockyer|Major Edmund Lockyer]] made expeditions and surveys further upstream, and, in May 1825, the Moreton Bay penal colony at [[Redcliffe, Queensland|Redcliffe]] under the command of [[Henry Miller (commandant)|Heny Miller]] relocated to [[North Quay, Brisbane|North Quay]].<ref name=McLeod/>{{rp|192}}

The entrance to the Brisbane River was surveyed and marked with buoys in May 1825 by Pilot John M Gray sent from Sydney for the purpose by Governor Sir Thomas Brisbane. Gray also transferred the soldiers and convicts from the First Settlement at Redcliffe at this time. The first small private wharves were built on the river in about 1848.<ref name=McLeod/>{{rp|197}} and the once popular, shark-proof river baths were first built in 1857 at Kangaroo Point.<ref name=longhurst>{{cite book |author1=Longhurst, Robert |author2=Douglas, William |year=1997 |title=The Brisbane River: A pictorial history |location=Brisbane |publisher=W. D. Incorporated Pty. Ltd. }}</ref>{{rp|7}} By 1850, nearly all the prime [[alluvial]] lands in the Brisbane River valley had been taken up by settlers.<ref name="rrt">{{cite journal |last1=Kemp |first1=J. |last2=Olley |first3=T. |last3=Ellison |first4=J. |last4=McMahon |first2=J.M. |date=September 2015 |title=River response to European settlement in the subtropical Brisbane River, Australia |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S2213305415300229 |journal=Anthropocene |volume=11 |pages=48–60 |doi=10.1016/j.ancene.2015.11.006 |bibcode=2015Anthr..11...48K |access-date=21 October 2022 |archive-date=21 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221021053542/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S2213305415300229 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref>

From 1862 the Brisbane River has been dredged for navigation purposes.<ref>{{cite book |first=Wayne |last=Erskine |year=1990 |title=Environmental Impacts of sand and gravel extraction on river systems |editor1=Davie, Peter |editor2=Stock, Errol |editor3=Low Choy, Darryl |work=The Brisbane river: a source-book for the future |pages=295–302 |publisher=Australian Littoral Society in association with the Queensland Museum }}</ref> Throughout much of the 20th century large quantities of [[sand]] and [[gravel]] were extracted from the estuary of the river. Since the rate of materials being deposited is not as high as that which was removed, the river has acted as a subaqueous [[mining|mine]].

In 1865, water police were stationed on board ''Proserpine'', a hulk moored at the mouth of the Brisbane River.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web|url=https://www.police.qld.gov.au/aboutUs/facilities/museum/celebrate/history/timeline.htm|title=Policing Queensland Timeline 1864 – 2014|date=7 July 2017|publisher=[[Queensland Police Museum]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181104070905/https://www.police.qld.gov.au/aboutUs/facilities/museum/celebrate/history/timeline.htm|archive-date=4 November 2018|url-status=live|access-date=4 November 2018}}</ref>

In 1866, there was a [[Breakwater (structure)|breakwater]] built at the junction of the Bremer and Brisbane rivers that was designed to stop shingle from blocking the access to the Bremer's boat channel. The first [[pile lighthouse|pile light]] using [[kerosene]] was built in 1882.<ref name=McLeod/>{{rp|198}} The [[steel]] framed light also served as an early port [[signal station]].

In February 1896, one of the river's worst disasters occurred with the [[Capsize of the ferry Pearl|capsize of the ferry ''Pearl'']] (which struck the anchor chain of the government yacht ''[[Lucinda (steam yacht)|Lucinda]]'') with the loss of around 40 lives.

===20th century===
[[Image:Goodwill-Bridge-and-the-CityCat.jpg|thumb|right|Brisbane River, from [[Victoria Bridge, Brisbane|Victoria Bridge]], showing [[Goodwill Bridge, Brisbane|Goodwill Bridge]] and a [[CityCat]] ferry]]

By 1928, due to the early settlement of Brisbane, the water quality had deteriorated to the point where several [[public bath]]s had to cease sourcing water from the river.<ref name=longhurst/>{{rp|3}} Yet even up to the 1930s, the water was said to be very clear, with reports of people seeing the river bed {{convert|5|to|6|m|0|abbr=on}} below the surface. Swimming was once popular at Oxley Point under the [[Walter Taylor Bridge]].<ref name="cm5">{{cite news |url=http://www.news.com.au/couriermail/story/0,,24948099-3044,00.html |title=Anglers still hooked on Brisbane River |access-date=2009-10-25 |date=22 January 2009 |work=[[The Courier-Mail|Courier Mail]] |publisher=[[Queensland Newspapers]] |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20121231014150/http://www.news.com.au/couriermail/story/0,,24948099-3044,00.html |archive-date=31 December 2012 }}</ref> In the middle tidal reaches in more recent times, visibility has been about {{convert|0.2|m|0|abbr=on}}.<ref>Young, 1990 in Task M2 State of the Brisbane River and Moreton Bay and Waterways – Gutteridge, Haskins & Davey Pty Ltd, p. 6 – 2 1996</ref> As Brisbane grew, the condition of the river worsened until at its worst it was no more than an open sewer and waste dump. The banks were cleared of timber and introduced animals and plants rapidly changed the river's ecology to its detriment.<ref name=longhurst/>{{rp|6}}

On 25 March 1941, a USA goodwill [[flotilla]] arrived in the city docking at wharves along the River and built [[Naval Base Brisbane]].<ref name=longhurst/>{{rp|25}} The largest ship built on the river was the ''Robert Miller''.<ref name="b150s">{{cite book |title=Brisbane 150 Stories |author=McBride, Frank|year=2009 |publisher=Brisbane City Council Publication |isbn=978-1-876091-60-6 |pages=250–251 |display-authors=etal}}</ref> Construction was near complete when the 66,000 tonne vessel became un-moored in the [[1974 Brisbane flood]]. In 1977, [[Queen Elizabeth II]] switched on the Jubilee Fountain positioned in front of the proposed [[Queensland Cultural Centre]]. The jets pushed the floodlit river water up to {{convert|75|m|0|abbr=on}} in the air.<ref name="lhbris">{{cite book |title=Living History of Brisbane |last=Hogan |first=Janet |year=1982 |publisher=Boolarang Publications |location=Spring Hill, Queensland |isbn=0-908175-41-8 |pages=128 }}</ref> The floating fountain sank late on the 31 December 1984.<ref name="sunfount">{{Cite news |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1300&dat=19850104&id=gzlVAAAAIBAJ&sjid=kJUDAAAAIBAJ&pg=2634,842488&hl=en |title=Sunken fountain pumped up for return to public duty |access-date=29 October 2015 |date=4 January 1985 |newspaper=The Age |publisher=Fairfax Media |archive-date=30 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160430220751/https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1300&dat=19850104&id=gzlVAAAAIBAJ&sjid=kJUDAAAAIBAJ&pg=2634,842488&hl=en |url-status=live }}</ref> 1987 was proclaimed the "Year of the River" by the [[Lord Mayor of Brisbane]] at the time, [[Sallyanne Atkinson]].

Over the 20th century, enough obstacles, sand and gravel had been removed from the river that its channel depth increased the tidal flow and tidal range upstream.<ref name="tgc">{{cite book |last=Graham |first=Bruce |date=2004 |title=The Green Coast: The Natural Environment of the Tweed-Moreton Bioregion |url=https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/3101318 |location=Tweed Heads, New South Wales |pages=150, 152 |isbn=0-9751817-0-X |access-date=26 November 2021 |archive-date=15 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211115060342/https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/3101318 |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== 21st century ===
On 9 August 2020, it was discovered that [[Google Maps]] accidentally changed the Brisbane River name to [[Ithaca Creek]] after a complaint that Ithaca Creek was incorrectly named Brisbane River.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-08-10|title=Brisbane River renamed Ithaca Creek in Google Maps glitch|url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2020-08-10/brisbane-river-renamed-to-ithaca-creek-in-google-maps-glitch/12540702|access-date=2020-08-26|website=[[Australian Broadcasting Corporation]]|language=en-AU|archive-date=26 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200826015449/https://www.abc.net.au/news/2020-08-10/brisbane-river-renamed-to-ithaca-creek-in-google-maps-glitch/12540702|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Floods===
[[File:StateLibQld 1 101664.jpg|thumb|right|The [[1893 Brisbane flood]]]]
[[File:2011 Flooding in Brisbane Suburbs.JPG|thumb|right|A [[International Space Station|NASA]] image of the [[2010–2011 Queensland floods|2011 flood]]. The top of the photo is oriented approximately to the southwest. The light-coloured rooftops of residences and other structures contrast sharply with green vegetation and brown, sediment laden flood-waters. Most visible low-lying areas are inundated by flood-water, perhaps the most striking being {{QLDcity|Rocklea}} (upper left). {{QLDcity|Yeronga}} (lower left) also has evident regions of flooding, as does a park and golf course located along a bend in the Brisbane River to the south of {{QLDcity|St Lucia}} (centre). Flooding becomes less apparent near the higher elevations of [[Mount Coot-tha]] (right).]]
The Brisbane River floods frequently, although the occurrence and magnitude of flooding has diminished following the construction of the [[Wivenhoe Dam]] on the upper reaches of the River.

Past floods have resulted in both deepening and reduction in river depth, creation of new [[sand bank]]s and [[shoal]]s as well as increased transport of suspended sediment from upstream. Before the invention of modern [[dredging]] techniques the [[sediment]] deposited by flooding created [[hazard]]s to ships navigating the river. Even medium-sized vessels no longer travel up the Brisbane River beyond the city reach, and dredging of the upper reaches has ceased, allowing the river to recover substantially from the fine silt dislodged by gravel and sand extraction.

Significant floods have occurred several times since the European settlement of Brisbane.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bom.gov.au/qld/flood/fld_history/brisbane_history.shtml |title=Known Floods in the Brisbane & Bremer River Basin, including the Cities of Brisbane and Ipswich |access-date=2014-07-27 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140831073347/http://www.bom.gov.au/qld/flood/fld_history/brisbane_history.shtml |archive-date=2014-08-31 }}</ref> There have been 12 Major flood peaks (over 3.5m)<ref>{{Cite web |title=Know Floods in the Brisbane & Bremer River Basin |url=http://www.bom.gov.au/qld/flood/fld_history/brisbane_history.shtml |access-date=20 October 2015 |archive-date=31 August 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140831073347/http://www.bom.gov.au/qld/flood/fld_history/brisbane_history.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref> recorded at the Brisbane gauge since records began in 1841, including:
* 14 January 1841, with a maximum river level of 8.43m at the gauge, the highest flood level recorded to date
*10 January 1844, 7.1m flood peak at Brisbane.
*February 1863, 3.8m flood peak
*January 1887, 3.8m flood peak
*July 1889, 3.8m flood peak
*March 1890, 5.3m flood peak
* [[1893 Brisbane flood|February 1893]], a sequence of flood peaks (8.35 metres and 8.09 metres) over two weeks saw the highest recorded flood level in the Brisbane [[central business district]]. Seven lives were lost in the Eclipse Colliery at [[North Ipswich, Queensland|North Ipswich]] as a direct result of the flooding. Several other people drowned as well.
* June 1897, 5.0m flood peak
* February 1907, 3.6m flood peak
* [[1974 Brisbane flood|27 January 1974]], the largest flood to affect Brisbane City in the 20th Century, with a level of 5.45 metres
Post construction of Wivenhoe Dam
* [[2010–2011 Queensland floods#Brisbane River catchment|11 January 2011]] with a level of 4.45 metres<ref name="brpb">{{cite news |author= |date=13 January 2011 |title=Brisbane River peaking below 1974 level |url=https://au.news.yahoo.com/brisbane-river-peaking-below-1974-level-8638499.html |work=yahoo!news |publisher=Yahoo |access-date=27 November 2021 |archive-date=27 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211127062233/https://au.news.yahoo.com/brisbane-river-peaking-below-1974-level-8638499.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
* 28 February 2022, 4.0m flood peak

Flooding along the Brisbane River has the potential to be devastating, as documented in 1974, 2011 and 2022.<ref>{{cite journal|title=The 2010–2011 Floods in Queensland (Australia): Observations, First Comments and Personal Experience|journal=La Houille Blanche|year=2011|issue=1|pages=5–11|author=Hubert Chanson|author-link=Hubert Chanson|publisher=Societe Hydrotechnique de France|location=Paris|issn=0018-6368}}</ref> For much of the river's length its banks are relatively high, but topped by a broad plain. The river's meandering course means that flood waters from upstream cannot be quickly discharged into Moreton Bay. Thus higher than normal flows cause river levels to rise rapidly and once the top of the banks are breached the floodwaters can spread over wide areas of the city.

===Navigation===
[[File:Newstead Park monument-and-Brisbane-River.jpg|thumb|Brisbane River, taken from the grounds of [[Newstead House, Brisbane|Newstead House]]]]

There has been much dredging and widening work done over the years to allow [[ships]] to transport [[cargo]] to and from Brisbane. The river is no longer dredged. The river served as an important carriageway between Brisbane and Ipswich before a [[railway]] linking the towns was built in 1875.<ref name=McLeod/>{{rp|192}} By early 1825 [[buoy]]s were being laid along the [[South Passage (Queensland)|South Passage]] and shortly after that the first pilots were commissioned to guide ships entering from Moreton Bay and another service for those travelling upstream.<ref name=McLeod/>{{rp|196}} Flying boats used the waters of the river in [[Pinkenba, Queensland|Pinkenba]], to take-off for domestic and international destinations in the 1930s.<ref name=longhurst/>{{rp|20}}

The river depth was progressively increased and narrow points widened to allow larger vessels into the river and further upstream. For navigation and safety reasons the [[Seventeen Mile Rocks, Queensland|Seventeen Mile Rocks]] were completely removed in 1965 after numerous partially successful attempts in the past. The northern river bank at the mouth of the river has undergone reclamation projects over the years, especially in the suburbs of [[Hamilton, Queensland|Hamilton]] and [[Pinkenba, Queensland|Pinkenba]]. More recently, extensive facilities for the [[Port of Brisbane]] have been constructed on [[Port of Brisbane|Fisherman's Island]] which has also seen significant [[land reclamation]] into the bay.

Early rivers crossings were made using small oared boat [[ferry|ferries]], beginning in 1843,<ref name=longhurst/>{{rp|5}} followed by steam ferries. In 1865 the first [[Victoria Bridge, Brisbane|Victoria Bridge]], later destroyed in a flood, was built across the river. Professor [[Roger Hawken|Hawken]] of the [[University of Queensland]] undertook a study in 1914 to identify the future crossing points for the river.

Historically, the Brisbane River contained upstream bars and shallows and had a natural tidal limit of only {{convert|16|km|0|abbr=on}}. The current tidal limit now extends {{convert|85|km|0|abbr=on}} upstream due to continual channel dredging.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Holland, I. |author2=Maxwell, O. |author3=Grice, A. |year=2002 |title=Tidal Brisbane River |chapter=Chapter 12 |work=State of South-east Queensland Waterways Report 2001 |publisher=Moreton Bay Waterways and Catchments Partnership |location=Brisbane, Australia |pages=75–82 }}</ref>

==Crossings==
{{Main|Bridges over the Brisbane River}}
[[File:Aerial panorama of Brisbane city and its train station, and Brisbane River.jpg|thumb|Aerial panorama of Brisbane city and its train station, and Brisbane River]]
The first bridge built across the Brisbane River was the original timber [[Victoria Bridge, Brisbane|Victoria Bridge]], opened in 1865 between Brisbane and South Brisbane. The current concrete Victoria Bridge is the 4th to be built on the site, the original bridge collapsed after marine borers weakened its timber piles, and the second was destroyed in the [[1893 Brisbane flood|1893 flood]].

{{as of|2012}} the Brisbane River is crossed by 16 major bridges (counting the new second Gateway, now Sir Leo Hielscher Bridge), including the historic 1940 [[Story Bridge]] and the tolled [[Sir Leo Hielscher Bridges]]. There are two other major bridges upstream (west) of Brisbane, on the [[D'Aguilar Highway]] and the [[Brisbane Valley Highway]]. The [[Clem Jones Tunnel, Brisbane|Clem Jones Tunnel]], opened in 2010, is the river's first underground crossing for road transport.

The [[Moggill Ferry]] continues to provide a crossing for vehicles northeast of [[Ipswich, Queensland|Ipswich]].

The [[Albert Bridge, Brisbane|Albert Bridge]] was the first railway crossing of the Brisbane River, opened in 1876. It was destroyed in the 1893 flood and replaced by a 2 span design that is flood tolerant. A second bridge was built adjacent to it, opened in 1957 in conjunction with the quadruplication of the railway between [[Roma Street railway station|Roma Street]] and [[Corinda railway station|Corinda]]. The [[Merivale Bridge]], opened in 1978, connects the South Brisbane railway system to the City.

Four bridges have been built that cater for pedestrians and bicycles, being the [[Goodwill Bridge]] and [[Kurilpa Bridge]] in the City area, the [[Eleanor Schonell Bridge]] between [[Dutton Park, Queensland|Dutton Park]] and [[St Lucia, Queensland|St Lucia]] (which also caters for public buses to the [[University of Queensland]] St Lucia campus), and the [[Jack Pesch Bridge]] between [[Indooroopilly]] and [[Chelmer, Queensland|Chelmer]]. The [[City of Brisbane|Brisbane City Council]] has announced plans for a pedestrian and cycle only bridge between [[Kangaroo Point, Queensland|Kangaroo Point]] and the city.

===Brisbane Riverwalk===
[[Image:Brisbane River Walk.JPG|thumb|right|The former Brisbane Riverwalk]]
[[File:New Farm Riverwalk, Brisbane River views from Bowen Terrace, 2021, 01.jpg |thumb|right|New Brisbane Riverwalk in 2021]]
The Brisbane City Council has developed a network of riverwalk pavements along the banks of the Brisbane River.<ref>{{cite web |title=Brisbane Riverwalk |url=http://www.mustdobrisbane.com/outdoors-walks-river/brisbane-riverwalk-brisbane-new-farm |website=Must do Brisbane |access-date=12 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180402111711/http://www.mustdobrisbane.com/outdoors-walks-river/brisbane-riverwalk-brisbane-new-farm |archive-date=2018-04-02 |url-status=live }}</ref> The Riverwalk runs along much of the Brisbane River foreshore throughout the inner-city area, with the longest span running between [[Newstead, Queensland|Newstead]] and [[Toowong]]. Another popular stretch runs beneath the [[Kangaroo Point Cliffs]] between [[South Brisbane, Queensland|South Brisbane]] and [[Kangaroo Point, Queensland|Kangaroo Point]]. Several spans of the Riverwalk are built out over the Brisbane River.

An interesting section is the floating walkway between the [[Story Bridge]] and Merthyr Road [[New Farm, Queensland|New Farm]]. Brisbane City planners require many developers of formerly private riverfront blocks to create new sections of the Brisbane Riverwalk that are accessible to the public.

During the 2011 floods, the Lord Mayor of Brisbane, [[Campbell Newman]] authorised the destruction of the Brisbane Riverwalk to prevent it floating away and becoming a hazard downstream.<ref name="destruction">{{cite news|last=Atfield|first=Cameron|title=Brisbane Riverwalk 'a dangerous missile'|url=http://www.brisbanetimes.com.au/environment/weather/brisbane-riverwalk-a-dangerous-missile-20110112-19nwp.html|access-date=12 January 2011|newspaper=Brisbane Times|date=12 January 2011|archive-date=22 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201222070845/https://www.brisbanetimes.com.au/environment/weather/riverwalk-becomes-300m-floating-missile-20110112-19nwp.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The proposed demolition of the Riverwalk was later cancelled.<ref name=Tug_Boat/>

Early in the morning of 13 January 2011 a several hundred metre long section of the Riverwalk broke away from the main structure and floated downstream. Queensland Police temporarily closed the [[Sir Leo Hielscher Bridges]] (commonly known as the Gateway Bridge) several times as there were fears that sections of Riverwalk could collide with and damage the bridge. The largest part of the floating boardwalk was safely guided under the bridge by a [[tugboat]] and past other [[infrastructure]] before being safely secured. Other tugs and Water Police guided other Riverwalk sections under the bridge.<ref name=Tug_Boat>{{cite news |author1=Vogler, Sarah |author2=O'Brien, Jodie Munro |author3=Caldwell, Anna |date=13 January 2011 |url=http://www.couriermail.com.au/news/queensland/moggil-ferry-island-party-boat-may-be-sunk-if-they-a-considered-a-risk-of-being-a-danger-to-the-public/story-e6freoof-1225986372966 |title=Skipper tells how tug boats saved Gateway bridges from collision with runaway Riverwalk debris |work=Courier-Mail |access-date=13 January 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120902090811/http://www.couriermail.com.au/news/queensland/moggil-ferry-island-party-boat-may-be-sunk-if-they-a-considered-a-risk-of-being-a-danger-to-the-public/story-e6freoof-1225986372966 |archive-date=2 September 2012 }}</ref> The damaged Riverwalk was rebuilt as a fixed structure by the Brisbane City Council.<ref>{{cite news |title=Council announces new Brisbane Riverwalk plan |work=ABC News |date=10 November 2011 |url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/2011-11-10/council-announces-new-brisbane-riverwalk-plan/3657070 |access-date=29 March 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111111001850/http://www.abc.net.au/news/2011-11-10/council-announces-new-brisbane-riverwalk-plan/3657070 |archive-date=11 November 2011 }}</ref> The 18-month construction commenced in early 2013 and was completed in September 2014.<ref>{{cite news |title=Brisbane's RiverWalk reconstruction gets advance funding |publisher=Urban analyst |date=12 November 2011 |url=http://www.urbanalyst.com/in-the-news/queensland/860-brisbanes-riverwalk-reconstruction-gets-advance-funding.html |access-date=3 August 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150505020237/http://www.urbanalyst.com/in-the-news/queensland/860-brisbanes-riverwalk-reconstruction-gets-advance-funding.html |archive-date=5 May 2015 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.brisbane.qld.gov.au/traffic-transport/roads-infrastructure-bikeways/bikeway-and-pathway-projects/Riverwalk-replacement/ |title=Riverwalk replacement project |publisher=Brisbane City Council |access-date=3 August 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140314044325/http://www.brisbane.qld.gov.au/traffic-transport/roads-infrastructure-bikeways/bikeway-and-pathway-projects/Riverwalk-replacement/ |archive-date=14 March 2014 }}</ref>

===Cross river tunnel===
The [[Clem Jones Tunnel, Brisbane|Clem Jones Tunnel]] is currently the only cross river tunnel built in Brisbane. It opened on 16 March 2010. The [[Cross River Rail]] tunnel is currently under construction and is expected to be complete in 2029.

==Environmental concerns==
During the 19th century and early 20th century, the river's surface was periodically choked by large swathes of the noxious weed known as [[water hyacinth]]. The plant was originally imported from South America.<ref>{{cite book |title=Brisbane's Western Suburbs: our heritage in focus |last=Meadows |first=Jane |year=1994 |publisher=State Library of Queensland Foundation |isbn=0-7242-6077-3 |pages=87 }}</ref>
[[File:Brisbane from Howard Smith Wharves.jpg|thumb|Brisbane River from [[Howard Smith Wharves]]]]
Environmentally, the river is in a poor condition and has been so for many years. In 2000, the Brisbane River estuary did not meet the national guidelines for environmental standards.<ref name="sgnrm">{{cite book |title=Strategic Guide to Natural Resource Management in South East Queensland |last=South East Queensland Regional Strategic Group |year=2000 |isbn=0-7345-1740-8 |pages=56 |publisher=Department of Natural Resources }}</ref> The lower reaches received a very poor rating in the 2008 Healthy Waterways report, an annual assessment of river water quality.<ref name=cm5/> The major causes of [[pollution]] are excess nutrients, [[hydrocarbons]], [[pesticides]] and [[bacteria]] which become concentrated in the river and its [[sediment]] after flowing off surrounding lands.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://hlw.org.au/region/westerncatchments|title=Western Catchments|website=Healthy Land & Water|access-date=13 March 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170314063911/http://hlw.org.au/region/westerncatchments|archive-date=14 March 2017}}</ref> The river is also considered too murky and it is not recommended to swim in its waters.<ref>{{cite news |author=Johnstone, Craig |date=22 July 1995 |title=How we're slowly killing our river |work=[[The Courier-Mail]] – Weekend |page=1 }}</ref>

[[Image:QUT-CityCat-terminal.jpg|thumb|right|[[Mangroves]] on the Brisbane River at the [[CityCat]] [[wharf]] near the [[Queensland University of Technology|QUT]]]]
Beginning in the 1950s, the river was dredged for the purpose of extracting sand and gravel. The considerable impacts of that activity include increased turbidity and bank erosion. The effect of the artificial sediment load in Moreton Bay grew to concern environmentalists worried that sediment was choking sea grass paddocks which were grazing territory for [[dugong]]. Public outcry led to all commercial dredging being stopped by 1998.
<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jakku |first1=Emma |last2=Burch |first2=David |last3=Rickson |first3=Roy |date=1 March 2009 |title=Constructing an environmental problem: Claims-making in the Brisbane River dredging dispute |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/44190815 |journal=Australasian Journal of Environmental Management |volume=16 |pages=25–35 |doi=10.1080/14486563.2009.9725214 |s2cid=154458960 |access-date=26 August 2019 |archive-date=22 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201222070846/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/44190815_Constructing_an_environmental_problem_Claims-making_in_the_Brisbane_River_dredging_dispute |url-status=live }}</ref> Non-extractive dredging continues in the Brisbane River in order to maintain its navigability.<ref>{{cite report|last1=Richardson|first1=Darren|last2=Devlin|first2=Toby|last3=Ettema|first3=Steve|title=Port of Brisbane Monitoring Program – Assessment of Sediment from 2017 Maintenance Dredging Activities|date=October 2017|url=https://www.portbris.com.au/getmedia/79cbd29a-3eeb-4c19-922a-e9f72a6bdb39/2017-10-12-R-B20259-028-02-Dredge-Turbidity-FINAL_1.pdf|access-date=26 August 2019|archive-date=15 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190315085455/https://www.portbris.com.au/getmedia/79cbd29a-3eeb-4c19-922a-e9f72a6bdb39/2017-10-12-R-B20259-028-02-Dredge-Turbidity-FINAL_1.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>

In 2018, the water quality in the Brisbane River failed to meet many Queensland Government standards. Nitrogen and phosphorus exceeded the maximum levels in all tests conducted in the mid-Brisbane River catchment. Results in the lower- and upper- catchments found maximum levels exceeded for the majority of tests for nitrogen and nearly all tests for phosphorus. Nitrogen and phosphorus primarily enter the river as they are washed in from agriculture areas on the banks upstream.<ref>{{cite news |last=Moore |first=Tony |date=13 November 2018 |title=Brisbane River at an ecological 'tipping point' |url=https://www.brisbanetimes.com.au/national/queensland/brisbane-river-at-an-ecological-tipping-point-20181112-p50fiv.html |work=Brisbane Times |location=Brisbane |access-date=26 August 2019 |archive-date=26 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190826141911/https://www.brisbanetimes.com.au/national/queensland/brisbane-river-at-an-ecological-tipping-point-20181112-p50fiv.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

In 2019, research at the University of Queensland indicated that the river's turbidity cycle (and murky brown colour) is principally driven by exchanges of mud between the channel and mudbanks. However, by planting [[Crinum pedunculatum]] in a line parallel to the channel and below the mean water level, the turbidity would reduce to such a degree that the river would appear clear and blue.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:5933dff |title=UQ eSpace |access-date=17 July 2020 |archive-date=19 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200719125756/https://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:5933dff |url-status=live }}</ref> To date, this has not been attempted
by Brisbane City Council.

==Flora==
The river has several important ecological areas where remnant populations of [[mangrove]]s exist; these include areas around drainage culverts, in Breakfast Creek, [[New Farm, Queensland|New Farm]], a small preserve at the city bend, near the [[Queensland University of Technology]] and around the shipping terminals at the river's terminus into Moreton Bay. These mangroves have recently become classified as protected [[nature reserve]]s. The noxious water hyacinth weed is still growing in stretches between [[Fernvale, Queensland|Fernvale]] and the [[Mount Crosby Weir]] but only poses a minimal risk to drinking water supplies.<ref name="bt5">{{cite web |url=http://www.brisbanetimes.com.au/articles/2008/02/07/1202234061123.html |title=Choking weed threatens Brisbane's water supply |author=Moore, Tony |access-date=16 November 2009 |date=8 February 2008 |work=[[Brisbane Times]] |publisher=[[Fairfax Digital]] |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081025175625/http://www.brisbanetimes.com.au/articles/2008/02/07/1202234061123.html |archive-date=25 October 2008 }}</ref>

==Fauna==
===Queensland lungfish===
[[File:Upper Brisbane River Linville.JPG|thumb|The Brisbane River at [[:en:Linville, Queensland|Linville]], upstream from Lake Wivenhoe]]
In 1895–1896, the [[Queensland lungfish]] was only found in the Mary and Burnett river systems. Concerned about the species survival, it was introduced into other Queensland waterways with varying success. Self-sustaining populations of lungfish were successfully established in the Brisbane River, the [[Enoggera Dam|Enoggera Reservoir]] and the [[North Pine River]].<ref>{{cite web |title=The unique Australian Lungfish |url=http://www.qm.qld.gov.au/Find+out+about/Animals+of+Queensland/Fishes/The+unique+Australian+Lungfish#.W-mHBNUzaYk |website=[[Queensland Museum]] |access-date=12 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180906021435/http://qm.qld.gov.au/Find+out+about/Animals+of+Queensland/Fishes/The+unique+Australian+Lungfish#.W-mHBNUzaYk#.W-mHBNUzaYk |archive-date=2018-09-06 |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Brisbane River cod===
The freshwater reaches of the Brisbane River once supported a unique species of cod, the [[Brisbane River cod]], which was similar to [[Murray cod]] and closely related to [[eastern freshwater cod]] and [[Mary River cod]]. This unique native fish became extinct somewhere between the 1930s and 1950s due to habitat degradation and overfishing. The river has been restocked with cod from the Mary River.<ref>Anon. (2004). New South Wales Eastern (Freshwater) Cod (''Maccullochella ikei'') Recovery Plan. New South Wales Department of Fisheries, Port Nelson, New South Wales, Australia.</ref><ref>Rowland, S.J. (1993) ''Maccullochella ikei'', an endangered species of freshwater cod (Pisces: Percichthyidae) from the Clarence River System, NSW, and ''M. peelii mariensis'', a new subspecies from the Mary River System, QLD. ''Records of the Australian Museum'' '''45:''' 121–145.</ref>

===Bull sharks===
The Brisbane River is home to a very large population of [[bull sharks]], thus [[swimming]] is not advised due to the dangers imposed by this [[predatory fish]]. [[Ipswich City Council]] warns against swimming as far up as [[Colleges Crossing]].<ref name="cm5"/> There have been four recorded [[shark attack]] deaths in the river (1862, 1880, 1901 and 1921), and numerous other fatal attacks in surrounding rivers and estuaries.<ref>Dawson, Christopher. 'Shovelnose: Tales of the Brisbane River Sharks', Inside History, Brisbane, 2009. '</ref> There have also been numerous attacks on family pets, such as dogs.<ref>[http://lifedeathsunshinestate.blogspot.com.au/2015/04/shark.html 'Sharks vs Dogs in the Brisbane River'] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150614081509/http://lifedeathsunshinestate.blogspot.com.au/2015/04/shark.html |date=June 14, 2015 }}.</ref> Bull sharks can grow up to between 7–11.5 feet (2.1–3.5 m) in length and be very aggressively territorial, which are unusual for a shark species because they can inhabit [[brackish water]] (containing less than 50% seawater) and are known to tolerate [[freshwater]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.uq.edu.au/news/?article=2794 |title=Brisbane River sharks net international interest |access-date=2009-10-25 |date=20 February 2002 |work=UQ News |publisher=[[University of Queensland]] |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110610213111/http://www.uq.edu.au/news/?article=2794 |archive-date=10 June 2011 }}</ref>

==Water Transport==
The river is traversed by [[CityCat]]s and other [[Ferry transport in Queensland|ferries in Brisbane]], as it winds its way through the city centre.

==Events==
{{See also|List of festivals in Brisbane|}}

The Brisbane River hosts numerous events including the [[Brisbane Festival]], '''Riverfire''',<ref>{{Cite web |title=Riverfire by Australian Retirement Trust|url=https://www.brisbanefestival.com.au/whats-on/2021/sunsuper-riverfire |access-date=14 July 2022|website=Brisbane Festival |language=en |archive-date=15 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220315111517/https://www.brisbanefestival.com.au/whats-on/2021/sunsuper-riverfire |url-status=live }}</ref> and the [[Brisbane River Classic]] fishing competition. Many schools and clubs use the river to conduct [[Rowing (sport)|rowing]] regattas on Milton Reach. Sailing regattas are also held on this reach as well as the Hamilton reach.

=== Riverfire ===
Riverfire, which began in 1998, was a festival held in September each year at [[South Bank Parklands]] and surrounding areas (including the [[Victoria Bridge, Brisbane|Victoria Bridge]]), to celebrate the Brisbane River. In 2009, the festival merged with [[Brisbane Festival]].<ref>{{Cite news | page = 19 | first = Rosemary |last = Sorensen | title = Festival kicks off with a bang | work = [[The Australian]] | date = 2009-09-14 }}</ref> Riverfire, was previously held at the end of the Brisbane Festival until 2022 when it was changed to be held as the festival opener. The event involves an afternoon [[Royal Australian Air Force|RAAF]] aerial display utilising aircraft such as the [[Boeing F/A-18E/F Super Hornet|F/A-18 Super Hornet]] preceding the main event, a fireworks display extending the length of the Brisbane River from South Bank Parklands to the [[Story Bridge|Storey Bridge]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Your guide to a night at Riverfire |url=https://www.queensland.com/au/en/things-to-do/events/arts-and-culture/riverfire |access-date=2024-08-29 |website=Queensland |language=en}}</ref>

The RAAF also perform a practice session in the days preceding the event, serving as an opportunity to both practice beforehand and also promote Riverfire.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-08-21 |title=Brisbane Riverfire — Everything You Need to Know - Brisbane Kids |url=https://brisbanekids.com.au/brisbane-riverfire-everything-you-need-to-know/ |access-date=2024-08-29 |website=brisbanekids.com.au |language=en-US}}</ref> One of the most popular RAAF aircraft to perform at Riverfire was the [[General Dynamics F-111 Aardvark|F-111]] which was known for performing a 'dump-and-burn' above the city. The final F-111 dump-and-burn of Riverfire occurred in 2010 was able to be seen as far as the [[Gold Coast, Queensland|Gold Coast]] and [[Toowoomba]] as the F-111 climbed from {{convert|300|ft|abbr=on}} to a higher altitude of about {{convert|10,000|ft|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{Cite news |page=17 |first=Kristin |last=Shorten |title=Final hurrah for dinosaurs of the sky at Riverfire |work=[[The Courier Mail]] |date=28 July 2010 }}</ref> The 20th Riverfire attracted nearly 500,000 people to the river.<ref name="bfpr">{{cite web |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-07-03/brisbane-festival-2018-australian-bands-circus-and-spectacle/9932854 |title=Brisbane Festival program responds to city's thirst for contemporary music, circus and spectacle |date=3 July 2018 |website=abc.net.au |publisher=ABC News |access-date=24 October 2021 |archive-date=23 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211023235219/https://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-07-03/brisbane-festival-2018-australian-bands-circus-and-spectacle/9932854 |url-status=live }}</ref>

In 2009 as part of the [[Q150]] celebrations, Riverfire was announced as one of the [[Q150 Icons]] of Queensland for its role as an "Events and festivals".<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://statements.qld.gov.au/statement/id/64301|title=PREMIER UNVEILS QUEENSLAND'S 150 ICONS|last=Bligh|first=Anna|author-link=Anna Bligh|date=10 June 2009|publisher=[[Queensland Government]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170524033717/http://statements.qld.gov.au/statement/id/64301|archive-date=24 May 2017|access-date=24 May 2017}}</ref>

== Named in its honour ==
The [[electoral district of Maiwar]] created in the 2017 Queensland state electoral redistribution was named after the river's indigenous name.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=http://ecq.qld.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0009/70956/26.5.17_Extraordinary-Gazette_QRC-Final-Determination.pdf|title=Determination of Queensland's Legislative Assembly Electoral Districts|last=Queensland Redistribution Commission|date=26 May 2017|website=[[Queensland Government Gazette]]|page=187|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171029095929/http://ecq.qld.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0009/70956/26.5.17_Extraordinary-Gazette_QRC-Final-Determination.pdf|archive-date=29 October 2017|url-status=dead|access-date=29 October 2017}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Water|Environment|Queensland}}
*[[Bridges over the Brisbane River]]
*[[Riverstage]]
*[[List of Brisbane ferry wharves]]
*{{Section link|List of rivers of Australia|Queensland}}

== References ==

=== Citations ===
{{Reflist}}

=== Sources ===
{{Refbegin}}
* Department of Harbours and Marine (1986). "Harbours and Marine" ''Port and Harbour Development in Queensland from 1824 to 1985'', p. 25. [[Queensland Government]] Department of Harbours and Marine.
* {{cite book |first = J. G. |last = Steele |year = 1975 |title = Brisbane Town in Convict Days 1824–42 |pages = 1–118 |location = Brisbane, Queensland |publisher = [[University of Queensland Press]] }}
{{Refend}}

==Further reading==
* Cook, Margaret. ''A River with a City Problem: A History of Brisbane Floods'' (2nd ed. University of Queensland Press, 2023) [http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=59801 online review]
* {{cite web |author1=Woodhouse, Ronald |title=The Brisbane River: a consideration of its potential |url=https://digitalcollections.qut.edu.au/6350 |publisher=Queensland University of Technology |publication-date=1966-06-30}} — Report (97 pages) and accompanying maps and diagrams (16 pages)

==External links==
{{Commons category|Brisbane River}}
{{GeoGroup}}
* {{Cite web|date=2019|title=Reflections on the river|url=https://www.brisbane.qld.gov.au/sites/default/files/20190301_-_reflections_on_the_river_heritage_trail.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200221113726/https://www.brisbane.qld.gov.au/sites/default/files/20190301_-_reflections_on_the_river_heritage_trail.pdf|archive-date=21 February 2020|website=Brisbane heritage trails|publisher=[[Brisbane City Council]]}}
*{{Cite web|date=2019|title=Roam the river from creek to wharf: Breakfast Creek to Bretts Wharf|url=https://www.brisbane.qld.gov.au/sites/default/files/20191216%20Roam%20the%20river%20from%20creek%20to%20wharf%20-%20heritage%20trail%20online%20brochure.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211109010337/https://www.brisbane.qld.gov.au/sites/default/files/20191216%20Roam%20the%20river%20from%20creek%20to%20wharf%20-%20heritage%20trail%20online%20brochure.pdf|archive-date=9 November 2021|website=Heritage trails|publisher=[[Brisbane City Council]]}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060107153021/http://www.ourindooroopilly.com/brisbane-river-map.html Historical Brisbane River Map]
* {{Cite web |title=Known floods in the Brisbane & Bremer River Basin |url=http://www.bom.gov.au/qld/flood/fld_history/brisbane_history.shtml |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240404161325/http://www.bom.gov.au/qld/flood/fld_history/brisbane_history.shtml |archive-date=2024-04-04 |website=[[Australian Bureau of Meteorology]]}}
* [https://humbugboats.com.au Humbug Boats] — [[Boats of Humbug Reach, Brisbane River]] official website
* [https://onesearch.slq.qld.gov.au/permalink/61SLQ_INST/dls06p/alma99258803402061 Brisbane River and Southbank Photographs 2006], [[State Library of Queensland]]

{{Waterways of Brisbane |state=collapsed}}
{{Rivers of Queensland}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Brisbane River| ]]
[[Category:Geography of Brisbane]]
[[Category:History of Brisbane]]
[[Category:Rivers of Brisbane]]
[[Category:Pre-Separation Queensland]]

Colleges of the University of Cambridge

2025-06-15T21:34:02Z

131.111.5.201: Updated the student numbers and financial information for Gonville and Caius College to reflect the 2023-24 accounts.

{{Short description|none}}
{{featured list}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2019}}
[[File:University of Cambridge coat of arms.svg|225px|thumb|Arms of the [[University of Cambridge]]]]
The [[University of Cambridge]] is composed of 31 [[Colleges within universities in the United Kingdom|colleges]] in addition to the academic departments and administration of the central university.

Until the mid-19th century, both [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge]] and [[University of Oxford|Oxford]] comprised a group of colleges with a small central university administration, rather than universities in the common sense. Cambridge's colleges are communities of students, academics and staff – an environment in which generations and academic disciplines are able to mix, with both students and fellows experiencing "the breadth and excellence of a top University at an intimate level".<ref>{{Cite web|last=Davison|first=Tim|date=2013-01-31|title=Colleges and University: a complex relationship|url=https://www.staff.admin.cam.ac.uk/features/colleges-and-university-a-complex-relationship|access-date=2021-06-13|website=Cambridge University|df=dmy-all|archive-date=13 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210613152958/https://www.staff.admin.cam.ac.uk/features/colleges-and-university-a-complex-relationship|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last1=Clarence-Smith |first1=Louisa |last2=Jones |first2=Freya |date=2023-03-03 |title=Author who claimed to be professor at Oxford and Cambridge loses academic visitor status |language=en-GB |work=The Telegraph |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2023/03/03/author-who-claimed-professor-oxford-cambridge-loses-academic/ |access-date=2023-03-04 |issn=0307-1235 |archive-date=10 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810230034/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2023/03/03/author-who-claimed-professor-oxford-cambridge-loses-academic/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

Cambridge colleges provide most of the accommodation for [[Undergraduate education#British System|''undergraduates'']] and ''postgraduates'' at the university. At the undergraduate level they have responsibility for admitting students to the university, providing pastoral support, and organising elements of their tuition, though lectures and examinations are organised by the faculties and departments of the central university. All degrees are awarded by the university itself, not the colleges, and all students study for the same course regardless of which college they attend.<ref>{{Cite web | url = http://www.cam.ac.uk/admissions/undergraduate/colleges/role.html | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071023055509/http://www.cam.ac.uk/admissions/undergraduate/colleges/role.html | archive-date = 23 October 2007 | title = Role of the Colleges | access-date = 27 March 2008 | publisher = [[University of Cambridge]]}}</ref> For postgraduate students, research is conducted centrally in the faculties, departments and other university-affiliated research centres, though the colleges provide a central social and intellectual hub for students.

Colleges provide a range of facilities and services to their members in addition to accommodation,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Withworth |first=Alan |title=Student Accommodation In Cambridge Colleges: An Expert Guide |date=23 October 2023 |url=https://www.studentgoodguide.com/accommodation/student-accommodation-cambridge-colleges/ |access-date=6 November 2023 |archive-date=6 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231106220337/https://www.studentgoodguide.com/accommodation/student-accommodation-cambridge-colleges/ |url-status=live }}</ref> including: catering, library facilities, extracurricular societies, and sporting teams. Much of sporting life at Cambridge is centred around college teams and inter-collegiate competition in [[Cuppers]]. Student activity is typically organised through separate [[Common room (university)|common rooms]] for undergraduate and postgraduate students. Another important element of collegiate life is [[Formal (university)|formal hall]], which range in frequency from weekly to every night of the week during Full Term.

Colleges also provide funding, accommodation, or both, for some of the academic posts in the university, with the majority of Cambridge academics being a [[fellow]] of a college in addition to their faculty/departmental role.<ref name="thecolleges" /> Fellows may therefore hold college positions in addition to their academic posts at the university: these include roles such as Tutor (responsible for pastoral support), Director of Studies (responsible for academic oversight of students taking a particular subject), [[Dean (education)|Dean]] (responsible for discipline among college members), Senior Tutor (responsible for the college's overall academic provision), or Head of college ('Head of House').

Colleges are self-governed charities in their own right, with their own endowments and possessions.

=="Old" and "new" colleges==
The University of Cambridge has 31 colleges,<ref name=thecolleges>{{Cite web | url = http://www.cam.ac.uk/colleges/ | title = The Colleges of the University | publisher = [[University of Cambridge]] | year = 2009 | access-date = 6 April 2009 | archive-date = 4 April 2009 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090404070207/http://www.cam.ac.uk/colleges/ | url-status = live }}</ref> founded between the 13th and 20th centuries. No colleges were founded between 1596 ([[Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge|Sidney Sussex College]]) and 1800 ([[Downing College, Cambridge|Downing College]]), which allows the colleges to be distinguished into two groups according to foundation date:
* the 16 "old" colleges, founded between 1284 and 1596, and
* the 15 "new" colleges, founded between 1800 and 1977.

The oldest college is [[Peterhouse, Cambridge|Peterhouse]], founded in 1284,<ref>{{cite news | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/40871.stm | title = Ghost sightings haunt Cambridge college | date = 19 December 1997 | access-date = 26 March 2008 | work = [[BBC News]] | archive-date = 23 February 2009 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090223064405/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/40871.stm | url-status = live }}</ref> and the newest is [[Robinson College, Cambridge|Robinson]], founded in 1977.<ref>{{Cite web | url = http://www.robinson.cam.ac.uk/about/ | title = About Robinson College | access-date = 26 March 2008 | publisher = [[Robinson College, Cambridge]] | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080409124402/http://www.robinson.cam.ac.uk/about/ | archive-date = 9 April 2008 | url-status = dead }}</ref> [[Homerton College, Cambridge|Homerton]], which was first founded in the eighteenth century as a dissenting academy (and later teacher training college), attained full college status in 2010.

Six of the "new" colleges (Churchill, Fitzwilliam, Girton, Lucy Cavendish, Murray Edwards and St Edmund's) are located on Castle Hill and are thus sometimes referred to as "hill colleges".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.undergraduate.study.cam.ac.uk/colleges-guide-hill-colleges|title=Undergraduate Colleges Guide: Castle Hill and Huntingdon Road|website=University of Cambridge|access-date=28 January 2025}}</ref>

==Restrictions on entry==
All 16 of the "old" colleges and 8 of the 15 "new" ones admit both male and female students as both undergraduates and postgraduates, without any age restrictions. Seven colleges restrict entry by sex, or by age of undergraduates, or admit only postgraduates:

* [[Murray Edwards College, Cambridge|Murray Edwards]] and [[Newnham College, Cambridge|Newnham]] admit only women. ;<ref name="History {{pipe}} Lucy Cavendish">{{Cite web|url=https://www.lucy.cam.ac.uk/college-community/making-difference/history|title=History {{pipe}} Lucy Cavendish|access-date=14 December 2020|archive-date=30 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201130143221/https://www.lucy.cam.ac.uk/college-community/making-difference/history|url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[Clare Hall, Cambridge|Clare Hall]] and [[Darwin College, Cambridge|Darwin]] admit only postgraduates;
* [[Hughes Hall, Cambridge|Hughes Hall]], [[St Edmund's College, Cambridge|St Edmund's]] and [[Wolfson College, Cambridge|Wolfson]] admit only mature students and postgraduates.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.admin.cam.ac.uk/news/press/dpp/2007010802 |title=Cambridge University seeks mature students |publisher=[[University of Cambridge]] |access-date=26 March 2008 |date=5 January 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090221125051/http://www.admin.cam.ac.uk/news/press/dpp/2007010802 |archive-date=21 February 2009 }}</ref>

No colleges are all-male, although most originally were. [[Darwin College, Cambridge|Darwin]], founded in 1964, was the first mixed college, while in 1972 [[Churchill College, Cambridge|Churchill]], [[Clare College, Cambridge|Clare]] and [[King's College, Cambridge|King's]] colleges were the first previously all-male colleges to admit women, whilst [[King's College, Cambridge|King's]] only accepted students from [[Eton College]] until 1865. The last all-male college to become mixed was [[Magdalene College, Cambridge|Magdalene]], in 1988.<ref>{{cite news | url = https://www.theguardian.com/obituaries/story/0,3604,976477,00.html | title = Obituary - Professor Sir Bernard Williams | newspaper = [[The Guardian]] | access-date = 8 May 2009 | date = 13 June 2003 | location = London | first = Jane | last = O'Grady | archive-date = 27 September 2023 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230927184431/https://www.theguardian.com/news/2003/jun/13/guardianobituaries.obituaries | url-status = live }}</ref> In 1973 [[Hughes Hall, Cambridge|Hughes Hall]] became the first all-female college to admit men, and [[Girton College, Cambridge|Girton]] first admitted men in 1979. [[Lucy Cavendish College, Cambridge|Lucy Cavendish]] only admitted female mature students and postgraduates until 2021.<ref name="History {{pipe}} Lucy Cavendish" />

Newnham also places restrictions on the admission of staff members, allowing only women to become fellows of the college. Murray Edwards does not place this restriction on fellows.

== Architectural influence ==
{{main|Collegiate Gothic}}

The Cambridge and Oxford colleges have served as an architectural inspiration for [[Collegiate Gothic]] architecture, used by a number of American universities including [[Princeton University]], [[Cornell University]], [[University of Chicago]], and [[Washington University in St. Louis]] since the late nineteenth century.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://etcweb.princeton.edu/CampusWWW/Otherdocs/setting.html|title=Princeton Architectural History|website=etcweb.princeton.edu|access-date=19 August 2019|archive-date=17 September 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180917015219/http://etcweb.princeton.edu/CampusWWW/Otherdocs/setting.html|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://wustl.edu/about/campuses/danforth-campus/|title=Danforth Campus|website=Washington University in St. Louis|language=en-US|access-date=19 August 2019|archive-date=16 February 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160216082207/https://wustl.edu/about/campuses/danforth-campus/|url-status=live}}</ref>

== List of colleges ==
{{see also|Academic scarf}}
{{sticky header}}
{{sort under}}
{| class="wikitable sortable sticky-header sort-under-center"
! rowspan=2 style="width:8em" | College (with arms and scarf{{nbsp}}colours)<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.queens.cam.ac.uk/Queens/Misc/Colours/index.html |title=Scarf Colours of the Cambridge Colleges |access-date=26 March 2008 |publisher=[[Queens' College, Cambridge]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080315093824/http://www.queens.cam.ac.uk/Queens/Misc/Colours/index.html |archive-date=15 March 2008 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
! rowspan=2 {{vert header|stp=1|va=middle|Founded{{efn|Principal date given is the date of establishment acknowledged by the university.<ref name=colleges>{{Cite web |url=https://map.cam.ac.uk/colleges/ |title=College A-Z |website=Colleges and Departments |publisher=[[University of Cambridge]] |access-date=8 May 2022 |archive-date=3 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220503004649/https://map.cam.ac.uk/colleges/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Additional later dates are explained by further footnotes.}}}}
! rowspan=2 width=150|Head of House
! colspan=3|Student numbers
! rowspan=2 {{Vert header|stp=1|va=middle|[[Financial endowment|Endowment]] (2023)}}
! rowspan=2 style=""width:4em" |[[Net asset value|Net assets]] (2023)
! rowspan=2 |Assets per student (2019)
! rowspan=2 {{vert header|stp=1|Abbreviation<ref>{{cite journal |author=[[University of Cambridge]] |date=6 March 2019 |title=Notice by the Editor |url=https://www.admin.cam.ac.uk/reporter/2018-19/special/05/section1.shtml |journal=[[Cambridge University Reporter]] |series=Special Numbers for the Academic Year 2018–19 |issue=5 |pages=1 |access-date=20 March 2019 |archive-date=17 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191017051509/https://www.admin.cam.ac.uk/reporter/2018-19/special/05/section1.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref> (and short form)}}
! rowspan=2 class=unsortable|Notes
|-
! {{vert header|stp=1|va=middle|Undergraduates}}
! {{vert header|stp=1|va=middle|Postgraduates}}
! {{vert header|stp=1|va=middle|Total<ref name="Student Numbers by College">{{Cite web|url=https://www.information-hub.admin.cam.ac.uk/university-profile/student-numbers/student-numbers-college|title=Student Numbers by College|date=21 March 2018|access-date=2 April 2020|archive-date=27 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200727070301/https://www.information-hub.admin.cam.ac.uk/university-profile/student-numbers/student-numbers-college|url-status=live}}</ref>}}
|-
| style="text-align: center" data-sort-value="Christ's" |[[File:Christs shield.png|24px|Christ's College heraldic shield]] [[Christ's College, Cambridge|Christ's]] {{scarf/University of Cambridge|Christ's}}
|1505
| data-sort-value="McDonald of Salford, Lord" |[[Simon McDonald, Baron McDonald of Salford|Lord McDonald of Salford]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Master {{!}} Christs College Cambridge |url=https://www.christs.cam.ac.uk/master |access-date=2022-09-14 |website=www.christs.cam.ac.uk |archive-date=14 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220914201517/https://www.christs.cam.ac.uk/master |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Master of Christ's College, Cambridge|Master]] since 2022
|align=right |433
|align=right |256
|align=right |'''689'''
|align=right |£122{{abbr|M|million}}<ref name="chr-accounts">{{cite web |title=Annual Report and Accounts 2023 |url=https://www.christs.cam.ac.uk/sites/default/files/inline-files/2022-23-christs-college-annual-report-and-accounts-v04.pdf |accessdate=17 June 2024 |work=Christ's College Cambridge}}</ref>
|align=right |£244{{abbr|M|million}}<ref name="chr-accounts"/>
|align=right |£287{{abbr|k|thousand}}
|CHR
|Re-foundation of {{shy|Gods|house}} ({{abbr|est.|established}}{{nbsp}}1439)
|-
| style="text-align: center" data-sort-value="Churchill" |[[File:Churchill College Crest.png|24px|Churchill College heraldic shield]] [[Churchill College, Cambridge|Churchill]] {{scarf/University of Cambridge|Churchill}}
|1960 (1966){{efn|name="college-status"}}
| data-sort-value="Peacock, Sharon" |Professor [[Sharon Peacock]]<ref>{{cite news |title=Churchill College announces 8th Master|url=https://www.chu.cam.ac.uk/news/news-and-events/churchill-college-announces-8th-master/ |access-date=10 October 2023 |work=Churchill College, Cambridge |date=10 October 2023 |archive-date=1 December 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241201145951/https://www.chu.cam.ac.uk/news/news-and-events/churchill-college-announces-8th-master/|url-status=dead }}</ref> [[Master of Churchill College|Master]] since 2024
|align=right |499
|align=right |346
|align=right |'''845'''
|align=right |£37{{abbr|M|million}}<ref name="chu-accounts">{{Cite web |title=Annual Report and Accounts 2023 |url=https://www.chu.cam.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2023/12/RCCA-22.23-Fully-Signed.pdf |access-date=June 17, 2024 |website=Churchill College, Cambridge}}</ref>
|align=right |£196{{abbr|M|million}}<ref name="chu-accounts"/>
|align=right |£215{{abbr|k|thousand}}
|CHU
|
|-
| style="text-align: center" data-sort-value="Clare" |[[File:ClareCollegeCrest.svg|24px|Clare College heraldic shield]] [[Clare College, Cambridge|Clare]] {{scarf/University of Cambridge|Clare}}
|1326 (1336){{efn|name="re-foundation"|Date of re-foundation by later benefactor.}}
| data-sort-value="Minghella, Loretta" |[[Loretta Minghella]]<ref>{{cite news |title=Loretta Minghella OBE (1981) installed as Master of Clare |url=https://stories.clare.cam.ac.uk/loretta-minghella-installed-master/index.html |access-date=7 April 2022 |work=Clare College, Cambridge |date=1 October 2021 |archive-date=22 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211022040200/https://stories.clare.cam.ac.uk/loretta-minghella-installed-master/index.html |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Master of Clare College|Master]] since 2021
|align=right |519
|align=right |289
|align=right |'''808'''
|align=right |£187.5{{abbr|M|million}}<ref name="cl-accounts">{{Cite web |title=Clare College Financial Statements for the year ended 30 June 2024 |url=https://www.clare.cam.ac.uk/sites/default/files/2024-12/Clare%20College%20Financial%20Statements%202024.pdf |access-date=June 17, 2024 |website=Clare College, Cambridge}}</ref>
|align=right |£336{{abbr|M|million}}<ref name="cl-accounts"/>
|align=right |£350{{abbr|k|thousand}}
|CL
|Formerly ''University Hall'', then ''Clare Hall''.
|-
| style="text-align: center" data-sort-value="Clare Hall" |[[File:Clarehall shield.png|24px|Clare Hall heraldic shield]] [[Clare Hall, Cambridge|Clare Hall]] {{scarf/University of Cambridge|Clare Hall}}
|1966 (1984){{efn|name="royal-charter-college"|Date of [[Royal charter (United Kingdom)|royal charter]], and of recognition by the university as a constituent college.}}
| data-sort-value="Short, C. Allen" |[[C. Alan Short]]<ref>{{cite news |title=Professor C. Alan Short Elected as President |url=https://www.clarehall.cam.ac.uk/news/02-12-2019/professor-c-alan-short-elected-president |access-date=7 April 2022 |work=Clare Hall, Cambridge |date=2 December 2019 |archive-date=16 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211016155738/https://www.clarehall.cam.ac.uk/news/02-12-2019/professor-c-alan-short-elected-president |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[President of Clare Hall, Cambridge|President]] since 2020
|align=right |0
|align=right |249
|align=right |'''249'''
|align=right |£21{{abbr|M|million}}<ref name="clh-accounts">{{Cite web |title=Annual Report and Financial Statements for the year ending 30 June 2023 |url=https://www.clarehall.cam.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/Clare-Hall-Signed-Accounts-2023-Copy.pdf |access-date=June 17, 2024 |website=Clare Hall, Cambridge}}</ref>
|align=right |£42{{abbr|M|million}}<ref name="clh-accounts"/>
|align=right |£140{{abbr|k|thousand}}
|CLH
|align="left"|{{shy|Post|graduate}}-only.
|-
| style="text-align: center" data-sort-value="Corpus Christi" |[[File:Arms of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge.svg|24px|Corpus Christi heraldic shield]] [[Corpus Christi College, Cambridge|Corpus Christi]] {{scarf/University of Cambridge|Corpus Christi}}
|1352
|data-sort-value="Kelly, Christopher" |[[Christopher Kelly (historian)|Christopher Kelly]]<ref name="auto2">{{cite news |title=Professor Christopher Kelly's Admission as Master of Corpus |url=https://www.corpus.cam.ac.uk/articles/professor-christopher-kellys-admission-master-corpus |access-date=7 April 2022 |work=Corpus Christi College, Cambridge |date=4 October 2018 |archive-date=13 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220813124930/https://www.corpus.cam.ac.uk/articles/professor-christopher-kellys-admission-master-corpus |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Master of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge|Master]] since 2018
|align=right |294
|align=right |259
|align=right |'''553'''
|align=right |£100{{abbr|M|million}}<ref name="cc-accounts">{{Cite web |title=Annual Report and Financial Statement 22-23 |url=https://www.corpus.cam.ac.uk/sites/default/files/downloads/230630_corpus_christi_college_-_rccas_30-06-2023_signed.pdf |access-date=June 17, 2023 |website=Corpus Christi College, Cambridge}}</ref>
|align=right |£239{{abbr|M|million}}<ref name="cc-accounts"/>
|align=right |£419{{abbr|k|thousand}}
|CC (Corpus)
|Formerly ''St Benet's College''.
|-
| style="text-align: center" data-sort-value="Darwin" |[[File:Darwin College Arms.svg|24px|Darwin College heraldic shield]] [[Darwin College, Cambridge|Darwin]] {{scarf/University of Cambridge|Darwin}}
| 1964 (1976){{efn|name="royal-charter-college"}}
| data-sort-value="Rands, Mike" |[[Mike Rands]]<ref name="auto2"/> [[Master of Darwin College, Cambridge|Master]] since 2018
|align=right |0
|align=right |755
|align=right |'''755'''
|align=right |£25{{abbr|M|million}}<ref name="dar-accounts">{{Cite web |title=Annual Accounts 2023 |url=https://www.darwin.cam.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2023/12/Darwin-Accounts-all-signed-2023.pdf |access-date=June 17, 2024 |website=Darwin College Cambridge}}</ref>
|align=right |£82{{abbr|M|million}}<ref name="dar-accounts"/>
|align=right |£99{{abbr|k|thousand}}
|DAR
|align="left"|{{shy|Post|graduate}}-only.
|-
| style="text-align: center" data-sort-value="Downing" |[[File:Downing Crest.svg|24px|Downing College heraldic shield]] [[Downing College, Cambridge|Downing]] {{scarf/University of Cambridge|Downing}}
|1800
| data-sort-value="Bookbinder, Alan" |[[Graham Virgo]]<ref>{{Cite web |last= |date=2023-10-02 |title=Downing welcomes Professor Graham Virgo KC (Hon) as the 19th Master |url=https://www.dow.cam.ac.uk/news/downing-welcomes-professor-graham-virgo-kc-hon-19th-master |access-date=2023-10-06 |website=Downing College Cambridge |language=en |archive-date=16 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231016120151/https://www.dow.cam.ac.uk/news/downing-welcomes-professor-graham-virgo-kc-hon-19th-master |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Master of Downing College|Master]] since 2023
|align=right |463
|align=right |382
|align=right |'''845'''
|align=right |£44{{abbr|M|million}}<ref name="dow-accounts">{{Cite web |title=Financial Statement 2023 |url=https://www.dow.cam.ac.uk/sites/default/files/Accounts_2023.pdf |access-date=June 17, 2023 |website=Downing College, Cambridge}}</ref>
|align=right |£224{{abbr|M|million}}<ref name="dow-accounts"/>
|align=right |£233{{abbr|k|thousand}}
|DOW
|
|-
| style="text-align: center" data-sort-value="Emmanuel" |[[File:Emmanuel College Crest.svg|24px|Emmanuel College heraldic shield]] [[Emmanuel College, Cambridge|Emmanuel]] {{scarf/University of Cambridge|Emmanuel}}
|1584
| data-sort-value="Chambers, Doug" |[[Doug Chalmers]]<ref>{{cite news |title=Doug Chalmers elected as the next Master of Emmanuel |url=https://www.staff.admin.cam.ac.uk/appointments/doug-chalmers-elected-as-the-next-master-of-emmanuel |access-date=7 April 2022 |work=For Staf |publisher=University of Cambridge |date=12 February 2021 |archive-date=4 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221004103516/https://www.staff.admin.cam.ac.uk/appointments/doug-chalmers-elected-as-the-next-master-of-emmanuel |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Master of Emmanuel College, Cambridge|Master]] since 2021
|align=right |512
|align=right |206
|align=right |'''718'''
|align=right |£34{{abbr|M|million}}<ref name="em-accounts">{{Cite web |title=Annual Accounts 2023 |url=https://www.emma.cam.ac.uk/about/documents/pdfs/RCCA%20-%2031st%20July%202023Final.pdf |access-date=June 17, 2023 |website=Emmanuel College, Cambridge}}</ref>
|align=right |£351{{abbr|M|million}}<ref name="em-accounts"/>
|align=right |£394{{abbr|k|thousand}}
|EM (Emma)
|
|-
| style="text-align: center" data-sort-value="Fitzwilliam" |[[File:Fitzwilliam College shield.svg|24px|Arms of Fitzwilliam College]] [[Fitzwilliam College, Cambridge|Fitzwilliam]] {{scarf/University of Cambridge|Fitzwilliam}}
|1869 (1966){{efn|name="royal-charter-college"}}
| data-sort-value="Morgan of Huyton, Baroness" |[[Sally Morgan, Baroness Morgan of Huyton|Baroness Morgan of Huyton]]<ref>{{cite news |title=Baroness Morgan of Huyton appointed Master of Fitzwilliam College |url=https://www.fitz.cam.ac.uk/news/baroness-morgan-huyton-appointed-master-fitzwilliam-college |access-date=7 April 2022 |work=Fitzwilliam College, Cambridge |date=27 Feb 2019 |archive-date=21 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210421042105/https://www.fitz.cam.ac.uk/news/baroness-morgan-huyton-appointed-master-fitzwilliam-college |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[Master of Fitzwilliam College|Master]] since 2019
|align=right |486
|align=right |413
|align=right |'''899'''
|align=right |£77{{abbr|M|million}}<ref name="f-accounts">{{Cite web |title=College Accounts 2023 |url=https://www.fitz.cam.ac.uk/sites/default/files/2024-02/Fitzwilliam%20College%20Annual%20Report%20and%20Financial%20Statements%20For%20the%20Year%20Ended%2031st%20July%202023%20%28FINAL%29.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240618212203/https://www.fitz.cam.ac.uk/sites/default/files/2024-02/Fitzwilliam%20College%20Annual%20Report%20and%20Financial%20Statements%20For%20the%20Year%20Ended%2031st%20July%202023%20(FINAL).pdf |archive-date=18 June 2024 |access-date=18 June 2024 |website=Fitzwilliam College, Cambridge}}</ref>
|align=right |£155{{abbr|M|million}}<ref name="f-accounts"/>
|align=right |£151{{abbr|k|thousand}}
|F (Fitz)
|
|-
| style="text-align: center" data-sort-value="Girton" |[[File:Arms of Girton College, Cambridge.svg|24px]] [[Girton College, Cambridge|Girton]] {{scarf/University of Cambridge|Girton}}
|1869 (1924){{efn|name="royal-charter"|Date of [[royal charter (United Kingdom)|royal charter]].}} (1948){{efn|name="college-status"}}
| data-sort-value="Kendall, Elisabeth" |[[Elisabeth Kendall]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Dr Elisabeth Kendall |url=https://www.girton.cam.ac.uk/news/dr-elisabeth-kendall-elected-new-mistress-girton-college |publisher=Girton College, Cambridge |access-date=7 March 2022 |archive-date=2 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230602144522/https://www.girton.cam.ac.uk/news/dr-elisabeth-kendall-elected-new-mistress-girton-college |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Mistress of Girton College|Mistress]] since 2022
|align=right |516
|align=right |292
|align=right |'''808'''
|align=right |£73{{abbr|M|million}}<ref name="g-accounts">{{Cite web |title=Financial Statement 2023 |url=https://www.girton.cam.ac.uk/sites/default/files/2023-12/GirtonCollegeAccounts2023-Signed.pdf |access-date=June 17, 2024 |website=Girton College, Cambridge}}</ref>
|align=right |£173{{abbr|M|million}}<ref name="g-accounts"/>
|align=right |£190{{abbr|k|thousand}}
|G
|Formerly female-only; mixed from 1976.
|-
| style="text-align: center" data-sort-value="Gonville and Caius" |[[File:Gonville & Caius College Crest.svg|24px|Gonville and Caius College heraldic shield]] [[Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge|Gonville and Caius]] {{scarf/University of Cambridge|Gonville and Caius}}
| 1348 (1557){{efn|Date of [[royal charter (United Kingdom)|royal charter]] re-founding Gonville Hall as ''Gonville and Caius College''.}}
| data-sort-value="Rogerson, Pippa" |[[Pippa Rogerson]]<ref>{{cite news |last1=King |first1=Katie |title=Cambridge college names first female head in its 700-year history, and she's an international and company law lecturer |url=https://www.legalcheek.com/2017/05/cambridge-college-names-first-female-head-in-its-700-year-history-and-shes-an-international-and-company-law-lecturer/ |access-date=7 April 2022 |work=Legal Cheek |date=24 May 2017 |archive-date=27 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220927131446/https://www.legalcheek.com/2017/05/cambridge-college-names-first-female-head-in-its-700-year-history-and-shes-an-international-and-company-law-lecturer/ |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Master of Gonville and Caius College|Master]] since 2018
|align=right |600
|align=right |257
|align=right |'''857'''
|align=right |£271{{abbr|M|million}}<ref name="cai-accounts">{{Cite web |title=Trustees' Annual Report and Accounts 2023-24 |url=https://www.cai.cam.ac.uk/sites/default/files/Accounts_2023-24.pdf |access-date=June 15, 2025 |website=Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge}}</ref>
|align=right |£403{{abbr|M|million}}<ref name="cai-accounts"/>
|align=right |£470{{abbr|k|thousand}}
|CAI (Caius)
|{{ubl|''Caius'', {{shy|pro|nounced}} "keys".|Formerly ''Gonville Hall''.}}
|-
| style="text-align: center" data-sort-value="Homerton" |[[File:Homerton College Shield for print.png|24px]] [[Homerton College, Cambridge|Homerton]] {{scarf/University of Cambridge|Homerton}}
| 1768 (1976){{efn|name="first-recognition"}} (2010){{efn|name="royal-charter-college"}}
| data-sort-value="Woolley of Woodford, Lord" |[[Simon Woolley, Baron Woolley of Woodford|Lord Woolley of Woodford]]<ref>{{cite news |last1=Mistlin |first1=Alex |title=Lord Woolley to become first black man to head Oxbridge college |url=https://www.theguardian.com/education/2021/mar/31/lord-woolley-former-head-of-race-disparity-unit-to-be-principal-at-cambridge-university |access-date=7 April 2022 |work=[[The Guardian]] |date=31 March 2021}}</ref> [[Principal of Homerton College|Principal]] since 2021
|align=right |615
|align=right |577
|align=right |'''1192'''
|align=right |£119{{abbr|M|million}}<ref name="ho-accounts">{{Cite web |title=Annual Report and Financial Statement 2023 |url=https://homerton.cam.ac.uk/sites/default/files/2023-12/homerton_annual_report_and_financial_statement_signed.pdf |access-date=June 17, 2024 |website=Homerton College, Cambridge}}</ref>
|align=right |£215{{abbr|M|million}}<ref name="ho-accounts"/>
|align=right |£190{{abbr|k|thousand}}
|HO
|Originally mixed, then became women-only on move to Cambridge; returned to mixed from 1976.
|-
| style="text-align: center" data-sort-value="Hughes Hall" |[[File:HughesHallShield.png|24px|Hughes Hall heraldic shield]] [[Hughes Hall, Cambridge|Hughes Hall]] {{scarf/University of Cambridge|Hughes Hall}}
| 1885 (1949){{efn|name="first-recognition"}} (2006){{efn|name="royal-charter-college"}}
| data-sort-value="Bristow, Laurie" |Sir [[Laurie Bristow]]<ref>{{cite news |date=28 March 2022 |title=Sir Laurie Bristow elected President of Hughes Hall |work=Hughes Hall, Cambridge |url=https://www.hughes.cam.ac.uk/about/news/sir-laurie-bristow-elected-president-of-hughes-hall/ |access-date=13 October 2022 |archive-date=13 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221013185111/https://www.hughes.cam.ac.uk/about/news/sir-laurie-bristow-elected-president-of-hughes-hall/ |url-status=live }}</ref> [[President of Hughes Hall|President]] since 2022
|align=right |150
|align=right |711
|align=right |'''861'''
|align=right |£8{{abbr|M|million}}<ref name="hh-accounts">{{Cite web |title=Financial Statement 2023 |url=https://www.hughes.cam.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/Hughes-Hall-2022-23-RCCA-Accounts-FINAL.pdf |access-date=June 17, 2024 |website=Hughes Hall College, Cambridge}}</ref>
|align=right |£57{{abbr|M|million}}<ref name="hh-accounts"/>
|align=right |£53{{abbr|k|thousand}}
|HH
|Mature-only.{{efn|name=mature|Mature-only colleges admit only postgraduate students or undergraduate students over the age of 21.}}
|-
| style="text-align: center" data-sort-value="Jesus" |[[File:Jesus College (Cambridge) shield.svg|24px|Jesus College heraldic shield]] [[Jesus College, Cambridge|Jesus]] {{scarf/University of Cambridge|Jesus 2-sided}}
| 1496
|data-sort-value="Alleyne, Sonita" |[[Sonita Alleyne]]<ref name="auto1">{{cite news |last1=Luxon |first1=Sally |title=Sonita Alleyne - the first female and black Master of any Oxbridge College |url=https://www.cambridge-news.co.uk/news/cambridge-news/sonita-alleyne-jesus-college-master-17128168 |access-date=7 April 2022 |work=Cambridgeshire Live |date=27 October 2019 |archive-date=7 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220407165357/https://www.cambridge-news.co.uk/news/cambridge-news/sonita-alleyne-jesus-college-master-17128168 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Master of Jesus College, Cambridge|Master]] since 2019
|align=right |513
|align=right |411
|align=right |'''924'''
|align=right |£236{{abbr|M|million}}<ref name="je-accounts">{{Cite web |title=Annual Reports and Accounts 2023 |url=https://www.jesus.cam.ac.uk/sites/default/files/downloads/annual_report_and_accounts_2023.pdf |access-date=June 17, 2024 |website=Jesus College, Cambridge}}</ref>
|align=right |£375{{abbr|M|million}}<ref name="je-accounts"/>
|align=right |£373{{abbr|k|thousand}}
|JE
|
|-
| style="text-align: center" data-sort-value="King's" |[[File:Kingscollegearms-alternative.svg|24px|King's College heraldic shield]] [[King's College, Cambridge|King's]] {{scarf/University of Cambridge|King's}}
| 1441
|data-sort-value="Tett, Gillian" |[[Gillian Tett]]<ref name="auto1"/> [[Provost of King's College, Cambridge|Provost]] since 2023
|align=right |402
|align=right |264
|align=right |'''726'''
|align=right |£300{{abbr|M|million}}<ref name="k-accounts">{{Cite web |title=Accounts as at June 2023 |url=https://www.kings.cam.ac.uk/pdfviewer/48384 |access-date=2024-03-14 |website=King's College Cambridge |language=en |archive-date=14 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240314131322/https://www.kings.cam.ac.uk/pdfviewer/48384 |url-status=live }}</ref>
|align=right |£451{{abbr|M|million}}<ref name="k-accounts"/>
|align=right |£621{{abbr|k|thousand}}
|K
|
|-
| style="text-align: center" data-sort-value="Lucy Cavendish" |[[File:Lucy cav shield.png|24px|Lucy Cavendish College heraldic shield]] [[Lucy Cavendish College, Cambridge|Lucy Cavendish]] {{scarf/University of Cambridge|Lucy Cavendish}}
|1965 (1997){{efn|name="royal-charter-college"}}
|data-sort-value="Atkins, Madeleine" |Dame [[Madeleine Atkins]]<ref>{{cite news |title=Higher Education Boss Handed £550,000 In 'Golden Goodbye' |url=https://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/entry/higher-education-boss-handed-ps500000-in-golden-goodbye_uk_5b4f5d84e4b0de86f488e101 |access-date=7 April 2022 |work=Huffington Post |date=18 July 2018 |archive-date=7 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220407165358/https://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/entry/higher-education-boss-handed-ps500000-in-golden-goodbye_uk_5b4f5d84e4b0de86f488e101 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[President of Lucy Cavendish College|President]] since 2018
|align=right |385
|align=right |544
|align=right |'''929'''
|align=right |£14{{abbr|M|million}}<ref name="lc-accounts">{{Cite web |title=Accounts 2023 |url=https://www.lucy.cam.ac.uk/sites/default/files/inline-files/Final%20signed%20accounts%20for%20the%20web.pdf |access-date=June 17, 2024 |website=Lucy Cavendish, Cambridge}}</ref>
|align=right |£50{{abbr|M|million}}<ref name="lc-accounts"/>
|align=right |£102{{abbr|k|thousand}}
|LC (Lucy Cav, Lucy)
|Formerly mature-only,{{efn|name="mature"}} and female-only; all-age from 2020, mixed from 2021.
|-
| style="text-align: center" data-sort-value="Magdalene" |[[File:Magdalene college shield.svg|24px|Magdalene College heraldic shield]] [[Magdalene College, Cambridge|Magdalene]] {{scarf/University of Cambridge|Magdalene}}
|1428 (1542){{efn|Date of [[royal charter (United Kingdom)|royal charter]] re-founding Buckingham College as ''Magdalene College''.}}
|data-sort-value="Greenwood, Christopher" |Sir [[Christopher Greenwood]]<ref>{{cite news |title=BIICL Congratulates new master of Magdalene College |url=https://www.biicl.org/newsitems/16373/biicl-congratulates-new-master-of-magdalene-college |access-date=7 April 2022 |work=British Institute of International and Comparative Law |date=20 August 2019}}</ref> [[Master of Magdalene College|Master]] since 2020
|align=right |382
|align=right |190
|align=right |'''572'''
|align=right |£74{{abbr|M|million}}<ref name="m-accounts">{{Cite web |title=Annual Reports and Accounts 2023 |url=https://www.magd.cam.ac.uk/system/files/2023-10/magdalene_college_accounts_2022-23.pdf |access-date=June 17, 2024 |website=Magdalene College, Cambridge}}</ref>
|align=right |£202{{abbr|M|million}}<ref name="m-accounts"/>
|align=right |£312{{abbr|k|thousand}}
|M
|{{ubl|''Magdalene'', {{shy|pro|nounced}} "maudlin".|Formerly ''{{shy|Bucking|ham}} College''.}}
|-
| style="text-align: center" data-sort-value="Murray Edwards" |[[File:MurrayEdwardsCollegeCrest.svg|24px]] [[Murray Edwards College, Cambridge|Murray Edwards]] {{scarf/University of Cambridge|Murray Edwards}}
|1954 (1972){{efn|name="royal-charter-college"}} (2011){{efn|name=|Date of supplemental [[royal charter (United Kingdom)|royal charter]] re-founding New Hall as ''Murray Edwards College''.}}
|data-sort-value="Byrne, Dorothy" |[[Dorothy Byrne]]<ref>{{cite news |title=Dorothy Byrne elected as next President of Murray Edwards College |url=https://www.murrayedwards.cam.ac.uk/news/dorothy-byrne-elected-next-president-murray-edwards-college |access-date=7 April 2022 |work=Murray Edwards College, Cambridge |date=16 December 2020 |archive-date=20 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211120222136/https://www.murrayedwards.cam.ac.uk/news/dorothy-byrne-elected-next-president-murray-edwards-college |url-status=live }}</ref> [[President of Murray Edwards College|President]] since 2021
|align=right |376
|align=right |189
|align=right |'''565'''
|align=right |£54{{abbr|M|million}}<ref name="mur-accounts">{{Cite web |title=Financial Statement 2023 |url=https://www.murrayedwards.cam.ac.uk/sites/default/files/files/Annual%20Report%202023(1).pdf |access-date=June 17, 2024 |website=Murray Edwards College, Cambridge}}</ref>
|align=right |£118{{abbr|M|million}}<ref name="mur-accounts"/>
|align=right |£186{{abbr|k|thousand}}
|MUR (Medwards)
|{{ubl|Female students-only, mixed fellowship.|Formerly ''New Hall''.}}
|-
| style="text-align: center" data-sort-value="Newnham" |[[File:Newnham crest.png|24px|Newnham College heraldic shield]] [[Newnham College, Cambridge|Newnham]] {{scarf/University of Cambridge|Newnham}}
|1871 (1917){{efn|name="royal-charter"}} (1957){{efn|Date of supplemental [[royal charter (United Kingdom)|royal charter]], and of recognition by the university as a constituent college.}}
|data-sort-value="Rose, Alison" |[[Alison Rose (diplomat)|Alison Rose]]<ref>{{cite news |title=Alison Rose becomes Principal of Newnham College |url=https://newn.cam.ac.uk/newnham-news/alison-rose-becomes-principal-of-newnham-college/ |access-date=7 April 2022 |work=Newnham College, Cambridge |date=10 October 2019 |archive-date=17 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230517232327/https://newn.cam.ac.uk/newnham-news/alison-rose-becomes-principal-of-newnham-college/ |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Principal of Newnham College|Principal]] since 2019
|align=right |416
|align=right |290
|align=right |'''706'''
|align=right |£74{{abbr|M|million}}<ref name="n-accounts">{{Cite web |title=Financial Statement 2023 |url=https://newn.cam.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2023/12/Newnham-College-Annual-Report-and-Financial-Statements-20230630-FULLY-SIGNED.pdf |access-date=June 17, 2024 |website=Newnham College, Cambridge|date=13 February 2024 }}</ref>
|align=right |£259{{abbr|M|million}}<ref name="n-accounts"/>
|align=right |£310{{abbr|k|thousand}}
|N
|align="left"|Female-only.
|-
| style="text-align: center" data-sort-value="Pembroke" |[[File:Pembroke College (Cambridge) shield.svg|24px|Pembroke College heraldic shield]] [[Pembroke College, Cambridge|Pembroke]] {{scarf/University of Cambridge|Pembroke}}
|1347
|data-sort-value="Smith of Finsbury, Lord" |[[Chris Smith, Baron Smith of Finsbury|Lord Smith of Finsbury]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Chairman and trustees |url=https://www.artfund.org/about-us/meet-our-chairman-trustees |access-date=7 April 2022 |website=Art Fund |archive-date=30 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190330015306/https://www.artfund.org/about-us/meet-our-trustees |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Master of Pembroke College, Cambridge|Master]] since 2015
|align=right |475
|align=right |285
|align=right |'''760'''
|align=right |£94{{abbr|M|million}}<ref name="pem-accounts">{{Cite web |title=Annual Report and Accounts 2023 |url=https://www.pem.cam.ac.uk/sites/default/files/downloads/2022-23_pembroke_college_rcca_signed.pdf |access-date=June 17, 2024 |website=Pembroke College, Cambridge}}</ref>
|align=right |£302{{abbr|M|million}}<ref name="pem-accounts"/>
|align=right |£341{{abbr|k|thousand}}
|PEM
|Formerly ''Pembroke Hall''.
|-
| style="text-align: center" data-sort-value="Peterhouse" |[[File:Peterhouse shield.svg|24px|Peterhouse coat of arms]] [[Peterhouse, Cambridge|Peterhouse]] {{scarf/University of Cambridge|Peterhouse}}
|1284
|data-sort-value="Kendall, Bridget" |[[Andy Parker (physicist)|Andy Parker]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=News {{!}} Peterhouse |url=https://www.pet.cam.ac.uk/news2 |access-date=2023-10-29 |website=www.pet.cam.ac.uk |archive-date=16 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231216045901/https://www.pet.cam.ac.uk/news2 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Master of Peterhouse|Master]] since 2023
|align=right |292
|align=right |178
|align=right |'''470'''
|align=right |£238.6{{abbr|M|million}}<ref name="pet-accounts">{{Cite web |title=Peterhouse Financial Statements for year ended June 30th |url=https://www.pet.cam.ac.uk/sites/default/files/inline-files/Year%20Ended%20June%202024.pdf |access-date=June 17, 2024 |website=Peterhouse College, Cambridge}}</ref>
|align=right |£350{{abbr|M|million}}<ref name="pet-accounts"/>
|align=right |£698{{abbr|k|thousand}}
|PET
|
|-
| style="text-align: center" data-sort-value="Queens'" |[[File:Queens' College (Cambridge) shield.svg|24px|Queens' College heraldic shield]] [[Queens' College, Cambridge|Queens']] {{scarf/University of Cambridge|Queens'}}
| 1448 (1465){{efn|name="re-foundation"}}
|data-sort-value="El-Erian, Mohamed A." |[[Mohamed A. El-Erian|Mohamed A. El{{nbh}}Erian]]<ref>{{cite news |last1=Ablan |first1=Jennifer |title=El-Erian named new president of Queens' College, University of Cambridge |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-funds-allianz-elerian-idUSKCN1SY1X8 |access-date=7 April 2022 |work=[[Reuters]] |date=28 May 2019 |archive-date=7 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220407165357/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-funds-allianz-elerian-idUSKCN1SY1X8 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[President of Queens' College|President]] since 2020
|align=right |521
|align=right |500
|align=right |'''1021'''
|align=right |£120{{abbr|M|million}}<ref name="q-accounts">{{Cite web |title=Queens' College, Cambridge Annual Report and Financial Statements for the Year Ended 30th June 2023 |url=https://www.queens.cam.ac.uk/sites/www.queens.cam.ac.uk/files/downloads/accounts_annual_report_22-23.pdf |access-date=June 17, 2024 |website=Queens College, Cambridge}}</ref>
|align=right |£154{{abbr|M|million}}<ref name="q-accounts"/>
|align=right |£156{{abbr|k|thousand}}
|Q
|
|-
| style="text-align: center" data-sort-value="Robinson" |[[File:Robinson College Crest.svg|24px|Robinson College heraldic shield]] [[Robinson College, Cambridge|Robinson]] {{scarf/University of Cambridge|Robinson}}
|1977 (1984){{efn|name="college-status"|Date of recognition by the university as a constituent college.}}
|data-sort-value="Heaton, Richard" |Sir [[Richard Heaton]]<ref>{{cite news |title=Robinson College welcomes its third Warden, Sir Richard Heaton |url=https://www.robinson.cam.ac.uk/news/robinson-college-welcomes-its-third-warden-sir-richard-heaton |access-date=7 April 2022 |work=Robinson College, Cambridge |date=1 October 2021 |archive-date=17 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220817012953/https://www.robinson.cam.ac.uk/news/robinson-college-welcomes-its-third-warden-sir-richard-heaton |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Warden of Robinson College|Warden]] since 2021
|align=right |412
|align=right |252
|align=right |'''664'''
|align=right |£30{{abbr|M|million}}<ref name="r-accounts">{{Cite web |title=Annual Accounts 2023 |url=https://www.robinson.cam.ac.uk/sites/default/files/assets/about/Robinson%20College%20Financial%20Statements%202023.pdf |access-date=June 17, 2024 |website=Robinson College, Cambridge}}</ref>
|align=right |£117{{abbr|M|million}}<ref name="r-accounts"/>
|align=right |£140{{abbr|k|thousand}}
|R
|
|-
| style="text-align: center" data-sort-value="Saint Catharine's" |[[File:St Catharine's College Crest - flat.svg|24px|St Catharine's College heraldic shield]] [[St Catharine's College, Cambridge|St Catharine's]] {{scarf/University of Cambridge|St Catharine's}}
|1473
|data-sort-value="Benger, John" |Sir [[John Benger]] [[Master of St Catharine's College, Cambridge|Master]] since 2023
|align=right |481
|align=right |287
|align=right |'''768'''
|align=right |£74{{abbr|M|million}}<ref name="cth-accounts">{{cite web |title=St Catharine's College, Cambridge Financial statements for the year ended 30 June 2023 |url=https://www.caths.cam.ac.uk/sites/default/files/College%20Signed%20Accounts%202023.pdf |access-date=June 17, 2024 |website=St Catharine's College, Cambridge}}</ref>
|align=right |£175{{abbr|M|million}}<ref name="cth-accounts"/>
|align=right |£190{{abbr|k|thousand}}
|CTH (Catz)
| Formerly ''Catharine Hall''.
|-
| style="text-align: center" data-sort-value="Saint Edmund's" |[[File:StEdmund'sCrest.png|24px|St Edmund's College heraldic shield]] [[St Edmund's College, Cambridge|St Edmund's]] {{scarf/University of Cambridge|St Edmund's}}
| 1896 (1965){{efn|name="first-recognition"}} (1998){{efn|name="royal-charter-college"}}
|data-sort-value="Arnold, Catherine" |Chris Young<ref>{{cite news |date=11 March 2023 |title=Professor Chris Young elected 16th Master of St Edmund’s College |url=https://www.st-edmunds.cam.ac.uk/news/professor-chris-young-elected-16th-master-of-st-edmunds-college/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210421075914/https://www.st-edmunds.cam.ac.uk/news/professor-chris-young-elected-16th-master-of-st-edmunds-college/ |archive-date=21 April 2021|access-date=20 November 2024 |work=St Edmund's College}}</ref> [[Master of St Edmund's College, Cambridge|Master]] since 2024
|align=right |121
|align=right |452
|align=right |'''573'''
|align=right |£19{{abbr|M|million}}<ref name="ed-accounts">{{Cite web |title=Financial Statement 2023 |url=https://www.st-edmunds.cam.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2023/12/2022-23-St-Edmunds-College-FINAL.pdf |access-date=June 17, 2024 |website=St Edmund's College, Cambridge}}</ref>
|align=right |£44{{abbr|M|million}}<ref name="ed-accounts"/>
|align=right |£71{{abbr|k|thousand}}
|ED (Eddie's)
|align="left"|Mature-only.{{efn|name=mature}}
|-
| style="text-align: center" data-sort-value="Saint John's" |[[File:Johns shield.png|24px|St John's College heraldic shield]] [[St John's College, Cambridge|St John's]] {{scarf/University of Cambridge|St John's}}
| 1511
|data-sort-value="Hancock, Heather" |[[Heather Hancock]]<ref>{{cite news |title=Heather Hancock appointed as Master of St John's College |url=https://www.joh.cam.ac.uk/heather-hancock-appointed-master-st-johns-college |access-date=7 April 2022 |work=St John's College, Cambridge |date=4 December 2019 |archive-date=11 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220811152412/https://www.joh.cam.ac.uk/heather-hancock-appointed-master-st-johns-college |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Master of St John's College, Cambridge|Master]] since 2020
|align=right |658
|align=right |319
|align=right |'''977'''
|align=right |£674{{abbr|M|million}}<ref name="jn-accounts">{{Cite web |title=Annual Report and Financial Statements 2023 |url=https://register-of-charities.charitycommission.gov.uk/charity-search?p_p_id=uk_gov_ccew_onereg_charitydetails_web_portlet_CharityDetailsPortlet&p_p_lifecycle=2&p_p_state=maximized&p_p_mode=view&p_p_resource_id=%2Faccounts-resource&p_p_cacheability=cacheLevelPage&_uk_gov_ccew_onereg_charitydetails_web_portlet_CharityDetailsPortlet_objectiveId=A15016995&_uk_gov_ccew_onereg_charitydetails_web_portlet_CharityDetailsPortlet_priv_r_p_mvcRenderCommandName=%2Faccounts-and-annual-returns&_uk_gov_ccew_onereg_charitydetails_web_portlet_CharityDetailsPortlet_priv_r_p_organisationNumber=4032881 |access-date=June 17, 2023 |website=St John's College, Cambridge}}</ref>
|align=right |£974{{abbr|M|million}}<ref name="jn-accounts"/>
|align=right |£854{{abbr|k|thousand}}
|JN (John's)
|
|-
| style="text-align: center" data-sort-value="Selwyn" |[[File:Selwyn College shield.svg|24px|Selwyn College heraldic shield]] [[Selwyn College, Cambridge|Selwyn]] {{scarf/University of Cambridge|Selwyn}}
| 1882 (1883){{efn|name="first-recognition"|Date of first formal recognition by the university, but not yet as a constituent college.}} (1958){{efn|name="college-status"}}
|data-sort-value="Mosey, Roger" |[[Roger Mosey]]<ref>{{cite news |last1=Plunkett |first1=John |title=Roger Mosey quits BBC to head Selwyn College, Cambridge |url=https://www.theguardian.com/media/2013/jul/02/roger-mosey-quits-bbc-selwyn-college-cambridge |access-date=7 April 2022 |work=The Guardian |date=2 July 2013}}</ref> [[Master of Selwyn College, Cambridge|Master]] since 2013
|align=right |419
|align=right |249
|align=right |'''668'''
|align=right |£55{{abbr|M|million}}<ref name="se-accounts">{{Cite web |date= |title=Annual Report 2023 |url=https://www.sel.cam.ac.uk/sites/default/files/assets/about/financial/Selwyn%20College%20Accounts%202022-23%20FINAL.pdf |access-date=June 17, 2024 |website=Selwyn College, Cambridge}}</ref>
|align=right |£134{{abbr|M|million}}<ref name="se-accounts"/>
|align=right |£182 {{abbr|k|thousand}}
|SE
|
|-
| style="text-align: center" data-sort-value="Sidney Sussex" |[[File:Sidney Sussex College shield.svg|24px|Sidney Sussex College heraldic shield]] [[Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge|Sidney Sussex]] {{scarf/University of Cambridge|Sidney Sussex}}
| 1596
|data-sort-value="Burton, Martin" |[[Martin Burton (academic)|Martin Burton]]<ref>{{cite news |date=29 November 2022 |title=Professor Martin Burton elected as new Master |work=Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge |url=https://www.sid.cam.ac.uk/about-sidney/news/professor-martin-burton-elected-new-master |access-date=13 September 2023 |archive-date=13 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230913060247/https://www.sid.cam.ac.uk/about-sidney/news/professor-martin-burton-elected-new-master |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Master of Sidney Sussex College|Master]] since 2023
|align=right |380
|align=right |247
|align=right |'''627'''
|align=right |£31{{abbr|M|million}}<ref name="sid-accounts">{{Cite web |title=Financial Statement 2023 |url=https://www.sid.cam.ac.uk/sites/default/files/Financial%20Statements%20for%20yr%20to%2030%20June%202023-%20signed%20PEM.pdf |access-date=June 17, 2024 |website=Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge}}</ref>
|align=right |£140{{abbr|M|million}}<ref name="sid-accounts"/>
|align=right |£210{{abbr|k|thousand}}
|SID (Sidney)
|
|-
| style="text-align: center" data-sort-value="Trinity" |[[File:Trinity College (Cambridge) shield.svg|24px|Trinity College coat of arms]] [[Trinity College, Cambridge|Trinity]] {{scarf/University of Cambridge|Trinity}}
| 1546
|data-sort-value="Davies, Sally" |Dame [[Sally Davies (doctor)|Sally Davies]]<ref>{{cite news |title=Chief medical officer to become first female Trinity College master |url=https://www.theguardian.com/society/2019/feb/08/england-chief-medical-officer-dame-sally-hughes-cambridge |access-date=7 April 2022 |work=The Guardian |agency=Press Association |date=8 February 2019}}</ref> [[Master of Trinity College, Cambridge|Master]] since 2019
|align=right |722
|align=right |332
|align=right |'''1054'''
|align=right |£2,020{{abbr|M|million}}<ref name="t-accounts">{{Cite web |title=Trinity College, Cambridge, Annual Report of the Trustees and Financial Statements for the Year Ended 30th June 2023 |url=https://www.trin.cam.ac.uk/download/college-accounts-2023/?wpdmdl=41114&refresh=666fa4258f00e1718592549 |access-date=June 17, 2024 |website=Trinity College, Cambridge}}</ref>
|align=right |£2,192{{abbr|M|million}}<ref name="t-accounts"/>
|align=right |£1,454{{abbr|k|thousand}}
|T
| Founded by merger of King's Hall ({{abbr|est.|established}}{{nbsp}}1317) and {{shy|Michael|house}} ({{abbr|est.|established}}{{nbsp}}1324).
|-
| style="text-align: center" data-sort-value="Trinity Hall" |[[File:Trinity Hall Crest.png|24px|Trinity Hall heraldic shield]] [[Trinity Hall, Cambridge|Trinity Hall]] {{scarf/University of Cambridge|Trinity Hall}}
| 1350
| data-sort-value="Hockaday, Mary" |[[Mary Hockaday]]<ref>{{Cite news |date=21 September 2022 |title=Mary Hockaday takes up post as Master |work=Trinity Hall Cambridge |url=https://www.trinhall.cam.ac.uk/news/mary-hockaday-takes-up-post-as-master/ |access-date=26 September 2022 |archive-date=26 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220926140040/https://www.trinhall.cam.ac.uk/news/mary-hockaday-takes-up-post-as-master/ |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Master of Trinity Hall, Cambridge|Master]] since 2022
|align=right |376
|align=right |226
|align=right |'''602'''
|align=right |£89{{abbr|M|million}}<ref name="th-accounts">{{Cite web |title=Trinity Hall, Cambridge. Accounts 2023 |url=https://www.trinhall.cam.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2023/12/TH-Accounts-30Jun23.pdf |access-date=June 17, 2024 |website=Trinity Hall, Cambridge}}</ref>
|align=right |£389{{abbr|M|million}}<ref name="th-accounts"/>
|align=right |£532{{abbr|k|thousand}}
|TH (Tit Hall)
|
|-
| style="text-align: center" data-sort-value="Wolfson" |[[File:Wolfson College Crest.png|24px|Wolfson College Crest]] [[Wolfson College, Cambridge|Wolfson]] {{scarf/University of Cambridge|Wolfson}}
|1965 (1977){{efn|name="college-status"}}
|data-sort-value="Clarke, Jane" |[[Jane Clarke (scientist)|Jane Clarke]]<ref>{{cite news |title=Jane Clarke 1st female president of Wolfson College |url=https://www.ch.cam.ac.uk/news/jane-clarke-1st-female-president-wolfson-college |access-date=7 April 2022 |work=Yusuf Hamied Department of Chemistry |publisher=University of Cambridge |date=12 June 2017 |archive-date=17 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230517232342/https://www.ch.cam.ac.uk/news/jane-clarke-1st-female-president-wolfson-college |url-status=live }}</ref> [[President of Wolfson College, Cambridge|President]] since 2017
|align=right |180
|align=right |832
|align=right |'''1012'''
|align=right |£32{{abbr|M|million}}<ref name="w-accounts">{{Cite web |title=Annual Accounts 2023 |url=https://www.wolfson.cam.ac.uk/sites/default/files/2023-12/rcca_2022-23.pdf |access-date=June 17, 2024 |website=Wolfson College, Cambridge}}</ref>
|align=right |£81{{abbr|M|million}}<ref name="w-accounts"/>
|align=right |£66{{abbr|k|thousand}}
|W
|{{ubl|Mature-only.{{efn|name=mature}}|Formerly ''University College''.}}
|-class="sortbottom"
! colspan="3" | Totals:
|align=right |12,354
|align=right |10,893
|align=right |23,247
|align=right |£4,582{{abbr|M|million}}
|align=right |£9,184{{abbr|M|million}}
|align=right |£319{{abbr|k|thousand}}
|
|
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ University and colleges consolidated information
|-
! Institutions(s)
! Founded
! Head
! {{Vert header |va=middle| Undergraduates}}
! {{Vert header |va=middle| Postgraduates}}
! {{Vert header |va=middle| Total<ref name="Student Numbers by College"/>}}
! {{Vert header |va=middle| [[Financial endowment|Endowment]] (2023)}}
! [[Net asset value|Net Assets]] (2023)
! style="max-width:6em" |Assets per student (2019)
|-
| [[University of Cambridge]]
| {{circa|1209}}
| [[Deborah Prentice]] [[List of vice-chancellors of the University of Cambridge|Vice-Chancellor]] since 2023
|align=right |12,354
|align=right |10,893
|align=right |23,247
|align=right |£2,469{{abbr|M|million}}<ref name="auto">{{Cite web |url=https://www.cam.ac.uk/system/files/university_of_cambridge_group_annual_reports_financial_statements_2021-22.pdf |title=Reports and financial statements |access-date=11 June 2023 |archive-date=13 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230413195838/https://www.cam.ac.uk/system/files/university_of_cambridge_group_annual_reports_financial_statements_2021-22.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>
|align=right |£7,168{{abbr|M|million}}<ref name="auto"/>
|align=right |£221{{abbr|k|thousand}}
|-
| Colleges
| 1284–1977
| (See [[List of current heads of University of Cambridge colleges|list]])
|align=right |" "
|align=right |" "
|align=right |" "
|align=right |£4,665{{abbr|M|million}}
|align=right |£9,184{{abbr|M|million}}
|align=right |£319{{abbr|k|thousand}}
|-
! colspan="3" | Totals:
|align=right |'''12,354'''
|align=right |'''10,893'''
|align=right |'''23,247'''
|align=right |'''£7,134{{abbr|M|million}}'''
|align=right |'''£16,352{{abbr|M|million}}'''
|align=right |'''£541{{abbr|k|thousand}}'''
|}

There are also several theological colleges in the city of Cambridge (for example [[Ridley Hall, Cambridge|Ridley Hall]], [[Wesley House]], [[Westcott House, Cambridge|Westcott House]] and [[Westminster College, Cambridge|Westminster College]]) that are affiliated with the university through the [[Cambridge Theological Federation]]. These colleges, while not officially part of the University of Cambridge, operate programmes that are either validated by or are taught on behalf either of the university or of [[Anglia Ruskin University|Anglia Ruskin]] or [[Durham University|Durham]] Universities.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.theofed.cam.ac.uk/institutes.html |title=Institutes and Centres in the Federation - Member Institutes |access-date=27 March 2008 |publisher=[[Cambridge Theological Federation]] |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070612133941/http://www.theofed.cam.ac.uk/institutes.html |archive-date=12 June 2007 }}</ref>

{{wide image|Cambridge_University_colleges_timeline.svg|700px|Timeline of the colleges in the order their students are presented for graduation, compared with some events in British history.}}

==Heads of colleges==

Most colleges are led by a [[Master (college)|Master]], even when the Master is female. However, there are some exceptions, listed below. Girton College has always had a Mistress, even though male candidates have been able to run for the office since 1976.

* '''Mistress''': Girton College
* '''President''': Clare Hall, Hughes Hall, Lucy Cavendish College, Murray Edwards College, Queens' College, Wolfson College
* '''Principal''': Homerton College, Newnham College
* '''Provost''': King's College
* '''Warden''': Robinson College

Also see [[List of current heads of University of Cambridge colleges]].

==Former colleges==

The above list does not include several former colleges that no longer exist. These include:
*[[Ayerst Hostel, Cambridge|Ayerst Hostel]], founded in 1884 by [[William Ayerst]] but closed in 1896. Buildings used by St Edmund's House from 1896 and later [[St Edmund's College, Cambridge|St Edmund's College]] in 1996.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.quns.cam.ac.uk/queens/Misc/Coll-Dates-Cam.html |title=College History |access-date=13 September 2013 |publisher=[[Queens' College, Cambridge]] |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130901131548/http://www.quns.cam.ac.uk/queens/Misc/Coll-Dates-Cam.html |archive-date=1 September 2013 }}</ref>
*[[Buckingham College, Cambridge|Buckingham College]], founded in 1428 as a [[Benedictine]] hall, refounded as [[Magdalene College, Cambridge|Magdalene]] in 1542.<ref>{{Cite web | url = http://www.magd.cam.ac.uk/about/history/early-days.html | title = The Early Days | publisher = [[Magdalene College, Cambridge]] | access-date = 27 March 2008 | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090326124845/http://www.magd.cam.ac.uk/about/history/early-days.html | archive-date = 26 March 2009 }}</ref>
*[[Bull College]], an unofficial college for US [[G.I. (military)|GIs]] returning from World War II, existing in Michaelmas 1945 and Lent 1946.<ref name=CAM>''Cambridge Alumni Magazine'', [http://www.alumni.cam.ac.uk/sites/www.alumni.cam.ac.uk/files/documents/Cam59_medres.pdf Bull College Cambridge] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151130123217/https://www.alumni.cam.ac.uk/sites/www.alumni.cam.ac.uk/files/documents/Cam59_medres.pdf |date=30 November 2015 }}, Issue 59, Lent 2010, pp30-35</ref>
*[[Cavendish College, Cambridge|Cavendish College]], founded in 1873, an attempt to allow poorer students to sit the [[Tripos]] examinations, whose buildings were bought by [[Homerton College, Cambridge|Homerton]] in 1895.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.queens.cam.ac.uk/Queens/Misc/Coll-Dates-Cam.html |title=Cambridge Colleges Foundation Dates |publisher=[[Queens' College, Cambridge]] |access-date=27 March 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080220151914/http://www.queens.cam.ac.uk/Queens/Misc/Coll-Dates-Cam.html |archive-date=20 February 2008 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.homerton.cam.ac.uk/teaching/library/archive.html |title=Homerton College Archive |access-date=27 March 2008 |publisher=[[Homerton College, Cambridge]] |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070807112143/http://www.homerton.cam.ac.uk/teaching/library/archive.html |archive-date=7 August 2007 }}</ref>
*"[[Clare Hall, Cambridge (1338-1856)|Clare Hall]]" was the name of [[Clare College, Cambridge|Clare College]] between 1338 and 1856. Clare College founded a new college named [[Clare Hall, Cambridge|Clare Hall]] in 1966.
*[[Gonville Hall, Cambridge|Gonville Hall]], founded in 1348, and re-founded in 1557 as [[Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge|Gonville and Caius College]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.cai.cam.ac.uk/college/past/index.php |title=Past - Introduction - Beginnings |access-date=27 March 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080315090932/http://www.cai.cam.ac.uk/college/past/index.php |archive-date=15 March 2008 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
*[[God's House, Cambridge|God's House]], founded in 1437, and re-founded in 1505 as [[Christ's College, Cambridge|Christ's College]].<ref>{{Cite web | url = http://www.christs.cam.ac.uk/college-life/history/ | title = College History | access-date = 9 June 2009 | publisher = [[Christ's College, Cambridge]] | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090531042909/http://www.christs.cam.ac.uk/college-life/history/ | archive-date = 31 May 2009 | url-status = dead }}</ref>
*[[King's Hall, Cambridge|King's Hall]], founded in 1317, and combined with Michaelhouse to form [[Trinity College, Cambridge|Trinity College]] in 1546.<ref name=trin>{{Cite web | url = http://www.trin.cam.ac.uk/index.php?pageid=20 | title = Historical Overview | publisher = [[Trinity College, Cambridge]] | access-date = 27 March 2008 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080329063213/http://www.trin.cam.ac.uk/index.php?pageid=20 | archive-date = 29 March 2008 | url-status = dead }}</ref>
*[[Michaelhouse, Cambridge|Michaelhouse]], founded in 1324, and combined with King's Hall to form [[Trinity College, Cambridge|Trinity College]] in 1546.<ref name=trin/>
*[[New Hall, Cambridge|New Hall]], founded in 1954, and re-founded in 2008 as [[Murray Edwards College, Cambridge|Murray Edwards College]]
*[[Physwick Hostel, Cambridge|Physwick Hostel]] — a predecessor of [[Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge|Gonville and Caius]] College
*[[University College, Cambridge|University College]], founded in 1965, and re-founded in 1972 as [[Wolfson College, Cambridge|Wolfson College]]
*[[University Hall, Cambridge|University Hall]], founded in 1326, refounded as Clare Hall in 1338, renamed as Clare College in 1856.

==See also==
*[[Colleges of Durham University]]
*[[Colleges of the University of Oxford]]
*[[Colleges of the University of York]]
*[[List of current heads of University of Cambridge colleges]]
*[[List of fictional Cambridge colleges]]
*[[List of Oxbridge sister colleges]]

==Notes==
{{Notelist}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{University of Cambridge}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Colleges Of The University Of Cambridge}}
[[Category:Colleges of the University of Cambridge| ]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures of the University of Cambridge|Colleges]]
[[Category:Tourist attractions in Cambridge|Colleges]]
[[Category:University of Cambridge-related lists]]
[[Category:Colleges of universities in the United Kingdom]]

Georgy Shakhnazarov

2025-06-15T19:30:21Z

131.111.5.201: Changed a few jarring sentences to the appropriate encyclopaedic tone

{{Short description|Soviet politician and political scientist (1924–2001)}}
{{refimprove|date=September 2017}}
{{Infobox Officeholder
| name = Georgy Shakhnazarov
| birth_name =
| nickname =
| image =
| caption =
| office1 =
| primeminister1=
| term_start1 =
| term_end1 =
| predecessor1 =
| successor1 =
| office2 =
| primeminister2=
| term_start2 =
| term_end2 =
| predecessor2 =
| successor2 =
| office3 =
| primeminister3=
| term_start3 =
| term_end3 =
| predecessor3 =
| successor3 =
| birth_date = October 4, 1924
| birth_place = [[Baku]], Azerbaijan SSR, [[Transcaucasian SFSR]], [[Soviet Union]]
| death_date = {{death date and age|2001|5|15|1924|10|4}}
| death_place = [[Tula, Russia]]
| nationality = Soviet
| residence =
| restingplace =
| alma_mater =
| party =
| otherparty =
| spouse =
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| occupation = politician and political scientist
| profession =
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}}

'''Georgy Khosroevich Shakhnazarov''' ({{langx|hy|Գեորգի Շահնազարով}}; October 4, 1924 in [[Baku]], Azerbaijan SSR, [[Transcaucasian SFSR]], [[Soviet Union]] – May 15, 2001 in [[Tula, Russia|Tula]], [[Russia]]) was a Soviet politician and political scientist. He was one of the half-dozen aides closest to [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] while he was [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] leader and after his fall from power at the [[Dissolution of the Soviet Union|collapse of the Soviet Union]]. Shakhnazarov was an early advocate of reform and helped Gorbachev to shape his plans to open up the system to new ideas and freedoms, but, like his boss, he failed to articulate a clear vision of where he believed the country should go.

After Gorbachev was ousted by [[Boris Yeltsin]], Shakhnazarov became a key figure in the newly established [[The Gorbachev Foundation|Gorbachev Foundation]].<ref name="guardian">{{cite news|last1=Montgomery|first1=Isobel|title=Obituary: Georgy Shakhnazarov|url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/2001/may/28/guardianobituaries.russia|work=The Guardian|date=28 May 2001}}</ref>

His loyalty to Gorbachev was unquestioned, and he was with him at many of the critical moments as Soviet leader. He was at Gorbachev's side during the strained meeting in [[East Berlin]] in October 1989 to help convince the [[East Germany|East German]] [[Politbüro]] to reform. The two shared a celebratory private glass of [[Champagne (wine)|champagne]] when Gorbachev was elected the first (and last) Soviet president in March 1990.

Shakhnazarov was staying at a [[sanatorium]] close to the presidential [[dacha]] at [[Foros, Ukraine|Foros]] in the [[Crimea]] during [[1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt|August 1991]], when he helped Gorbachev in his plans for a [[new Union Treaty]] to define relations between the republics. The two spoke by telephone about the Treaty on the afternoon of 18 August, the last call Gorbachev took before the [[Coup d'état|coup]] plotters moved in and cut off his contact with the outside world.<ref name=guardian/>

Shakhnazarov (the Russified form of Shakhnazaryan) was born into the then large [[Armenians|Armenian]] community in the [[Azerbaijan]]i capital, [[Baku]]. He fought with the [[Red Army]] against the [[Nazism|Nazis]] in [[World War II]] in [[Ukraine]], [[Belarus]] and [[Lithuania]]. He graduated from the law faculty of [[Azerbaijan State University]] in 1949, and earned a doctorate in political science and philosophy at the Moscow Institute of Law in 1969. From 1952 to 1961 he was an editor at the publisher [[Politizdat]],<ref name=guardian/> where he began writing books (one of his first was ''Burzhuaznoe gosudartsvo v epokhu imperializma'' (''The Bourgeois State in an Age of Imperialism''), 1955).

In the 1960s and 1970s he spent two spells at the international Communist magazine ''[[Problems of Peace and Socialism]]'', based in [[Prague]], giving him a wider perspective on the world than many of his colleagues in the Party establishment.

His political career in the Central Committee's International Department—which he joined in the early 1960s—was promoted by Fyodor Burlatsky, a member of the Socialist Countries Department who had the ear of [[Yuri Andropov]]. In March 1988, he was plucked from the department by Gorbachev to be a full-time adviser. At the same time he was building a parallel career as a political scientist and contributed to the professionalisation of the field in the later Soviet era. In 1975, he became president of the Soviet Association of Political Sciences (until 1991), and vice-president of the [[International Political Science Association]] (until 1988).

In published works he recognised that Soviet society had different interest groups—an implicit rejection of a homogenised, communist society—and advocated a greater flow of information at a time of paranoid secrecy. He also publicly rejected the use of [[nuclear weapon]]s to achieve political goals.

A member of the [[USSR Academy of Sciences]], he was elected on the Academy's list to the first semi-free Soviet parliament, the USSR [[Congress of People's Deputies of the Soviet Union|Congress of People's Deputies]], when it was inaugurated in 1989. He was a member of the commission to draw up a new [[Constitution of the Soviet Union|Soviet constitution]].

Shakhnazarov wrote up his memoirs of the Gorbachev years as ''Tsena svobody: reformatsiia Gorbacheva glazami ego pomoshchnika'' (''The Price of Freedom: Gorbachev's Reformation through the Eyes of His Aide'', 1993). He was also the author of [[science fiction]] and plays. His son, [[Karen Shakhnazarov]], born in 1952, is a noted film director.

More radical than Gorbachev, Shakhnazarov contributed to the destruction of the system of which he had been a member, working tactically to abolish such [[anachronism]]s as the Communist Party monopoly on power. "As often happens in revolutionary situations," he later recalled, "there are things which seem banal today but which you couldn't even mention then."
==Awards==
*[[Order of the October Revolution]]
*Two [[Order of the Patriotic War]] 2nd class (02.03.1945, 06.04.1985)
*Two [[Order of the Red Banner of Labour]]
*[[Order of Friendship of Peoples]]
*[[Order of the Red Star]] (23.04.1944)
*[[Medal "For the Victory over Germany in the Great Patriotic War 1941–1945"]]
*[[Medal of Zhukov]]
*[[Medal "For the Capture of Königsberg"]]
*[[Medal "Veteran of Labour"]]
*[[USSR State Prize]] (1980)<ref>https://shkola-rf.narod.ru/gallery/museum/museum33.htm</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Books online in English==
* [https://archive.org/details/socialismequalityshakhnazarov ''Socialism and Equality''] (1961)
* [https://archive.org/details/roleofcommunistpartyinsocialistsociety ''The Role of the Communist Party in Socialist Society''] (1974)
* [https://archive.org/details/socialistdemocracyaspectstheory ''Socialist Democracy: Aspects of Theory''] (1974)
* [https://archive.org/details/destinyworldshakhnazarov ''The Destiny of the World: The Socialist Shape of Things to Come''] (1979)
* [https://archive.org/details/FuturologyFiasco ''Futurology Fiasco: A Critical Study of Non-Marxist Concepts of How Society Develops''] (1982)

{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Shakhnazarov, Georgy}}
[[Category:1924 births]]
[[Category:2001 deaths]]
[[Category:Corresponding Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences]]
[[Category:Soviet Armenians]]
[[Category:Burials in Troyekurovskoye Cemetery]]
[[Category:Politicians from Baku]]
[[Category:Baku State University alumni]]
[[Category:Communist Party of Armenia (Soviet Union) politicians]]
[[Category:Soviet military personnel of World War II]]
[[Category:Eleventh convocation members of the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union]]
[[Category:Members of the Congress of People's Deputies of the Soviet Union]]

Khalistan Zindabad Force

2025-06-14T18:45:49Z

131.111.5.201:

{{Short description|Indian Sikh militant group}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2020}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2016}}
{{Infobox militant organization
| name = Khalistan Zindabad Force
| caption = Logo of the KZF
| logo = Logo of the Sikh militancy organization 'Khalistan Zindabad Force'.webp
| leader = Ranjit Singh Neeta
| motives =
| dates = 1988-present
| area = [[India]], [[Canada]], [[European Union]]
| status = Active<ref name="JammuKZF" />
| country = India, Canada, European Union
| headquarters =
| ideology = Sikh nationalism
| position =
| crimes =
| attacks = [[Vienna temple attack]]
| size =
| financing = [[Sikh diaspora]] in [[United Kingdom]], [[Canada]], [[Malaysia]], [[Pakistan]] and [[Spain]]<ref name="HT_Funding" />
| flag = |
| designated_as_terror_group_by = {{flag|India}} {{flag|European Union}}
}}

The '''Khalistan Zindabad Force''' (KZF) is a militant group and is part of the [[Khalistan movement]] to create a separate country [[Sikh]] [[homeland]] called [[Khalistan]] by carving [[Punjab, India|Punjab]] and some parts of neighbouring states of [[Haryana]], [[Rajasthan]] and [[Himachal Pradesh]] out of Indian union.<ref name="MHA_BanList"/>

==Organisation and activities==
The Khalistan Zindabad Force is headed by Ranjit Singh Neeta, a native of [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu and Kashmir]].<ref name="JammuKZF">{{cite news|url=http://www.indianexpress.com/news/ranjit-singh-neeta-khalistan-zindabad-force/394239/|title=Ranjit Singh Neeta (Khalistan Zindabad Force)|date=December 4, 2008|publisher=[[The Indian Express]]|access-date=2009-06-18|archive-date=25 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181225102812/http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/ranjit-singh-neeta-khalistan-zindabad-force/394239|url-status=live}}</ref> He was listed among India's 20 most wanted persons in 2008.<ref name="IndiaMostWanted">{{cite news|url=http://www.rediff.com/news/2008/jun/24slide10.htm|title=10) Ranjit Singh Neeta|date=June 24, 2008|work=rediff.com|access-date=2009-06-19|archive-date=25 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181225102813/https://www.rediff.com/news/2008/jun/24slide10.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> It largely compromises of Jammu based Sikhs.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Khalistan Zindabad Force (KZF) Terrorist Group, Punjab |url=https://www.satp.org/terrorist-profile/india-punjab/khalistan-zindabad-force-kzf |access-date=2023-09-15 |website=www.satp.org |archive-date=2 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230202223945/https://www.satp.org/terrorist-profile/india-punjab/khalistan-zindabad-force-kzf |url-status=live }}</ref>

The strength and striking capabilities of the Khalistan Zindabad Force are currently unknown, but it is reported that attempts have been made for the Khalistan Zindabad Force and other militant groups from [[Kashmir]] to co-ordinate their efforts.<ref name="JammuKZF"/> Funding of the organisation comes from [[United Kingdom]], [[Malaysia]] and [[Spain]].<ref name="HT_Funding">{{cite news |title=Pro-Khalistan terrorist group received funds from UK, Malaysia |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/punjab/pro-khalistan-terrorist-group-received-funds-from-uk-malaysia/story-SiSQ7qo53olDOlmCkRJTcN.html |access-date=31 January 2019 |publisher=Hindustan Times |date=19 August 2014 |language=en |archive-date=1 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190201013140/https://www.hindustantimes.com/punjab/pro-khalistan-terrorist-group-received-funds-from-uk-malaysia/story-SiSQ7qo53olDOlmCkRJTcN.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Notable attacks==
Claims<ref name="ATemails">{{cite news|url=http://austriantimes.at/index.php?id=13609|title=KZF takes responsibility for Vienna temple massacre|date=29 May 2009|publisher=Austriantimes.at|access-date=2009-05-31|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090603054811/http://www.austriantimes.at/index.php?id=13609|archive-date=3 June 2009}}</ref><ref name=diepresse>{{cite news|url=http://diepresse.com/home/panorama/oesterreich/483019/index.do?_vl_backlink=/home/panorama/oesterreich/index.do|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120515220427/http://diepresse.com/home/panorama/oesterreich/483019/index.do?_vl_backlink=/home/panorama/oesterreich/index.do|url-status=dead|archive-date=15 May 2012|title=Sikh: Alarm vor Tag der offenen Tür in Wien|trans-title=Sikh: Alarm before "Open Day" in Vienna|date=2009-05-28|publisher=Die Presse|language=de|access-date=2009-06-02}}</ref>
and denials<ref name="ATemails"/><ref name="KZFdenial">{{cite news|url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/2009/20090529/punjab.htm#6|title=KZF denies involvement in attack|author=Sanjeev Singh Bariana|date=May 28, 2009|work=The Tribune|access-date=2009-05-31|quote=Anti-Sikh are being misled in the name of the KZF. The incident has taught the entire Sant Ravidass brotherhood a lesson. The KZF approves the killing of the Sant Ravidass brotherhood.|archive-date=2 July 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090702000953/http://www.tribuneindia.com/2009/20090529/punjab.htm#6|url-status=live}}</ref>
of responsibility have been reported in the name of the Khalistan Zindabad Force for a May 2009 [[Vienna temple attack|attack at the Gurdwara Ravidass]] in [[Vienna]], [[Austria]], that left [[Rama Nand]], a leader of the [[Dera Sach Khand]] dead, 17 injured,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://austriantimes.at/index.php?id=13609 |title=KZF takes responsibility for Vienna temple massacre – General News – Austrian Times |publisher=Austriantimes.at |access-date=2009-08-09 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090603054811/http://www.austriantimes.at/index.php?id=13609 |archive-date=3 June 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=29 May 2009 |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Suspects-in-Sikh-temple-attack-identified-Austria/articleshow/4591397.cms |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121024005816/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2009-05-29/india/28171391_1_sikh-temple-michael-takacs-asylum |url-status=live |archive-date=24 October 2012 |work=[[The Times of India]] |title=Suspects in Sikh temple attack identified: Austria - India - NEWS|access-date=2009-08-09}}</ref>
and sparked riots across northern India.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/8066783.stm |title=South Asia | Punjab riots after Vienna killing |publisher=BBC News |date=2009-05-25 |access-date=2009-08-09 |archive-date=28 May 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090528104039/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/8066783.stm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.outlookindia.com/full.asp?fodname=20090525&fname=punjab&sid=1 |title=From Vienna To Jalandhar |publisher=www.outlookindia.com |access-date=2009-08-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090529115325/http://www.outlookindia.com/full.asp?fodname=20090525&fname=punjab&sid=1 |archive-date=29 May 2009 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/asia/article6359288.ece |access-date=May 30, 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111211013335/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/asia/article6359288.ece |archive-date= 11 December 2011 |title=Riots after Sikh guru Sant Rama Nand shot dead in Vienna}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/8066005.stm |title=Europe | Preacher dies after Vienna clash |publisher=BBC News |date=2009-05-25 |access-date=2009-08-09 |archive-date=28 May 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090528191045/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/8066005.stm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hindu.com/2009/05/27/stories/2009052760101300.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090601153833/http://www.hindu.com/2009/05/27/stories/2009052760101300.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=1 June 2009|work=[[The Hindu]]|title=KZF claims responsibility for Vienna attack; Babbar Khalsa condemns killing|date=2009-05-27|access-date=10 February 2015}}</ref>

==Status==
In December 2005 the [[European Union]] classified the Khalistan Zindabad Force as a terrorist organisation, freezing its monetary assets throughout its 25 member countries.<ref name=autogenerated1>{{Cite web |url=http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/site/en/oj/2005/l_340/l_34020051223en00640066.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=20 January 2007 |archive-date=5 February 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090205010122/http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/site/en/oj/2005/l_340/l_34020051223en00640066.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>

The KZF remains [[List of terrorist organisations in India|banned in India]]<ref name="MHA_BanList">{{cite web|title=List of Banned Organisations|url=https://mha.gov.in/banned-organisations|website=Ministry of Home Affairs, GoI|publisher=Government of India|access-date=3 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180503233101/https://mha.gov.in/banned-organisations |archive-date= 3 May 2018}}</ref> and the [[European Union]]. The Khalistan Zindabad Force was reported to still be active in 2008.<ref name="JammuKZF"/> In 2019, a letter purporting to be from the KZF threatened Indian agencies and the Chief Minister of Punjab.<ref>{{Cite web |date=26 September 2019 |title=ਖਾਲਿਸਤਾਨ ਜ਼ਿੰਦਾਬਾਦ ਫੋਰਸ ਨੇ ਦਿੱਤੀ ਧਮਕੀ.... |trans-title=Khalistan Zindabad Force threatened... |url=https://punjab.news18.com/news/punjab/khalistan-zindabad-force-threatens-102729.html |access-date=2023-03-04 |website=News18 Punjab |language=pa |archive-date=4 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230304131729/https://punjab.news18.com/news/punjab/khalistan-zindabad-force-threatens-102729.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

On February 12, 2020, the special court of [[National Investigation Agency|the National Investigation Agency]] (NIA) India in Mohali, Punjab issued non-bailable warrants against Pakistan-based KZF chairperson Ranjeet Singh Neeta and Germany-based Gurmeet Singh Bagga.<ref name="HT">{{Cite web|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/nia-issues-non-bailable-warrants-against-khalistanis-involved-in-dropping-of-arms/story-9EtBwMFfeTImfovtgOPz9M.html|title=NIA issues non-bailable warrants against Khalistanis involved in dropping of arms|date=2020-02-12|website=Hindustan Times|language=en|access-date=2020-02-28|archive-date=28 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200228063822/https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/nia-issues-non-bailable-warrants-against-khalistanis-involved-in-dropping-of-arms/story-9EtBwMFfeTImfovtgOPz9M.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The court issued warrants against Neeta and Bagga during an investigation related to the delivery of arms, ammunition, explosives, communication devices, and fake currency notes from the other side of the border with the help of a drone.<ref name="HT"/> This is the second time in the past five months that legal action was taken against Bagga. Earlier in October, Bagga was amongst the eight Khalistani operatives against whom [[Interpol]] issued a [[Red corner notice|Red Corner Notice]]. Speaking about the verdict, NIA spokesperson said that their investigation revealed that both Neeta and Bagga were involved in the illegal transfer of arms, ammunition, explosives, and other products from across the border. He said, "Investigation has revealed that they have been able to recruit certain individuals from Punjab for carrying out terrorist activities."<ref name="HT"/>

On March 17, 2020, [[National Investigation Agency]] (NIA) files charge sheet against nine [[Khalistani]] terrorists for their alleged involvement in Punjab drone arms drop case.<ref>{{cite web|access-date=2020-03-19|title=Punjab drones case: NIA files chargesheet against 9 Khalistan Zindabad Force terrorists|url=https://zeenews.india.com/india/punjab-drones-case-nia-files-chargesheet-against-9-khalistan-zindabad-force-terrorists-2270264.html|date=18 March 2020|website=Zee News|archive-date=19 March 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200319062650/https://zeenews.india.com/india/punjab-drones-case-nia-files-chargesheet-against-9-khalistan-zindabad-force-terrorists-2270264.html|url-status=live}}</ref> All the accused have been charged with [[Indian Penal Code|IPC]] relevant provisions, [[Arms Act, 1959|Arms Act and Explosives Substances Act]] and [[Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act]].

February 2021, it is reported through official sources and internal elements of KZF that Ranjeet Singh is no longer alive. His death cause reported was heart attack during first week of February 2021. Officially neither KZF nor the Indian government has spoken about it but there are foreign and independent media news agencies that reported his death news is confirmed.{{citation needed|date=April 2022}}
{{citation needed|date=April 2022}}

== See also ==

* [[Kharku]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}
{{Khalistan movement}}
{{India separatist movements}}
{{Terror outfits}}

[[Category:Designated terrorist organizations associated with Sikhism]]
[[Category:Paramilitary organisations based in India]]
[[Category:Pro-Khalistan rebel groups]]
[[Category:National liberation movements]]
[[Category:Organisations designated as terrorist by the European Union]]
[[Category:Anti-Hindu sentiment]]
[[Category:Organisations designated as terrorist by India]]
[[Category:Organizations based in Asia designated as terrorist]]
[[Category:1988 establishments in Punjab, India]]

Malê revolt

2025-06-02T11:34:39Z

131.111.5.201:

{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2024}}{{Short description|1835 slave rebellion in Imperial Brazil}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict = Malê revolt
| partof =
| image =
| caption =
| date = January 1835
| place = [[Salvador, Bahia|Salvador]], [[Bahia]], [[Empire of Brazil]]
| territory =
| result = Legalist victory, rebellion repelled
| combatant1 = {{plainlist |
{{flag|Empire of Brazil}}
}}
*[[Imperial Brazilian Army|National Guard]]
| combatant2 = [[Islam in Brazil|Malê]] slaves (primarily [[Nagos|Nagôs]])
| strength1 = Unknown, at least 3 battalions of guards
| strength2 = 600+ insurgents
| casualties1 = ~7 killed
| casualties2 = 80+ killed 300 captured 5 executed
| casus =
}}

The '''Malê revolt''' ({{langx|pt|Revolta dos Malês}}, {{IPA|pt|ʁɛˈvɔwtɐ duz maˈle(j)s|pron}}, {{IPA|pt|ʁeˈvɔwtɐ duz mɐˈle(j)s|}}) was a Muslim [[slave rebellion]] that broke out during the [[Regency period (Empire of Brazil)|regency period]] in the [[Empire of Brazil]]. On a Sunday during [[Ramadan]] in January 1835, in the city of [[Salvador, Bahia|Salvador]], a group of [[Slavery in Brazil|enslaved African]] Muslims and freedmen, inspired by Muslim teachers, rose up against the government. Muslims were called ''malê'' in [[Bahia]] at the time, from Yoruba ''imale'' that designated a Yoruba Muslim.<ref name="bit">{{cite book | editor-last = Bittencourt | editor-first = Circe | title = Dicionário de datas da história do Brasil | publisher = Editora Contexto | location = São Paulo, SP | year = 2007 | isbn = 9788572442961 |pages=37–40}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite news |last=Bernardo |first=André |date=2018-05-09 |title=O legado de negros muçulmanos que se rebelaram na Bahia antes do fim da escravidão |trans-title=The legacy of black Muslims who rebelled in Bahia before the end of slavery |url=https://www.bbc.com/portuguese/brasil-44011770 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180512200259/https://www.bbc.com/portuguese/brasil-44011770 |archive-date=2018-05-12 |access-date=2024-08-27 |work=[[BBC News]] |location=[[Rio de Janeiro]] |language=pt-BR}}</ref>

The uprising took place on the feast day of [[Our Lady of Guidance]], a celebration in the [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Bonfim|Bonfim's church]]'s cycle of religious holidays.<ref name=":1">{{Cite news |last=Lourenço |first=Beatriz |date=2020-01-25 |others=Supervised by Larissa Lopes |title=Saiba o que foi e como aconteceu a Revolta dos Malês |trans-title=Find out what the Malês Revolt was and how it happened |url=https://revistagalileu.globo.com/Sociedade/noticia/2020/01/saiba-o-que-foi-e-como-aconteceu-revolta-dos-males.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200125134816/https://revistagalileu.globo.com/Sociedade/noticia/2020/01/saiba-o-que-foi-e-como-aconteceu-revolta-dos-males.html |archive-date=2020-01-25 |access-date=2024-08-27 |work=[[Galileu]] |publisher=[[Editora Globo]] |language=pt-BR}}</ref> As a result, many worshipers traveled to [[Senhor do Bonfim|Bonfim]] for the weekend to pray or celebrate. Authorities were in Bonfim in order to keep the celebrations in line. Consequently, there would be fewer people and authorities in Salvador, making it easier for the rebels to occupy the city.<ref>João José Reis, ''Slave Rebellion in Brazil: The Muslim Uprising of 1835 in Bahia'', Johns Hopkins University Press, London 1993. pp. 118</ref>

==Islam in Bahia==
In Bahia, the [[Hausa people|Hausa]] were primarily identified with practicing [[Islam]] because they adopted Islam before coming over to Brazil.<ref name=":0" /> Over time however, the [[Nagos|Nagô]] slaves made up a majority of Muslims in Bahia due to the rise of Islam in Yoruba kingdoms. In fact, by 1835 most of the Malês were Nagôs.<ref name=":1" /> Furthermore, many of the key figures important in planning the uprising were Nagôs including: Ahuna, Pacífico, and Manoel Calafate.

Within the Muslim community the Malês had power and prestige, especially the Muslims that had long standing. These members tried to attract new Malês. They did not do so passively, but through proselytizing and conversion.

In the African Islamic culture of Brazil, there were several external symbols that became associated with the Malês. One symbol came about through the adoption of amulets. In Bahia amulets were common because they were thought to have protective powers and were worn by both Muslims and non-Muslims. These amulets consisted of pieces of paper with passages from the [[Quran]] and prayers that were folded and placed in a leather pouch that was sewn shut.<ref name=":0" /> They were made and sold by álufas or preachers. These amulets, however, did not signify a strong commitment to Islam because they were associated with traditional, indigenous African religions. Another symbol of Islam in Bahia was the wearing of a long white frock called an [[abadá]]. In Bahia this garment was worn in private so they would not attract attention from law officials. It was only during the rebellion in 1835 that they were worn in public for the first time and were referred to as "war garments" by police.<ref name=":0" /> A third symbol which was used by Malês to identify themselves prior to the uprising were white, metal, silver, or iron rings placed on their fingers. However, when the Malês were defeated, these rings were no longer effective because now everyone knew what they meant.<ref>João José Reis, ''Slave Rebellion in Brazil: The Muslim Uprising of 1835 in Bahia'', Johns Hopkins University Press, London 1993. pp. 96–104</ref>

==Growth of Islam in Bahia==
The urban environment of Salvador facilitated the spread of Islam due to the greater mobility of slaves, the large number of freemen, and the networks between these two groups. All Malês, slave or free, that knew how to read and write [[Arabic]] would spread this knowledge on street corners. The houses of [[Freedman|freedmen]] also provided a place for the practice of Islam, as well as slaves own quarters (in their master's house) or “private mosques” which were rooms the Malês rented out (the majority of which were in downtown Salvador). At these places Malês met to pray, memorize verses from the Qur'an, and learn how to read and write (on wooden writing slates) Arabic. The Malês also wrote matters of their faith on paper, despite its high cost.

In Bahia, the Malês had to innovate some aspects of Islam because they feared persecution by officials,<ref name=":0" /> but tried to maintain its basic characteristics. For example, the Malês gathered frequently to eat suppers together to represent their effort to commit themselves to the aspect of Islam to only eat food prepared by Muslim hands. They ate mutton often, which signifies ritual sacrifices. During Ramadan their diet consisted of [[Yam (vegetable)|yams]], [[Boraginaceae|bugloss]], [[rice]], [[milk]], and [[honey]]. They ended Ramadan by sacrificing a ram. In addition, the Malês celebrated main religious days such as [[Isra_and_Miraj|Lailat al-Miraj]], which was a sign of success in Bahia because Malês had become a well-defined segment of the Bahian black community.<ref>João José Reis, ''Slave Rebellion in Brazil: The Muslim Uprising of 1835 in Bahia'', Johns Hopkins University Press, London 1993. pp. 104–111</ref>

==The revolt==

While the revolt was scheduled to take place on Sunday, January 25, due to various incidents, it was forced to start before the planned time.<ref name=":1" /> On Saturday January 24, slaves began to hear rumors of an upcoming rebellion. While there are multiple accounts of freed slaves telling their previous masters about the revolts, only one was reported to the proper authorities. Sabina da Cruz, an ex-slave, had a fight with her husband, Vitório Sule the day before and went looking for him. She found him in a house with many of the other revolt organizers and after they told her tomorrow they would be masters of the land she reportedly said, “on the following day they’d be masters of the whiplash, but not of the land.”<ref>João José Reis, ''Slave Rebellion in Brazil: The Muslim Uprising of 1835 in Bahia'', Johns Hopkins University Press, London 1993. p. 74</ref> After leaving this house, she went to her friend Guilhermina, a freedwoman, who Sabina knew had access to whites. Guilhermina then proceeded to tell her white neighbor, André Pinto da Silveira. Several of Pinto de Silveira's friends were present, including Antônio de Souza Guimarães and Francisco Antônio Malheiros, who took it upon themselves to relay the information to the local authorities.<ref>"Devassa do levante de escravos occorido em Salvador em 1835," Anais do Arquivo do Estado da Bahia 38,(1968) pp. 61–63</ref><ref>“Peças processuais do levante dos males,” ibid. 40 (1971) pp. 42–43</ref><ref>Also mentioned in João José Reis, ''Slave Rebellion in Brazil: The Muslim Uprising of 1835 in Bahia'', Johns Hopkins University Press, London 1993. p. 74</ref> All of these events occurred between the hours of 9:30 and 10:30 pm on Saturday January 24.

President Francisco de Souza Martins informed the Chief of Police of the situation, reinforced the palace guard, alerted the barracks, doubled the night patrol, and ordered boats to watch the bay, all by 11:00 pm. At around 1:00 am on Sunday, justices of the peace searched the home of Domingos Marinho de Sá. Domingos reported to the patrol that the only Africans in his house were his tenants. However, sensing Domingos’ fear, the justices asked to see for themselves. They went down into his basement and found the ringleaders, discussing last minute details. The Africans were able to turn the officers out into the streets and then started the revolt.

Out on the streets, the fighting saw its first real bloodshed; several people were injured and two Africans were killed, including Vitório Sule, Sabina da Cruz's husband. After securing the area, the rebels split up to go in different directions throughout the city. Most of the groups did very little fighting because they were recruiters, calling slaves to war. However, the largest group traveled up the hill toward Palace Square (modern-day ''Praça Municipal''), and continued to fight.<ref>Francisco Gonçalves Martins, ''Relatório do chefe de polícia Francisco Gonçalves Martins, in Etienne Ignace Brazil, "Os Malês,'' Revista do Instituto Histórico e Geográfico Brasileiro 72 (1909) pp. 117–118</ref><ref>João José Reis, ''Slave Rebellion in Brazil: The Muslim Uprising of 1835 in Bahia'', Johns Hopkins University Press, London 1993. pp. 77–88 (battle narrative)</ref>

The rebels decided to first attack the jail, attempting to free a Muslim leader, Pacífico Licutan. However, the prison guards proved too much for the rebels, who perhaps were looking to supplement their weak supply of arms with the jailers'. Unfortunately for the rebels, the reinforced palace guard began firing on them from across the square and they found themselves caught between lines of fire in front of the jail. Under heavy fire, the slaves withdrew from the prison and retreated to the Largo de Teatro. Reinforcements arrived on the slaves' side, and together they attacked a nearby post of soldiers in order to take their weapons. They marched toward the officer's barracks, and put up a good fight, however, the soldiers were able to pull the gate guarding the barracks shut. The slaves had failed.<ref>Francisco Gonçalves Martins, ''Relatório do chefe de polícia Francisco Gonçalves Martins, in Etienne Ignace Brazil, "Os Malês,'' Revista do Instituto Histórico e Geográfico Brasileiro 72 (1909) pp. 117–118</ref><ref>João José Reis, ''Slave Rebellion in Brazil: The Muslim Uprising of 1835 in Bahia'', Johns Hopkins University Press, London 1993. pp. 77–88 (battle narrative)</ref>

The rebels worked their way towards the Vitória neighborhood, where a number of Muslim slaves lived in the [[English people|English]] community there. They regrouped at Mercês Convent where the sacristan, a Nagô slave named Agostinho, was a member of the conspiracy. The convent was a pre-determined spot for regrouping. A police patrol came across the rebels here, but retreated from their counter-attack to Fort São Pedro—a stronghold the rebels did not try to assault. By now the rebels numbered several hundred, but they had not been able to achieve any of their goals. They now headed towards Cabrioto, outside the city to rendezvous with slaves from plantations outside Salvador. In order to get to Cabrioto, however, they would have to pass the cavalry barracks. And when they met in Água de Meninos, the most decisive battle of the revolt took place. At about 3:00 am, the rebels reached Água de Meninos. The footsoldiers immediately retreated inside the confines of the barracks while the men on horseback stayed outside. The rebels, who now only numbered about 50–60, did not attempt to attack the barracks. Instead, they sought a way around it.<ref>Francisco Gonçalves Martins, ''Relatório do chefe de polícia Francisco Gonçalves Martins, in Etienne Ignace Brazil, "Os Malês,'' Revista do Instituto Histórico e Geográfico Brasileiro 72 (1909) pp. 117–118</ref><ref>João José Reis, ''Slave Rebellion in Brazil: The Muslim Uprising of 1835 in Bahia'', Johns Hopkins University Press, London 1993. pp. 77–88 (battle narrative)</ref>

However, they were met with fire from the barracks, followed by a cavalry charge, which proved too powerful for the slaves to overcome. After the rebels were completely devastated, more slaves arrived. After assessing the situation, the slaves decided that their only hope would be to attack and take the barracks. However, this desperate attempt proved futile, and the rebels quickly decided to flee. The cavalry mounted one last charge that finished them off.<ref>João José Reis, ''Slave Rebellion in Brazil: The Muslim Uprising of 1835 in Bahia'', Johns Hopkins University Press, London 1993. pp. 73–92</ref><ref>R. K. Kent, African Revolt in Bahia: 24–25 January 1835, Journal of Social History, 1970. pp. 334–356.</ref>

==Leadership==
* Ahuna – Ahuna was a Nagô slave who lived in Salvador. He traveled frequently to [[Santo Amaro, Bahia|Santo Amaro]] where his owner had a sugar plantation. It has been suggested that his presence was a key factor in the timing of the rebellion.
* [[Pacifico Licutan]] – Licutan was a Nagô slave who worked as a tobacco roller. He was in prison at the time of the rebellion, and one of the main goals was to free him.<ref name=":0" />
* Luís Sanim – Sanim was a Nupe slave who also worked as a tobacco roller. He ran a fund where each member contributed a day's wages for slave labor, presumably monthly, and this money was divided into three parts: one part for cloth to make Muslim garments; a part to masters' portions of slave wages—since Malê slaves did not work on Fridays; and one part to help buy letters of manumission.
* Manoel Calafate – Calafate travelled to Santo Amaro to mobilize rebels on the eve of the uprising. He took an active part in the fighting and appears to have been killed in Palace Square.
* Elesbão do Corma – Elesbão do Corma was a Hausa freedman who was known in the African community as Dandará. He owned a tobacco shop which was also used as a meeting place for Malês. He also traveled through the Recôncavo for his business, and brought the Muslim faith to slaves on the plantations there.<ref>João José Reis, ''Slave Rebellion in Brazil: The Muslim Uprising of 1835 in Bahia'', Johns Hopkins University Press, London 1993. pp. 129–134</ref>

==Aftermath==

Fearful that the whole state of Bahia would follow the example of [[Saint-Domingue]] (Haiti) and rise up and revolt, the authorities quickly sentenced four of the rebels to death, sixteen to prison, eight to forced labour, and forty-five to flogging. Two hundred of the remainder of the surviving leaders of the revolt were then deported by municipal authorities back to Africa; they employed the slaver [[Francisco Félix de Sousa]] for the Atlantic journey. The deportees, who consisted of freed and enslaved Africans, were sent in stages to the [[Bight of Benin]] starting in 1835, specifically to the existing Lusophone colony in Dahomey. It is believed that some members of the [[Aguda people|Brazilian community]] in Lagos, Nigeria, and the [[Tabom people]] of [[Ghana]] are descended from this deportation, although descendants of these [[Afro-Brazilians|Afro-Brazilian]] repatriates are reputed to be widespread throughout West Africa (such as [[Sylvanus Olympio]], the first president of [[Togo]]). The term "Aguda" on the other hand refers to the mainstream, predominantly Christian Brazilian returnees to Lagos who brought [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]] in their wake; which is why that denomination is often referenced in Yoruba as "Ijo Aguda" (the Portuguese Church).<ref name="teriba">{{cite thesis |last= Tẹríba |first= Adédoyin |date= 2017|title= Afro-Brazilian Architecture In Southwest Colonial Nigeria (1890s–1940s) |publisher= Princeton University | page= 2}}</ref>

News of the revolt reverberated throughout Brazil and news of it appeared in press of the [[United States]] and [[England]]. Fearing the example might be followed, the Brazilian authorities began to watch the ''malês'' very carefully. National and local laws were passed to further control enslaved people in Brazil; these included the death penalty without possibility of recourse for the murder of a plantation owner, overseer, or family members of a plantation owner. In subsequent years intensive efforts were made to force conversions to Catholicism and erase the popular memory and affection towards Islam.<ref name=":0" /> However, the African Muslim community was not erased overnight, and as late as 1910 it is estimated there were still some 100,000 African Muslims living in Brazil.<ref name="bit"/><ref>Steven Barboza, ''American Jihad'', 1993.</ref><ref name="teriba"/>

Many consider this rebellion to be the turning point of slavery in Brazil.<ref name="bit"/> Widespread discussion of the end of the [[Atlantic slave trade]] appeared in the press. While slavery existed for more than fifty years following the Malê revolt, the slave trade was abolished in 1851. Slaves continued to pour into Brazil immediately following the rebellion, which caused fear and unrest among the people of Brazil. They feared that bringing in more slaves would just fuel another rebel army. Although it took a little over fifteen years to happen, the slave trade was abolished in Brazil, due in part to the 1835 rebellion.<ref>Dale T. Graden, ''An Act "Even of Public Security": Slave Resistance, Social Tensions, and the End of the International Slave Trade to Brazil, 1835–1856'', ''The Hispanic American Historical Review'', Vol. 76, No. 2., May 1996. pp. 249–251.</ref>

==Notes==
{{reflist|2}}

==References==
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book|last=Reis|first=João José|title=Slave Rebellion in Brazil: The Muslim Uprising of 1835 in Bahia| publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press|location=Baltimore|year=1993|edition=1st|isbn= 0801844622}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
* [http://lostislamichistory.com/the-bahia-muslim-slave-revolt/ The Bahia Muslim Slave Revolt]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060207190518/http://www.antislavery.org/breakingthesilence/slave_routes/slave_routes_brazil.shtml Slave Routes - Americas and Caribbean]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070115174503/http://www.africandiasporastudies.com/downloads/bahia_slave_revolt.pdf ''The Islamic Slave Revolts of Bahia, Brazil'', by Abu Alfa MUHAMMAD SHAREEF bin Farid, Institute of Islamic-African Studies] - in [[PDF]]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070927004108/http://soundvision.com/info/history/black/servantsofAllah.asp About African Muslims enslaved in the Americas]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20140116070821/http://www.educacao.salvador.ba.gov.br/documentos/a-revolta-dos-males.pdf A revolta dos Malês 1835 "The Malê revolt 1835"]
* [http://www.multirio.rj.gov.br/historia/modulo02/rev_males.html A Revolta dos Malês "The Malê revolt"]
* [http://www.pppg.ufma.br/cadernosdepesquisa/uploads/files/Artigo%205(5).pdf Revoltas de escravos na Bahia "Slave revolts in Bahia"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140201231655/http://www.pppg.ufma.br/cadernosdepesquisa/uploads/files/Artigo%205(5).pdf |date=2014-02-01 }}

{{Afro-Brazilian topics}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Male Revolt}}
[[Category:1835 in Brazil]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1835]]
[[Category:January 1835]]
[[Category:19th-century rebellions]]
[[Category:Slave rebellions in Brazil]]
[[Category:History of Bahia]]
[[Category:Brazilian rebel slaves]]
[[Category:Islam in Brazil]]
[[Category:History of the Yoruba people]]
[[Category:History of religion in Brazil]]

Island of Palmas Case

2025-05-31T19:18:28Z

131.111.5.201: fixed use of 'by' PCA to 'at'

{{Short description|Legal case}}
{{Infobox court case
|name = Island of Palmas
|court = [[Permanent Court of Arbitration]]
|image = Permanent Court of Arbitration - Cour permanente d'arbitrage.svg
|imagesize = 150px
|imagelink =
|imagealt =
|caption =
|full name = Island of Palmas (or Miangas) (United States v. The Netherlands)
|date decided = 4 April 1928
|citations =
|transcripts =
|judges = [[Max Huber (statesman)|Max Huber]], sole arbitrator
|number of judges = 1
|decision by = [[Max Huber (statesman)|Max Huber]]
}}
The '''''Island of Palmas Case''''' (Scott, Hague Court Reports 2d 83 (1932), (Perm. Ct. Arb. 1928), 2 U.N. Rep. Intl. Arb. Awards 829) was a territorial dispute over the Island of Palmas (or [[Miangas]]) between the [[Netherlands]] and the [[United States]] which was heard at the [[Permanent Court of Arbitration]] by arbitrator [[Max Huber (statesman)|Max Huber]]. [[Miangas|Palmas]] ({{langx|id|Pulau Miangas}}) was declared to be a part of the [[Netherlands East Indies]] and is now part of [[Indonesia]].

The case is one of the most influential precedents dealing with island territorial conflicts.

==Background==
{{Coord|5.55804|N|126.5847|E|display=title}}
{{location map+ |Philippines |float=right |height= |width=120 |caption=Location of the Palmas, with the Philippines as a reference. |places=
{{location map~ |Philippines |marksize=6 |lat=5.55804 |long=126.5847 |caption=Island of Palmas |position=left}}
}}
{{location map+ |Indonesia |float=right |height= |width=250 |caption=Location of the Palmas, with Indonesia as a reference. |places=
{{location map~ |Indonesia |marksize=6 |lat=5.55804 |long=126.5847 |caption=Island of Palmas |position=left}}
}}
Palmas (Miangas) is an island of little economic value or strategic location. It is 2.6 km in north–south length and 1.0 km in east–west width.<ref>[https://itouchmap.com/latlong.html Satellite view of 5.55804/126.58470]</ref> It had a population of about 750 in 1932, when the case was decided. The island is located approximately 100 miles [[Points of the compass#16-wind compass rose|ESE]] of [[General Santos]], Philippines, and 70 miles north of the [[Talaud Islands]], the next-northernmost part of Indonesia.

In 1898, [[Spain]] ceded the Philippines to the United States in the [[Treaty of Paris (1898)]] and Palmas is located within the boundaries of that cession. In 1906, the United States discovered that the Netherlands also claimed sovereignty over the island, and the two parties agreed to submit to binding arbitration by the [[Permanent Court of Arbitration]]. On 23 January 1925, the two governments signed an agreement to that effect. Ratifications were exchanged in [[Washington, D.C.]], on 1 April 1925. The agreement was registered in ''League of Nations Treaty Series'' on 19 May 1925.<ref>''League of Nations Treaty Series'', vol. 33, pp. 446-453.</ref> The arbitrator in the case was [[Max Huber (statesman)|Max Huber]], a [[Swiss people|Swiss]] lawyer.

The question before the arbitrator was whether the Island of Palmas (Miangas) formed part of United States territory (referring to what is now the [[Philippines]]) or Dutch territory (referring to what is now [[Indonesia]]).

==US arguments==

=== Right by discovery===
On 1 January 1906, General [[Leonard Wood]], Governor of [[Moro Province]], Philippines, visited Palmas. According to the Counter-Memorandum filed in the case by the United States, he had already visited the island in "about 1903". The report of Wood to the Military Secretary, United States Army, on 26 January 1906, and the certificate delivered on 21 January by First Lieutenant Gordon Johnston to the native interrogated by the controller of the Sangi (Sanghi) and Talauer (Talaut) Islands clearly show that the 21 January visit relates to the island in dispute. The visit led to the US statement that the Island of Palmas, undoubtedly included in the "archipelago known as the Philippine Islands," as delimited by Article III of the Treaty of Peace between the United States and Spain, also called "[[Treaty of Paris (1898)|Treaty of Paris]]," and ceded in virtue of the said article to the United States, was considered by the Netherlands as forming part of the territory of its possessions in the East Indies.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=The Palmas Island Arbitration|journal=The American Journal of International Law |volume=22 |issue=4 |year=1928 |pages=735–752|doi=10.2307/2188429 |jstor=2188429 |last1=Jessup |first1=Philip C. |s2cid=147068663 }}</ref>

The United States, as the successor to the rights of Spain over the Philippines, based its title in the first place on discovery. The existence of sovereignty thus acquired was not merely confirmed by the most reliable cartographers and authors and even by treaty, particularly the [[Peace of Münster|Treaty of Münster]] of 1648, which was agreed to by Spain and the Netherlands. According to the same argument, nothing had occurred of a nature to cause the acquired title to disappear in international law. The United States argued the latter title at the moment when Spain ceded its title to the Philippines by the Treaty of Paris in 1898. Thus, it was unnecessary to establish facts showing the actual display of sovereignty precisely over the Island of Palmas.

===Principle of contiguity===
The American government finally maintained that Palmas forms a geographical part of the Philippine group and is closer to the Philippines than to the [[Dutch East Indies]]. Thus, the principle of contiguity substantiated the claim that it belongs to the power with sovereignty over the Philippines.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=International Law (4th ed. 2009)|last=Epps|first=Valerie}}</ref>

==Dutch arguments==
The Netherlands considered discovery by Spain not proven and contested the principle of contiguity.

===Continuous and peaceful display of sovereignty===
The main argument was that the Netherlands, represented by the East India Company, had possessed and exercised rights of sovereignty from 1677, or possibly from 1648. Sovereignty arose out of conventions entered into with native princes on Sangi (the main island of the Talautse Isles) to stabilize the sovereignty of the Netherlands over the territories of the princes, including Palmas (or Miangas) and this had been validated by international treaties.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=The Island of Palmas Case|journal=Permanent Court of Arbitration |year=1928}}</ref>

==Issues==
{{unreferenced section|date=February 2020}}
Huber had to determine "whether the Island of Palmas (or Miangas) in its entirety forms a part of territory belonging to the United States of America or of Netherlands territory." Based on the arguments made by both states, there were two main issues:
*Did the inchoate title claimed by the United States prevail over a continuous and peaceful display of sovereignty exercised by the Netherlands?
*Did a title of contiguity have foundation in international law?

==Decision==
Huber ruled for the Netherlands:

{{blockquote|For these reasons
The Arbitrator
in conformity with Article I of the Special Agreement of 23 January 1925
DECIDES that :
THE ISLAND OF PALMAS (or MIANGAS) forms in its entirety a part of the Netherlands territory.
done at The Hague, this fourth day of April 1928.
[[Max Huber (statesman)|Max Huber]], Arbitrator
[[Michiels van Verduynen]], Secretary-General.<ref>Paraphrased from [http://www.pca-cpa.org/showfile.asp?fil_id=168 THE ISLAND OF PALMAS CASE (OR MIANGAS) : UNITED STATES OF AMERICA V. THE NETHERLANDS] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120821235154/http://www.pca-cpa.org/showfile.asp?fil_id=168 |date=2012-08-21 }}, PERMANENT COURT OF ARBITRATION, 4 April 1928, p. 39.</ref>}}

===Right by discovery===
The United States argued that it held the island because it had received actual title by legitimate treaties from the original discoverer of the island, Spain. The United States argued that Spain acquired title to Palmas when Spain discovered the island and the island was ''[[terra nullius]]''. Spain's title to the island, because it was a part of the Philippines, was then ceded to the United States under the [[Treaty of Paris (1898)]] after Spain's defeat in the [[Spanish–American War]]. The arbitrator noted that no new international law invalidated the legal transfer of territory via cession.

However, the arbitrator noted that Spain could not legally grant what it did not hold and the Treaty of Paris could not grant Palmas to the United States if Spain had no actual title to it. The arbitrator concluded that Spain held an [[wiktionary:inchoate|inchoate]] title when Spain "discovered" Palmas. However, for a sovereign to maintain its initial title via discovery, the arbitrator said that the discoverer had to actually exercise authority even by as simple an act as planting a flag on the beach. Spain did not exercise authority over the island after making an initial claim after discovery and so the American claim was based on relatively weak grounds.

===Contiguity===
The United States argued that Palmas was American territory because the island was closer to the Philippines than to the Netherlands East Indies. The arbitrator said that there was no positive international law for the American view of ''terra firma'' in which the nearest continent or island of considerable size gives title to the land in dispute. The arbitrator held that mere proximity was not an adequate claim to land and noted that if the international community followed the proposed American approach, that would lead to arbitrary results.

===Continuous and peaceful display of sovereignty===
The Netherlands' primary contention was that it held actual title because the Netherlands had exercised authority on the island since 1677. The arbitrator noted that the United States had failed to show documentation proving Spanish sovereignty on the island except the documents that specifically mentioned the island's discovery. Additionally, there was no evidence that Palmas was a part of the judicial or administrative organization of the Spanish government of the Philippines. However, the Netherlands showed that the [[Dutch East India Company]] had negotiated treaties with the local princes of the island since the 17th century and had exercised sovereignty, including a requirement of Protestantism and the denial of other nationals on the island. The arbitrator pointed out that if Spain had actually exercised authority, there would have been conflicts between the two countries, but none is provided in the evidence.

Thus, a title that is inchoate cannot prevail over a definite title found on the continuous and peaceful display of sovereignty. Peaceful and continuous display of territorial sovereignty is as good as title. However, discovery alone, without a subsequent act, cannot suffice to prove sovereignty over the island. The territorial sovereignty of the defendant, Netherlands, was not contested by anyone from 1700 to 1906 so the title of discovery was, at best, an inchoate title and does not prevail over the Netherlands claims of sovereignty.<ref name=":0"/>

==Customary International Law==
Under the decision, three customs of international law for resolving island territorial disputes emerged:
*Title based on contiguity has no standing in international law
*Title by discovery is only an inchoate title and cannot supersede the continuous and peaceful display of sovereignty
*If another sovereign begins to exercise continuous and actual sovereignty openly and publicly and with good title, but the discoverer does not contest the claim, the claim by the sovereign that exercises authority is then greater than a title based on mere discovery.

== Inter-temporal rule ==

The decision has also served as a basis for the definition of the [[Intertemporal law|inter-temporal rule]] in [[international law]] (''tempus regit actum'').<ref name="Auto0P-6">{{Cite book|last=Higgins|first=Rosalyn|title=Theory of International Law at the Threshold of the 21st Century; Essays in honour of Krzysztof Skubiszewski|publisher=Kluwer Law International|year=1993|editor-last=Makarczyk|editor-first=J.|pages=173–181|chapter=Some observations on the Inter-temporal rule in International Law|author-link=Rosalyn Higgins, Baroness Higgins}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Elias|first=T. O.|date=1980|title=The Doctrine of Intertemporal Law|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/american-journal-of-international-law/article/abs/doctrine-of-intertemporal-law/24F754BE3BB24CD83FF9812748B6B34E|journal=American Journal of International Law|language=en|volume=74|issue=2|pages=285–307|doi=10.2307/2201503|jstor=2201503|s2cid=143623395|issn=0002-9300|url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wheatley|first=Steven|date=2020-12-21|title=Revisiting the Doctrine of Intertemporal Law|url=https://doi.org/10.1093/ojls/gqaa058|journal=Oxford Journal of Legal Studies|volume=41|issue=2|pages=484–509|doi=10.1093/ojls/gqaa058|issn=0143-6503|pmc=8298020|pmid=34305451}}</ref> The rule as enunciated by [[Max Huber (statesman)|Huber]] distinguished between the creation of rights, and the existence of rights:<blockquote>"A judicial fact must be appreciated in the light of the law contemporary with it, and not of the law in force at the time such a dispute in regard to it arises or falls to be settled."<ref name="Auto0P-6"/></blockquote>However:<blockquote>"The same principle which subjects the act creative of a right to the law in force at the time the right arises, demands that the existence of the right, in other words its continued manifestation, shall follow the conditions required by the evolution of the law."<ref name="Auto0P-6"/></blockquote>

==See also==
*[[Kuril Islands dispute]]
*[[Liancourt Rocks dispute]]
*[[Senkaku Islands dispute]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Sources==
*{{cite journal|url=http://law.upd.edu.ph/plj/images/files/PLJ%20volume%2077/PLJ%20volume%2077%20number%204%20-01-%20Prof.%20H.%20Harry%20L.%20Roque,%20Jr%20-%20Palmas%20Arbitration%20Revisited.pdf|title=Palmas Arbitration revisited|author=H. Harry L. Roque Jr.|journal=Philippine Law Journal|volume=77|issue=4|pages=437–462}}{{Dead link|date=February 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
*{{cite journal|url=http://plj.upd.edu.ph/wp-content/uploads/plj/PLJ%20volume%2077/PLJ%20volume%2077%20number%204/PLJ%20volume%2077%20number%204%20-01-%20Prof.%20H.%20Harry%20L.%20Roque,%20Jr%20-%20Palmas%20Arbitration%20Revisited.pdf|title=Diayou/Senkaku Islands Dispute: Japan and China, Oceans Apart|author=William Heflin|journal=Asian-Pacific Law & Policy Journal|pages=9–11 Section III–A, ''Island of Palmas Case''|volume=1|issue=2|year=2000|access-date=2016-07-17|archive-date=2016-08-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160818024851/http://plj.upd.edu.ph/wp-content/uploads/plj/PLJ%20volume%2077/PLJ%20volume%2077%20number%204/PLJ%20volume%2077%20number%204%20-01-%20Prof.%20H.%20Harry%20L.%20Roque,%20Jr%20-%20Palmas%20Arbitration%20Revisited.pdf|url-status=dead}}
*William S. Slomanson, Fundamental Perspectives on International Law (6th ed. 2011).

==External links==
* [https://pca-cpa.org/en/cases/94/ Permanent Court of Arbitration: Island of Palmas (or Miangas) (The Netherlands / The United States of America)]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20080528174538/http://www.gwu.edu/~jaysmith/Island.html The Island of Palmas] (archived from [http://www.gwu.edu/~jaysmith/Island.html the original] on 28 May 2008), Scott, Hague Court Reports 2d 83 (1932) (Perm. Ct. 4rb. 1928), Abridgement and notes by Kurt Taylor Gaubatz
*[https://archive.today/20121210210802/http://www.lions.odu.edu/~kgaubatz/casebook/palmas.htm Case Description] in [https://archive.today/20121212154644/http://www.lions.odu.edu/~kgaubatz/casebook/casebook.htm the Online Casebook]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20041215063650/http://ksumail.kennesaw.edu/~cli/palm.htm Island of Palmas (Miangas) Case], (archived from [http://ksumail.kennesaw.edu/~cli/palm.htm the original] on 15 December 2004)

{{Territorial disputes in East, South, and Southeast Asia}}
{{Philippine territorial disputes}}
{{Netherlands–United States relations}}

[[Category:Dutch East Indies]]
[[Category:Legal history of the Netherlands]]
[[Category:Insular Government of the Philippine Islands]]
[[Category:Legal history of the United States]]
[[Category:Permanent Court of Arbitration cases]]
[[Category:Territorial disputes of the Netherlands]]
[[Category:Territorial disputes of Indonesia]]
[[Category:Territorial disputes of the Philippines]]
[[Category:International territorial disputes of the United States]]
[[Category:1928 in international relations]]
[[Category:1928 in case law]]
[[Category:Netherlands–United States relations]]

Herculine Barbin

2025-05-31T04:24:07Z

131.111.5.201: /* Puberty */

{{Short description|French intersex writer (1838–1868)}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Herculine Adélaïde Barbin
| other_names = {{hlist|Abel|Camille|}}
| birth_date = {{birth date|1838|11|8}}
| birth_place = [[Saint-Jean-d'Angély]], France
| death_date = February, 1868 (aged 29)
| death_place = [[Paris]], France
| death_cause = [[Suicide]] (gas asphyxiation)
| notable_works = ''[[Herculine Barbin (memoir)|Herculine Barbin: Being the Recently Discovered Memoirs of a Nineteenth-century French Hermaphrodite]]''
}}

'''Herculine Adélaïde Barbin''', later known as '''Abel Barbin''' (November 8, 1838 – February 1868),<ref>{{cite book |last1=Foucault |first1=Michel |title=Herculine Barbin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GxFjeOf02rgC&q=Herculine+Barbin+%22born%22&pg=PA120|isbn=9780307833099 |date=2013-01-30 |publisher=Knopf Doubleday Publishing }}</ref> was a [[French people|French]] [[intersex]] person who was [[assigned female at birth]] and raised in a convent, but was later reclassified as male by a court of law, after an affair and physical examination. She is known for her memoir, ''[[Herculine Barbin (memoir)|Herculine Barbin]]'', which was studied by [[Michel Foucault]]. Her birthday is marked as [[Intersex Day of Remembrance]].

==Early life==
Most of what is known about Barbin comes from her later memoirs. Barbin was born in [[Saint-Jean-d'Angély]] in France in 1838. She was [[sex assignment|assigned]] as female and raised as such; her family named her Alexina. Her family was poor but she gained a charity scholarship to study in the school of an [[Ursulines|Ursuline]] convent.

According to her account, she was enamoured of an aristocratic female friend in school. She regarded herself as unattractive but sometimes slipped into her friend's room at night and was sometimes punished for it. Her studies were successful and in 1856, at the age of 17, she was sent to Le Château to study to become a teacher. There, she fell in love with one of her teachers.

==Puberty==
Although Barbin was in puberty, she had not begun to [[menstruation|menstruate]] and remained flat chested. The hairs on her cheeks and upper lip were noticeable.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Foucault|first1=Michel|title=Herculine Barbin|date=1980|publisher=Pantheon|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tyHcwTtRdkMC&q=barbin+alexina+camille&pg=PR10|isbn=9780394738628}}</ref>

In 1857, Barbin received a position as an assistant teacher in a girls' school. She fell in love with another teacher named Sara. Sara's ministrations turned into caresses and they became lovers. Eventually, rumors about their affair began to circulate.

Although in poor health her whole life, Barbin began to suffer excruciating pains. When a doctor examined her, he was shocked and asked that she should be sent away from the school, but she stayed.

Eventually, the devoutly Catholic Barbin confessed to [[Jean-François-Anne Landriot]], the [[Bishop of La Rochelle]]. He asked Barbin's permission to break the confessional silence in order to send for a doctor to examine her. When Dr. Chesnet did so in 1860, he discovered that although Barbin had a small [[vagina]], she had a masculine body type, a very small penis, and testicles inside her body. In 19th-century medical terms, she had [[male pseudohermaphroditism]].

==Reassignment as male==
A later legal decision declared officially that Barbin was male. She left her lover and her job, changed her name to Abel Barbin and was briefly mentioned in the press. She moved to Paris where she lived in poverty and wrote her memoirs, reputedly as a part of therapy. In these memoirs, Barbin would use female pronouns when writing about her life prior to sexual redesignation and male pronouns following the declaration. Nevertheless, Barbin clearly regarded herself as punished, and "disinherited", subject to a "ridiculous inquisition".

In his commentary to Barbin's memoirs, [[Michel Foucault]] presented Barbin as an example of the "happy limbo of a non-identity", but whose masculinity marked her from her contemporaries.<ref name="holmes2004">{{Cite journal| issn = 1444-3775| issue = 8| last = Holmes| first = Morgan| author-link=Morgan Holmes | title = Locating Third Sexes| journal = Transformations Journal| series = Regions of Sexuality| date = July 2004
| url = http://www.transformationsjournal.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/Holmes_Transformations08.pdf}}</ref> [[Morgan Holmes]] states that Barbin's own writings showed that she saw herself as an "exceptional female", but female nonetheless.<ref name="holmes2004" />

==Death==
In February 1868, the [[concierge]] of Barbin's house in rue de l'École-de-Médecine found her dead in her home. She had died by suicide by inhaling gas from her [[producer gas|coal gas]] [[gas stove|stove]]. The memoirs were found beside her bed.

==Publication of memoirs==
[[File:Tardieu1872.jpg|thumb|right|255px|Title page of Ambroise Tardieu's 1872 book in which excerpts of Herculine Barbin's memoirs were first published.]]
Dr. Regnier reported the death, recovered the memoirs and performed an autopsy. Later he gave the memoirs to [[Auguste Ambroise Tardieu]], who published excerpts as "Histoire et souvenirs d'Alexina B." ("The Story and Memoirs of Alexina B.") in his book ''Question médico-légale de l'identité dans ses rapport avec les vices de conformation des organes sexuels, contenant les souvenirs et impressions d'un individu dont le sexe avait été méconnu'' ("Forensics of Identity Involving Deformities of the Sexual Organs, along with the Memoirs and Impressions of an Individual whose Sex was Misidentified") (Paris: J.-B. Ballière et Fils, 1872). The excerpts were translated into English in 1980.

[[Michel Foucault]] discovered the memoirs in the 1970s while conducting research at the French Department of Public Hygiene. He had the journals republished as ''[[Herculine Barbin: Being the Recently Discovered Memoirs of a Nineteenth-century French Hermaphrodite]]''. In his edition, Foucault also included a set of medical reports, legal documents, and newspaper articles, as well as a short story adaptation by Oscar Panizza.

==Modern commentaries and references==
According to [[Morgan Holmes]], the anthropologist Gilbert Herdt has identified Barbin as providing a crisis for "modern ideology" through an identification as neither male nor female,<ref name="herdt1994">{{cite book | first = Gilbert | last = Herdt | title = Third Sex, Third Gender: Beyond Sexual Dimorphism in Culture and History | location = New York | publisher = Zone | date = 1994}}</ref> but Barbin's own writings describe a self-identification as female, albeit an exceptional female.<ref name="holmes2004" />

Barbin's memoirs inspired the French film ''[[The Mystery of Alexina]]''. [[Jeffrey Eugenides]] in his book ''[[Middlesex (novel)|Middlesex]]'' treats concurrent themes, as does [[Virginia Woolf]] in her book, ''[[Orlando: A Biography]]''. [[Judith Butler]] refers to Foucault's commentary on Barbin at various points in their 1990 ''[[Gender Trouble]]'', including their chapter "Foucault, Herculine, and the Politics of Sexual Discontinuity." There is also evidence to suggest Prince's [[Camille (album)|Camille]] character and album were based on Barbin.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Maloney |first1=Liam |last2=Masterson |first2=Alex |title=The artist formerly known as Camille – Prince's lost album 'comes out' |url=https://theconversation.com/the-artist-formerly-known-as-camille-princes-lost-album-comes-out-189486 |website=The Conversation |date=31 January 2023 |access-date=17 July 2024}}</ref>

Barbin appears as a character in the play ''[[A Mouthful of Birds]]'' by [[Caryl Churchill]] and [[David Lan]]. Barbin also appears as a character in the play ''Hidden: A Gender'' by [[Kate Bornstein]]. ''Herculine,'' a full-length play based on the memoirs of Barbin, is by Garrett Heater. Kira Obolensky also wrote a two-act stage adaptation entitled ''The Adventures of Herculina''.

In 2014, a manuscript entitled ''Dear Herculine'' by Aaron Apps won the 2014 Sawtooth Poetry Prize from Ahsahta Press.<ref>{{cite book |last=Apps |first=Aaron |date=2015 |title=Intersex: A Memoir |publisher=[[Tarpaulin Sky Press]] |isbn=978-1-939460-04-2}}</ref>

In 2023, the opera "{{ill|Alexina B.|ca}}" by composer [[Raquel García-Tomás]], inspired by the memoirs of Herculine Barbin, premiered at the [[Liceu|Gran Teatre del Liceu]] in Barcelona. With the premiere García-Tomás became the first female composer to premiere an opera at the Liceu in the 21st century and the second in the history of the theater.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Senz |first=Javier Pérez |date=2023-03-19 |title=BARCELONA / Raquel García-Tomás triunfa en el Liceu con el lirismo cautivador de 'Alexina B.' |url=https://scherzo.es/barcelona-raquel-garcia-tomas-triunfa-en-el-liceu-con-el-lirismo-cautivador-de-alexina-b/ |access-date=2024-01-05 |website=Scherzo |language=es}}</ref>

==Commemoration==
The birthday of Herculine Barbin on 8 November is marked as [[Intersex Day of Remembrance]].

== See also ==
* [[Intersex people in history]]
* [[Intersex rights in France]]
* [[Timeline of intersex history]]
* [[David Reimer]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
*{{cite book | last = Barbin | first = Herculine | year = 1980 | others = introd. [[Michel Foucault]], trans. Richard McDougall | title = Herculine Barbin: Being the Recently Discovered Memoirs of a Nineteenth-century French Hermaphrodite | publisher = Pantheon Books | location = New York | isbn = 978-0-394-50821-4}}
*{{cite journal | first = Alice Domurat | last = Dreger |author-link = Alice Dreger | date=Spring 1995 | title = Doubtful Sex: The Fate of the Hermaphrodite in Victorian Medicine | journal = Victorian Studies | volume = 38 | issue = 3 | pages = 335–370 | issn = 0042-5222 | pmid = 11609024}}
*{{Cite journal| issn = 1444-3775| issue = 8| last = Holmes| first = Morgan| author-link=Morgan Holmes | title = Locating Third Sexes| journal = Transformations Journal| series = Regions of Sexuality| date = July 2004| url = http://www.transformationsjournal.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/Holmes_Transformations08.pdf}}
*{{cite journal | first = Mélisse | last = Lafrance | year = 2002 | title = Uncertain Erotic: A Foucauldian Reading of Herculine Barbin dite Alexina B | journal = SITES: The Journal of Contemporary French Studies | volume = 6 | issue = 1 | pages = 119–131 | issn = 1026-0218 | doi = 10.1080/10260210290021815| s2cid = 144220593 }}
*{{cite book | last = Leroi | first = Armand Marie | author-link = Armand Marie Leroi | year = 2003 | title = Mutants: On Genetic Variety and the Human Body | publisher = Viking | location = New York | isbn = 978-0-670-03110-8 | pages = [https://archive.org/details/mutantsongenetic00lero_0/page/217 217–222] | url-access = registration | url = https://archive.org/details/mutantsongenetic00lero_0/page/217 }}
*{{cite book | last = Tardieu | first = Ambroise | year = 1872 | title = Question médico-légale de l'identité dans ses rapport avec les vices de conformation des organes sexuels, contenant les souvenirs et impressions d'un individu dont le sexe avait été méconnu | publisher = J.-B. Ballière et Fils | location = Paris | pages = 48–159|language=fr}}

==External links==
* {{in lang|fr}} [https://www.scribd.com/doc/2264752/Adelaide-Herculine-Barbin-Mes-souvenirs Adelaïde-Herculine Barbin, ''Mes-souvenirs''].
*[https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1139024/ Commentary about the memoirs in the PubMed Central].
* {{in lang|es}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20061027101829/http://anonima.blogspirit.com/archive/2006/02/09/herculine-barbine-hermafroditismo-y-condena.html Herculine Barbin. Hermafroditismo y condena].

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Barbin, Herculine}}
[[Category:1838 births]]
[[Category:1868 deaths]]
[[Category:French women memoirists]]
[[Category:Intersex women]]
[[Category:Intersex history]]
[[Category:Suicides by gas]]
[[Category:Suicides in Paris]]
[[Category:People from Charente-Maritime]]
[[Category:French lesbian writers]]
[[Category:French intersex people]]
[[Category:19th-century French memoirists]]
[[Category:19th-century French LGBTQ people]]
[[Category:1860s suicides]]
[[Category:Intersex writers]]
[[Category:Lesbian memoirists]]

Chaos and Creation in the Backyard

2025-05-30T00:00:27Z

131.111.5.201: /* Personnel */

{{EngvarB|date=September 2013}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2019}}
{{Infobox album|
| name = Chaos and Creation in the Backyard
| type = Studio album
| artist = [[Paul McCartney]]
| cover = Chaos and Creation in the Back Yard.jpg
| border = yes
| alt =
| caption = Cover photo by [[Mike McCartney]]
| released = {{start date|df=yes|2005|09|12}}
| recorded = September 2003 – April 2005
| studio = *[[RAK Studios|RAK]] (London)
*[[Air Lyndhurst|AIR]] (London)
*[[Ocean Way Studios|Ocean Way]] (Hollywood)
| genre = [[Rock music|Rock]] 
| length = 46:53
| label = [[Parlophone]] (UK) [[Capitol Records|Capitol]] (US) [[Capitol Records]]/[[Universal Music Enterprises]] (2018 reissue)
| producer = [[Nigel Godrich]]
| prev_title = [[Twin Freaks]]
| prev_year = 2005
| next_title = [[Never Stop Doing What You Love]]
| next_year = 2005
| misc = {{Singles
| name = Chaos and Creation in the Backyard
| type = studio
| single1 = [[Fine Line (Paul McCartney song)|Fine Line]]
| single1date = 29 August 2005
| single2 = [[Jenny Wren]]
| single2date = 21 November 2005
| single3 = [[This Never Happened Before]]
| single3date = 2006 (promo only)
}}
{{Extra album cover
| header = Alternative cover
| type = studio
| cover = Chaos and Creation in the Backyard sleeve.jpg
| alt =
| caption = Special Edition paper sleeve (CD with DVD). It features an [[ambigram]] of McCartney's name.<ref name="AmbigramMcCartney">{{Cite tweet| name = Paul McCartney | user = PaulMcCartney | lang = en | title = Did you know the album artwork for ‘Chaos and Creation in the Backyard’ features Paul’s name styled as an ambigram. Is it Paul McCartney or ʎǝuʇɹɐƆɔW lnɐԀ?| date = 2018-05-25| number = 1000006420987830274| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210815061030/https://twitter.com/paulmccartney/status/1000006420987830274 | archive-date = 2021-08-15| url-status = live }}</ref>
}}
}}
'''''Chaos and Creation in the Backyard''''' is the thirteenth solo studio album by [[Paul McCartney]], released on 12 and 13 September 2005.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.paulmccartney.com/albums/chaos-and-creation-in-the-backyard|title = Chaos and Creation in the Backyard|date = 12 September 2005}}</ref><ref name="pm_review">{{cite web|title=Paul McCartney: Chaos and Creation in the Backyard – PopMatters Music Review |url=https://www.popmatters.com/mccartneypaul-chaos2005-2495992067.html|work=[[PopMatters]]|date=6 October 2005|access-date=7 March 2010|author=Lundy, Zeth}}</ref> Some 18 months in the making, the album was produced by [[Radiohead]] and [[Beck]] collaborator [[Nigel Godrich]] at [[George Martin]]'s suggestion.

McCartney plays almost all of the instruments, similar to his 1970 album ''[[McCartney (album)|McCartney]]'', the 1980 ''[[McCartney II]]'' album and the 2020 ''[[McCartney III]]'' album. In addition, ''Chaos and Creation in the Backyard'' marks the first time since 1984's ''[[Give My Regards to Broad Street]]'' that McCartney was not credited as producer or co-producer of one of his studio albums.

''Chaos and Creation in the Backyard'' was McCartney's last rock album release for longtime label [[EMI]]. He signed a deal with [[Hear Music]], owned by [[Starbucks]], in March 2007.<ref name="Yahoo">{{cite web|title=Starbucks record label signs Paul McCartney|date=21 March 2007|url=http://biz.yahoo.com/bizj/070321/1435181.html?.v=1}}</ref> He later returned to his old label [[Capitol Records]] in 2016.

==Music and lyrics==
McCartney said that the song "Friends to Go" is influenced by, and dedicated to, [[George Harrison]].

==Production==
Upon being asked to produce an album with McCartney, Godrich admitted, "My initial reaction was one of terror, not only because it's a very important person, but I really wasn't sure how willing he would be to get his hands dirty."<ref name="Hilton 2005">{{Cite video|people=Simon Hilton (Director)|title=Between Chaos and Creation|medium=DVD|publisher=MPL Communications Ltd|location=London|year=2005}}</ref>

The two tentatively began a collaboration, recording the songs "[[This Never Happened Before]]" and "Follow Me" which was enough to convince both of them that they could develop an album. Godrich's participation was active: he inspired McCartney to write the song "At the Mercy", added piano loops on "How Kind of You" and worked with McCartney to slow the tempo of "Riding to Vanity Fair" which McCartney says "changed the mood completely".<ref name="Hilton 2005"/>

Although initially taken aback, McCartney appreciated Godrich's tenacity and honesty. "I've been on a lot of records, on my own, I’ve had a lot of hits. He said, ‘I just want to make a great album, and for the album to be you’, Once we got in the studio, and we’re playing head to head on a couple of songs that I thought as good and he didn't, I thought of immediately firing him. I just thought, ‘I don’t have to take this.' But the point is, ‘This is why you’re working with him.'”<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.nme.com/news/music/paul-mccartney-441-1362043 | title=Macca Teams up with Radiohead Man | website=[[NME]] | date=28 July 2005 }}</ref>

According to McCartney, Godrich was at times blunt in his appraisal of McCartney's songs-in-progress during the making of ''Chaos and Creation in the Backyard'':
:Nigel{{nbsp}}... refused to allow me to sing songs that he didn't like, which was very cheeky of him.<ref name="Hilton 2005"/>

==Recording==
Recording sessions for the album covered a period of some 18 months, with many pauses. First sessions were held at RAK Studios, London in September 2003 by McCartney and his band. After a few takes, Godrich said to McCartney he wanted to work with him alone, not involving the band. After some months' break, sessions resumed at Ocean Way Studios, Los Angeles in April 2004, with more sessions in September. Final recordings took place at [[Air Lyndhurst|AIR Studios]], London in April 2005.<ref>Luca Perasi, ''Paul McCartney: Recording Sessions (1969-2013)'', L.I.L.Y. Publishing, 2013, {{ISBN|978-88-909122-1-4}}, pp.366-391.</ref>

==Artwork==
The cover for ''Chaos and Creation in the Backyard'' is from a photograph of McCartney strumming a guitar in his family's back yard in [[Liverpool]], taken by his brother Mike McCartney (aka [[Mike McGear]]) and originally titled ''Paul Under Washing'', before being retitled ''Our Kid Through Mum's Net Curtains''.

==Release and promotion==
The first single, the upbeat "[[Fine Line (Paul McCartney song)|Fine Line]]", was released in late August 2005, ahead of the release of ''Chaos and Creation in the Backyard'', and reached No. 20 in the UK. A second single, "[[Jenny Wren]]", reached No. 22 in the UK that November. "Fine Line" and "Jenny Wren" appeared on singles with their running time shortened. The singles also included five non-album b-sides: "Comfort of Love", "Growing Up Falling Down" ("Fine Line"), "Summer of '59" (vinyl edition of "Jenny Wren"), "This Loving Game" and "I Want You to Fly" (CD edition of "Jenny Wren").

The Japanese CD release of the album included the song "She Is So Beautiful". The song was also offered as a free download in [[Windows Media Audio]] format to US customers who purchased the CD at [[Target Corporation|Target]] stores. Other bonus downloadable songs were made available to people who bought the CD at certain other stores, such as [[Best Buy]] and [[Wal-Mart]].

[[The 'US' Tour]] in 2005 helped to promote the album in the [[United States|US]] and Canada.

There was also a promotional concert for the album held at [[Abbey Road Studios]], called ''Chaos and Creation at Abbey Road''. During the show McCartney played acoustic versions of various songs, demonstrated some instruments and told stories. At the end he and the audience recorded a short track together.

The album was reissued in 2018 on vinyl in black and gold editions.<ref name="2018_reissue">{{cite web|url=https://www.paulmccartney.com/news-blogs/news/four-2018-catalogue-titles-out-now|title=Four 2018 Catalogue Titles Out Now!|publisher=paulmccartney.com|date=18 May 2018|access-date=22 October 2020}}</ref>

==Reception==
{{Music ratings
| MC = 78/100<ref name="mc_review">{{cite web|url=https://www.metacritic.com/music/chaos-and-creation-in-the-backyard/paul-mccartney|title=Reviews for Chaos And Creation In The Backyard by Paul McCartney|publisher=[[Metacritic]]|access-date=18 September 2011}}</ref>
| rev1 = [[AllMusic]]
| rev1score = {{Rating|4|5}}<ref name="am_review">{{cite web|url=https://www.allmusic.com/album/chaos-and-creation-in-the-backyard-mw0000212777|title=Chaos and Creation in the Backyard – Paul McCartney|publisher=[[AllMusic]]|access-date=18 September 2011|last=Erlewine|first=Stephen Thomas|author-link=Stephen Thomas Erlewine}}</ref>
| rev2 = ''[[Entertainment Weekly]]''
| rev2score = B<ref name="EW_review">{{cite magazine|url=https://ew.com/article/2005/09/12/chaos-and-creation-backyard/|title=Chaos and Creation in the Backyard|magazine=[[Entertainment Weekly]]|date=12 September 2005|access-date=21 September 2011|last=Sinclair|first=Tom|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190731170657/https://ew.com/article/2005/09/12/chaos-and-creation-backyard/|archive-date=31 July 2019|url-status=dead}}</ref>
| rev3 = ''[[The Guardian]]''
| rev3score = {{Rating|4|5}}<ref name="guardian_review">{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/music/2005/sep/09/popandrock.shopping3|title=Paul McCartney, Chaos and Creation in the Backyard|work=[[The Guardian]]|location=London|date=9 September 2005|access-date=7 March 2010|last=Petridis|first=Alexis|author-link=Alexis Petridis}}</ref>
| rev4 = ''[[Los Angeles Times]]''
| rev4score = {{Rating|3|4}}<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2005-sep-04-ca-rackmccartney4-story.html|title=More intimate, but still cautious|work=[[Los Angeles Times]]|date=4 September 2005|access-date=23 September 2011|last=Hochman|first=Steve}}</ref>
| rev5 = ''[[Mojo (magazine)|Mojo]]''
| rev5score = {{Rating|3|5}}<ref>{{cite magazine|title=Paul McCartney: Chaos and Creation in the Backyard|magazine=[[Mojo (magazine)|Mojo]]|issue=143|date=October 2005|page=98}}</ref>
| rev6 = ''[[NME]]''
| rev6score = 6/10<ref name="nme_review">{{cite magazine|url=http://www.nme.com/reviews/paul-mccartney/7768|title=Paul McCartney: Chaos And Creation In The Backyard|magazine=[[NME]]|date=19 September 2005|access-date=7 March 2010|last=Marshall|first=Julian|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304023216/http://www.nme.com/reviews/paul-mccartney/7768|archive-date=4 March 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref>
| rev7 = ''[[Q (magazine)|Q]]''
| rev7score = {{Rating|3|5}}<ref>{{cite magazine|title=Paul McCartney: Chaos and Creation in the Backyard|magazine=[[Q (magazine)|Q]]|issue=231|date=September 2005|page=120}}</ref>
| rev8 = ''[[Rolling Stone]]''
| rev8score = {{Rating|4|5}}<ref name="rs_review">{{cite magazine|url=https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music-album-reviews/chaos-and-creation-in-the-backyard-248471/|title=Chaos and Creation in the Backyard|magazine=[[Rolling Stone]]|date=22 September 2005|access-date=1 August 2019|last=DeCurtis|first=Anthony|author-link=Anthony DeCurtis}}</ref>
| rev9 = ''[[Uncut (magazine)|Uncut]]''
| rev9score = {{Rating|4|5}}<ref>{{cite magazine|title=Paul McCartney: Chaos and Creation in the Backyard|magazine=[[Uncut (magazine)|Uncut]]|issue=101|date=October 2005|page=94}}</ref>
| rev10 = ''[[USA Today]]''
| rev10score = {{Rating|3|4}}<ref>{{cite news|url=http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/life/music/reviews/2005-09-12-mccartney_x.htm|title='Chaos': Pop without the cute|work=[[USA Today]]|location=McLean|date=12 September 2005|access-date=3 May 2014|last=Gundersen|first=Edna|author-link=Edna Gundersen}}</ref>
}}
At [[Metacritic]], the album holds an average Metascore of 78 out of 100, based on 19 reviews, which indicates a generally favourable reception.<ref name="mc_review"/> Advance reviews for ''Chaos and Creation in the Backyard'' suggested that after delivering ''[[Flaming Pie]]'', ''[[Run Devil Run (album)|Run Devil Run]]'', ''[[Driving Rain]]'' and this album – all in uninterrupted succession – McCartney was in a late-career creative peak. Many critics and longtime listeners also considered that the album was unusually reflective and intimate-sounding for McCartney.{{Citation needed|date=November 2009}} The sudden shift in direction was generally considered an unexpected and welcome surprise, and resulted in four [[Grammy]] nominations for the album, including the nomination for [[Grammy Award for Album of the Year|Album of the Year]].

Reviewing for the [[BBC]], Daryl Easlea described ''Chaos and Creation'' as "Very, very good", and added: {{" '}}Riding to Vanity Fair', 'Too Much Rain', 'Anyway' and 'How Kind of You' are full of subtle nuances, killer hooks and sweet surprises. They really do rank among his very best work."<ref>{{cite web|last=Easlea|first=Daryl |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/music/reviews/fbqv|title=Review of Paul McCartney – Chaos and Creation in the Back Yard|publisher=BBC|date=20 November 2005|access-date=26 January 2012}}</ref> In ''[[The New York Times]]'', [[Jon Pareles]] wrote that McCartney's return to a multi-instrumentalist role "makes the songs more intimate and less conventional", while remarking of the project: "Sir Paul chose a producer who favored the experimental side: Nigel Godrich … Sir Paul also lined up his best backup band since the Beatles: himself."<ref>{{cite news |author=Pareles, Jon |author-link=Jon Pareles |date=12 September 2005 |title=McCartney Gets Back, but Not for Nostalgia |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2005/09/12/arts/critics-choice-new-cds-mccartney-gets-back-but-not-for-nostalgia.html |access-date=24 September 2011}}</ref>

In the US, ''Chaos and Creation in the Backyard'' debuted at the No. 6 on the ''Billboard'' 200 with sales of 91,545 copies. It stayed on chart for a total of 21 weeks, selling over 530,000 copies up to 2007.<ref name="billboardbiz">{{cite web|url= http://billboard.biz/bbbiz/search/article_display.jsp?vnu_content_id=1003583983&imw=Y |title=Paul McCartney's new album "Memory Almost Full" will be released June 5 in North America|work=[[billboard magazine|Billboard]]|access-date=16 June 2007 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070926234412/http://billboard.biz/bbbiz/search/article_display.jsp?vnu_content_id=1003583983&imw=Y |archive-date = 26 September 2007}}</ref> However, the album underperformed in the UK, peaking at the No. 10 and spending only three weeks inside the top 200, with cumulative sales of around 45,000 units.<ref name="mw">{{cite web|title=Madonna stays at the summit of the UK charts|url=http://www.musicweek.com/news/read/madonna-stays-at-the-summit-of-the-uk-charts/034407|publisher=musicweek.com|access-date=28 November 2005}}</ref> According to the annual report published by EMI, ''Chaos and Creation in the Backyard'' had sold 1.3 million copies worldwide by the end of March 2006.<ref name=Cashmere>{{cite web|url=http://www.undercover.fm/news/1275-emi-share-price-drops-on-restructure-announcement |title=Undercover News: EMI Share Price Drops On Restructure Announcement |date=13 January 2007 |publisher=undercover.fm |access-date=21 March 2011 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130616090624/http://www.undercover.fm/news/1275-emi-share-price-drops-on-restructure-announcement |archive-date=16 June 2013 }}</ref>

==Track listing==
{{Track listing
|headline = ''Chaos and Creation in the Backyard'' track listing
|all_lyrics_and_music = [[Paul McCartney]]
|title1 = [[Fine Line (Paul McCartney song)|Fine Line]]
|length1 = 3:06
|title2 = How Kind of You
|length2 = 4:48
|title3 = [[Jenny Wren]]
|length3 = 3:47
|title4 = At the Mercy
|length4 = 2:38
|title5 = Friends to Go
|length5 = 2:44
|title6 = English Tea
|length6 = 2:12
|title7 = [[Too Much Rain]]
|length7 = 3:25
|title8 = A Certain Softness
|length8 = 2:42
|title9 = Riding to Vanity Fair
|length9 = 5:07
|title10 = Follow Me
|length10 = 2:32
|title11 = Promise to You Girl
|length11 = 3:10
|title12 = [[This Never Happened Before]]
|length12 = 3:25
|title13 = Anyway
|length13 = 3:52
|title14 = I've Only Got Two Hands
|note14 = unlisted instrumental
|length14 = 3:15
|total_length = 46:53
}}
{{Track listing
|total_length= 49:54
|headline = Japanese edition bonus track
|title15 = She Is So Beautiful
|length15= 3:01
}}

===Special edition DVD===
<ref>{{cite book|last=Benitez|first=Vincent Perez|title=The Words and Music of Paul McCartney: The Solo Years|page=194 |year=2010 |publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]]|isbn=978-0-313-34969-0}}</ref>

*"Between Chaos and Creation" – Documentary (30 mins)
*"Fine Line" – Studio Performance Video (4 mins)
*"Line Art" – 12 Minute Animated Film – drawings by the artist [[Brian Clarke]]. Animation by [[Momoco]]. (Includes 3 instrumental tracks: "Riding To Vanity Fair", "At the Mercy" and "Anyway").
*"How Kind of You" – DVD Menu (5 mins)
*Executive producer: [[Paul McCartney]]
*Director and editor: [[Simon Hilton]]
*Producer: James Chads
*Production company: Maguffin
*DVD mastering: [[Abbey Road Interactive]]

==Personnel==
Personnel per booklet.<ref name="Chaos and Creation in the Backyard">{{cite AV media notes|title=Chaos and Creation in the Backyard |others=[[Paul McCartney]] |year=2005 |type=Booklet |publisher=[[Parlophone]], [[EMI]] |id=00946 337958 2 2, 337 9582}}</ref>
{{col-begin}}
{{col-2}}
'''Musicians'''
* [[Paul McCartney]] – acoustic guitar, [[autoharp]], Baldwin spinet, bass guitar, cello, [[classical guitar]], drums, drum machine, electric guitar, electric piano, [[flugelhorn]], gong, [[güiro]], [[harmonium]], acoustic guitar [[Music loop|loops]], [[maracas]], [[melodica]], [[moog synthesizer]], [[B3 organ]], tambourine on [[Snare drum|snare]], [[Recorder (musical instrument)|recorders]], [[tubular bells]], 12 string guitar, tambourine, triangle, toy [[glockenspiel]], [[percussion]], piano, vibrachimes, violin, vocals, [[Block instruments|woodblock]].
* Millennia Ensemble – [[Strings (music)|strings]], [[brass instrument]]
* [[Joby Talbot]] – [[string arrangement]], [[conducting]], brass arrangement
* [[Nigel Godrich]] – piano and Epiphone acoustic guitar loops
* [[Pedro Eustache]] – [[duduk]]
* [[Jason Falkner]] – electric guitar, classical guitar
* [[James Gadson]] – drums
* [[Joey Waronker]] – bass drum, [[bongos]], shaker
{{col-2}}
* The Los Angeles Music Players – [[String instrument|strings]]
* [[David Campbell (American arranger/composer)|David Campbell]] – [[string arrangement]]
* [[Rusty Anderson]] – acoustic guitar
* [[Brian Ray]] – acoustic guitar
* [[Abe Laboriel Jr.]] – percussion, block, tambourine

'''Production'''
* Nigel Godrich – [[Producer (music)|producer]]
* [[Dan Grech-Marguerat]] – production assistant
* Darrell Thorp – [[Engineering (music)|engineer]]
* Alan Yoshida – [[Mastering engineer|mastering]]
* Photo of Paul Mccartney taken by [[Mike McCartney]], Paul's brother – cover
* [[Brian Clarke]] – inlay
* Bill Bernstein – back cover
* Paul McCartney, [[Stylorouge|Stylorouge London]] – art direction
{{col-end}}

==Session information==
Recording dates per The Paul McCartney Project<ref>{{Cite web|title=Chaos and Creation in the Backyard (album)|url=https://www.the-paulmccartney-project.com/album/chaos-and-creation-in-the-backyard/|access-date=2020-12-17|website=The Paul McCartney project|language=en}}</ref>

'''Fine Line'''
*Recorded – AIR Studios, London, September 2004
*Paul McCartney – Vocals, Bösendorfer Grand Piano, Baldwin Spinet, Höfner Bass Guitar, Epiphone Casino Electric Guitar, Martin D28 Acoustic Guitar, Ludwig Drums, Shakers, Tambourine
*Millennia Ensemble – Strings
*Joby Talbot – Conducting, Arrangement

'''How Kind of You'''
*Recorded – AIR Studios, London, April 2005
*Paul McCartney – Vocals, Epiphone Casino Electric Guitar, Martin D28 Acoustic Guitar, Höfner Bass Guitar, Bösendorfer Grand Piano, Flugelhorn, Shaker, Guerrero, Ludwig Drums, Piano and Epiphone Acoustic Guitar Loops
*Nigel Godrich – Piano and Epiphone Acoustic Guitar Loops

'''Jenny Wren'''
*Recorded – Ocean Way Recording, L.A., October 2004
*Paul McCartney – Vocals, Epiphone Texan Acoustic Guitar, Ludwig Floor Tom
*Pedro Eustache – Duduk

'''At the Mercy'''
*Recorded – Ocean Way Recording, L.A., AIR Studios, London, April and September 2004
*Paul McCartney – Vocals, Steinway Grand Piano, Fender Telecaster Electric Guitar, Höfner Bass Guitar, Cello, Mass Vibrachimes, Tambourine, B3 Organ
*Jason Falkner – Electric Guitar
*James Gadson – Drums
*Millennia Ensemble – Strings, Brass
*Joby Talbot – Conducting, Arrangement

'''Friends to Go'''
*Recorded – AIR Studios, London, April 2005
*Paul McCartney – Vocals, Bösendorfer Grand Piano, Martin D28 Acoustic Guitar, Höfner Bass Guitar, Epiphone Casino Electric Guitar, Ludwig Drums, Tambourine on Snare, Flugelhorn, Hohner Melodica, Shakers

'''English Tea'''
*Recorded – Ocean Way Recording, L.A., AIR Studios, London, April 2005
*Paul McCartney – Vocals, Bösendorfer Grand Piano, Höfner Bass Guitar, Ludwig Bass Drum, Recorders, Tubular Bells
*Millennia Ensemble – Strings, Brass
*Joby Talbot – Conducting, Arrangement

'''Too Much Rain'''
*Recorded – AIR Studios, London, September 2004
*Paul McCartney – Vocals, Bösendorfer Grand Piano, Fender Stratocaster Electric Guitar, Martin D28 Acoustic Guitar, Martin 12-String Guitar, Höfner Bass Guitar, Epiphone Casino Electric Guitar, Schmidt Autoharp, Ludwig Drums, Maracas

'''A Certain Softness'''
*Recorded – Ocean Way Recording, L.A., April 2004
*Paul McCartney – Vocal, Petersen Classical Guitar, Höfner Bass Guitar, Crown Upright Piano, Harmonium, Paiste Gong, Cymbal, Triangle
*Jason Falkner – Classical Guitar
*Joey Waronker – Bass Drum, Bongo Drums, Shaker

'''Riding to Vanity Fair'''
*Recorded – Ocean Way Recording, L.A., Spring, 2004, and AIR Studios, London, Late 2004 – April 2005
*Paul McCartney – Vocals, Höfner Bass Guitar, Epiphone Casino Electric Guitar, Martin D28 Acoustic Guitar, Toy Glockenspiel, Wurlitzer Electric Piano
*Los Angeles Music Players – Strings
*David Campbell – Arrangement
*James Gadson – Drums

'''Follow Me'''
*Recorded – RAK Studios, London, September 2003 and April 2005 (overdubs)
*Paul McCartney – Vocals, Höfner Bass Guitar, Epiphone Casino Electric Guitar, Epiphone Texan Acoustic Guitar, Ludwig Drums, Percussion, Block, Tambourine
*Rusty Anderson – Acoustic Guitar
*Brian Ray – Acoustic Guitar
*Abe Laboriel Jnr – Percussion, Block, Tambourine
*Millennia Ensemble – Strings
*Joby Talbot – Conducting, Arrangement

'''Promise to You Girl'''
*Recorded – Ocean Way Recording, L.A., November 2004
*Paul McCartney – Vocals, Crown Upright Piano, Steinway Grand Piano, Höfner Bass Guitar, Epiphone Casino Electric Guitar, Ludwig Drums, Moog Synthesizer, Tambourine, Triangle, Shaker

'''This Never Happened Before'''
*Recorded – RAK Studios, London, September 2003 and April 2005 (overdubs)
*Paul McCartney – Vocals, Yamaha Grand Piano, Höfner Bass Guitar, Epiphone Casino Electric Guitar, Ludwig Drums, Drum Machine
*Millennia Ensemble – Strings, Brass
*Joby Talbot – Conducting, Arrangement

'''Anyway'''
*Recorded – Ocean Way Recording, L.A., AIR Studios, London, November 2004 and April 2005 (overdubs)
*Paul McCartney – Vocals, Steinway Grand Piano, Höfner Bass Guitar, Gibson L5 Electric Guitar, Martin D28 Acoustic Guitar, Ludwig Drums, Moog Synthesizer, Harmonium
*Millennia Ensemble – Strings, Brass
*Joby Talbot – Conducting, Arrangement

== Accolades ==

=== Grammy Awards ===
{{Awards table}}
|-
| style="width:35px; text-align:center;" rowspan="4"|[[48th Grammy Awards|2006]] <ref name="06grammynominees">{{cite news|url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2005-dec-09-et-grammylist9-story.html|title= THE GRAMMY NOMINATIONS 2005 nominees|work=Los Angeles Times|access-date=24 September 2011|date=9 December 2005}}</ref> || rowspan="2"|''Chaos and Creation in the Backyard'' || [[Grammy Award for Album of the Year#2000s|Album of the Year]] || {{nom}}
|-
| [[Grammy Award for Best Pop Vocal Album|Best Pop Vocal Album]] || {{nom}}
|-
|"Fine Line" || [[Grammy Award for Best Male Pop Vocal Performance|Best Male Pop Vocal Performance]] || {{nom}}
|-
| Nigel Godrich || [[Grammy Award for Producer of the Year, Non-Classical|Non-Classical Producer of the Year]] || {{nom}}
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|[[49th Grammy Awards|2007]] <ref name="07grammynominees">{{cite news|url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2006-dec-08-et-list8-story.html|title= THE GRAMMY NOMINATIONS 2006 nominees|work=Los Angeles Times|access-date=24 September 2011|date=8 December 2006}}</ref> || "Jenny Wren" || Best Male Pop Vocal Performance || {{nom}}
|-
{{End}}

== Charts ==
{{col-begin}}
{{col-2}}

=== Weekly charts ===
{| class="wikitable sortable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center"
|+ Weekly chart performance for ''Chaos and Creation in the Backyard''
! scope="col"| Chart (2005–2006)
! scope="col"| Peak position
|-
{{album chart|Australia|33|artist=Paul McCartney|album=Chaos and Creation in the Backyard|rowheader=true|access-date=22 November 2021}}
|-
{{album chart|Austria|13|artist=Paul McCartney|album=Chaos and Creation in the Backyard|rowheader=true|access-date=22 November 2021}}
|-
{{album chart|Flanders|15|artist=Paul McCartney|album=Chaos and Creation in the Backyard|rowheader=true|access-date=22 November 2021}}
|-
{{album chart|Wallonia|10|artist=Paul McCartney|album=Chaos and Creation in the Backyard|rowheader=true|access-date=22 November 2021}}
|-
{{album chart|BillboardCanada|6|artist=Paul McCartney|rowheader=true|access-date=22 November 2021}}
|-
{{album chart|Denmark|5|artist=Paul McCartney|album=Chaos and Creation in the Backyard|rowheader=true|access-date=22 November 2021}}
|-
{{album chart|Netherlands|8|artist=Paul McCartney|album=Chaos and Creation in the Backyard|rowheader=true|access-date=22 November 2021}}
|-
{{album chart|Finland|20|artist=Paul McCartney|album=Chaos and Creation in the Backyard|rowheader=true|access-date=22 November 2021}}
|-
{{album chart|France|3|artist=Paul McCartney|album=Chaos and Creation in the Backyard|rowheader=true|access-date=22 November 2021}}
|-
{{album chart|Germany4|4|id=22932|artist=Paul McCartney|album=Chaos and Creation in the Backyard|rowheader=true|access-date=22 November 2021}}
|-
{{album chart|Ireland2|32|artist=Paul McCartney|rowheader=true|access-date=22 November 2021}}
|-
{{album chart|Italy|3|artist=Paul McCartney|album=Chaos and Creation in the Backyard|rowheader=true|access-date=22 November 2021}}
|-
! scope="row"| Japanese Albums ([[Oricon]])<ref name="Japanese albums chart1">{{cite web| url=http://www.oricon.co.jp/music/release/d/613943/1/ | title= Highest position and charting weeks of ''Chaos and Creation in the Backyard'' by Paul McCartney| language=ja| publisher=oricon.co.jp| access-date=23 September 2011}}</ref>
| 19
|-
{{album chart|Norway|8|artist=Paul McCartney|album=Chaos and Creation in the Backyard|rowheader=true|access-date=22 November 2021}}
|-
{{album chart|Scotland|9|date=20050918|rowheader=true|access-date=22 November 2021}}
|-
{{album chart|Spain|9|artist=Paul McCartney|album=Chaos and Creation in the Backyard|rowheader=true|access-date=22 November 2021}}
|-
{{album chart|Sweden|3|artist=Paul McCartney|album=Chaos and Creation in the Backyard|rowheader=true|access-date=22 November 2021}}
|-
{{album chart|Switzerland|9|artist=Paul McCartney|album=Chaos and Creation in the Backyard|rowheader=true|access-date=22 November 2021}}
|-
{{album chart|UK2|10|date=20050918|rowheader=true|access-date=22 November 2021}}
|-
{{album chart|Billboard200|6|artist=Paul McCartney|rowheader=true|access-date=22 November 2021}}
|}
{{col-2}}

=== Year-end charts ===
{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center"
|+ Year-end chart performance for ''Chaos and Creation in the Backyard''
! scope="col"| Chart (2005)
! scope="col"| Position
|-
! scope="row"| French Albums (SNEP)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://snepmusique.com/les-tops/le-top-de-lannee/top-albums-annee/?annee=2005|title=Top de l'année Top Albums 2005|publisher=SNEP|language=fr|access-date=22 November 2021}}</ref>
| 103
|}
{{col-end}}

== Certifications and sales ==
{{Certification Table Top|caption=Certifications and sales for ''Chaos and Creation in the Backyard''}}
{{Certification Table Entry|region=Canada|title=Chaos and Creation in the Back Yard|artist=Paul McCartney|type=album|award=Gold|certyear=2005|certmonth=10|relyear=2005}}
{{Certification Table Entry|region=France|title=Chaos and Creation in the Backyard|artist=Paul McCartney|type=album|award=Gold|certyear=2005|certmonth=12|relyear=2005|relmonth=7|source=infodisc}}
{{Certification Table Entry|region=Japan ([[ORICON]])|nocert=yes|salesamount=139,000|salesref=<ref name="Japanese_album_chart2">{{cite web|url=http://www7a.biglobe.ne.jp/~yamag/album/al_beatles.html|title=– Yamachan Land (Archives of the Japanese record charts) – Albums Chart Daijiten – The Beatles|language=ja|date=30 December 2007|access-date=5 December 2009|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120214060626/http://www7a.biglobe.ne.jp/~yamag/album/al_beatles.html|archive-date=14 February 2012}}</ref>}}
{{Certification Table Entry|region=Russia|title=Chaos and Creation in the Backyard|artist=Paul McCartney|type=album|award=Gold|certyear=2005|relyear=2005}}
{{Certification Table Entry|region=United Kingdom|title=Chaos and Creation in the Backyard|artist=Paul McCartney|type=album|award=Gold|id=1258-3435-2}}
{{Certification Table Entry|region=United States|title=Chaos and Creation in the Backyard|artist=Paul McCartney|type=album|award=Gold|salesamount=547,000|salesref=<ref>{{cite web|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RsAnJ7Zx_qgC&q=Radio%2C+and+brands+like+teleflora+and+Tiffany&pg=RA20-PA35|title=Kisses From A Battle|publisher=Billboard|date=18 February 2012|access-date=5 November 2018}}</ref>}}
{{Certification Table Summary}}
{{Certification Table Entry|region=Worldwide ([[International Federation of the Phonographic Industry|IFPI]])|nocert=yes|salesamount=1,300,000|salesref=<ref name=Cashmere/>}}
{{Certification Table Bottom}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*{{Discogs master|type=album|39993|name=Chaos and Creation in the Backyard}}

{{Paul McCartney}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Chaos And Creation In The Backyard}}
[[Category:2005 albums]]
[[Category:Paul McCartney albums]]
[[Category:Parlophone albums]]
[[Category:Albums arranged by David Campbell (composer)]]
[[Category:Albums produced by Nigel Godrich]]
[[Category:Albums recorded at RAK Studios]]
[[Category:Albums recorded at United Western Recorders]]
[[Category:Albums recorded at AIR Studios]]

Civic agriculture

2025-05-25T15:15:18Z

131.111.5.201:

{{Short description|Food production as linked to one's responsibility to society}}
{{more citations needed|date=March 2018}}

'''Civic agriculture''' is the trend towards locally based [[agriculture]] and food production that is tightly linked to a community's social and economic development. It is also connected to the citizenship and environmentalism within a community.<ref name=":3" /> Civic agriculture is geared towards meeting consumer demands in addition to boosting the local economy in the process through jobs, farm to food production efforts, and community sustainability.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|title=Agriculture and human values.|last=Program.|first=University of Florida. Humanities and Agriculture|date=2000|publisher=[Kluwer]|pages=217–224|oclc=499757833}}</ref><ref name="Civic Agriculture">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bBnyuu709BgC&q=Civic+Agriculture%3A+Reconnecting+Farm%2C+Food%2C+and+Community|title=Civic Agriculture: Reconnecting Farm, Food, and Community|last=Lyson|first=Thomas A.|date=2004|publisher=UPNE|isbn=978-1-58465-414-8|pages=1–22}}</ref> The term was first coined by Thomas Lyson, professor of sociology at Cornell, to represent an alternative means of sustainability for rural agricultural communities in the era of industrialized agriculture.<ref name="Civic Agriculture" /><ref name=":2" /> Civic agriculture is geared towards fostering a self sustainable local economy through an integral community structure in which the entire community is in some part responsible for their food production.<ref name=":2" /> Civic agriculture can provide a variety of benefits to a community such as cleaner water, fresher foods, and a better connection between farmers and the community.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last1=Kiernan|first1=Nancy Ellen|last2=Brasier|first2=Kathy|last3=Barbercheck|first3=Mary|last4=Sachs|first4=Carolyn|last5=Trauger|first5=Amy|date=2010-03-01|title="Our market is our community": women farmers and civic agriculture in Pennsylvania, USA|journal=Agriculture and Human Values|volume=27|issue=1|pages=43–55|doi=10.1007/s10460-008-9190-5|s2cid=153557413|issn=1572-8366}}</ref> However, there are also critiques that are concerned with the way in which civic agriculture promotes community responsibility and possibly creates a false sense of citizenship.<ref name=":3" /> The intent of civic agricultural practices is to move away from the industrialized sector and into a localized community effort.

== Origin ==
Civic agriculture is a means by which rural agricultural communities can remain subsistent in a largely industrialized agriculture sector. The term was coined by the late Thomas A. Lyson, Department of Development Sociology, Cornell University, at the 1999 Rural Sociology Society Annual Meeting.<ref name="Civic Agriculture" /> In his 2004 book, ''Civic Agriculture: Reconnecting Farm, Food and Community'' Lyson argues that in containing food production for a specific community to that community, one is further connecting the community so that it may be economically independent and socially unified. Lyson expounds on his ideas, arguing that because of the interlocked relationship between the food economy and consumers, people have a civic duty to support important agricultural engagements. Lyson claims that communities that show an active involvement in civic agriculture aid economic development by supporting their local food production.<ref name="Civic Agriculture" /> In committing to civic agriculture, local communities contribute to an economic growth in the local agricultural sector.

Manifestations of movement towards Civic Agriculture:
* [[Community supported agriculture]] ([[Community Supported Agriculture|CSA]])
* [[Farmer's markets]]
*Specialized agricultural districts
*Alternative food stores
* [[Artisanal food]]
* [[consumers' cooperative|Consumer cooperatives]]

== Local economy ==
The basis of civic agriculture is rooted in pre-industrialization farming practices. Farmers today{{when|date=July 2022}} are turning to civic agriculture in order to remain economically viable within an industrialized society and corporate agriculture practices. Civic agriculture promotes the sustainability of the local economy by containing the source and production of food to a particular region.<ref name="Civic Agriculture" /> One of the primary objectives of localization is to improve farmer income.<ref name=":3" /> Dependent upon the advanced nature of the civic agriculture production, that region is then reliant upon a small subset of farmers for the majority of their food goods. That subset of farmers must farm a variety of commodities in order to provide for the region.<ref name=":0" /> This practice fosters entrepreneurship within the community by treating farming as an economically viable practice, creates jobs through employment of the local community, and keeps the production and consumption of agriculture in one region making that region economically sustainable within itself.

== Community support ==
Civic agriculture connects the community by eliminating the fragmented nature of agriculture production. It reconnects farmers to the community and creates a social connection between the farmers and the community that is dependent upon them. The community is linked together by the prospect of its success being dependent upon the success of the collective. Civic agriculture ensures locally oriented practices that serve as a driving force for the way in which the community operates socially and politically. Socially, the general well-being of the community becomes a primary concern when civic agriculture is being practiced.<ref name="Civic Agriculture" /> Additionally, in rooting a community to its own food production, the practice fosters a sense of belonging and responsibility within the community.<ref name=":3" /> There is a concern however, that in creating this sense of community support, civic agriculture does not encourage the community to do more than simply produce food in order to be considered a good citizen. In other words, those that produce for or on behalf of the community, can see that action as being the only necessary contributing factor that they offer to the community.<ref name=":3" />

== Criticism ==
There is a wide range of criticism that those opposed to civic agriculture provide as reasons for a community to not participate in the practice. One critique is that although civic agriculture is focused on localization and a modern means of economic sustainability, it still relies upon traditional economic practices of supply and demand. Without the participation of an industrial sector as the connector between the farmer and the consumer, the farmers of a particular region are directly constrained to demand oriented economics.<ref name=":3" /> Another critique of civic agriculture is that in fostering a sense of entrepreneurship, farming practices become individualized as a marketing technique for differentiation. In attempting to differentiate their product, farmers limit the spread of information regarding their particular farming practices in order to compete within the respective market.<ref name=":3" /> While one of the goals of civic agriculture includes connecting the farmer to the community, some argue that it indeed does not and furthers the separation between the two as farmers are still isolated socially and geographically.<ref name=":4" /> There also exist the concern with regards to power within the community, as the power is not necessarily equally divided. Wealthier individuals hold a higher power of the dollar and have the ability to control both the farmer and the poorer consumers in terms of what is produced and what is available for consumption respectively.<ref name=":4" />

== Thomas Lyson ==
Thomas Lyson was a notable sociologist who spent much of his professional career analyzing the possible impacts and outcomes of civic agriculture. After coining the phrase in 1999, Lyson used his time as a professor at Cornell University to propose ways that rural communities could support themselves not only by providing food to the community, but also by providing jobs and thus supporting the local, rural economy.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web|url=http://www.lysoncenter.org/index.php/about-the-lyson-center/layout|title=Thomas A. Lyson|website=www.lysoncenter.org|access-date=2018-11-27}}</ref> Lyson's interest in rural community subsistence stemmed from his time spent traveling the globe, specifically in the back roads of Appalachia.<ref name=":02" /> In his novel ''Civic Agriculture: Reconnecting Farm, Food, and Community'', Lyson warns against the increasingly industrial approach being developed in the world of agriculture today as being detrimental to the independent family farm which serves as the backbone of the rural community.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Dupuis|first=E. Melanie|date=September 2005|title=Civic Agriculture: Reconnecting Farm, Food, and CommunityCivic Agriculture: Reconnecting Farm, Food, and Community, by LysonThomas A.. Medford, MA: Tufts University Press; Lebanon, NH: University Press of New England, 2004. 136 pp. $50.00 cloth. {{Text|ISBN}}: 1-58465-413-9. $16.95 paper. {{Text|ISBN}}: 1-58465-414-7.|journal=Contemporary Sociology: A Journal of Reviews|volume=34|issue=5|pages=521–522|doi=10.1177/009430610503400539|s2cid=151510172|issn=0094-3061}}</ref> Lyson spent a considerable portion of his career exploring the economic opportunities presented before rural communities and the ways in which those opportunities should be utilized in order to ensure the prosperity of the community.<ref name=":02" /> Thomas Lyson died in 2006.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://news.cornell.edu/stories/2007/01/cornell-sociologist-thomas-lyson-local-foods-advocate-dies|title=CU sociologist Thomas A. Lyson, local foods advocate, dies}}</ref> In 2013, The Lyson Center for Civic Agriculture and Food Systems was created, a [[food systems]] development program in [[Ithaca, New York]]. Since 2013, it has been a project within the Center for Transformative Action, a nonprofit organization affiliated with [[Cornell University]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Thomas Anthony Lyson |website=Cornell University |url=https://hdl.handle.net/1813/18296 |hdl = 1813/18296 |hdl-access=free |year = 2006}}</ref> The aim of the center is to provide research oriented solutions to the current problems that exist within our various food systems.<ref name=":0">{{cite web|url=http://www.lysoncenter.org/index.php/about-the-lyson-center/color-variations|website=Lyson Center Values|access-date=18 September 2018|title=Our vision and mission}}</ref> The center publishes the ''Journal of Agriculture, Food Systems, and Community Development,'' an open access journal on food systems and food systems research<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=http://www.lysoncenter.org/|title=Home|website=www.lysoncenter.org|access-date=2018-11-27}}</ref> and facilitates the [[North American]] [[Food systems|Food Systems]] Network. The Lyson Center also publishes the Sustainable Food Systems Sourcebook.<ref name=":1" />

==References==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==

* [http://www.lysoncenter.org/ Lyson Center Website]

{{Sustainability}}

[[Category:Sustainable agriculture]]

Aulic Council

2025-05-25T11:09:34Z

131.111.5.201: /* Further development of the Aulic Council */

{{Short description|One of the two supreme courts of the Holy Roman Empire (1498-1806)}}
{{Distinguish|Aulic War Council}}
{{Infobox court
| court_name = Aulic Council
| native_name = ''Reichshofrat''
| image = Reichskanzleitrakt Vienna Sept 2006 001.jpg
| imagesize = 200
| caption = ''Reichskanzlei'' wing of the [[Hofburg]], [[Vienna]]
| image2 = File:Banner of the Holy Roman Emperor with haloes (1430-1806).svg
| imagesize2 = 200
| caption2 = Banner of the [[Holy Roman Empire]]
| established = 1498 (organization by [[Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor|Maximilian I]])
| dissolved = 1806 (dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire)
| authority = Holy Roman Emperor
| positions = President, Vice-President, Councilor, Fiskal, and more
| language = Mainly [[German language|German]]
| jurisdiction = One of the two [[supreme courts]] in the Holy Roman Empire, with concurrent jurisdiction with the ''[[Reichskammergericht]]'' on certain matters, and [[exclusive jurisdiction]] on others
| location = [[Prague]], [[Wels]], [[Frankfurt]], and [[Vienna]]
| type = Councilors were appointed by the [[Holy Roman Emperor]], with the exception of the Vice-Chancellor, which is appointed by the [[Elector of Mainz]]
}}
The '''Aulic Council''' ({{langx|la|Consilium Aulicum}}; {{langx|de|Reichshofrat}}; literally "Court Council of the Empire", sometimes abbreviated in academic writing as "RHR") was one of the two [[supreme court]]s of the [[Holy Roman Empire]], the other being the [[Imperial Chamber Court|''Reichskammergericht'']] (Imperial Chamber Court). Unlike the ''Reichskammergericht'', which was tied to the [[Imperial Estate|Imperial estates]], the Aulic Council was tied directly to the [[Holy Roman Emperor|Emperor]].

It had not only concurrent [[jurisdiction]] with the ''Reichskammergericht'', but in many cases [[exclusive jurisdiction]]: the Aulic Council had exclusive jurisdiction in all "[[feudal]]" processes, and in criminal affairs, over the [[Imperial immediacy|immediate subjects]] of the Emperor and in affairs which concerned the Empire, and more (see ''[[#Responsibilities|Responsibilities]]'' section below). It did not have a single set seat, rather, it was bound with the Emperor's residences. [[Prague]], [[Wels]], and [[Frankfurt]], were all sites of the court,<ref name=":4" /> but the most important seat of the Aulic Council was at the [[Hofburg]] residence of the [[House of Habsburg|Habsburg]] emperors in [[Vienna]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Wilson |first=Peter H. |title=The Holy Roman Empire, 1495 - 1806 |date=1999 |publisher=Macmillan [u.a.] |isbn=978-0-312-22360-1 |edition=1. publ |series=Studies in European history |location=Basingstoke}}</ref>

Since 1960, the Aulic Council has been extensively researched in academia, with some of its former court files (of which there are more than 100,000 that still exist<ref name=":4" />) stored at the [[National Archives of Austria|Austrian State Archives]]. It played a major role in the constitutional, legal, and political history of the Holy Roman Empire, and is considered one of the most prominent supreme courts in [[Early modern period|early modern]] Europe. In particular, the court helped stabilize the balance of power in the Empire and provided a forum for legal diplomacy, rather than violence. Historians often use the term "juridification" (''Verrechtlichung'') to describe this process of increased legal resolutions rather than violent resolutions in the Empire. As historian Eva Ortlieb puts it, "Like the [[Roman Rota|''Rota'' ''Romana'']] and the ''[[Parlement of Paris|Parlement de Paris]],'' [the Aulic Council] ranks among the most significant supreme courts of Europe."<ref name=":3">{{Citation |last=Ortlieb |first=Eva |title=Reichshofrat |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Early Modern History Online |url=https://referenceworks.brill.com/display/entries/EMHO/COM-026376.xml?language=en |access-date=2025-02-09 |publisher=Brill |language=en}}</ref>

==History==
To see responsibilities of the Aulic Council, go to the ''[[#Responsibilities|Responsibilities]]'' section. This section mainly goes over the development of the Aulic Council.

=== Early development during Maximilian I's, Charles V's, and Ferdinand I's reigns ===
The Aulic Council (from the [[Latin]] ''aula'', court in feudal language, in antiquity a [[Hellenistic]] type of grand residence, usually private) was originally an executive-judicial council for the Empire. Originating during the [[Late Middle Ages]] as a paid Council of the Emperor, it was organized in its later form by [[Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor|Maximilian I]] by decree in 1498.<ref name=":4">{{Citation |last=Oestmann |first=Peter |title=The Law of the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation |date=2018-07-05 |work=The Oxford Handbook of European Legal History |pages=0 |editor-last=Pihlajamäki |editor-first=Heikki |url=https://academic.oup.com/edited-volume/27972/chapter-abstract/211616748?redirectedFrom=fulltext |access-date=2025-02-11 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-878552-1 |editor2-last=Dubber |editor2-first=Markus D. |editor3-last=Godfrey |editor3-first=Mark}}</ref> It was meant as a rival to the separate ''Reichskammergericht'', which the Imperial Estates had established at the [[Diet of Worms (1495)|Diet of Worms]] two years before. Maximilian emphasized the fact that the Emperor embodied supreme legal authority and would continue to answer legal requests addressed to him. There is also the possibility some of the Imperial estates wanted to create a court directly beholden to the Emperor so they could appeal to the Emperor directly.<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal |last=Auer |first=Leopold |date=2011 |title=The Role of the Imperial Aulic Council in the Constitutional Structure of the Holy Roman Empire |url=https://perspectivia.net/receive/pnet_mods_00004458 |journal=The Holy Roman Empire 1495-1806 |language=en |pages=63–75}}</ref> These developments are all considered part of a greater Imperial Reform movement, known as ''[[Imperial Reform|Reichsreform]]''.

During the reign of [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]], the Aulic Council responded to hundreds of petitions, as the Emperor was often absent from the Empire.<ref name=":0" /> The Aulic Council did not serve as a state council however. Important political decisions were sent to the Emperor's privy council (''[[Geheimrat|Geheimer Rat]]''), which would propose decisions. Research suggests that during Charles V's reign, the Aulic Council was reformed with new councilors and presidents every time the Emperor visited the Empire. However, it is possible that councilors travelled with Charles outside the Empire in order to help with German affairs. Charles V's brother, [[Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor|Archduke Ferdinand]] (the future Emperor Ferdinand I), who served as the Habsburg "viceroy" (later [[King of the Romans]]), maintained his own council too. In 1541, the Aulic Council was consolidated into a more permanent body. It received an ''ordo consilii'' in 1550, and when Charles V abdicated, Ferdinand's council was implemented as the new Aulic Council, receiving an ordinance in 1559, and continued some of Charles's court traditions.<ref name=":9" />

=== Further development of the Aulic Council ===
[[File:Reichshofrat.jpg|thumb|right|Meeting of the Aulic Council, 1683|279x279px]]In the late 1500s and early 1600s, particularly during Emperor [[Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor|Rudolf II's]] reign, the Aulic Council was frequently tasked to deal with conflicts that could not be settled by the Imperial Diet or by arbitration. An interesting note to make is that during this time, the Aulic Council often dealt with religious disputes. The council likely sided with the Catholic side more often than not, which was critiqued by Protestant princes.<ref name=":9" /> The use of the Aulic Council for judicial matters also greatly increased in the late 1500s.

The relationship between the Aulic Council and the ''Reichskammergericht'' is described as both competitive but also cooperative, depending on the situation.<ref name=":0" /> For most cases, [[litigants]] could choose between both courts. From 1620 onward, the Aulic Council began to significantly out produce the ''Reichskammergericht'' in terms of numbers of [[Lawsuit|litigations]]. It is also during this time the Aulic Council underwent large reforms. The court would appoint ''Fiskal'', special attorneys (see more information in ''[[#Composition|Composition]]'' section), and established advocates to represent any litigants.

The Aulic Council would further evolve thanks to the [[Peace of Westphalia|Peace of Westphalia (1648)]] (which rectified some of the religious issues in the council), and later Emperor [[Ferdinand III, Holy Roman Emperor|Ferdinand III's]] new constitution for the court in 1654.<ref name=":8">{{Cite book |last1=Hengerer |first1=Mark |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctvhhhdw7 |title=Making Peace in an Age of War: Emperor Ferdinand III (1608–1657) |last2=Soliday |first2=Elke |date=2020 |publisher=Purdue University Press |jstor=j.ctvhhhdw7 |isbn=978-1-55753-844-4}}</ref> The Aulic Council being faster than the ''Reichskammergericht'', and also possessing the Emperor's direct authority, made it attractive to litigants.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":8" /> After Westphalia, the Aulic Council's involvement in Imperial Cities also grew (see ''[[#Free cities|Responsibilities: Imperial Cities]]'' section). The court played a major role during the Habsburg resurgence in the Empire under [[Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor|Emperor Leopold I]]. Historian Barbara Stollberg-Rilinger describes it as "the most important instrument that Leopold used in exercising his supreme authority."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Stollberg-Rilinger |first=Barbara |title=The Holy Roman Empire: a short history |date=2018 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-17911-7 |location=Princeton (N. J.)}}</ref>

In 1767, the Aulic Council handled 2,088 cases. This grew to 3,388 in 1779.{{citation needed|date=March 2025}}

When [[Napoleon I]]'s gains after the [[Battle of Austerlitz]] and the [[Peace of Pressburg (1805)|Peace of Pressburg]] culminated in the end of the Holy Roman Empire, the Aulic Council likewise ceased to exist in 1806 as an imperial institution.<ref name=":3" />

=== Was the Aulic Council a puppet of the Emperor? ===
Though the court was often in Vienna and politically tied to the Emperor, some historians do not consider it to be strictly partisan in favor of the Emperor. A nuanced view states how Emperors after the Westphalia (1648) realized that using the Aulic Council for political means would make the court less respected, and that the courts sometimes went against the Emperor's wishes or policies.<ref name=":5" /> The Aulic Council attached much of its importance to legal arguments, so it sometimes contradicted the Emperor.<ref name=":3" /> Historian Leopold Auer states that "the interests of the [Emperor] could, of course, go against [the Aulic Council's] policy... and [create] to conflicts in which the Council might even come to conclusions different from those of the emperor himself."<ref name=":9" /> There are examples of such in the ''[[#More examples of cases settled|Examples of Cases Settled]]'' section.

=== An example of juridification and the protection of smaller Imperial estates: Brandenburg-Kulmbach v. Prussia ===
The Holy Roman Empire, even in its later years, maintained relative peace and stability. Additionally, the existence of smaller territorial princes was maintained, in spite of attempts by more powerful princes to absorb smaller ones (which later occurred during [[German mediatisation|mediatisation]]). In this regard, the Aulic Council played a major role. Historian Siegrid Westphal demonstrated in her work that the Aulic Council played the role of a mediator in conflicts between Imperial estates.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last=Milton |first=Patrick |date=2015 |title=Imperial Law versus Geopolitical Interest: The Reichshofrat and the Protection of Smaller Territorial States in the Holy Roman Empire under Charles VI (1711–1740) |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24474538 |journal=The English Historical Review |volume=130 |issue=545 |pages=831–864 |doi=10.1093/ehr/cev201 |jstor=24474538 |issn=0013-8266|url-access=subscription }}</ref> A great example of this is the [[Principality of Bayreuth|Brandenburg-Kulmbach]] succession crisis.

Ruled by a branch of the [[Prussia]]n [[House of Hohenzollern|Hohenzollern]] family, the small margraviate was at risk of falling into Prussian hands. Prussia had purchased the succession claim from a junior Brandenburg-Kulmbach prince, Christian Heinrich, in 1703. This led to a dispute over whether or not Christian Heinrich's son, [[George Frederick Charles, Margrave of Brandenburg-Bayreuth|George Frederich Karl]], should have succession rights. The Prussians refused to accept George Frederich Karl's claim, and began to actively prepare the territory for a Prussian takeover following the death of the reigning Margrave, [[George William, Margrave of Brandenburg-Bayreuth|George Wilhelm]].<ref name=":5" />

Worried about the possibility of Prussian annexation, Kulmbach margraves appealed to the Emperor and the Elector of Mainz for protection. Imperial Vice-Chancellor, [[Friedrich Karl von Schönborn]], petitioned the case to Emperor [[Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles VI]], seeking to limit Prussia's growing power. To appear impartial, the case was sent to the Aulic Council. In 1716, the Aulic Council declared that the Prussian purchase of the Kulmbach succession claim was invalid, and went against the succession customs of the Hohenzollerns. The Aulic Council stated that the transfer of claims was made during a time of duress ([[War of the Spanish Succession]]). A Kulmbach envoy is reported to have said have commented "'at least in Germany we no longer have to rely on weapons, but on due process, which gives the weaker estates cause to rejoice."<ref name=":5" /> Prussia complied with the Aulic Council's demands, and the crisis in Kulmbach was settled without further trouble.
[[File:Friedrich Karl von Schonborn by Johann Gottfried Auerbach, c. 1730 - Mainfränkisches Museum - Würzburg, Germany - DSC04590.jpg|thumb|Friedrich Karl von Schönborn, Vice-Chancellor of the Holy Roman Empire, played a major role in the proceedings of the Aulic Council during the reign of Emperor Charles VI]]
An interesting note to be made is that even though Kulmbach was receiving Imperial protection, it, alongside other princes like the [[Duchy of Württemberg]], had been trying to suppress the rights of the [[Imperial Knight|Imperial knights]], which were being protected by the Emperor. This shows how the Emperor could intervene on multiple layers of hierarchy: the Emperor was protecting the margrave from Prussia, but also protecting the Imperial knights against the margraves.<ref name=":5" />

This was far from the only case where the Aulic Council defended the rights of weaker Imperial estates against larger ones. Leopold Auer writes that "the Imperial Aulic Council guaranteed the continuity and stability of the complex constitutional structure of the Old Reich by protecting the less powerful members of the Empire against the threats posed by the bigger Estates."<ref name=":9" /> Further examples can be found in the ''[[#More examples of cases settled|Examples of Cases Settled]]'' section.

== Composition ==

=== President ===
The president of the Aulic Council was a nobleman, often a [[count]]. They did not necessarily have legal training, but did have experience in politics and diplomacy. The president moderated sessions and took part in voting. His vote was a tiebreaker.<ref name=":3" /> He was appointed by the Emperor. There was also a vice president.

=== Vice Chancellor ===
The Vice Chancellor, who was appointed by the [[Elector of Mainz]] in his capacity as Imperial [[archchancellor]], held sway in the Aulic Council.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last=Milton |first=Patrick |date=2016 |title=The Early Eighteenth-Century German Confessional Crisis: The Juridification of Religious Conflict in the Reconfessionalized Politics of the Holy Roman Empire |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/43965627 |journal=Central European History |volume=49 |issue=1 |pages=39–68 |doi=10.1017/S0008938916000042 |jstor=43965627 |issn=0008-9389}}</ref>

=== Councillors ===
Each Emperor summoned a new Council upon his accession to the throne. The court normally consisted of 10-25 members, though this fluctuated over time. Under pressure from the Imperial Diet, the number of Protestants and Catholics on the council were balanced by Ferdinand III in 1654. Upon the death of an Emperor, the council was dissolved and had to be reconstructed by his successor. The Emperor was responsible for paying the councillors.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last=Osiander |first=Andreas |date=2001 |title=Sovereignty, International Relations, and the Westphalian Myth |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3078632 |journal=International Organization |volume=55 |issue=2 |pages=251–287 |doi=10.1162/00208180151140577 |jstor=3078632 |issn=0020-8183|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

The council was divided into two benches: The Lords' Bench (''Herrenbank''), mainly consisting of councillors recruited from the nobility, and the Knights' and Scholars' Bench (''Ritter- und Gelehrtenbank''). Both benches decided as one body. Councillors generally had legal qualifications, and their votes held the same weight.<ref name=":2" />
[[File:Questenberg johann adamFXD.jpg|thumb|310x310px|Aulic Councilor [[Johann Adam von Questenberg]] with lute. Interestingly, Questenberg did not have an extensive legal background. In 1712, Questenberg’s colleague Nikolaus Christoph von Lyncker accused him of passing the time at sessions reading French novels.|right]]
Councilors often had professional experience in [[Habsburg monarchy|Habsburg]] governance, worked in estates closely tied to the Emperor, or served on the ''Reichskammergericht.''

=== Fiskal ===
The Fiskal (also spelled ''Fiskale''), were special attorneys that represented Imperial interests. They often came from amongst officials in either the Aulic Council, the ''Reichskanzlei'' (Imperial Chancellery), or Austria below the [[Enns (river)|Enns River]].<ref name=":3" />

=== Other ===
The court also employed numerous lawyers,<ref name=":4" /> attorneys, procurators, and scribes.<ref name=":3" />

== Decision-making and enforcement ==
The court made decisions based on majority vote, and transcriptions were written in German or Latin. Proceedings were not comparatively formal, less so than the ''Reichskammergericht'',<ref name=":4" /> and instead aimed to resolve conflict amicably. Rulings were not appealable in court, and decisions could only be challenged by appealing to the Emperor, or later, the Imperial Diet.<ref name=":3" /> In cases where the court was in doubt, it could contact the Emperor for help with decision-making (''votum ad imperatorem'').<ref name=":4" /> In particular, cases that immense political sensitivity would be sent to the Emperor and his privy-conference (''Geheime Konferenz'') for recommendations.<ref name=":5" /> The privy-conference in particular was prone to political polarization. Three key factions, the ''Reichskanzlei'', the Austrian ''Hofkanzlei'' (Court-Chancellery), and the Spanish Council, all fought over influence in the Austrian Habsburg court. During Emperor [[Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles VI's]] reign, these factions often went against each other. To mitigate this and create some coordination, the president of the Aulic Council was often part of the privy-conference when Aulic Council cases were under investigation.<ref name=":5" />[[File:Concept of the Votum ad Imperatorem (Aulic Council).png|thumb|273x273px|''Votum ad Imperatorem'' (see top left) in a 1739 Aulic Council court case pertaining the Duke of Mecklenburg]]The Imperial Aulic Council often emphasized mediation over formal verdicts. It frequently employed "commissions" to facilitate compromises between parties, and sometimes the act of filing a complaint with the Council was sufficient to encourage settlement. Notably, both the Aulic Council and the ''Reichskammergericht'' demonstrated their moderating influence in [[Witch trials in the Holy Roman Empire|witch trials]]: both courts tried to (and with some success managed to) prevent excessive cruelty in the proceedings.<ref name=":9" />

When required, the Aulic Council had a formalized method of issuing verdicts, mainly through use of military force, and enlisted help from "commissions" consisting of princes in [[Imperial circle|Imperial Circles]]. Such enforcement was legitimized by the Emperor.<ref name=":5" /> Interestingly, the Aulic Council could enforce many of its verdicts, even against stronger members of the Empire (ex. Prussia), without using force, to the extent that [[Frederick William I of Prussia]], the famous "Soldier King", partook in bribing members of the Aulic Council in hopes of securing more favorable verdicts, to avoid being contumacious. These enforcement and arbitration mechanisms all helped establish the principle of juridification in the Empire.

== Responsibilities ==
An important clarification is that the Aulic Council handled both judicial and political matters, and the distinction between both is not always easy to make. The Aulic Council did not try to make a distinction between the two, calling all of its cases ''causae''.
[[File:The Imperial Chancellery Wing of the Vienna Imperial Palace.png|right|thumb|258x258px|''Reichskanzlei'' Wing of the Hofburg: the Aulic Council was located here]]
During the reigns of Charles V and Ferdinand I, the Aulic Council focused primarily on acts of grace (''gratialia'' or ''Gnadensachen''), which encompassed granting privileges, exercising imperial rights in both secular and religious spheres, issuing pardons, and handling intervention petitions. This emphasis on acts of grace made the emperor an essential partner for all social groups within the Empire while providing him with diverse means of wielding influence.<ref name=":9" />

Like the ''Reichskammergericht'', the Aulic Council was an [[Appellate court|appeals court]], in which matters that could not be settled at a lower level were brought to the it for deliberation.

The Aulic Council commonly dealt with feudal disputes. These included "imperial overlordship, protecting imperial fiefs, all issues relating to investitures, inheritance, pawning, or purchase of fiefs, and all sorts of lawsuits related to these matters."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gschliesser |first=Oswald von |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yl4vAAAAYAAJ |title=Der Reichshofrat: Bedeutung und Verfassung, Schicksal und Besetzung einer obersten Reichsbehörde von 1559 bis 1806 |date=1970 |publisher=Kraus Reprint |language=de}}</ref> The Aulic Council also dealt with constitutional disputes, especially in [[Free imperial city|Imperial cities]]<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last=Friedrichs |first=Christopher R. |date=1986 |title=Urban Conflicts and the Imperial Constitution in Seventeenth-Century Germany |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1880011 |journal=The Journal of Modern History |volume=58 |pages=S98–S123 |doi=10.1086/243152 |jstor=1880011 |issn=0022-2801|url-access=subscription }}</ref> and [[Imperial Knight|imperial knightly territories]].<ref name=":0" /> It also proved to be a major court when it came to succession disputes within the Empire. For example, the Aulic Council was charged with dealing with cases such as the [[War of the Jülich Succession|Jülich Succession]] and the succession in the [[Ernestine duchies]]. Internal conflicts between rulers and their subjects were also commonly brought to the Aulic Council. See the ''Examples of Cases Studied'' section below for more information. Uniquely, the Aulic Council also had exclusive rights over judicial matters in the [[Kingdom of Italy (Holy Roman Empire)|Kingdom of Italy]].<ref name=":3" />

The Aulic Council was also often concerned with [[private law]]. It often heard economic disputes, disputes over sovereign rights, disputes between [[Prince of the Holy Roman Empire|princes]] and provincial diets, and disputes between landowners and subjects. In addition to the aforementioned responsibilities, the Aulic Council also dealt with house pacts and family disputes. An example of this is the [[Nassau Family Pact]], which was submitted to review by the Aulic Council.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=van der Steen |first=Jasper |title=Dynastic Scenario Thinking in the Holy Roman Empire |url=https://academic.oup.com/past/article/256/1/87/6491208 |journal=Past & Present |publisher=Oxford University Press |publication-date=31 December 2021 |issue=256 |pages=87–128 |doi=10.1093/pastj/gtab029 |access-date=29 October 2024 |hdl-access=free |hdl=1887/3275298}}</ref> The court processed also imperial privileges, issuing letters of safe conduct, passage, and protection, granted legitimation of [[Legitimacy (family law)|bastard]] children, and confirmed various contracts and wills.

The Aulic Council was meant to serve as a supreme court for the [[Habsburg monarchy|Habsburg crownlands]], but by the end of the 17th century, this was no longer the case, so most cases came from elsewhere in the Empire.<ref>{{Cite web |title=441ImperialPrimer |url=https://pages.uoregon.edu/dluebke/Reformations441/441ImperialPrimer.htm |access-date=2025-02-11 |website=pages.uoregon.edu}}</ref> An exception to this were [[Jews|Jewish]] litigations, who were protected by the Emperor and as such could petition their complaints to the council, even if in the Habsburg crownlands. Oftentimes, Jewish businessmen would use the Aulic Council to sue princes for nonpayment of debts.<ref name=":2" />

=== Debit Commission ===
{{Main article|Debit commission}}
The Aulic Council also possessed the right to watch over finances of princes and deal with maladministration through the Debit Commission (''Debitkommissionen'').<ref name=":9" /> The court had the right to prevent princes or [[free imperial cities|free cities]] from taking too much debt, by holding the power to authorize large loans (though this was often bypassed). If a prince defaulted, the council could appoint a commission that would take over the governing of the land until the debt was repaid. In this time, the prince would be granted a [[pension]]. This was probably tolerated by the imperial princes since it enhanced their [[credit]] amongst lenders.<ref name=":2" /> Through its management of princely finances, the court saved many noble houses from financial ruin, such as the Dukes of [[Saxe-Hildburghausen]].<ref name=":3" />

=== Free cities ===
{{further|Free imperial cities}}
The Aulic Council frequently intervened in the constitutions of Imperial Cities. Before and during the [[30 Years' War]], Emperors used the Aulic Council to achieve religious peace in the cities. This meant compromising municipal governments. The Peace of Westphalia changed this, by making the compromises unnecessary (by establishing religious status-quo), and this led to city citizens addressing many complaints to the Aulic Council. During Charles VI's reign, with guidance from Vice-Chancellor Schönborn, Imperial policy was attempting to make the administration in the Imperial Cities more uniform, and to tie them closer to the Emperor. Examples of such include Aulic Council verdicts pertaining to constitutional conflict in [[Free City of Frankfurt|Frankfurt]] and [[Augsburg]], which restricted the power of city governments in favor of the citizens. Leopold Auer states that this caused the Aulic Council to function almost like a "constitutional high court."<ref name=":9" />

=== Protection of civilian rights ===
The Aulic Council and the ''Reichskammgericht'' both protected the rights of the people against local governments. The court's power could even bypass the [[Privilegium de non appellando]], if the litigants could credibly show that they had been denied due process.<ref name=":9" /> Low funds and low social status did not hamper one from appealing to the court, as the Aulic Council was required to provide counsel free of charge (the ''Reichskammegericht'' had a similar establishment). Peasants often sought audiences with the Emperor, with some travelling from distant parts of the Empire. The Emperor would generally give a formulaic response: "You shall have justice" (''Euch wird Recht werden''), before turning over the case to the Aulic Council.<ref name=":2" />

The Aulic Council was not an unconditional defender of the rights of subjects. There were occasions where it sided with an overlord.

== More examples of cases settled ==

=== Sixteenth century ===

==== Reichsregiment v. Archduchy of Austria ====
The case ''Reichsregiment'' v. Archduchy of Austria was primarily contested over an economic issue, pertaining to the [[Archduchy of Austria|Archduchy of Austria's]] investment agreements with the [[Grand Principality of Moscow]]. The ''[[Imperial Government|Reichsregiment]]'' sued the Archduchy of Austria over Austria's failure to comply with Imperial obligations.{{efn|See a translated English transcript of the case here:<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.uni-frankfurt.de/51529251/rechsregiment-v-archduchy-of-austria.pdf|title=JUDGMENT OF THE AULIC COUNCIL, 3 March 1526 |website=uni-frankfurt.de}}</ref>}}

=== Seventeenth century ===

==== Jülich-Cleves-Berg Succession Crisis ====
In 1609, a [[War of succession|succession crisis]] in the [[United Duchies of Jülich-Cleves-Berg]] fell under the jurisdiction of the Aulic Council. The case was not resolved and escalated into the [[War of the Jülich Succession]].

==== Erfurt v. Mainz ====
Between 1648 and 1664, [[Erfurt|Erfurt's]] magistrates attempted to secure the city's status as an imperial city. However, Erfurt was nominally subject to the Elector of Mainz. Two struggles ensued: one between Erfurt and Mainz, and another between the [[Burgher (social class)|burghers]] of Erfurt and the magistrates (the burghers were concerned about their privileges). The Elector of Mainz in particular sought to use the opportunity to strengthen his control over Erfurt. In this period, the Emperor appointed four commissions to deal with the crisis, with the last three commissions all including members of the Aulic Council. The appointed Aulic Councilor, Johann Christoph von Schmidburg, was a partisan in favor of Mainz. Erfurt was placed under [[Imperial ban|Imperial Ban]], and the Elector of Mainz was given the right to enforce the imperial decree. In 1664, Erfurt was subdued by Mainz for good.<ref name=":7" />

=== Eighteenth century ===

==== Deposition of Prince William Hyacinth ====
Prince [[William Hyacinth, Prince of Nassau-Siegen|William Hyacinth]] ruled part of the small territory of [[Nassau-Siegen]]. His violent and extortionate behavior led to multiple lawsuits against him and one of his ministers, Carlo Colomba, at the Aulic Council. The Aulic Council commissioned the [[cathedral chapter]] of the [[Electorate of Cologne]] to investigate the litigations. Further bad behavior and lack of cooperation by William Hyacinth, along with an alleged violation of the ''[[Constitutio Criminalis Carolina]],'' led to armed intervention in his lands, and later his deposition in 1707. The court's mandates were "promptly executed by Electoral Cologne." Later, the lands would pass into the administration of the local [[Imperial circle|Imperial Circle]], which had already been cooperating with the Aulic Council.<ref name=":6" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Milton |first=Patrick |date=2015-03-01 |title=Intervening Against Tyrannical Rule in the Holy Roman Empire during the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries* |url=https://academic.oup.com/gh/article-abstract/33/1/1/639878?redirectedFrom=fulltext |journal=German History |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=1–29 |doi=10.1093/gerhis/ghu114 |issn=0266-3554|url-access=subscription }}</ref>
[[File:Willem Hyacinth, by Nicolas de Largillière.jpg|thumb|Prince William Hyacinth of Nassau-Siegen]]

==== Limpurg Succession Crisis ====
When the Count of Limpurg (not to be confused with Limburg) died without heirs in 1713 without male heirs, Prussia occupied the territory. The widowed countess appealed to the Aulic Council, in hopes of restoring the autonomy of Limpurg. The prince-bishops of [[Prince-Bishopric of Bamberg|Bamberg]] and [[Prince-Bishopric of Würzburg|Würzburg]], along with the Duke of Württemberg, formed a commission, and the countess requested that "in case good offices are employed to no avail, [the commissioners] should employ armed force to drive the Prussian invaders out of the Limpurg territories".<ref name=":5" /> The Prussians promptly withdrew from Limpurg, and the countess was restored to her lands.

==== Uncovered fraud of Rheingraf Karl Magnus ====
Rheingraf Karl Magnus of Grehweiler contracted large loans by forging the consent of his subjects. He used these funds to pay for his construction projects. When his fraud was uncovered, the Aulic Council sentenced him to 10 years in prison.<ref name=":0" />

==== Internal disputes in Mecklenburg and Württemberg ====
Internal conflicts were often fought between princes and local estates and parliaments. Oftentimes, these were fought over taxation. A form of this occurred in [[Duchy of Mecklenburg|Mecklenburg]] and Württemberg. The Aulic Council played a significant role in both cases. In Württemberg, the estates' complaints led to the emperor deposing regent Frederick Charles in 1693. Similarly, in Mecklenburg, a complaint resulted in the emperor deposing [[Karl Leopold, Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin|Karl Leopold]] in 1728. Ultimately, these conflicts ended with victories for the estates over their rulers—Mecklenburg in 1755 and Württemberg in 1764/70. Similar cases also occurred in [[Electorate of Bavaria|Bavaria]] and [[County of East Frisia|East Frisia]].<ref name=":2" />

==== Kann v. Bamberger ====
{{empty section|date=March 2025}}
<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kasper-Marienberg |first1=Verena |last2=Fram |first2=Edward |date=2022-07-31 |title=Jewish Law in Non-Jewish Courts: A Case from Eighteenth-Century Frankfurt at the Imperial Aulic Council of the Holy Roman Empire |url=https://cris.bgu.ac.il/en/publications/jewish-law-in-non-jewish-courts-a-case-from-eighteenth-century-fr |journal=Jewish Law in Non-Jewish Courts |series=MPILHLT Research Paper Series |doi=10.2139/ssrn.4245608|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

==== Hesse-Rheinfels v. Hesse-Kassel ====
A dispute between [[Landgraviate of Hesse-Rotenburg|Hesse-Rheinfels]] (sometimes referred to as Hesse-Rheinfels-Rotenburg or Hesse-Rotenburg) and [[Landgraviate of Hesse-Kassel|Hesse-Kassel]] was fought over the Rheinfels fortress and the county of [[Katzenelnbogen]]. The lands belonged to Hesse-Rheinfels, but the fortress was occupied by the larger Hesse-Kassel in 1692 to defend it against French attacks in the [[Nine Years' War]]. Hesse-Kassel decided to retain the fortress even after the war, until the [[Treaty of Baden (1714)]], which demanded that Hesse-Kassel return the fort to Hesse-Rheinfels. Landgrave [[Charles I, Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel|Charles of Hesse-Kassel]] refused, and so Hesse-Rheinfels appealed to the Emperor. The Aulic Council supported the claim of Hesse-Rheinfels, but the mandate was unable to be enforced, due to developments both within the Empire and beyond (Hesse-Kassel had support from the [[Dutch Republic]], for example, and had marriage ties with [[Swedish Empire|Sweden]]). Eventually, in 1718, armies of the [[Electoral Palatinate|Palatinate]], Mainz, and [[Electorate of Trier|Trier]], engaged in skirmishes against Hesse-Kassel. The conclusion of the [[Austro-Turkish War (1716–1718)|Austro-Turkish War]] finally led to Hesse-Kassel's surrender, as it meant Imperial armies could be diverted to deal with the issue.<ref name=":5" />

==== Bentheim-Tecklenburg v. Prussia and Solms-Braunfels ====
The [[County of Tecklenburg]] had been engaged in a succession dispute since the 1500s. In 1686, the ''Reichskammergericht'' issued a verdict which settled the conflict, splitting the territory between [[Bentheim-Tecklenburg]] and [[Solms-Braunfels]]. In 1696, Solms-Braunfels ceded their claim to Brandenburg-Prussia. When Prussia and Solms-Braunfels occupied Tecklenburg in 1701, Bentheim-Tecklenburg appealed to the Aulic Council. The conflict escalated when Solms-Braunfels formally sold Tecklenburg to Prussia. The Aulic Council declared this sale illegal. Prussia's activity was condemned by members of the [[Lower Rhenish–Westphalian Circle]], in particular [[Prince-Bishopric of Münster|Münster]] and the Palatinate. At the Imperial Diet of 1722, Prussia, Solms-Braunfels, and the ''Reichskammergericht'', challenged the Aulic Council's decision. Prussia claimed that since the ''Reichskammergericht'' had already reached a verdict on the case, the Aulic Council should have never reopened the case. The Aulic Council argued that the ''Reichskammergericht'' was not authorized to pass verdicts on disputed immediate Imperial estates, but the ''Reichskammergericht'' responded by claiming that Tecklenburg was not a county immediate to the Emperor, but only an [[Allodial title|allodial property]]. The case was unable to be settled in the diet.<ref name=":5" />

The Aulic Council continued to publish verdicts against Prussia throughout 1725, but failure of the council to enforce the case, coupled with the Emperor needing Prussia support with the [[Pragmatic Sanction of 1713|Pragmatic Sanction]], led to a 1729 treaty between Prussia and Bentheim-Tecklenburg. Bentheim-Tecklenburg would give up its claim to Tecklenburg, but would receive 750,000 [[Reichsthaler|Reichstaler]]. The Emperor ratified the treaty in 1730, and Prussia annexed Tecklenburg.

Interestingly, the Tecklenburg case is an example of the Aulic Council somewhat going against Habsburg policy. Despite the Emperor Charles VI attempting to "woo" Prussia in exchange for agreeing to the Pragmatic Sanction, the Aulic Council remained steadfast in challenging Prussia's position in Tecklenburg.<ref name=":5" />

==== Knights of the Göler v. Electoral Palatinate ====
Zwingenberg, a fief of the Electoral Palatinate, had been ruled by the lords of Hirschhorn, which fell extinct in 1632. According to a succession treaty in the Peace of Westphalia, the territory was meant to pass to the knights of the Göler. Instead, the Elector Palatine, [[Charles III Philip|Charles III Phillip]], granted the land to the Wiser family. In 1725, the Aulic Council ordered the Elector Palatine to restore Zwingenberg to the Göler.

Diplomatic developments in Europe complicated matters. The [[Treaty of Vienna (1725)|Peace of Vienna]], and the subsequent [[Treaty of Hanover (1725)|Treaty of Hanover]], created two new alliances in the continent, which established a new balance of power. Both parties wanted to ally with the powerful German princes: the Palatinate was being courted by Vienna. In 1726, an alliance was agreed upon between the Emperor and the Palatinate, with the Elector Palatine receiving subsidies and support in the Jülich-Berg succession.<ref name=":5" />

Nonetheless, the Aulic Council remained hostile against the Palatinate when it came to the Zwingenberg case. The Swabian circle, was commissioned to eject the Elector-Palatine, but the Emperor did not immediately execute the order by 1727. The Palatinate appealed to the Imperial Diet, with support from the Catholic princes, but with relations between the Elector Palatine and the Emperor deteriorating in 1728, the Emperor became impatient with the issue, and sided with the Protestant party (''Corpus Evangelicorum'') against the Palatinate (this came after the Emperor promised the Jülich-Berg succession to Prussia, which led to the Elector Palatine aligning himself with the Habsburgs' rivals). In 1728, an unverified report stated that an Swabian commission lawyer was jailed and beaten, and a report from the Aulic Council stated that Imperial delegates were turned away by Palatine [[dragoon]]s, when attempting to enter Zwingenberg. The Aulic Council was outraged, and demanded that the Elector Palatine be reprimanded.<ref name=":5" /> The Elector Palatine was ordered to stop obstructing the commission and that failure to do so would result in unrest in the Empire. In 1728, the Elector Palatine finally stepped down, and the Aulic Council's demand was executed in November 1728.<ref name=":5" />

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Sources==
* {{EB1911 |wstitle= Aulic Council |volume= 2 |last= Barker |first= Ernest |author-link= Ernest Barker |pages=916-917 |short=1}}

== External links ==
* [http://www.lwl.org/westfaelische-geschichte/portal/Internet/ku.php?tab=que&ID=2641 Order of the Aulic Council of March 16th, 1654 in full-text] (in German)

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Aulic Council}}
[[Category:Law of the Holy Roman Empire]]
[[Category:Legal history of Germany]]
[[Category:Privy councils]]
[[Category:Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor]]

Peter Parker (physician)

2025-05-24T13:35:19Z

131.111.5.201: Added information about Parker’s involvement in anti-coolie movements.

{{short description|American physician and missionary}}
{{infobox person/Wikidata|fetchwikidata=ALL|dateformat=mdy}}

'''Peter Parker''' (June 18, 1804 – January 10, 1888) was an American physician and a [[missionary]] who introduced Western medical techniques into [[Qing dynasty]] China, at [[Guangzhou|the city of Canton]]. It was said that Parker "opened China to the gospel at the point of a lancet."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Withrow |first1=W. H. |title=China and its People |date=1894 |publisher=William Briggs |location=Toronto |page=230 |url=https://www.google.com/search?q=%22David+W.+Stevenson%22+%22peter+parker%22&tbm=bks |chapter=Medical Missions in China |quote=David W. Stevenson, M.D., of the Canadian Mission, writes as follows: ... ' 'Dr. Peter Parker, who went out in 1835, almost opened China to the Gospel at the point of his lancet. His great eye hospital become noted the world over.' ' ...}}</ref>

== Early life ==
Parker was born in [[Framingham, Massachusetts]], in 1804 to an orthodox [[Congregational church|Congregational]] family. His parents were farmers. Parker received a B.A. degree from [[Yale University]] in 1831, and his [[Doctor of Medicine|M.D.]] degree from the [[Yale Medical School]], then called Medical Institution of Yale College, in 1834. In January 1834, he completed his theological studies at Yale and was ordained as a [[Presbyterian]] minister.<ref>Christopher Gundman, ''Biographical Dictionary of Christianity in China'' [http://www.bdcconline.net/en/stories/p/parker-peter.php] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111002120818/http://www.bdcconline.net/en/stories/p/parker-peter.php|date=2011-10-02}}</ref>

== China ==
[[File:Dr. Peter Parker.jpg|thumb|Portrait of Parker by [[Lam Qua]]]]
In February 1834, Parker (phoneticized in Cantonese: 伯駕)<ref>{{cite book |last1=Tiedemann |first1=R. G. |title=Handbook of Christianity in China. Volume Two: 1800 to the Present |date=2010 |publisher=Brill NV |location=Leiden |isbn=9789004114302 |page=145 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0N95DwAAQBAJ&dq=Peter+Parker+%E4%BC%AF%E9%A7%95+1804&pg=PA145}}</ref> traveled to [[Guangzhou|Canton]], where he had the distinction of being the first full-time Protestant medical missionary to China. In 1835, he opened in that city the Ophthalmic Hospital, which later became the Guangzhou Boji Hospital ([[the Canton Hospital]]). Parker specialized in diseases of the eye, including [[cataract]]s, and also resected [[tumor]]s. Parker also introduced Western [[anesthesia]] in the form of [[Diethyl ether|sulphuric ether]].

Although the hospital was intended particularly for the treatment of eye diseases, it was soon found impracticable to exclude patients with other maladies. Over 2,000 patients were admitted the first year. Parker often preached to the patients, and trained several Chinese students in the arts of medicine and surgery, some of whom attained considerable skill.<ref name=ac>{{Cite AmCyc |last=Bush |first=Charles P. |wstitle=Parker, Peter}}</ref>

Merchant [[David Olyphant]] of [[Olyphant & Co.]] allowed Parker to use one of his warehouses as a hospital "so that patients could come and go without annoying foreigners by passing through their ''[[Hong (business)|hongs]]'', or excite the observations of natives by being seen to resort to a foreigner's house, rendered it most suitable for the purpose."<ref>{{Citation|title=First Quarterly Report of Ophthalmic Hospital at Canton|last=Parker|first=Peter|author-link=Peter Parker (physician)|journal=[[Chinese Repository]]|date=February 1836|page=461}}</ref>

In 1840, on the occurrence of hostilities between England and China, the hospital was closed, and Parker returned to the United States. He met and married Harriet Colby Webster during this time period.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Parker, Peter (1804-1888), medical missionary and diplomat|url=https://www.anb.org/view/10.1093/anb/9780198606697.001.0001/anb-9780198606697-e-1200699|access-date=2020-10-12|website=American National Biography|year=2000|language=en|doi=10.1093/anb/9780198606697.article.1200699|last1=Kass|first1=Amalie M.|isbn=978-0-19-860669-7 }}</ref> Returning to China with his new wife in 1842, he reopened the hospital, and it was thronged as before.<ref name=ac/> He served as president of the [[Medical Missionary Society of China]] after his mentor [[Thomas Richardson Colledge]]. [[John Glasgow Kerr]] followed Parker in running the Medical Missionary Society Hospital.

In 1844, Parker worked as [[Caleb Cushing]]'s main interpreter during the negotiations of the [[Treaty of Wanghia]] with the [[Qing]] Empire. In 1845 he became a secretary and interpreter to the new embassy from the United States, still keeping the hospital in operation. In the absence of the minister, Parker acted as [[chargé d'affaires]]. In 1855, finding his health seriously impaired, he again returned to the United States.<ref name=ac/>

The 1844 treaty stipulated that it could be renegotiated after 12 years, and in 1856, president [[Franklin Pierce]] sent Parker to China in order to revise the treaty and gain more concessions from the Qing Empire. Parker was unsuccessful in this endeavor. He worked in this capacity until Pierce left office. In 1857, his health again failing, he returned to the United States.<ref name=ac/>

=== Lam Qua portraits ===
While in China, Parker met [[Lam Qua]], a Western-trained Chinese painter. Parker commissioned Lam Qua to paint patients at the Canton Hospital with large tumors or other major deformities. Some of the paintings are part of a collection of Lam Qua's work held by the Peter Parker Collection<ref name=yale-qua-pics>{{cite web|url=http://library.medicine.yale.edu/find/peter-parker |title=Peter Parker's Lam Qua Paintings Collection |website=med.yale.edu |date=8 June 2012 |publisher=Harvey Cushing/John Hay Whitney Medical Library (Yale University) |access-date=August 13, 2015}}</ref> at the [[Harvey Cushing/John Hay Whitney Medical Library]] at Yale University. Parker left these portraits to the Pathology Department of the Yale Medical School, which later gave them to the library.

==United States==
[[File:700 Jackson Place.jpg|thumb|[[Peter Parker House|Parker's former residence]] in Washington, D.C.]]
After his final return to the United States, Parker and Harriet had one son, Peter Parker Jr., in 1859. In the 1860s, the couple moved to the townhome on Lafayette Square that is known today as the [[Peter Parker House]]. From here the couple regularly hosted notable figures in Washington, including Supreme Court justices, members of Congress, and President [[Abraham Lincoln]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Gulick|first=Edward V|url=https://doi.org/10.4159/harvard.9780674284463|title=Peter Parker and the Opening of China|date=2014|isbn=978-0-674-28446-3|pages=197–198|doi=10.4159/harvard.9780674284463|oclc=1154261626}}</ref>

Parker became a regent of the [[Smithsonian Institution]] in 1868, a corporate member of the [[American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions|American Board]] in 1871, and was a delegate of the [[Evangelical Alliance]] to [[Russia]] the same year to memorialise [[Alexander II of Russia|Tsar Alexander II]] on behalf of religious liberty in the [[Baltic provinces]]. He was instrumental in the campaign against Chinese [[Coolie]] labour, and the U.S. government’s involvement with the trafficking of coolies to the Caribbean and Latin America.<ref> Yun, Lisa. The Coolie Speaks : Chinese Indentured Laborers and African Slaves of Cuba /. Philadelphia, PA : Temple University Press. Print. </ref> He was president of the [[Washington, D.C.|Washington]] branch of the Evangelical Alliance in 1887.<ref name="acab">{{Appletons|wstitle=Parker, Peter (clergyman)|display=Parker, Peter, clergyman|year=1900|inline=1}}</ref> He died on January 10, 1888, in Washington, D.C.<ref name="ea" />

== Writings ==
Among his publications were:<ref name=ac/><ref name=acab/><ref name=ea>{{Cite Americana|wstitle=Parker, Peter}}</ref><ref name=nie>{{Cite NIE|wstitle=Parker, Peter (missionary)|display=Parker, Peter. A medical missionary and diplomat|year=1905}}</ref>
* ''Reports of the Ophthalmic Hospital at Canton'' (Canton, 1836–52)
* ''Journal of an Expedition from Singapore to Japan'', an account of his visit to the Loo Choo islands and Japan in 1837 (London, 1838)
* ''A Statement Respecting Hospitals in China'' (London, 1841)
* ''Notes of Surgical Practice Among the Chinese'' (1846)
* ''Eulogy on [[Henry Wilson]]'' (Washington, D. C., 1880)

==References==

{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==

* George B. Stevens and W. Fisher Markwick. [https://books.google.com/books?id=BPtBAAAAYAAJ&q=%22Hon+Peter+Parker%22 ''The Life, Letters, and Journals of the Rev. and Hon. Peter Parker, M.D. - Missionary, Physician, and Diplomatist. - The Father of Medical Missions and Founder of the Ophthalmic Hospital in Canton''.] Boston and Chicago: Congregational Sunday School and Publishing Society (1896).
* Edward V. Gulick. ''Peter Parker and the Opening of China''. (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, Harvard Studies in American-East Asian Relations 3, 1973). {{ISBN|0-674-66326-8}}.

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Peter Parker (physician)}}
* [https://archives.yale.edu/repositories/10/resources/504 Peter Parker collection], Medical Historical Library, Harvey Cushing/John Hay Whitney Medical Library, Yale University
*[https://findit.library.yale.edu/?f%5Bdigital_collection_sim%5D%5B%5D=Peter+Parker%27s+Papers&f%5Byale_collection_sim%5D%5B%5D=Cushing%2FWhitney+Medical+Library Peter Parker Papers], Medical Historical Library, Harvey Cushing/John Hay Whitney Medical Library, Yale University
* [https://findit.library.yale.edu/?f%5Bdigital_collection_sim%5D%5B%5D=Lam+Qua%27s+Portraits+of+Peter+Parker%27s+Patients&f%5Byale_collection_sim%5D%5B%5D=Cushing%2FWhitney+Medical+Library Lam Qua's Portraits of Peter Parker's Patients], Medical Historical Library, Harvey Cushing/John Hay Whitney Medical Library, Yale University
* Chang, J. [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=8342936&dopt=Abstract ''A reconstructive surgeon's taste in art: Dr Peter Parker and the Lam Qua oil paintings''] Ann Plast Surg. (1993)
* Christopher Gundman, "Peter Parker," ''Biographical Dictionary of Christianity in China'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20111002120818/http://www.bdcconline.net/en/stories/p/parker-peter.php]
*Heinrich, Ari Larissa. ''The Afterlife of Images: Translating the Pathological Body Between China and the West,'' Chapel Hill: Duke University Press, 2008. [https://www.dukeupress.edu/The-Afterlife-of-Images/?viewby=title]
* [[Edward H. Hume|Hume, Edward]] [https://web.archive.org/web/20051106014149/http://jhmas.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/citation/1/4/670 ''Peter Parker and the Introduction of Anesthesia into China''] ''Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences'' (1946)
* Rachman, Stephen [https://web.archive.org/web/20051205084756/http://www.vanderbilt.edu/rpw_center/ls04a.htm ''Memento Morbi: Lam Qua’s Paintings, Peter Parker’s Patients''] Robert Penn Warren Center for the Humanities, Vanderbilt University

{{US Ambassadors to the PRC}}
{{Protestant missions to China}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Parker, Peter}}
[[Category:1804 births]]
[[Category:1888 deaths]]
[[Category:American Presbyterian missionaries]]
[[Category:19th-century American physicians]]
[[Category:Christian medical missionaries]]
[[Category:Presbyterian missionaries in China]]
[[Category:People from Framingham, Massachusetts]]
[[Category:Yale School of Medicine alumni]]
[[Category:American expatriates in China]]
[[Category:19th-century American diplomats]]
[[Category:Ambassadors of the United States to China]]

Aphonia

2025-05-16T17:13:46Z

131.111.5.201:

{{short description|Medical condition leading to loss of voice}}
{{more medical citations needed|date=November 2017}}
{{Infobox medical condition (new)
| name = Aphonia
| synonyms =
| field = {{plainlist|
* [[Psychiatry]]
* [[Neurology]]
* [[Speech-language pathology]]
}}
| symptoms =
| complications =
| onset =
| duration =
| types =
| causes =
| risks =
| diagnosis =
| differential =
| prevention =
| treatment = Voice rest, drinking water, reduce coughing and throat clearing, no whispering or shouting/screaming
| medication =
| prognosis =
| frequency =
| deaths =
}}

'''Aphonia''' is defined as the inability to produce [[voiced sound]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.healthgrades.com/symptoms/loss-of-voice|title=What is loss of voice?|date=26 June 2014 }}</ref> This may result from damage, such as surgery (e.g., [[thyroidectomy]]) or a [[Neoplasm|tumor]],<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://www.botanical-online.com/Aphonia.htm|title=Aphonia natural treatment|date=2019-01-19}}</ref> or can be a result of psychological means.

Aphonia means "no sound.” In other words, a person with this disorder has lost their voice and is unable to communicate vocally.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Xjk_AwAAQBAJ&q=Aphonia+means+%22no+sound%22&pg=PA162|title=Clinical Skills - Page 162: Aphonia means "no sound"|isbn=9780199574926|last1=Roper|first1=T. A.|year=2014|publisher=OUP Oxford }}</ref>

==Causes==
Injuries are often the cause of aphonia.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=https://www.allaboutcounseling.com/library/aphonia/|title=Aphonia: Causes, Treatment}}</ref> Minor injuries can affect the second and third [[Dorsal column–medial lemniscus pathway|dorsal]] area in such a manner that the [[lymph]] patches concerned with coordination become either [[Atrophy|atrophic]] or relatively nonfunctioning. [[Tracheotomy]] can also cause aphonia.<ref name=":1" />

Any injury or condition that prevents the [[vocal cords]] - the paired bands of muscle tissue positioned over the [[trachea]] - from coming together and vibrating will have the potential to make a person unable to speak. When a person prepares to speak, the vocal folds come together over the trachea and vibrate due to the airflow from the lungs. This mechanism produces the sound of the voice. If the vocal folds cannot meet together to vibrate, sound will not be produced. Aphonia can also be caused by and is often accompanied by fear.<ref name=":1" />

===Psychogenic===
Psychogenic aphonia is often seen in patients with underlying psychological problems. Laryngeal examination will usually show bowed vocal folds that fail to adduct to the midline during [[phonation]]. However, the vocal folds will adduct when the patient is asked to cough. Treatment should involve consultation and counseling with a [[Speech–language pathology|speech pathologist]] and, if necessary, a [[psychologist]].<ref name=":0" />

In this case, the patient's history and the observed unilateral immobility rules out function aphonia.

== See also ==
* [[Muteness]]
* [[Lists of language disorders]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==

# [https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/000348944205100402] Clerf LH, Braceland FJ. LXXXIII Functional Aphonia. Annals of Otology, Rhinology & Laryngology. 1942;51(4):905-916. {{doi|10.1177/000348944205100402}}
# [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19924583/] Kolbrunner J, Menet A. Psychogenic aphonia: No fixation even after a lengthy period of aphonia. Swiss Med Wkly [Internet]. 2010 Jan. 16 [cited 2024 Jan. 6];140(0102):12-. Available from: <nowiki>https://smw.ch/index.php/smw/article/view/1062</nowiki>
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070312125003/http://homepage.mac.com/changcy/voicebreathy.htm#aphonia Muscle Tension Aphonia Video Example]

{{Medical resources
| ICD10 = {{ICD10|R|49|1|r|47}}
| ICD9 = {{ICD9|784.41}}
| MeshID = D001044
| DiseasesDB = 28364
}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Symptoms and signs: Speech and voice]]
[[Category:Neurobiological brain disorders]]
[[Category:Larynx disorders]]
[[Category:Muteness]]

Cambridge Inter-Collegiate Christian Union

2025-05-15T18:07:09Z

131.111.5.201: Added president for 2025-2026

{{Short description|none}} 
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2020}}
The '''Cambridge Inter-Collegiate Christian Union''', usually known as '''CICCU''', is the [[University of Cambridge]]'s most prominent student Christian organisation, and was the first university [[Christian Union (students)|Christian Union]] to have been founded. It was formed in 1877, but can trace its origins back to the formation of the Jesus Lane Sunday School in 1827 and the Cambridge Prayer Union in 1848. CICCU's stated purpose is "to make Jesus Christ known to students in Cambridge".<ref>[http://www.ciccu.org.uk/ CICCU website]</ref>

Currently CICCU runs two main outreach activities – 'Events Week' in [[Lent term]], and 'Big Questions' lunches on Fridays in [[St Andrew the Great]] which feature short talks and Q&As about questions of life and faith – along with a variety of occasional events, and bigger activities in colleges.

CICCU is a registered charity.<ref>Charity number: [https://register-of-charities.charitycommission.gov.uk/en/charity-search/?p_p_id=uk_gov_ccew_onereg_charitydetails_web_portlet_CharityDetailsPortlet&p_p_lifecycle=0&p_p_state=maximized&p_p_mode=view&_uk_gov_ccew_onereg_charitydetails_web_portlet_CharityDetailsPortlet_regId=1080230&_uk_gov_ccew_onereg_charitydetails_web_portlet_CharityDetailsPortlet_subId=0 1080230]</ref>

Students in many other universities followed Cambridge's lead in forming their own Christian Unions, beginning with [[OICCU]] being founded in [[University of Oxford|Oxford]] in 1879. Initially CICCU was part of the [[Student Christian Movement of the United Kingdom|Student Christian Movement]], which it left in 1910 to provide a specifically [[Conservative evangelicalism in the United Kingdom|conservative evangelical]] ministry in Cambridge.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Goodhew |first1=David |title=The rise of the Cambridge inter-collegiate Christian union, 1910-1971 |journal=The Journal of Ecclesiastical History |date=January 2003 |volume=54 |issue=1 |pages=62–88 |quote=The causes of the split were plain: CICCU stood for a conservative Evangelical view of the Bible and deeply mistrusted higher criticism, whilst SCM accepted the validity of new views of the Bible}}</ref> Again, OICCU and other Unions followed them in this move, and together they founded the Inter-Varsity Fellowship of Evangelical Unions in 1928, which now the Universities and Colleges Christian Fellowship or [[UCCF]]. UCCF spread to Canada in the same year and later to the United States, Australia ([[Australian Fellowship of Evangelical Students]]), New Zealand ([[Tertiary Students Christian Fellowship]]) and in 1947 across the globe as the [[International Fellowship of Evangelical Students]].

==Membership declaration==
Students who become members of CICCU are asked to sign the following statement, "I desire in joining this Union to declare my faith in Jesus Christ as my Saviour, my Lord and my God". This was one of the issues in the dispute with the SCM.{{when|date=December 2020}}{{citation needed|date=December 2020}} However, this declaration is ''not'' necessary to attend any events, or become involved with helping.

==Leadership==
CICCU is led by Christian students from a wide variety of backgrounds, united in a common desire to "make Jesus Christ known to students in Cambridge." Past CICCU members have included [[Josh Moody]], [[Basil Atkinson]], [[Helen Roseveare]], [[John W. Wenham]], [[John Stott]], [[Gordon Wenham]], [[David Wenham (theologian)|David Wenham]], [[Hugh G. M. Williamson]] and [[Vaughan Roberts]]. The leadership operates on two levels – university wide and within colleges. A committee of eight students, known as the Exec organise CICCU. Two reps in each college lead college events and meetings.

==Structure==
There are weekly meetings in almost every college during term time – these include Bible study, prayer and praise. The college groups then meet together as a whole for Bible Teaching and prayer each week. The CICCU organises weekly talks, explaining what Christians believe, and discussion groups ([[Christianity Explored]] courses). The college groups organise termly events in the colleges where people can come and find out more about Christianity. Every year there is a high-publicity main event, during which events are held in most of the colleges and there are lunchtime and evening talks.

==Doctrinal basis==
CICCU adopts the [[creed|doctrinal basis]] of the [[UCCF#Doctrinal basis|UCCF]], to which it is affiliated.

==Controversy==
Attitudes towards [[homosexuality]] have been a particular area of controversy, in particular during their 2004 Promise Week event, in which it was alleged that homosexual relations were equated with [[bestiality]].<ref>{{cite news |work=Varsity |issue=594 |publication-date=6 February 2004 |pages=1–2 |first1=Gabriella |last1=Jozwiak |first2=Laura-Jane 1|last2=Foley |title=Predator – Pray? CICCU defends itself from accusations of homophobia |url=http://archive.varsity.co.uk/594.pdf}}</ref> CICCU members deny that their organisation is anti-gay, stressing "equality in the sight of God", and point out that they love homosexual and heterosexual friends equally, as does God.{{Citation needed|date=September 2010}}.

Recent comment on the CICCU has been more ambivalent – surprised by the intense focus on sharing rather than simply maintaining their faith, but impressed by the warmth of their welcome, and the depth of their conviction.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.varsity.co.uk/comment/1868 |title=Confessions of a Chr*sti*n |work=Varsity |publication-date=29 January 2010 |first=Rosie |last=Tegelaars}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.varsity.co.uk/news/6885 |title=My week with Jesus |work=Varsity |publication-date=13 February 2014 |first=Hannah |last=Wilkinson}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.varsity.co.uk/news/8281 |title=Searching for salvation |work=Varsity |publication-date=16 February 2015 |first=Sarah |last=Sheard}}</ref>

==Presidents==

{{columns-list|colwidth=25em|
*1877: A. Coote
* W. Mitchell-Carruthers
*1877–78: J.C. Taylor
*1878–79: G.H. Pole
*1879–80: J. Harford-Battersby
*1880–82: ''Names lost''
*1882–83: [[Kynaston Studd|J.E.K. Studd]]
*1883–84: I.B. Wane
*1884–85: Hon. W.G. Scott
*1885–86: E.D.M. Hamilton
*1886–87: A. Klein
*1887–88: R.M. Webb-Peploe
*1888–89: D.W. Carr
*1889–90: A. Rouse
*1890–91: L.F.D. Blair
*1891–92: C.T. Horan
*1892–93: N. Bennett
*1893–94: A.H. Swann
*1894–95: [[Theodore Woods|F.T. Woods]]
*1895–96: A.G. Dodderidge
*1896–97: H.F. Buxton
*1897–98: D.R. Barclay
*1898–99: T.W. Thompson
*1899–1900: J. Stenhouse
*1900–01: W.G. Hardie
*1901–02: R. Hodgkin
*1902–03: S. Donnithorne
*1903–04: G.A. Barclay
*1904–05: D.P. Robinson (''afterwards'' Brereton)
*1905–06: [[John Taylor (bishop of Sodor and Man)|J.R.S. Taylor]]
*1906–07: A.E. Bradley
*1907–08: R.L. Pelly
*1908–09: H.N. Rodgers
*1909–10: A.C.B. Bellerby
*1910: G.F.B. Morris
*Lent 1911 – Easter 1912: [[Howard Mowll|H.W.K. Mowll]]
*1912–13: G.B. Sellwood
*1913–14: W.R.D. Robertson
*1914–15: J.W.McK. Nicholl
*1915–16: E.W. Hare
*1916–17: G.R. Lindsay
*1918–19: R.P. Dick
*1919–20: [[Godfrey Buxton|B.G. Buxton]]
*Easter 1920: M.H. Webb-Peploe
*Michaelmas 1920: C.A. Martin
*Lent 1921 – Easter 1921: T.S. Goodwin
*1921–22: C.H.M. Foster
*1922–23: C.G. Webb-Peploe
*1923–24: F.H. Pickering
*1924–25: C.J.B. Harrison
*Michaelmas 1925: H.W. Boake
*Lent 1926 – Easter 1927: [[Hugh Gough (bishop)|H.R. Gough]]
*1927–28: K.H. Hooker
*1928–29: N.A.L. Miller
*1929–30: H.A.Evan Hopkins
*1930–31: [[Norman Dalrymple Anderson|J.N.D. Anderson]]
*1931–32: R.G. Allison
*1932–33: R.J. Cobb
*1933–34: C.G. Scorer
*1934–35: H.T. Hughes
*1935–36: B.C. Gough
*1936–37: R.J. Knight
*1937–38: R.J.B. Eddison
*1938–39: D.C. Argyle
*1939–40: [[Derek Kidner|F.D. Kidner]]
*1940–41: R.F. Hettlinger
*Michaelmas 1941 – Michaelmas 1942: [[Oliver Barclay|O.R. Barclay]]
*Lent 1943 – Easter 1943: J.D. Davis
*1943–44: G.K. Barker
*1944–45: J.H.F. Batstone
*1945–46: R.S. Dell
*Michaelmas 1946: [[John Pollock (author)|J.C. Pollock]]
*Lent 1947 – Easter 1947: J.A. Boyes
*Michaelmas 1947 – Lent 1948: G.F. Grobecker}}
''From this point the usual tenure was from the [[Easter term]] of one year to the [[Lent term]] of the next''

{{columns-list|colwidth=25em|
*1948–49: D.J. Drew
*1949–50: J.F. Sertin
*1950–51: J.T.C.B. Collins
*1951–52: M.C. Griffiths
*1952–54: ''Names lost''
*1954–55: A.A.W. Kimpton
*1955–58: ''Names lost''
*1958–59: J. Morris
*1959–63: ''Names lost''
*1963–64: S. Baldock
*1964–69: ''Names lost''
*1969–70: M. Cuthbertson
*1970–71: M. Elston
*1971–72: D. Evans
*1972–73: D. Hunt
*1973–74: R. Capper
*1974-75: P. Doyle
*1975–76: J. Glauert
*1976–77: J. Samuel
*1977–78: J. Partington
*1978–79: P. Weston
*1979–80: J. Barclay
*1980–81: J. Stuart
*1981–82: T. Green
*1982–83: T. Pickett
*1983–84: C. Naylor
*1984–85: ''Tim Law''
*1985–86: I. McIntosh
*1986–87: [[Vaughan Roberts|V.E. Roberts]]
*1987–88: A. Horn
*1988–89: K. Green
*1989–90: T. Thomas
*1990–91: T. Cole
*1991–92: [[Josh Moody|J. Moody]]<ref>https://archive.today/20080920030545/http://college-church.org/MeetDr.Moody.htm</ref>
*1992–93: G. Treece
*1993–94: U. Mayr-Harting
*1994–95: J. Rea
*1995–96: D. Horrocks
*1996–97: J. Sidders
*1997–98: D. Gobbett
*1998–99: S. Wearn
*1999–2000: J. White
*2000–01: R. Mann
*2001–02: R. Evans
*2002–03: K. Butler
*2003–04: J. Percival
*2004–05: G. Shearer
*2005–06: D. Pfeiffer
*2006–07: B. Monteiro
*2007–08: C. Butler
*2008–09: J. Young
*2009–10: M. Pilkington
*2010–11: P. Hammersley
*2011–12: C. Nickerson
*2012–13: M. Lewis
*2013–14: A. Greaves
*2014–15: J. Thompson
*2015–16: G. Sterlini
*2016–17: D. Palmer
*2017–18: J. Payne
*2018–19: T. Colpus
*2019–20: T. Saer<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://ciccu.org.uk/the-exec/|title=CICCU Executive|website=ciccu.org.uk|language=en|access-date=2019-05-11}}</ref>
*2020–21: A. Webb
*2021–22: K. Heasman
*2022–23: P. McCartney
*2023–24: D. Read
*2024–25: T. France
*2025-26: D. King}}

Sources in the [[Cambridge University Library]]

==Affiliation==
*[[UCCF]] (Universities and Colleges Christian Fellowship)
*[[International Fellowship of Evangelical Students|IFES]] (International Fellowship of Evangelical Students)

==See also==
* [[Cambridge Seven]]
* [[Oxford Inter-Collegiate Christian Union]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Bibliography==
* [http://www.tertullian.org/rpearse/scanned/old_paths_in_perilous_times.htm ''Old Paths in Perilous Times'': an account of the Cambridge Inter-Collegiate Christian Union], [[Basil Atkinson|Basil F. C. Atkinson]] : London, [[Inter-Varsity Press|Inter-Varsity booklet]], 1932.
* ''A Cambridge Movement'', [[John Pollock (author)|J. C. Pollock]]: London, John Murray, 1953.
* ''Whatever Happened to the Jesus Lane Lot?'', Oliver R. Barclay : Leicester, [[Inter-Varsity Press]], 1977, {{ISBN|0-85110-396-0}}.
* ''From Cambridge to the World: 125 years of student witness'' / Oliver R. Barclay and Robert M. Horn : Leicester, [[Inter-Varsity Press]], 2002, {{ISBN|0-85111-499-7}}.
* '[http://www.journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=148535 ''The Rise of the Cambridge Inter-Collegiate Christian Union''], 1910–1971', David Goodhew, in ''Journal of Ecclesiastical History'' Vol.LIV no.1, pp. 62–88.
* ''Cambridge Students and Christianity Worldwide: Insights from the 1960s'', [[Ian Randall|Ian M. Randall]], Cambridge, UK: [[Cambridge Centre for Christianity Worldwide]], 2019.

==External links==
* [http://www.ciccu.org.uk/ Official website]
* [http://ciccu.org.uk/tomorrow/ Tomorrow] – CICCU Events Week 2019 website
* [http://ciccu.org.uk/life/ Life] – CICCU Events Week 2020 website

{{University of Cambridge}}

[[Category:Christian student societies in the United Kingdom|CICCU]]
[[Category:Clubs and societies of the University of Cambridge|Christian]]
[[Category:Religious organizations established in 1877]]
[[Category:1877 establishments in England]]

Cambridge Biomedical Campus

2025-05-06T12:39:24Z

131.111.5.201: Updated to include The Healthcare Improvement Studies Institute /* University of Cambridge School of Clinical Medicine */

{{Short description|Science park in Cambridge, UK}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2017}}
{{Use British English|date=January 2017}}
{{Infobox university
|name = Cambridge Biomedical Campus
|image_name = cmglee Cambridge aerial Addenbrookes.jpg
|image_size =
|caption = Aerial view of part of the Cambridge Biomedical Campus
|established =
|city = [[Cambridge]]
|country = [[United Kingdom]]
|coordinates = {{Coord|52|10|29|N|0|08|18|E|type:landmark_region:GB|display=inline,title}}
|campus =
|former_names =
|affiliation = {{Plainlist|
* [[University of Cambridge]]
* [[Cancer Research UK]]
* [[AstraZeneca]]
* [[National Institute for Health and Care Research]]
* [[Wellcome Trust]]
* [[Medical Research Council (United Kingdom)|Medical Research Council]]}}
|website = {{URL|http://cambridge-biomedical.com}}
}}
The '''Cambridge Biomedical Campus''' is the largest centre of [[medical research]] and [[health science]] in Europe.<ref>[http://www.astrazeneca.com/Media/Press-releases/Article/20130618--astrazeneca-selects-Cambridge-for-global-research-centre-corproate-headquarters AstraZeneca selects location for new global R&D centre and corporate headquarters in Cambridge, UK], AstraZeneca Press Release 2013-06-18</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cuhp.org.uk/news/astrazeneca-join-cambridge-biomedical-campus.asp |title=Astrazeneca to Join the Cambridge Biomedical Campus :: CUHP :: CUH :: Knowledge-based healthcare |access-date=2013-09-28 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130928235840/http://www.cuhp.org.uk/news/astrazeneca-join-cambridge-biomedical-campus.asp |archive-date=28 September 2013 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> The site is located at the southern end of [[Hills Road, Cambridge|Hills Road]] in [[Cambridge]], [[England]].

Over 20,000 people work at the site, which is home to [[Cambridge University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust]], [[Royal Papworth Hospital NHS Foundation Trust]], [[AstraZeneca]]'s headquarters, [[Abcam]], the [[Cambridge Stem Cell Institute]], [[Cancer Research UK]], the [[University of Cambridge]]'s [[School of Clinical Medicine, University of Cambridge|medical school]] and [https://www.thisinstitute.cam.ac.uk/ The Healthcare Improvement Studies Institute], and the United Kingdom's governmental [[Medical Research Council (United Kingdom)|Medical Research Council]], which has [[National Institute for Health and Care Research]]-designated biomedical research centre status.<ref>{{cite web |title=Campus Occupiers |url=https://cambridge-biomedical.com/campus-occupiers/ |website=Cambridge Biomedical Campus |access-date=9 October 2022}}</ref> Cambridge Biomedical Campus is an accredited UK academic health and science centre.

==Constituent institutions==
The Cambridge Biomedical Campus is home to the following institutions.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cambridge-biomedical.com/assets/x/50147|title=Cambridge Biomedical Campus|access-date=14 September 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110708112907/http://www.cambridge-biomedical.com/assets/x/50147#|archive-date=8 July 2011|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref>

===Cambridge University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust===
{{main|Cambridge University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust}}

====Addenbrooke's hospital====
[[File:Addenbrookes.JPG|thumb|Addenbrooke's Hospital viewed from the south.]]
{{main|Addenbrooke's Hospital}}
Addenbrooke's Hospital is a large [[teaching hospital]], and the central focus of the campus.

====Rosie maternity hospital====
{{main|Rosie Hospital}}
The Rosie Hospital is Cambridge's first purpose-built maternity hospital, opened in October 1983. A multimillion-pound extension of the Rosie Hospital was completed in 2012.

===Royal Papworth Hospital NHS Foundation Trust===
{{main|Royal Papworth Hospital NHS Foundation Trust}}
[[File:Royal Papworth Hospital nearer completion - geograph.org.uk - 5828667.jpg|thumb|Royal Papworth Hospital]]
The [[Royal Papworth Hospital]] moved to new premises on the Cambridge Biomedical Campus in Spring 2019.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-cambridgeshire-31869155 |title=Papworth Hospital building work set to start at Addenbrooke's site - BBC News |work=BBC News |date=13 March 2015 |access-date=2018-10-01}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-cambridgeshire-30591434 |title=Papworth buys land ready for Cambridge move - BBC News |work=BBC News |date=23 December 2014 |access-date=2018-10-01}}</ref>

===AstraZeneca===
{{main|AstraZeneca}}
AstraZeneca's global [[research and development]] facility, The Discovery Centre, is located on the campus<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-22949623 AstraZeneca announces new Cambridge Biomedical Campus HQ], BBC News 2013-06-18</ref> and is home to over 2,000 employees working in medicines discovery and development, in both small molecules and [[biologics]]. Research activities span all preclinical functional groups, including [[antibody]] engineering, [[medicinal chemistry]] and high throughput screening.

===University of Cambridge School of Clinical Medicine===
{{main|University of Cambridge Medical School}}
The [[University of Cambridge]] [[Medical School]], established in 1976.

=== The Healthcare Improvement Studies Institute ===
[https://www.thisinstitute.cam.ac.uk/ The Healthcare Improvement Studies Institute], commonly known as THIS Institute, is a research institute dedicated to improving the quality and safety of healthcare. Through its research, the institute enables better healthcare through better evidence about how to improve.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-08-30 |title=Improvement research {{!}} The Health Foundation |url=https://www.health.org.uk/features-and-opinion/features/improvement-research |access-date=2025-05-06 |website=www.health.org.uk |language=en}}</ref> It is part of the [[University of Cambridge]] and based within the School of Clinical Medicine.

===MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology===
[[File:cmglee Cambridge LMB train.jpg|thumb|Laboratory of Molecular Biology]]
{{main|Laboratory of Molecular Biology}}
The LMB is a [[molecular biology]] research institute funded by the UK [[Medical Research Council (UK)|Medical Research Council]]. It was founded in Cambridge in 1947 as the Unit for Research on the Molecular Structure of Biological Systems and moved to a site adjacent to [[Addenbrooke's Hospital]] in 1962. A 27,000m2 replacement building close to the previous site was completed in 2012 and opened in May 2013.<ref name="Opening">{{cite web |url=http://www.cam.ac.uk/news/her-majesty-the-queen-opens-the-new-mrc-laboratory-of-molecular-biology |title=Her Majesty the Queen opens the new MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology |author= |date=23 May 2013 |publisher=Cambridge University |access-date=1 July 2013}}</ref>

The laboratory has won twelve [[Nobel Prizes]] including the 1962 prize ([[List of Nobel Laureates in Physiology or Medicine|Physiology or Medicine]]) awarded for the discovery of the [[Nucleic acid double helix|double-helix]] structure of [[DNA]].<ref>[http://www2.mrc-lmb.cam.ac.uk/about-lmb/history-of-lmb The History of the Laboratory of Molecular Biology (LMB)], University of Cambridge</ref>

===Cambridge Stem Cell Institute===
The [[Cambridge Stem Cell Institute]] (CSCI) is an institute dedicated to the research on stem cell biology, and is part of the [[University of Cambridge]]. It includes around 30 University-based Principal Investigators who study stem cell biology and/or translation. The Institute is housed on the Cambridge Biomedical Campus, and is the largest research institute of its kind in Europe.

The aims of CSCI are:

*To make fundamental discoveries that provide new insights into [[stem cell]] function and potency;
*To understand the role of stem and progenitor cells in [[disease]] and thereby to improve [[diagnosis]] and [[therapy|treatment]];
*To harness the capacity of endogenous stem and progenitor cells for repair and regeneration;
*To exploit stem cells as tools for studying the molecular pathogenesis of human diseases and discovery of therapeutic agents;
*To nurture future generations of stem cell scientists and clinical investigators in an intellectually invigorating mix of basic and [[translational research]].

CSCI was formed in 2012 following an £8m investment by the [[Wellcome Trust]] and the [[Medical Research Council (United Kingdom)|Medical Research Council]].<ref>[http://www.wellcome.ac.uk/News/Media-office/Press-releases/2012/WTVM056100.htm Wellcome Trust and MRC invest in world-class Stem Cell Institute], Wellcome Trust Press release 2012-08-09</ref>

===Cancer Research UK Cambridge Institute===
{{main|Cancer Research UK}}
[[File:cmglee Cambridge Cancer Research.jpg|thumb|Li Ka Shing Centre of the Cancer Research UK Cambridge Institute]]
The Cancer Research UK Cambridge Institute is one of four core funded [[Cancer Research UK]] Institutes <ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cancerresearchuk.org/funding-for-researchers/our-research-infrastructure/our-institutes|title=Cancer Research UK Institutes|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100129003637/http://www.cambridgecancer.org.uk/about_us/institute_funding?version=1|archive-date=29 January 2010|url-status=dead|access-date=2010-09-14|df=dmy-all}}</ref> and a department of the University of Cambridge. In 2018, the department received an annual budget of £45 million, £27.8 million of which came from Cancer Research UK. The institute offers highly competitive [[PhD]] programmes; both studentships and clinical research training fellowships (for aspiring clinical academics), attracting applicants from the [[UK]] and around the world. [[Cancer research]] is a designated [[University of Cambridge]] Strategic Initiative.

Research in the Institute focuses primarily on Tumour Ecology and Evolution, with investigations across four main areas:<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cruk.cam.ac.uk/about-us|title=The Institute|website=Cancer Research UK Cambridge Institute|language=en-GB|access-date=2018-12-06}}</ref>

*Basic research, which involves looking into the [[Cell (biology)|cellular]] and [[molecular]] biology of cancer.
*Research into [[molecular imaging]], [[genomics]], [[bioinformatics]] and [[biomolecular]] modeling.
*Research that focuses on specific cancer sites, forming a bridge between the clinical and laboratory areas.
*Clinical investigations and [[clinical trial|trials]], including population based studies into screening and prevention.

The centre was officially opened by [[Queen Elizabeth II]] in February 2007. In 2018, Professor [[Gregory Hannon]] was announced as the new Director, taking over from Professor [[Simon Tavaré]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cam.ac.uk/news/new-director-of-cancer-research-uk-cambridge-institute-announced|title=New Director of Cancer Research UK Cambridge Institute announced|date=2017-11-16|website=University of Cambridge|language=en|access-date=2018-12-06}}</ref>

Senior Group Leader at the institute, Professor [[Richard Gilbertson]], is the Director of the Cancer Research UK Cambridge Centre, a network that encourages local collaborations between universities, NHS hospitals, and other research organisations.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cancerresearchuk.org/funding-for-researchers/our-research-infrastructure/our-centres|title=Our Research Centres|date=2014-03-11|website=Cancer Research UK|language=en|access-date=2018-12-06}}</ref>

===Cambridge Institute for Medical Research===
[[File:Biomed campus.JPG|thumb|The [[Wellcome Trust]]/[[Medical Research Council (UK)|MRC]] building, part of the Biomedical Campus housing the Cambridge Institute for Medical Research and the MRC Mitochondrial Biology Unit]]
The CIMR is a cross-departmental institute in the [[University of Cambridge]], receiving funding from the [[Wellcome Trust]]. Research is focused on four main areas: [[Protein folding|misfolded proteins]] and disease, [[Membrane trafficking#Vesicle formation and transport|intracellular membrane traffic]], [[autoimmune disease]] and [[haematopoietic stem cell]] biology.<ref>[http://www.cimr.cam.ac.uk/research Cambridge Institute for Medical Research (CIMR)], University of Cambridge</ref>

===Wolfson Brain Imaging Centre===
{{main|Wolfson Brain Imaging Centre}}
The Wolfson Brain Imaging Centre was created in 1995 to develop and apply advanced imaging methods to patients with traumatic brain injury. It is unique in being co-located with the Neurosciences Critical Care Unit of [[Addenbrooke's Hospital]]. Since its establishment it has become an internationally leading [[Positron Emission Tomography]] and [[Magnetic Resonance Imaging]] centre.

===Hutchison/MRC Research Centre===
The Hutchison/MRC Research Centre is a cancer research centre housing researchers from the [[University of Cambridge]] Department of Oncology, the [[MRC Cancer Cell Unit]], and the University of Cambridge "Cambridge Molecular Therapeutics Programme".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hutchison-mrc.cam.ac.uk/about_us.html |title=About Us |access-date=2010-09-14 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100802050728/http://www.hutchison-mrc.cam.ac.uk/about_us.html |archive-date=2 August 2010 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> It was built in 2001 with funding from the [[Medical Research Council (United Kingdom)|Medical Research Council]] and a donation to the University of Cambridge from [[Hutchison Whampoa|Hutchison Whampoa Ltd]]. The Hutchison/MRC Research Centre is a member institute of the Cambridge Cancer Centre, a virtual organisation of Cambridge researchers whose work has current or potential application to [[cancer research]].

===MRC Mitochondrial Biology Unit===
{{main|MRC Mitochondrial Biology Unit}}
The MRC Mitochondrial Biology Unit is a department of the [[School of Clinical Medicine, University of Cambridge|School of Clinical Medicine]] of the [[University of Cambridge]], funded by the Medical Research Council. It is focused on research to understand [[mitochondrial]] process and their involvement in human diseases.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mrc-mbu.cam.ac.uk/introduction |title=Introduction from the Director | MRC Mitochondrial Biology Unit |publisher=Mrc-mbu.cam.ac.uk |access-date=2018-10-01}}</ref> It is co-located with the Cambridge Institute for Medical Research in the Wellcome Trust/MRC Building.

===Institute of Metabolic Science===
The Institute of Metabolic Science (IMS) is dedicated to research, education, prevention and clinical care in the areas of diabetes, obesity and related metabolic and endocrine diseases.<ref>{{cite web|author=Partners |url=http://www.ims.cam.ac.uk/ |title=Home - Institute of Metabolic Science |publisher=Ims.cam.ac.uk |access-date=2018-10-01}}</ref> The institute is a joint venture between the University of Cambridge, The Medical Research Council, Cambridge University NHS Hospitals Trust and the [[Wellcome Trust]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ims.cam.ac.uk/|title=Home|website=Institute of Metabolic Science|language=en-GB|access-date=2018-12-06}}</ref> It is led by co-directors Professor Sir [[Stephen O'Rahilly]] and Professor [[Nick Wareham]]. Lead researchers include [[Krishna Chatterjee]], [[David Dunger]], [[Sadaf Farooqi]], [[Nita Forouhi]], [[Stephen O'Rahilly|Stephen O’Rahilly]], [[Nigel Unwin]], [[Antonio Vidal-Puig]], [[Nick Wareham]], and [[Giles Yeo]], among many others.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Our Lead Researchers|url=https://www.ims.cam.ac.uk/research/our-lead-researchers/|access-date=2021-04-13|website=Wellcome-MRC Institute of Metabolic Science|language=en-GB}}</ref>

===Brain Repair Centre===
Adjacent to the Institute of Public Health, Cambridge Centre for Brain Repair is a subsidiary of the University of Cambridge Department of Clinical Neurosciences. It is a research institute aiming to "understand, and eventually to alleviate and repair damage to the brain and spinal cord which results from injury or [[neurodegenerative]] disease."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.brc.cam.ac.uk/pages/about.html |title=About the Cambridge Centre for Brain Repair |access-date=2010-09-14 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101013022900/http://www.brc.cam.ac.uk/pages/about.html |archive-date=13 October 2010 |df=dmy-all }}</ref>

=== Cambridge Public Health ===
[https://www.cph.cam.ac.uk/about Cambridge Public Health] is an interdisciplinary centre at the University of Cambridge. Based in the School of Technology, Cambridge Public Health is an umbrella organisation for more than 600 researchers and professionals working on public health issues.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Cambridge Public Health |url=https://www.cph.cam.ac.uk/ |access-date=2025-05-06 |website=www.cph.cam.ac.uk |language=en}}</ref>

Established in 2020, Cambridge Public Health has evolved from, and brings together, elements of the earlier Cambridge Institute of Public Health (CIPH) and all of the PublicHealth @Cambridge Strategic Research Network.<ref name=":0" /> CIPH was a partnership between the [[University of Cambridge]], the [[Medical Research Council (United Kingdom)|Medical Research Council]] and the [[National Health Service]]. It was created in 1993 to study disease in the population and to identify, evaluate and monitor public healthcare interventions.<ref>{{cite web |title=Institute of Public Health» Aims of the Institute |url=http://www.iph.cam.ac.uk/aims/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100911144614/http://www.iph.cam.ac.uk/aims/ |archive-date=11 September 2010 |access-date=2010-09-14 |df=dmy-all}}</ref>

===Cambridge Academy for Science and Technology===
The [[Cambridge Academy for Science and Technology]] is a secondary school for 14- to 18-year-olds offering GCSE, B-Tech and A-Level courses. It opened on 8 September 2014 in the Deakin Centre as the University Technical College Cambridge. On Friday 19 September 2017, it moved into its own building on Robinson Way, situated next to the Long Road Sixth Form College, parallel to the [[Cambridge Bio-Medical Campus|Bio-Medical Campus]] which encompasses [[Addenbrooke's Hospital]], rebranded as Cambridge Academy for Science and Technology.

===Others===
Other entities located on the Cambridge Biomedical Campus include:
* Institute for Diabetes, Endocrinology and Metabolism
* GlaxoSmithKline Clinical Research Unit
* MRC [[Centre for Protein Engineering]]
* National Blood Service
* [[Strangeways Research Laboratory]]

==Future developments==
Within the next decade, there are scheduled to be 3 new hospitals (including one rebuild) on the Biomedical Campus, bringing the total number of hospitals on the Campus to 5:<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.cambridgeindependent.co.uk/news/three-new-hospitals-on-cambridge-biomedical-campus-coming-in-the-next-decade-9118949/ | title=Three new hospitals on Cambridge Biomedical Campus coming 'in the next decade' | last=Brackley | first=Paul | date=2020-08-11 | access-date=2021-05-26 | publisher=Cambridge Independent | website=cambridgeindependent.co.uk}}</ref>

* A rebuild of the existing Addenbrooke's Hospital (referred to as ''Addenbrooke's 3'')
* Cambridge Cancer Research Hospital
* Cambridge Children's Hospital (referred to as ''Cambridge Children's'')

A new railway station, [[Cambridge South railway station]], is due to be built adjacent to the Campus, as part of the construction of the [[East West Rail]] project between the university towns of Cambridge and Oxford. <ref name="cambridge-news">{{cite web|url=http://www.cambridge-news.co.uk/news/cambridge-news/addenbrookes-train-station-thumbs-up-13466529|author=Josh Thomas|title=An Addenbrooke's train station has got the thumbs-up from the Transport Secretary|website=Cambridge News|access-date=12 August 2017}}</ref><ref name="cambridge-news2">{{cite web|url=http://www.cambridge-news.co.uk/news/cambridge-looks-ahead-another-new-13073046|author=Josh Thomas|title=Cambridge looks ahead to another new train station at Addenbrooke's Hospital|website=Cambridge News|access-date=12 August 2017}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{authority control}}
[[Category:University of Cambridge sites]]

Romantic nationalism

2025-05-02T22:07:44Z

131.111.5.201: /* Folk culture */

{{short description|Type of nationalism}}
{{original research|date=September 2024}}
[[File:La Liberté guidant le peuple - Eugène Delacroix - Musée du Louvre Peintures RF 129 - après restauration 2024.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.15|''[[Liberty Leading the People]],'' embodying the Romantic view of the French [[July Revolution|Revolution of 1830]], also known as the [[July Revolution]]; its painter [[Eugène Delacroix]] also served as an elected deputy]]
[[File:Frederic Sorrieu - Universal Democratic and Social Republic 1848.jpg|thumb|The Dream of Worldwide Democratic and Social Republics – The Pact Between Nations, a print prepared by Frédéric Sorrieu, 1848]]
[[File:Adolph Tidemand & Hans Gude - Bridal Procession on the Hardangerfjord - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.15|Brudeferd i [[Hardanger]] (Bridal procession in Hardanger), a monumental piece within [[Norwegian romantic nationalism]]. Painted by [[Hans Gude]] and [[Adolph Tidemand]].]]
'''Romantic nationalism''' (also '''national romanticism''', '''organic nationalism''', '''identity nationalism''') is the form of [[nationalism]] in which the state claims its [[legitimacy (political)|political legitimacy]] as an organic consequence of the unity of those it governs. This includes such factors as language, [[Race (classification of human beings)|race]], ethnicity, culture, religion, and customs of the nation in its primal sense of those who were born within its culture. It can be applied to [[ethnic nationalism]] as well as [[civic nationalism]]. Romantic nationalism arose in reaction to dynastic or imperial [[hegemony]], which assessed the legitimacy of the state from the top down, emanating from a [[monarch]] or other authority, which justified its existence. Such downward-radiating power might ultimately derive from a [[deity|god]] or gods
(see the [[divine right of kings]] and the [[Mandate of Heaven]]).<ref>Joseph Theodoor Leerssen, Anne Hilde van Baal, and Jan Rock, eds. ''Encyclopedia of romantic nationalism in Europe'' (Amsterdam University Press, 2018.)</ref><ref>Joep Leerssen, "Notes toward a Definition of Romantic Nationalism." ''Romantik: Journal for the study of Romanticisms'' 2.1 (2013): 9-35. [https://tidsskrift.dk/rom/article/download/20191/17807 online]</ref>

Among the key themes of [[Romanticism]], and its most enduring legacy, the cultural assertions of romantic nationalism have also been central in [[Age of Enlightenment|post-Enlightenment]] art and political philosophy. From its earliest stirrings, with their focus on the development of national languages and [[folklore]], and the spiritual value of local customs and traditions, to the movements that would redraw the map of Europe and lead to calls for [[self-determination]] of nationalities, nationalism was one of the key issues in Romanticism, determining its roles, expressions and meanings. Romantic nationalism, resulting from this interaction between cultural production and political thought, became "the celebration of the nation (defined in its language, history and cultural character) as an inspiring ideal for artistic expression; and the instrumentalization of that expression in political consciousness-raising".<ref>[[Joep Leerssen]], "Notes towards a Definition of Romantic Nationalism", ''Romantik: Journal for the Study of Romanticisms'', 2.1 (2013): 9-25 (28).</ref>

Historically in Europe, the watershed year for romantic nationalism was 1848,{{cn|date=September 2024}} when [[Revolutions of 1848|a revolutionary wave]] spread across the continent; numerous [[nationalistic]] revolutions occurred in various fragmented regions (such as Italy) or multinational states (such as the [[Austrian Empire]]). While initially the revolutions fell to [[reactionary]] forces and the old order was quickly re-established, the many revolutions would mark the first step towards [[Liberalism|liberalisation]] and the formation of modern [[nation states]] across much of Europe.

{{nationalism sidebar|types}}

==Brief history==

===Nationalism and revolution===
[[File:Carga de O'Higgins.jpg|thumb|upright=1.6|Romanticized painting of the [[Battle of Rancagua]] during the [[Chilean War of Independence]] by [[Pedro Subercaseaux]]]]
In the Balkans, Romantic views of a connection with [[classical Greece]], which inspired [[Philhellenism]] infused the [[Greek War of Independence]] (1821–30), in which the Romantic poet [[Lord Byron]] died of high fever. [[Gioachino Rossini|Rossini]]'s opera ''[[William Tell (opera)|William Tell]]'' (1829) marked the onset of the [[Opera|Romantic opera]], using the central [[national myth]] unifying Switzerland; and in Brussels, a riot (August 1830) after an opera that set a doomed romance against a background of foreign oppression ([[Daniel-François-Esprit Auber|Auber]]'s ''[[La Muette de Portici]]'') sparked the [[Belgian Revolution]] of 1830–31, the first successful revolution in the model of Romantic nationalism. [[Giuseppe Verdi|Verdi]]'s opera choruses of an oppressed people inspired two generations of patriots in Italy, especially with "Va pensiero" (''[[Nabucco]]'', 1842). Under the influence of romantic nationalism, among economic and political forces, both Germany and Italy found political unity, and movements to create nations similarly based upon ethnic groups. It would flower in the Balkans (see for example, the [[Carinthian Plebiscite]], 1920), along the Baltic Sea, and in the interior of Central Europe, where in the eventual outcome, the [[Habsburg]]s succumbed to the surge of Romantic nationalism.<ref>[[Miroslav Hroch]], "Introduction: National romanticism", in Balázs Trencsényi and Michal Kopeček, eds. ''Discourses of collective identity in Central and Southeast Europe'', vol. II ''National Romanticism: The Formation of National Movements'', 2007:4ff.</ref>

In [[Norway]], romanticism was embodied, not in literature, but in the movement toward a national style, both in architecture and in ''[[ethos]]''.<ref>Oscar Julius Falnes, ''National romanticism in Norway'', 1968.</ref> Earlier, there was a strong romantic nationalist element mixed with [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] rationalism in the rhetoric used in [[North America]], in the American colonists' [[United States Declaration of Independence|declaration of independence]] from [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Great Britain]] and the drafting of the [[United States Constitution|U.S. Constitution]] of 1787, as well as the rhetoric in the [[Spanish American wars of independence|wave of rebellions]], inspired by new senses of localized identities, which swept the American colonies of Spain, one after the other, from the May Revolution of [[Argentina]] in 1810.{{cn|date=August 2018}}

===Conservatism and revolution in the 19th century===
{{see also|Concert of Nations|Revolutions of 1848}}

Following the ultimate collapse of the [[First French Empire]] with the fall of Napoleon, conservative elements took control in Europe, led by the Austrian noble [[Klemens von Metternich]], ideals of the [[balance of power (international relations)|balance of power]] between the [[great powers]] of Europe dominated continental politics of the first half of the 19th century. Following the [[Congress of Vienna]], and subsequent [[Concert of Europe]] system, several major empires took control of European politics. Among these were the [[Russian Empire]], the [[Bourbon Restoration in France|restored French monarchy]], the [[German Confederation]], under the dominance of [[Prussia]], the [[Austrian Empire]], and the [[Ottoman Empire]].{{cn|date=August 2018}}

The conservative forces held sway until the [[Revolutions of 1848]] swept across Europe and threatened the old order. Numerous movements developed around various cultural groups, who began to develop a sense of national identity. While initially, all of these revolutions failed, and [[reactionary]] forces would re-establish political control, the revolutions marked the start of the steady progress towards the end of the Concert of Europe under the dominance of a few multi-national empires and led to the establishment of the modern [[nation state]] in Europe; a process that would not be complete for over a century and a half. [[Central and Eastern Europe]]'s political situation was partly shaped by the two [[World Wars]], while many national identities in these two regions formed modern nation states when the collapse of the [[Soviet Union]] and the multinational states [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]] and [[Czechoslovakia]] led to numerous new states forming during the last decade of the 20th century.{{cn|date=August 2018}}

[[File:American Progress (John Gast painting).jpg|right|thumb|upright=1.35|[[John Gast (painter)|John Gast]], ''American Progress,'' (circa 1872) celebrates [[United States|U.S.]] romantic nationalism in the form of westward expansion – an idea known as "[[Manifest Destiny]]".]]

===Folk culture===
Romantic nationalism inspired the collection of [[folklore]] by such people as the [[Brothers Grimm]]. The view that fairy tales, unless contaminated from outside literary sources, were preserved in the same form over thousands of years, was not exclusive to Romantic Nationalists, but it fit in well with their views that such tales expressed the primordial nature of a people.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://mason.gmu.edu/~svu5/pages/introduction.html |title=The Brothers Grimm - National Acclaim }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.scienceabc.com/humans/why-did-the-grimms-fairy-tales-get-linked-to-nationalism.html |title=Why Did the Grimm's Fairy Tales Get Linked to Nationalism? |date=17 September 2023 }}</ref>

The [[Brothers Grimm]] were criticized because their first edition was insufficiently German, and they followed the advice. They rejected many tales they collected because of their similarity to tales by [[Charles Perrault]], which they thought proved they were not truly German tales; ''[[Sleeping Beauty]]'' survived in their collection because the tale of [[Brynhildr]] convinced them that the figure of the sleeping princess was authentically German. They also altered the language used, changing each "Fee" (fairy) to an enchantress or wise woman, every "prince" to a "king's son", every "princess" to a "king's daughter".<ref>[[Maria Tatar]], ''The Hard Facts of the Grimms' Fairy Tales'', p31, {{ISBN|0-691-06722-8}}</ref> Discussing these views in their third editions, they particularly singled out [[Giambattista Basile]]'s ''[[Pentamerone]]'' as the first ''national'' collection of fairy tales, and as capturing the [[Naples|Neapolitan]] voice.<ref>Benedetto Croce, "The Fantastic Accomplishment of Giambattista Basile and His ''Tale of Tales''", Jack Zipes, ed., ''The Great Fairy Tale Tradition: From Strap Arola and Basile to the Brothers Grimm'', p 888-9, {{ISBN|0-393-97636-X}}</ref>

The work of the Brothers Grimm influenced other collectors, both inspiring them to collect tales and leading them to similarly believe that the fairy tales of a country were particularly representative of it, to the neglect of cross-cultural influence. Among those influenced were the Russian [[Alexander Afanasyev]], the Norwegians [[Peter Christen Asbjørnsen]] and [[Jørgen Moe]], and the Australian [[Joseph Jacobs]].<ref>Jack Zipes, ''The Great Fairy Tale Tradition: From Straparola and Basile to the Brothers Grimm'', p 846, {{ISBN|0-393-97636-X}}</ref>

===National epics===
[[Image:BattleofRoncevauxWvBibra.jpg|thumb|300px|A painting of an episode from the [[Song of Roland]], a French national epic]]
{{Main|National epic}}
The concept of a "[[national epic]]", an extensively mythologized legendary work of poetry of defining importance to a certain nation, is another product of Romantic nationalism. The "discovery" of ''[[Beowulf]]'' in a single manuscript, first transcribed in 1818, came under the impetus of Romantic nationalism, after the manuscript had lain as an ignored curiosity in scholars' collections for two centuries. ''Beowulf'' was felt to provide people self-identified as "[[Anglo-Saxon]]" with their missing "national epic",<ref>The section "III.Early National Poetry" of ''The Cambridge History of English and American Literature'' (1907–21) begins "By far the most important product of the national epos is ''Beowulf''...</ref> just when the need for it was first being felt: the fact that Beowulf himself was a [[Geat]] was easily overlooked. The pseudo-Gaelic literary forgeries of "[[Ossian]]" had failed, finally, to fill the need for the first Romantic generation.{{cn|date=August 2018}}

The first publication of ''[[The Tale of Igor's Campaign]]'' coincided with the rise in Russian national spirit in the wake of the [[Napoleonic wars]] and [[Suvorov]]'s campaigns in Central Europe. The unseen and unheard ''[[Song of Roland]]'' had become a dim memory, until the antiquary [[Francisque Michel]] transcribed a worn copy in the [[Bodleian Library]] and put it into print in 1837; it was timely: French interest in the national epic revived among the Romantic generation. In Greece, the ''[[Iliad]]'' and ''[[Odyssey]]'' took on new urgency during the [[Greek War of Independence]]. Amongst the world's Jewish community, the early [[Zionism|Zionists]] considered the [[Bible]] a more suitable national epic than the [[Talmud]].<ref>[[Moshe Halbertal]] (1997), [https://books.google.com/books?id=7ewY9764Wv8C&pg=PA132 People of the Book: Canon, Meaning, and Authority], p.132: "With the rise of Jewish nationalism, the relation of many Jews to the Bible and the Talmud took another turn. The Zionists preferred the Bible to the Talmud as the national literature, for the Bible tells a heroic story of the national drama whose focus is the Land of Israel. While they objected to the Haskalah politics of emancipation, Zionist thinkers also stressed the role of the Bible, but they thought of it as an element in building a particular national consciousness rather than as the basis of a shared Judeo-Christian heritage enabling the integration of Jews in Europe. Unlike the Talmud, they held, the Bible had the potential to become a national epic. Its drama unfolded in the hills of Judea, and it connected the national claim to the land with a historical past. Nothing in the Talmud, in contrast, appealed to the romanticism vital to national movements. It does not tell the glorious story of a nation, it has no warriors and heroes, no geography which arouses longing in the reader or a sense of connection to an ancient home."</ref>

Many other "national epics", [[epic poetry]] considered to reflect the national spirit, were produced or revived under the influence of Romantic nationalism: particularly in the [[Russian Empire]], national minorities seeking to assert their own identities in the face of [[Russification]] produced new national poetry – either out of whole cloth, or from cobbling together folk poetry, or by resurrecting older narrative poetry. Examples include the [[Estonia]]n ''[[Kalevipoeg]]'', [[Finland|Finnish]] ''[[Kalevala]]'', [[Poland|Polish]] ''[[Pan Tadeusz]]'', [[Latvia]]n ''[[Lāčplēsis]]'', [[Armenia]]n ''Sasuntzi Davit'' by [[Hovhannes Tumanyan]], [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]]n ''[[The Knight in the Panther's Skin]]'' and [[Greater Iran]], ''[[Shahnameh]].''

==German Romantic nationalism==
The Romantic movement was essential in spearheading the upsurge of [[German nationalists|German nationalism]] in the 19th century and especially the popular movement aiding the resurgence of [[Prussia]] after its defeat to [[Napoleon]] in the 1806 [[Battle of Jena-Auerstedt|Battle of Jena]]. [[Johann Gottlieb Fichte]]'s 1808 ''[[Addresses to the German Nation]]'', [[Bernd Heinrich Wilhelm von Kleist|Heinrich von Kleist]]'s fervent patriotic stage dramas before his death, and [[Ernst Moritz Arndt]]'s [[war poet]]ry during the [[German campaign of 1813|anti-Napoleonic struggle of 1813–15]] were all instrumental in shaping the character of German nationalism for the next one-and-a-half century in a [[ethnic nationalism|racialized ethnic]] rather than [[civic nationalism|civic nationalist]] direction. Romanticism also played a role in the popularization of the [[King asleep in mountain#German-speaking realm|Kyffhäuser myth]], about the [[Frederick Barbarossa, Holy Roman Emperor|Emperor Frederick Barbarossa]] sleeping atop the [[Kyffhäuser]] mountain and being expected to rise in a given time and save Germany) and the legend of the [[Lorelei]] (by [[Clemens Brentano|Brentano]] and [[Christian Johann Heinrich Heine|Heine]]) among others.

The [[Nazism|Nazi movement]] later appropriated the nationalistic elements of Romanticism, with Nazi chief ideologue [[Alfred Rosenberg]] writing: "The reaction in the form of German Romanticism was therefore as welcome as rain after a long drought. But in our own era of universal [[cosmopolitanism|internationalism]], it becomes necessary to follow this racially linked Romanticism to its core, and to free it from certain nervous convulsions which still adhere to it."<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Myth of the Twentieth Century: An Evaluation of the Spiritual-Intellectual Confrontations of Our Age|last=Rosenberg|first=Alfred|publisher=Noontide Press|year=1982|orig-year=1930|publication-place=Torrance, California|chapter=Book I: The Conflict of Values, Chapter I. Race and Race Soul|chapter-url=http://www.nommeraadio.ee/meedia/pdf/RRS/Alfred%20Rosenberg%20-%20The%20Myth%20of%20the%2020th%20Century.pdf|translator-last=Bird|translator-first=Vivian}}</ref> [[Paul Joseph Goebbels|Joseph Goebbels]] told theatre directors on 8 May 1933, just two days before the [[Nazi book burnings]] in Berlin, that: "German art of the next decade will be heroic, it will be like steel, it will be Romantic, non-sentimental, factual; it will be national with great pathos, and at once obligatory and binding, or it will be nothing."<ref>{{Cite book|title=Theatre in the Third Reich, the Prewar Years: Essays on Theatre in Nazi Germany (Contributions to the Study of World History)|last=Gadberry|first=Glenn W.|publisher=Praeger Publishers|year=1995|publication-place=Westport, Connecticut|chapter=Introduction|isbn=9780313295164|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3w9XHH534cQC&q=%22German+art+of+the+next+decade+will+be+heroic%2C+it+will+be+like+steel%2C+it%22&pg=PA9}}</ref>

Of this phenomenon, the Soviet literary scholar Naum Berkovsky wrote:
{{Blockquote|text=[[German National Socialism|German fascism]] extracted Romanticism from the naphthalene of the past, established its ideological kinship with it, included it in its canon of forerunners, and after some cleansing on [[racial policy of Nazi Germany|racial]] grounds, absorbed it into the system of its ideology and thereby gave this trend, which in its time was not apolitical, a purely political and topical meaning ... [[Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Von Schelling|Schelling]], [[Adam Müller]] and others thanks to the fascists again became our contemporaries, though in the specific sense in which every corpse taken out of its century-old coffin for any need becomes a "contemporary". In his book ''The Tasks of National Socialist Literary Criticism'', Walther Linden, who revised the [[German literature#Periodization|history of German literature]] from a fascist point of view, considers the most valuable for fascism that stage in the development of [[German Romanticism]] when it freed itself from the influences of the [[Great French Revolution|French Revolution]] and thanks to Adam Müller, [[Johann Joseph von Goerres|Görres]], [[Achim von Arnim|Arnim]] and Schelling began to create truly German national literature on the basis of [[German art#Middle Ages|German medieval art]], religion and patriotism.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Немецкая романтическая повесть. Том I|last=Berkovsky|first=Naum Yakovlevich|publisher=[[Academia (Soviet publishing house)|Academia]]|year=1935|publication-place=Moscow and Leningrad|chapter=От издательства|chapter-url=https://imwerden.de/pdf/nemetskaya_romantichesklaya_povest_tom1_academia_1935_text.pdf}}</ref>}}

This made scholars and critics like [[Fritz Strich]], [[Thomas Mann]] and [[Victor Klemperer]], who before the war were supporters of Romanticism, to reconsider their stance after the war and the Nazi experience and to adopt a more anti-Romantic position.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Anasintaxi Newspaper, issue 385|year=2013|chapter=Reactionary German Romanticism|chapter-url=https://translate.google.gr/translate?hl=en&sl=el&u=https://athens.indymedia.org/post/1467916/}}</ref>

[[Christian Johann Heinrich Heine|Heinrich Heine]] parodied such Romantic modernizations of medieval folkloric myths in the "''Barbarossa''" chapter of his large 1844 poem ''[[Deutschland. Ein Wintermarchen|Germany. A Winter's Tale]]'':

<poem style="margin-left:1em; float:left;">Forgive, O [[Frederick Barbarossa|Barbarossa]], my hasty words!
I do not possess a wise soul
Like you, and I have little patience,
So, please, come back soon, after all!

Retain the old methods of punishment,
If you judge the [[guillotine]] unpleasant:
The sword for the [[German nobility|nobleman]], and the cord
For the townsman and vulgar peasant.

But, do switch things around, now and then:
Peasants and townsmen should die by the sword,
And noblemen should hang on a rope.
We’re all the creatures of the [[God|Lord]]!

Bring back the laws of [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles the Fifth]],
With the hanging courts restoration,
And divide the people, as before,
Into guild, estate and corporation.

Restore the old [[Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation|Holy Roman Empire]],
As it was, whole and immense.
Bring back all its musty junk,
And all its foolish nonsense.

The [[Middle Ages]] I’ll endure,
If you bring back the genuine item;
Just rescue us from this bastard state,
And from its farcical system,

From that mongrel chivalry,
Such a nauseating dish
Of [[Goths|Gothic]] fancies and modern deceit,
That is neither flesh nor fish.

Shut down all the theatres,
And chase their comedians pack,
Who parody the olden days.
O, Emperor, do come back!<ref>{{Cite book|title=Germany. A Winter's Tale|last=Heine|first=Heinrich|publisher=Montial|year=2007|orig-year=1844|publication-place=New York|chapter=Caput XVII|chapter-url=http://ciml.250x.com/archive/literature/english/heine/heinrich_heine_english.html|translator-last=Bowring|translator-first=Edgar Alfred}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=The Destruction of Reason|last=Lukács|first=György|publisher=Merlin Press|year=1980|orig-year=1952|publication-place=London|chapter=Schelling's Later Philosophy|chapter-url=https://edisciplinas.usp.br/pluginfile.php/4179816/mod_resource/content/1/THE%20DESTRUCTION%20OF%20REASON.pdf|translator-last=Palmer|translator-first=Peter R.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Fortschritt und Reaktion in der deutschen Literatur|last=Lukács|first=György|publisher=Aufbau-Verlag|year=1947|publication-place=Berlin|chapter=Romanticism (Die Romantik als Wendung in der deutschen Literatur)|chapter-url=https://www.marxists.org/archive/lukacs/works/1945/romanticism.htm|translator-last=P.|translator-first=Anton}}</ref></poem>{{clear|left}}

== Polish nationalism and messianism ==
[[File:Night november.jpg|thumb|The [[November Uprising]] (1830–31), in the [[Congress Poland|Kingdom of Poland]], against the [[Russian Empire]]]]

Romanticism played an essential role in the national awakening of many Central European peoples lacking their own national states, not least in Poland, which had recently failed to restore its independence when [[Imperial Russian Army|Russia's army]] crushed the [[November Uprising|Polish Uprising]] under [[Nicholas I of Russia|Nicholas I]]. Revival and reinterpretation of ancient myths, customs and traditions by Romantic poets and painters helped to distinguish their indigenous cultures from those of the dominant nations and crystallise the mythography of Romantic nationalism. Patriotism, nationalism, revolution and armed struggle for independence also became popular themes in the arts of this period. Arguably, the most distinguished Romantic poet of this part of Europe was [[Adam Mickiewicz]], who developed an idea that [[Christ of Europe|Poland was the Messiah of Nations]], predestined to suffer just as [[Jesus]] had suffered to save all the people. The Polish self-image as a "[[Christ of Europe|Christ among nations]]" or the martyr of Europe can be traced back to its history of [[Christendom]] and suffering under invasions. During the periods of foreign occupation, the Catholic Church served as bastion of Poland's national identity and language, and the major promoter of [[Culture of Poland|Polish culture]]. The [[Partitions of Poland|partitions]] came to be seen in Poland as a Polish sacrifice for the security for [[Western culture|Western civilization]]. Adam Mickiewicz wrote the patriotic drama ''[[Dziady (poem)|Dziady]]'' (directed against the Russians), where he depicts Poland as the Christ of Nations. He also wrote "Verily I say unto you, it is not for you to learn civilization from foreigners, but it is you who are to teach them civilization ... You are among the foreigners like the Apostles among the idolaters". In ''Books of the Polish Nation and Polish Pilgrimage'' Mickiewicz detailed his vision of Poland as a Messias and a Christ of Nations, that would save mankind. Dziady is known for various interpretation. The most known ones are the moral aspect of part II, [[individualist]] and romantic message of part IV, as well as deeply patriotic, messianistic and Christian vision in part III of the poem. Zdzisław Kępiński, however, focuses his interpretation on [[Slavic mythology|Slavic pagan]] and [[occult]] elements found in the drama. In his book ''Mickiewicz hermetyczny'' he writes about [[Hermeticism|hermetic]], [[Theosophy (Blavatskian)|theosophic]] and [[Alchemy|alchemical]] philosophy on the book as well as [[Freemasonry|Masonic]] symbols.

==Arts==
{{unreferenced section|date=September 2024}}
[[File:Собор Воскресения Христова 1.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.15|[[Church of the Savior on Blood]], [[St Petersburg]], 1883–1907]]

{{see also|Neo-romanticism|musical nationalism|National Romantic style}}

After the 1870s "national romanticism", as it is more usually called, became a familiar movement in the arts. Romantic [[musical nationalism]] is exemplified by the work of [[Bedřich Smetana]], especially the [[symphonic poem]] "[[Má vlast|Vltava]]". In Scandinavia and the Slavic parts of Europe especially, "national romanticism" provided a series of answers to the 19th-century search for styles that would be culturally meaningful and evocative, yet not merely historicist. When a church was built over the spot in St Petersburg where Tsar [[Alexander II of Russia]] had been assassinated, the "[[Church of the Savior on Blood]]", the natural style to use was one that best evoked traditional Russian features (''illustration, left''). In Finland, the reassembly of the national epic, the ''[[Kalevala]],'' inspired paintings and murals in the [[National Romantic style]] that substituted there for the international [[Art Nouveau]] styles. The foremost proponent in Finland was [[Akseli Gallen-Kallela]] (''illustration, below right'').
[[File:Sammon puolustus.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.15|''[[The Defense of the Sampo]],'' [[Akseli Gallen-Kallela]] ]]

By the turn of the century, ethnic [[self-determination]] had become an assumption held as being progressive and liberal. There were romantic nationalist movements for separation in [[Grand Duchy of Finland|Finland]], [[Estonia]], [[Latvia]] and [[Lithuania]], the [[Kingdom of Bavaria]] held apart from a united Germany, and Czech and Serb nationalism continued to trouble Imperial politics. The flowering of arts which drew inspiration from national epics and song continued unabated. The [[Zionist movement]] revived Hebrew, and began immigration to [[Land of Israel|Eretz Yisrael]], and [[Welsh language|Welsh]] and [[Irish language|Irish]] tongues also experienced a poetic revival.

===Claims of primacy or superiority===
At the same time, linguistic and cultural nationality, colored with pre-genetic concepts of race, bolstered two rhetorical claims used to this day: claims of primacy and claims of superiority. Primacy is the claimed [[Natural and legal rights|inalienable right]] of a culturally and racially defined people to a geographical terrain, a ''"heartland"'' (a vivid expression) or [[homeland]]. [[Richard Wagner]] notoriously argued that those who were ethnically different could not comprehend the artistic and cultural meaning inherent in national culture. Identifying "Jewishness" even in musical style,<ref>Wagner, ''[[Das Judenthum in der Musik]]'' 1850.</ref> he specifically attacked the Jews as being unwilling to assimilate into German culture, and thus unable to truly comprehend the mysteries of its music and language. Sometimes "national epics" such as the [[Nibelunglied]] have had a galvanizing effect on social politics.

===Twentieth-century political developments===
[[File:Vasnetsov Frog Princess.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|''Frog Tsarevna'', by [[Viktor Vasnetsov]], 1918]]In the first two decades of the 20th century, Romantic Nationalism as an idea was to have crucial influence on political events. Following the [[Panic of 1873]] that gave rise to a new wave of [[antisemitism]] and [[racism]] in the [[German Empire]] politically ruled by an authoritarian, militaristic conservatism under [[Otto von Bismarck]] and in parallel with the ''[[Fin de siècle]]'' (which was also reflected to a degree in the contemporary art movements of [[Symbolism (arts)|symbolism]], the [[Decadent movement]], and ''[[Art Nouveau]]''), the racialist [[Völkisch movement|''völkisch'' movement]] which grew out of romantic nationalism in Germany in the late 19th century.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Poewe|first1=Karla|last2=Hexham|first2=Irving|date=2009|title=The Völkisch Modernist Beginnings of National Socialism: Its Intrusion into the Church and Its Antisemitic Consequence|journal=Religion Compass|language=en|volume=3|issue=4|pages=676–696|doi=10.1111/j.1749-8171.2009.00156.x|issn=1749-8171}}</ref>

The rising nationalistic and imperialistic tensions between the European nations throughout the ''Fin de siècle'' period eventually erupted in the [[World War I|First World War]]. After Germany had lost the war and undergone the tumultuous [[German Revolution of 1918–19|German Revolution]], the ''völkisch'' movement drastically radicalized itself in [[Weimar Republic|Weimar Germany]] under the harsh terms of the [[Treaty of Versailles]], and [[Adolf Hitler]] would go on to say that "the basic ideas of [[Nazism|National-Socialism]] are ''völkisch'', just as the ''völkisch'' ideas are National-Socialist".

==See also==
* [[Chosen people]] / [[People of God]]
* [[Jews as the chosen people]]
* [[Conservatism]]
* [[Scandinavism]]
* [[Norwegian romantic nationalism]]
* [[Danish Golden Age]]
* [[German question]]
* [[Gothicism]]
* [[Hindutva]]
* [[Pochvennichestvo]]
* [[Britishness]]
* [[Ethnic nationalism]]
* [[Civil religion]]
* [[Polytheistic reconstructionism]]
* [[National epic]]
* [[National treasure]]
* [[National anthem]]
* [[Nationalism]]
* [[Patriotism]]
* [[Rise of nationalism in Europe]]
* [[Historiography and nationalism]]
* [[Musical nationalism]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Sources==
* Adam Zamoyski; ''Holy Madness: Romantics, Patriots and Revolutionaries 1776-1871;'' (Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1999);
* Johann Gottlieb Fichte, Thirteenth Address, Addresses to the Gerrnan Nation, ed. George A. Kelly (New York: Harper Torch Books, 1968).
* ''Encyclopedia of Romantic Nationalism in Europe'', ed. [[Joep Leerssen]] (2 vols.; Amsterdam University Press, 2018) {{ISBN|9789462981188}}

==External links==
* ''[https://e-rn.ie Encyclopedia of Romantic Nationalism in Europe]'', online encyclopedia and source materials edited by [[Joep Leerssen]].
* [https://www.ohio.edu/chastain/index.htm "Encyclopedia of 1848 Revolutions"], comprehensive collection of new articles by modern scholars

{{Romanticism}}
{{Nationalism}}

{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Romantic Nationalism}}
[[Category:Romantic nationalism| ]]
[[Category:Nationalism]]
[[Category:Themes of the Romantic Movement|Nationalism]]
[[Category:National mysticism]]

Trading curb

2025-05-02T15:19:49Z

131.111.5.201: /* Philippines */

{{short description|Regulatory instrument to prevent stock market crashes}}
A '''trading curb''' (also known as a '''circuit breaker'''<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cnbc.com/2020/03/13/what-are-circuit-breakers-and-how-they-differ-across-asian-markets.html|title='Circuit breakers' are being triggered across Asia — here's how they differ across major markets|last=Lee|first=Yen Nee|date=2020-03-13|website=CNBC|language=en|access-date=2020-03-13}}</ref> in [[Wall Street]] parlance) is a [[Financial regulation|financial regulatory]] [[Financial instrument|instrument]] that is in place to prevent [[stock market crash]]es from occurring, and is implemented by the relevant [[stock exchange]] organization. Since their inception, circuit breakers have been modified to prevent both speculative gains and dramatic losses within a small time frame. When triggered, circuit breakers either stop trading for a small amount of time or close trading early in order to allow accurate information to flow among market makers and for institutional traders to assess their positions and make rational decisions.

==United States==
=== Description ===
On the [[New York Stock Exchange]] (NYSE), one type of trading curb is referred to as a "circuit breaker". These limits were put in place beginning in January 1988 (weeks after [[Black Monday (1987)|Black Monday]] occurred in 1987) in order to reduce market [[volatility (finance)|volatility]] and massive panic sell-offs, giving traders time to reconsider their transactions. The regulatory filing that makes circuit breakers mandatory on United States stock exchanges is [[U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission|Securities and Exchange Commission]] Rule 80B,<ref name=":0">NYSE Market Guide. Trading Halts Due to Extraordinary Market Volatility. Rule 80B. Chicago, IL: Wolters Kluwer Financial Services, 2012.</ref> which lays out the specifics of circuit breakers and price limits.{{cn|date=January 2023}}

The most recently updated amendment of rule 80B went into effect on April 8, 2013, and has three tiers of thresholds that have different protocols for halting trading and closing the markets.{{cn|date=January 2023}}

At the start of each day, the NYSE sets three circuit breaker levels: Level 1 is 7%, Level 2 is 13%, and Level 3 is 20%. These thresholds are percentage drops in the [[S&P 500 Index]], relative to the value at the close of the preceding trading day. Level 1 and 2 declines each cause at least a 15-minute halt in trading (unless they occur after 3:25 pm, in which case no halt occurs). A maximum of one halt per level can occur each day. A Level 3 decline will halt trading for the remainder of the day.<ref>{{Cite web |title=NYSE: NYSE Trading Information |url=https://www.nyse.com/markets/nyse/trading-info |access-date=2025-04-07 |website=www.nyse.com}}</ref>

Circuit breakers are also in effect on the [[Chicago Mercantile Exchange]] (CME) and all subsidiary exchanges where the same thresholds that the NYSE has are applied to equity index [[futures trading]]. However, there is a CME-specific price limit that prevents 7% increases and decreases in price during after hours trading.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cmegroup.com/rulebook/CME/IV/350/358/358.pdf|title=CME Rulebook. 35802.I. Price Limits and Trading Halts|website=cmegroup.com|publisher=CME Group|access-date=April 13, 2016}}</ref> Base prices for which the percentage thresholds are applied are derived from the weighted average price on the future during the preceding trading day's last thirty seconds of trading. Price limits for equity index and foreign exchange futures are posted on the CME website at the close of each trading session.<ref name="cme20130408">{{Cite web|url=http://www.cmegroup.com/trading/equity-index/price-limit-guide.html|title=Price Limit Guide|date=April 8, 2013|website=CME Group|access-date=April 13, 2016}}</ref>

There is a security-specific circuit breaker system, similar to the market wide system, that is known as the "Limit Up – Limit Down Plan" (LULD). This LULD system succeeds the previous system that only prevented dramatic losses, but not speculative gains, in a short amount of time. This rule is in place to combat security-specific volatility as opposed to market wide volatility. The thresholds for a trading halt on an individual security are as follows. Each percentage change in value has to occur within a 5-minute window in order for a trading halt to be enacted:
* 10% change in value of any security that is included in the S&P 500 index, the Russell 1000 index, and the [[Invesco PowerShares]] QQQ ETF.
* 30% change in value of any security that has a price equal to or greater than $1
* 50% change in value of any security that has a price less than $1
The previous trading day's closing price is used to determine which price range a specific security falls into.<ref>NYSE Market Guide. Limit Up – Limit Down Plan and Trading Pauses in Individual Securities Due to Extraordinary Market Volatility. Rule 80C. Chicago, IL: Wolters Kluwer Financial Services, 2013.</ref>

=== Founding ===
Following the stock market crash on [[Black Monday (1987)|October 19, 1987]], the United States President [[Ronald Reagan]] assembled a Task Force on Market Mechanisms, known as the Brady Commission, to investigate the causes of the crash. The Brady Commission's report had four main findings, one of which stated that whatever regulatory agency was chosen to monitor equity markets should be responsible for designing and implementing price limit systems known as circuit breakers. The original intent of circuit breakers was not to prevent dramatic but fair price swings, rather to allow time for sufficient communication between traders and specialists. In the days leading up to the crash, price swings were dramatic but not crisis-like. However, on Black Monday the crash was caused by lack of information flow through the markets among other discrepancies such as lack of uniform [[margin trading]] rules across different markets.<ref>Greenwald, Bruce, and Jeremy Stein. "The Task Force Report: The Reasoning Behind the Recommendations". ''The Journal of Economic Perspectives'' '''2'''.3 (1988): 3–23. Web...</ref>

=== Instances of use ===
On [[October 27, 1997, mini-crash|October 27, 1997]], under the trading curb rules then in effect, trading at the New York Stock Exchange was halted early after the Dow Jones Industrial Average declined by 550 points.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://online.wsj.com/mdc/public/page/2_3047-djia_alltime.html|title=Historical Price Index|website=Wall Street Journal|access-date=April 13, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=U.S. stocks whipped by losses|url=https://money.cnn.com/1997/10/27/markets/marketwrap/|access-date=18 June 2017|work=[[CNNfn]]|date=27 October 1997}}</ref> This was the first time US stock markets had closed early due to trading curbs.

Since 1997, circuit breakers have evolved from a [[Dow Jones Industrial Average]] points-based system into a percentage change system that tracks the S&P 500.{{cn|date=January 2023}}

Then [[Securities and Exchange Commission|SEC]] Chairman [[Arthur Levitt|Arthur Levitt Jr.]] believes this use was unnecessary,<ref name="NYTrethink">{{cite news|last1=Hershey Jr.|first1=Robert|title=Rethinking Circuit Breakers Following Monday's Plunge|url=http://politics.nytimes.com/library/financial/103097market-circuitbreakers.html|access-date=18 June 2017|work=[[New York Times]]|date=30 October 1997}}</ref> and that market price levels had increased so much since circuit breakers were implemented that the point based system triggered a halt for a decline that was not considered a crisis.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sec.gov/news/testimony/testarchive/1998/tsty0198.txt|title=TESTIMONY OF ARTHUR LEVITT, CHAIRMAN, U.S. SECURITIES AND EXCHANGE COMMISSION|last=Levitt|first=Arthur|date=January 29, 1998|website=SEC.gov|access-date=April 13, 2016}}</ref> Some, like [[Robert R. Glauber]], suggested in the aftermath of the circuit breaker tripping that trigger points be increased, and automatically reset by formula on an annual basis.<ref name="NYTrethink"/>

On [[Black Monday (2020)|March 9, 2020]], the Dow Jones fell by 7.79% (2,013 points) on fears of the [[Coronavirus_disease_2019|COVID-19 coronavirus]] and falling oil prices, and the S&P 500 triggered a market shutdown for 15 minutes just moments after opening. On March 12, and again on March 16, early trading again tripped the level-1 circuit breaker when the markets dropped over 7%.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/09/business/stock-market-today.html|title=Wall Street Plunges in Worst Drop Since 2008|first=The New York|last=Times|work=The New York Times |date=March 9, 2020|via=NYTimes.com}}</ref> On March 18, the breaker was triggered again at 1{{nbsp}}p.m., several hours after trading opened.

===Program trading curbs===
The NYSE formerly implemented a curb on [[program trading]] under certain conditions. A program trade is defined by the NYSE as a basket of stocks from the S&P 500 where there are at least 15 stocks or where the value of the basket is at least $1 million. Such trades are generally automated.

When activated, the curbs restricted program trades to sell on upticks and buy only on downticks.

The trading curbs would become activated whenever the [[NYSE Composite Index]] moved 190 points or the Dow Jones Industrial Average moved 2% from its previous close. They remained in place for the rest of the trading day or until the NYSE Composite Index moved to within 90 points or the Dow moved within 1% of the previous close.

Since over 50% of all trades on the NYSE are program trades, this curb was supposed to limit volatility by mitigating the ability of automated trades to drive stock prices down via [[positive feedback]].{{cn|date=January 2023}}

This curb was fairly common, and financial television networks such as [[CNBC]] often referred to it with the term "curbs in".

On November 7, 2007, the NYSE confirmed that the exchange has scrapped this rule from November 2, 2007.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.reuters.com/article/markets-stocks-curbs/us-stocks-nyse-says-trading-curbs-rule-is-history-idUSN0754389920071107 | title=US STOCKS-NYSE says trading curbs rule is history | first=Ellis | last=Mnyandu | work=[[Reuters]] | date=November 7, 2007}}</ref> The reason given for the rule's elimination was its ineffectiveness in its purpose of curbing market volatility since it was enacted in the wake of the 1987 stock market crash under the belief that it may help prevent another catastrophic market crash.

==Japan==
In Japan, stock trading will be halted in cases where the criteria for the circuit breaker trigger are met. The trading halt time is 10 minutes.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jpx.co.jp/english/derivatives/rules/price-limit-cb/ | title=Price Limits/ Circuit Breaker Rule|website=jpx.co.jp |access-date= January 4, 2016}}</ref>

===Instances of use===
On April 7th, 2025, early trading after United States [[Tariffs_in_the_second_Trump_administration|tariffs]] on the rest of the world were announced tripped the circuit breaker which halted future trading for the day.<ref>{{cite news |title=Singapore stock index plunges over 8% on open in Asia market rout over Trump tariffs |url=https://www.straitstimes.com/business/companies-markets/singapore-stock-index-plunges-over-8-on-open-in-asia-market-rout-over-trump-tariffs |work=The Straits Times |date=7 April 2025 |language=en}}</ref>

==China==
A "circuit-breaker" mechanism began a test run on January 1, 2016. If the [[CSI 300 Index]] rises or falls by 5% before 14:45 (15 minutes before normal closing), stock trading will halt for 15 minutes. If it happens after 14:45 or the index change reaches 7% at any time, trading will close immediately for the day. "Full breaking" was triggered on January 4 and 7, 2016. From January 8, use of the circuit-breaker was suspended.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/business-35219127 | title=China share trading halted after 7% plunge|website=BBC News |date=January 4, 2016|access-date= January 4, 2016}}</ref>

==Philippines==
The [[Philippine Stock Exchange]] (PSE) adopted a circuit breaker mechanism in September 2008. Under the mechanism stock trading may be halted for 15 minutes if the (PSE) falls at least 10% based on the previous day's closing index value. Trading may be halted only once per market session and not 30 minutes prior to noon or the trade closing.<ref>{{cite news |title=PSE board OKs circuit breaker rule for stock market |url=https://news.abs-cbn.com/business/09/30/08/pse-board-oks-circuit-breaker-rule-stock-market |access-date=13 March 2020 |work=ABS-CBN News |date=30 September 2008}}</ref> Trading has been halted only twice. The first time was on October 27, 2008 during the [[2008 financial crisis]] when PSE index fell 10.33%,<ref>{{cite news |last1=Ichimura |first1=Anri |title=The PSEi Circuit Breaker Was Triggered For the First Time Since 2008. What Does This Mean and What Happens Now? |url=https://www.esquiremag.ph/money/capital/2020-circuit-breaker-a00304-20200312 |access-date=13 March 2020 |work=Esquire |date=12 March 2020}}</ref> and the second time was on March 12, 2020 as a result of the uncertainty caused by the [[2020 coronavirus pandemic in the Philippines|coronavirus pandemic]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Cigaral |first1=Ian Nicolas |title=Worst PSEi crash since 2012 triggers 'circuit breakers' |url=https://www.philstar.com/business/2020/03/12/2000197/philippine-stocks-crash-noon-break |access-date=13 March 2020 |work=The Philippine Star |date=12 March 2020}}</ref>

== Effectiveness ==
Though the purpose behind circuit breakers is to stop trading so that traders can take time to think and digest new information, there are a lot of tested theories that show trading volume actually increases as price levels approach a circuit breaker threshold, and trading after a halt completes lays the groundwork for even more volatile market conditions.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":1" />

=== Magnet effect ===
The ''Journal of Financial Markets'' has published work specific to the use of circuit breakers and their effects on market activity. Researchers have developed what is known as the "magnet effect". This theory claims that the closer market levels come to a circuit breaker threshold, the more exacerbated the situation will become as traders will increase volume by unloading shares out of fear that they will be stuck in their positions if markets do stop trading.<ref name=":2">Michael A. Goldstein, Kenneth A. Kavajecz, "Trading Strategies During Circuit Breakers and Extreme Market Movements", ''Journal of Financial Markets'', volume '''7''', issue 3, June 2004, pages 301–333</ref>

It is believed there was an institutional bias to circuit breakers, as all of the large banks, [[hedge fund]]s, and even some pension funds had designated [[floor trader]]s on the floor of the NYSE who can continue trading while the markets are closed to the average investor. This argument is becoming less relevant over time as the use of floor traders diminishes and the majority of trading is done by computer generated algorithms.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Goldstein, Kavajecz|first=Michael, Kenneth|date=June 2004|title=Trading Strategies During Circuit Breakers and Extreme Market Movements|journal=Journal of Financial Markets|volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=301–333 |doi=10.1016/j.finmar.2003.11.003 }}</ref>

=== Price discovery ===
[[Price discovery]] as it relates to equities is the process in which a security's market value is determined by way of buyers and sellers agreeing on a price suitable enough for a transaction to take place.<ref>Robert A. Schwartz, Reto Francioni, ''Equity Markets in Action: The Fundamentals of Liquidity, Market Structure & Trading'', John Wiley and Sons, 2004</ref> On the New York Stock Exchange alone, it is not uncommon for over $1.5 trillion of stocks to be traded in a single day.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.nyxdata.com/nysedata/asp/factbook/viewer_edition.asp?mode=table&key=3133&category=3|title=NYSE Group Volume in All Stocks Traded, 2015|website=New York Stock Exchange Data|access-date=April 10, 2016}}</ref> Due to the large amount of transactions that take place every day, experienced traders and computers using [[algorithmic trading]] make trades based on the slightest up-ticks and down-ticks in price, as well as subtle changes in the [[bid–ask spread]].<ref name=":1">Lee, Charles M. C., Mark J. Ready, and Paul J. Seguin. "Volume, Volatility, And New York Stock Exchange Trading Halts". ''Journal of Finance'' '''49'''.1 (1994): 183–214.</ref> When trading halts for any amount of time, the flow of information is reduced due to a lack of market activity, adversely causing larger than normal bid-ask spreads that slow down the price discovery process. When stock-specific trading halts occur in order for press releases to be announced, the market has to then make a very quick assessment of how the new information affects the value of the underlying asset, leading to abnormal trading volume and volatility.<ref name=":1" />

==See also==
*[[Stock market crash]]
*[[Trading halt]]
*[[2010 Flash Crash]], after which the SEC announced a trial period of per-stock trading curbs

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
*[https://www.sec.gov/answers/circuit.htm Circuit Breakers and Other Market Volatility Procedures]
*[https://www.nyse.com/Frameset.html?displayPage=/press/circuit_breakers.html Circuit Breakers and Trading Collars] at the New York Stock Exchange
*[http://www.cbot.com/cbot/pub/cont_detail/0,3206,1560+8704,00.html Dow Contracts Price Limits and Trading Halts] at the Chicago Board of Trade

[[Category:Share trading]]

Greibach normal form

2025-05-01T11:39:58Z

131.111.5.201:

In [[formal language]] theory, a [[context-free grammar]] is in '''Greibach normal form''' ('''GNF''') if the right-hand sides of all [[production (computer science)|production]] rules start with a [[terminal symbol]], optionally followed by some non-terminals. A non-strict form allows one exception to this format restriction for allowing the [[empty word]] (epsilon, ε) to be a member of the described language. The normal form was established by [[Sheila Greibach]] and it bears her name.

More precisely, a context-free grammar is in Greibach normal form, if all production rules are of the form:
:<math>A \to a A_1 A_2 \cdots A_n</math>

where <math>A</math> is a [[nonterminal symbol]], <math>a</math> is a terminal symbol, and
<math>A_1 A_2 \ldots A_n</math> is a (possibly empty) sequence of nonterminal symbols.

Observe that the grammar does not have [[left recursion]]s.

Every context-free grammar can be transformed into an equivalent grammar in Greibach normal form.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Greibach | first=Sheila | title=A New Normal-Form Theorem for Context-Free Phrase Structure Grammars |date=January 1965| journal=Journal of the ACM | volume=12| issue=1 | pages=42–52 | doi = 10.1145/321250.321254| s2cid=12991430 | doi-access=free }}</ref> Various constructions exist. Some do not permit the second form of rule and cannot transform context-free grammars that can generate the empty word. For one such construction the size of the constructed grammar is O({{var|n}}4) in the general case and O({{var|n}}3) if no derivation of the original grammar consists of a single nonterminal symbol, where {{var|n}} is the size of the original grammar.<ref>{{cite journal | first1 = Norbert | last1 = Blum | first2 = Robert | last2 = Koch | title = Greibach Normal Form Transformation Revisited | journal = Information and Computation | volume = 150 | issue = 1 | year = 1999 | pages = 112–118 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.47.460 | doi=10.1006/inco.1998.2772| s2cid = 10302796 }}</ref> This conversion can be used to prove that every [[context-free language]] can be accepted by a real-time (non-deterministic) [[pushdown automaton]], i.e., the automaton reads a letter from its input every step.

Given a grammar in GNF and a derivable string in the grammar with length {{var|n}}, any [[top-down parsing|top-down parser]] will halt at depth {{var|n}}.

== See also ==
* [[Backus–Naur form]]
* [[Chomsky normal form]]
* [[Kuroda normal form]]

== References ==
<references/>
* {{cite book|author=Alexander Meduna|title=Automata and Languages: Theory and Applications|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a-rjBwAAQBAJ&q=%22Greibach+normal+form%22|date=6 December 2012|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-1-4471-0501-5}}
* {{cite book|author=György E. Révész|title=Introduction to Formal Languages|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3s7CAgAAQBAJ&q=%22Greibach+normal+form%22|date=17 March 2015|publisher=Courier Corporation|isbn=978-0-486-16937-8}}

[[Category:Formal languages]]

Severance tax

2025-04-24T22:22:55Z

131.111.5.201:

{{more footnotes|date=March 2013}}
{{Taxation}}
{{short description|Taxes imposed on removal of natural resources}}
'''Severance taxes''' are taxes imposed on the removal of [[natural resources]] within a taxing jurisdiction. Severance taxes are most commonly imposed in oil producing states within the [[United States of America|United States]]. Resources that typically incur severance taxes when extracted include [[Petroleum|oil]], [[natural gas]], [[coal]], [[uranium]], and [[timber]]. Some jurisdictions use other terms like '''gross production tax'''.

Note that severance taxes are used in jurisdictions where most resource extraction occurs on privately owned land and/or where sub-surface minerals are privately owned (for example, the United States).<ref>Brad Bumsted and Andrew Conte, "[http://triblive.com/x/pittsburghtrib/news/regional/s_701769.html 'Historic' severance tax goes before Pennsylvania House]", ''[[The Pittsburgh Tribune-Review]]'', Sep. 29, 2010; retrieved December 5, 2013</ref><ref>[https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=mPVSAAAAIBAJ&sjid=ZoMDAAAAIBAJ&pg=7197,4199491&dq=severance+tax&hl=en Severance tax, retirement fund debated on Dialogue], The Deseret News - Feb 26, 1983, Retrieved December 5, 2013</ref> Where the resources are publicly owned to begin with (for example, in most [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] and [[European Union]] countries), it is not a tax but rather a [[resource royalty]] that is paid. In the case of the forestry industry, this royalty is called "[[stumpage]]".

==Oil and natural gas==

Severance taxes are set and collected at the state level.<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=State Oil and Gas Severance Taxes|url=https://www.ncsl.org/research/energy/oil-and-gas-severance-taxes.aspx|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=National Conference of State Legislatures}}</ref> States usually calculate the tax based on the value and/or volume produced; sometimes the method differs for oil, natural gas, and condensates.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.mineralweb.com/owners-guide/leased-and-producing/royalty-taxes/oil-severance-tax/|title = Oil Severance Tax – Understand Severance Taxes by State}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=March 2020|title=Mineral Revenues in Louisiana|url=https://www.lsu.edu/ces/publications/2020/mineral-revenues-in-louisiana-online-df.pdf|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=LSU Center for Energy Studies}}</ref> Production from certain wells may be exempt from severance tax based on the amount of production (i.e. "stripper" wells) or the type of well (i.e. horizontal, tertiary, deep, etc).<ref name=":0" /> As of 2021, 34 states collect a severance tax on oil and gas extraction.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Kolesnikoff |first1=Anne |last2=Brown |first2=Cassarah |title=State Oil and Gas Severance Taxes |url=https://www.ncsl.org/research/energy/oil-and-gas-severance-taxes.aspx |website=ncsl.org |access-date=27 July 2021}}</ref>

As of September 2022, the Colorado severance tax was 1% of the gross income from oil and gas owed.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Oil & Gas Severance Tax {{!}} Withholding Information {{!}} Department of Revenue - Taxation |url=https://tax.colorado.gov/OGS-withholding |access-date=2022-09-21 |website=tax.colorado.gov}}</ref>

==Incentives==

Severance tax incentives may be given in the form of credits or lower tax rates in order to encourage the production and expansion of oil and gas operations.

==Endowments==
Several U.S. states, including [[New Mexico]], [[Wyoming]], [[Colorado]], [[Alaska]] and [[Montana]], have created severance endowments. These range in size from about $800 million in Montana to more than $37 billion in Alaska. In theory, income from these permanent endowments remains available in perpetuity after resources are no longer being extracted, and is generally used to support public education and other public programs.{{citation needed|date = September 2014}}

==See also==
* [[Natural resources consumption tax]]
* [[Severance tax legislative history in California]]
* [[Stumpage]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==

* Vaughan, George (1922). "[https://www.jstor.org/stable/42883909 The Severance Tax and Kindred Exactions]". ''The Southwestern Political Science Quarterly''. '''2''' (4): 283–301.

==External links==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120628174400/http://www.rrc.state.tx.us/programs/og/severancetax.php Texas Severance Tax Incentives: Past and Present (Railroad Commission of Texas)]
* [http://www.downstreamstrategies.com/documents/reports_publication/DownstreamStrategies-coalWV.pdf Coal and Renewables in Central Appalachia: The Impact of Coal on the West Virginia State Budget (2010)]
* [http://www.downstreamstrategies.com/documents/reports_publication/DownstreamStrategies-coalTN.pdf Coal and Renewables in Central Appalachia: The Impact of Coal on the Tennessee State Budget (2010)]

{{Population}}

[[Category:Severance taxes|*]]
[[Category:Taxes by type]]
[[Category:Resource extraction]]
[[Category:Economics of primary sector industries]]
[[Category:Supply-side economics]]

{{tax-stub}}

Thai Forest Tradition

2025-03-04T09:38:07Z

131.111.5.201:

{{short description|Lineage of Theravada Buddhist monasticism}}
{{For|the meditation practices called ''Kammaṭṭhāna'' ("Place of work")|Kammaṭṭhāna}}
{{Multiple issues|
{{Disputed|date=November 2019}}
{{Misleading|article|date=June 2020}}
}}
{{Infobox
| title = Thai Forest Tradition
| image = [[File:Kammatthana Yantra.png|220px]]
| size = 220px
| label1 = Type
| data1 = [[Lineage (Buddhism)|Dhamma Lineage]]
| label2 = School
| data2 = [[Theravada Buddhism]]
| label3 = Formation
| data3 = c. 1900; [[Isan]], [[Thailand]]
| label4 = Lineage Heads
| data4 =
* [[Ajahn Sao Kantasīlo]], [[Mun Bhuridatta|Ajahn Mun Bhuridatta]]{{smalldiv|{{align|center|(c. 1900–1949)}}}}
* [[Ajahn Thate]] Desaransi {{smalldiv|{{align|center|(1949–1994)}}}}
* [[Ajahn Maha Bua]] Ñāṇasampaṇṇo {{smalldiv|{{align|center|(1994–2011)}}}}
{{hr}}
* [[Ajahn Chah]] Subhatto {{smalldiv|(''see: [[Forest Tradition of Ajahn Chah]]'')}}
| label6 = Founding Maxims
| data6 = The customs of the [[Four stages of enlightenment|noble ones]] (''ariyavamsa'') 
The [[Dhamma]] in accordance with the Dhamma (''dhammanudhammapatipatti'')
}}
{{Thai Forest Tradition}}
{{Theravada Buddhism|Traditions}}

The '''Kammaṭṭhāna Forest Tradition of Thailand''' (from {{langx|pi|kammaṭṭhāna}} {{IPA|pi|kəmːəʈʈʰaːna|}} meaning [[Kammaṭṭhāna|"place of work"]]), commonly known in the West as the '''Thai Forest Tradition''', is a [[Parampara|lineage]] of [[Theravada]] [[Buddhist monasticism]].

The Thai Forest Tradition started around 1900 with [[Ajahn Mun]] Bhuridatto, who wanted to practice Buddhist monasticism and its meditative practices, according to the [[normative]] standards of [[pre-sectarian Buddhism]]. After studying with [[Ajahn Sao Kantasīlo]] and wandering through the northeast of Thailand, Ajahn Mun reportedly became a [[Anāgāmi|non-returner]] and started to teach in Northeast Thailand. He strove for a revival of the [[Pre-sectarian Buddhism|Early Buddhism]], insisting on a strict observance of the Buddhist monastic code known as the [[Vinaya]] and teaching the practice of ''[[jhāna]]'' and the realization of ''[[nibbāna]]''.

Initially, Ajahn Mun's teachings were met with fierce opposition, but in the 1930s his group was acknowledged as a formal faction of Thai Buddhism, and in the 1950s the relationship with the royal and religious establishment improved. In the 1960s, Western students started to be attracted to the movement, and in the 1970s branch monasteries of the tradition began to be established in the West.

Underlying attitudes of the Thai Forest Tradition include an interest in the empirical effectiveness of practice, the individual's development, and the use of skill in their practice and living.{{Citation needed|reason=I don't see mention of this elsewhere in the article|date=April 2021}}

==History==
{{Main|History of the Thai Forest Tradition}}

===The Dhammayut movement (19th century)===
{{See also|History of Thailand}}

Before authority was centralized in the 19th and early 20th centuries, the region known today as [[Thailand]] was a kingdom of semi-autonomous city-states (Thai: ''[[mueang]]''). These kingdoms were all ruled by a hereditary local governor, and while independent, paid tribute to Bangkok, the most powerful central city-state in the region. Each region had its own religious customs according to local tradition, and substantially different forms of Buddhism existed between mueangs. Though all of these local flavors of regional Thai Buddhism evolved their own customary elements relating to local spirit lore, all were shaped
by the infusion of [[Mahayana Buddhism]] and [[tantra|Indian Tantric]] traditions, which arrived in the area prior to the fourteenth century. Additionally, many of the monastics in the villages engaged in behavior inconsistent with the Buddhist monastic code (Pali: ''vinaya''), including playing [[board game]]s, and participating in boat races and water fights.{{Citation needed|date=July 2023}}
[[File:Mongkut in the Sangha.jpeg|thumb|200px|Vajirañāṇo Bhikkhu, later King [[Mongkut]] of the [[Rattanakosin Kingdom]], founder of the [[Dhammayuttika Nikaya]]]]
In the 1820s young Prince [[Mongkut]] (1804–1866), the future fourth king of the [[Rattanakosin Kingdom]] (Siam), was ordained as a Buddhist monk before rising to the throne later in his life. He traveled around the Siamese region and quickly became dissatisfied with the caliber of Buddhist practice he saw around him. He was also concerned about the authenticity of the ordination lineages, and the capacity of the monastic body to act as an agent that generates positive kamma (Pali: ''puññakkhettam'', meaning "merit-field").

Mongkut started to introduce innovations and reforms to a small number of monks, inspired by his contacts with Western intellectuals.<ref name="Sujato_Reform" group="web" /> He rejected the local customs and traditions, and instead turned to the Pali Canon, studying the texts and developing his own ideas on them.<ref name="Sujato_Reform" group="web" /> Doubting the validity of the existing lineages, Mongkut searched for a lineage of monks with an authentic practice, which he found among the Burmese [[Mon people]] in the region. He reordained among this group, which formed the basis for the Dhammayut movement.<ref name="Sujato_Reform" group="web" /> Mongkut then searched for replacements for the classical Buddhist texts lost in the final siege of Ayutthaya. He eventually received copies of the Pali Canon as part of a missive to Sri Lanka.{{sfn|Thanissaro|2010}} With these, Mongkut began a study group to promote understanding of Classical Buddhist principles.<ref name="Sujato_Reform" group="web" />

Mongkut's reforms were radical, imposing a scriptural orthodoxy on the varied forms of Thai Buddhism of the time, "trying to establish a national identity through religious reform."<ref name="Sujato_Reform" group="web" />{{refn|group=note|name="Sujato_orthodoxy"|Sujato: "Mongkut and those following him have been accused of imposing a scriptural orthodoxy on the diversity of Thai Buddhist forms. There is no doubt some truth to this. It was a form of ‘inner colonialism’, the modern, Westernized culture of Bangkok trying to establish a national identity through religious reform.<ref name="Sujato_Reform" group="web" />}} A controversial point was Mongkut's belief that nibbana can't be reached in our degenerated times and that the aim of the Buddhist order is to promote a moral way of life and preserve the Buddhist traditions.<ref name="Thanissaro1998">Thanissaro (1998), [https://tricycle.org/magazine/home-culture-dharma/ ''The Home Culture of the Dharma. The Story of a Thai Forest Tradition''], TriCycle</ref><ref name="Sujato_Reform" group="web" />{{refn|group=note|name="Mongkut_nibbana"|Mongkut on nibbana: Thanissaro: "Mongkut himself was convinced that the path to nirvana was no longer open, but that a great deal of merit could be made by reviving at least the outward forms of the earliest Buddhist traditions."<ref name="Thanissaro1998" /> * Sujato: "One area where the modernist thinking of Mongkut has been very controversial has been his belief that in our degenerate age, it is impossible to realize the paths and fruits of Buddhism. Rather than aiming for any transcendental goal, our practice of Buddhadhamma is in order to support mundane virtue and wisdom, to uphold the forms and texts of Buddhism. This belief, while almost unheard of in the West, is very common in modern Theravada. It became so mainstream that at one point any reference to Nibbana was removed from the Thai ordination ceremony.<ref name="Sujato_Reform" group="web" />}}

Mongkut's brother [[Nangklao]], King Rama III, the third king of the [[Rattanakosin Kingdom]], considered Mongkut's involvement with the Mons, an ethnic minority, to be improper, and built a monastery on the outskirts of Bangkok. In 1836, Mongkut became the first abbot of [[Wat Bowonniwet Vihara]], which would become the administrative center of the Thammayut order until the present day.{{sfn|Buswell|Lopez|2013|p=696}}{{sfn|Tambiah|1984|p=156}}

The early participants of the movement continued to devote themselves to a combination of textual study and meditations they had discovered from the texts they had received. However, Thanissaro notes that none of the monks could make any claims of having successfully entered meditative concentration (Pali: ''samadhi''), much less having reached a noble level.{{sfn|Thanissaro|2010}}

The Dhammayut reform movement maintained a strong footing as Mongkut later rose to the throne. Over the next several decades the Dhammayut monks would continue with their study and practice.

===Formative period (around 1900)===
The Kammaṭṭhāna Forest Tradition started around 1900 with [[Ajahn Mun]] Bhuridatto, who studied with [[Ajahn Sao Kantasīlo]], and wanted to practice Buddhist monasticism, and its meditative practices, according to the [[normative]] standards of [[pre-sectarian Buddhism]], which Ajahn Mun termed "the customs of the noble ones".

====Wat Liap monastery and Fifth Reign reforms====
While ordained in the Dhammayut movement, Ajahn Sao (1861–1941) questioned the impossibility to attain nibbana.<ref name="Sujato_Reform" group="web" /> He rejected the textual orientation of the Dhammayut movement and set out to bring the ''dhamma'' into actual practice.<ref name="Sujato_Reform" group="web" /> In the late nineteenth century he was posted as abbot of Wat Liap, in Ubon. According to Phra Ajahn Phut Thaniyo, one of Ajahn Sao's students, Ajahn Sao was "not a preacher or a speaker, but a doer," who said very little when teaching his students. He taught his students to "Meditate on the word 'Buddho,'" which would aid in developing concentration and mindfulness of meditation objects.<ref name="Thaniyo" group="web">Phra Ajaan Phut Thaniyo, [https://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/thai/phut/sao.html '' Ajaan Sao's Teaching. A Reminiscence of Phra Ajaan Sao Kantasilo''], translated by Thanissaro Bhikkhu</ref>{{refn|group=note|Phra Ajaan Phut Thaniyo gives an incomplete account of the meditation instructions of Ajaan Sao. According to Thaniyo, concentration on the word 'Buddho' would make the mind "calm and bright" by entering into concentration.<ref name="Thaniyo" group="web" /> He warned his students not to settle for an empty and still mind, but to "focus on the breath as your object and then simply keep track of it, following it inward until the mind becomes even calmer and brighter." This leads to "threshold concentration" (''upacara samadhi''), and culminates in "fixed penetration" (''appana samadhi''), an absolute stillness of mind, in which the awareness of the body disappears, leaving the mind to stand on its own. Reaching this point, the practitioner has to notice when the mind starts to become distracted and focus on the movement of distraction. Thaniyo does not further elaborate.<ref name="Thaniyo" group="web" />}}

Ajahn Mun (1870–1949) went to Wat Liap monastery immediately after being ordained in 1893, where he started to practice [[kasina]]-meditation, in which awareness is directed away from the body. While it leads to a state of [[samatha|calm-abiding]], it also leads to visions and out-of-body experiences.{{sfn|Tambiah|1984|p=84}} He then turned to his keeping awareness of his body at all times,{{sfn|Tambiah|1984|p=84}} taking full sweeps of the body through a walking meditation practice,{{sfn|Maha Bua Nyanasampanno|2014}} which leads to a more satisfactory state of calm-abiding.{{sfn|Maha Bua Nyanasampanno|2014}}

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| footer = [[Ajahn Mun]] Bhuridatto (left) and [[Ajahn Sao Kantasīlo]] (right), founders of the Kammatthana Forest lineage.
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During this time, [[Chulalongkorn]] (1853–1910), the fifth monarch of the [[Rattanakosin Kingdom]], and his brother Prince Wachirayan, initiated a cultural modernization of the entire region. This modernization included an ongoing campaign to homogenize Buddhism among the villages.{{sfn|Taylor|p=62}} Chulalongkorn and Wachiraayan were taught by Western tutors and held distaste for the more mystical aspects of Buddhism.{{sfn|Thanissaro|2005|p=11}}{{refn|group=note|Thanissaro: "Both Rama V and Prince Vajirañana were trained by European tutors, from whom they had absorbed Victorian attitudes toward rationality, the critical study of ancient texts, the perspective of secular history on the nature of religious institutions, and the pursuit of a “useful” past. As Prince Vajirañana stated in his Biography of the Buddha, ancient texts, such as the Pali Canon, are like mangosteens, with a sweet flesh and bitter rind. The duty of critical scholarship was to extract the flesh and discard the rind. Norms of rationality were the guide to this extraction process. Teachings that were reasonable and useful to modern needs were accepted as the flesh. Stories of miracles and psychic powers were dismissed as part of the rind.{{sfn|Thanissaro|2005|p=11}}}} They abandoned Mongkut's search for the ''noble attainments'', indirectly stating that the noble attainments were no longer possible. In an introduction to the Buddhist monastic code written by Wachirayan, he stated that the rule forbidding monks to make claims to superior attainments was no longer relevant.{{sfn|Taylor|p=141}}

During this time, the Thai government enacted legislation to group these factions into official monastic fraternities. The monks ordained as part of the Dhammayut reform movement were now part of the Dhammayut order, and all remaining regional monks were grouped together as the Mahanikai order.

====Wandering non-returner====
After his stay at Wat Liap, Ajaan Mun wandered through the Northeast.{{sfn|Tambiah|1984|p=84}}{{sfn|Maha Bua Nyanasampanno|2004}} Ajahn Mun still had visions,{{sfn|Maha Bua Nyanasampanno|2004}}{{refn|group=note|Maha Bua: "Sometimes, he felt his body soaring high into the sky where he traveled around for many hours, looking at celestial mansions before coming back down. At other times, he burrowed deep beneath the earth to visit various regions in hell. There he felt profound pity for its unfortunate inhabitants, all experiencing the grievous consequences of their previous actions. Watching these events unfold, he often lost all perspective of the passage of time. In those days, he was still uncertain whether these scenes were real or imaginary. He said that it was only later on, when his spiritual faculties were more mature, that he was able to investigate these matters and understand clearly the definite moral and psychological causes underlying them.{{sfn|Maha Bua Nyanasampanno|2004}}}} when his concentration and mindfulness were lost, but through trial and error he eventually found a method for taming his mind.{{sfn|Maha Bua Nyanasampanno|2004}}

As his mind gained more inner stability, he gradually headed towards Bangkok, consulting his childhood friend Chao Khun Upali on practices pertaining to the development of insight (Pali: ''paññā'', also meaning "wisdom" or "discernment"). He then left for an unspecified period, staying in caves in Lopburi, before returning to Bangkok one final time to consult with Chao Khun Upali, again pertaining to the practice of paññā.{{sfn|Tambiah|1984|pp=86–87}}

Feeling confident in his paññā practice he left for Sarika Cave. During his stay there, Ajahn Mun was critically ill for several days. After medicines failed to remedy his illness, Ajahn Mun ceased to take medication and resolved to rely on the power of his Buddhist practice. Ajahn Mun investigated the nature of the mind and this pain, until his illness disappeared, and successfully coped with visions featuring a club-wielding demon apparition who claimed he was the owner of the cave. According to forest tradition accounts, Ajahn Mun attained the noble level of ''non-returner'' (Pali: "anagami") after subduing this apparition and working through subsequent visions he encountered in the cave.{{sfn|Tambiah|1984|pp=87–88}}

===Establishment and resistance (1900s–1930s)===

====Establishment====

Ajahn Mun returned to the Northeast to start teaching, which marked the effective beginning of the Kammatthana tradition. He insisted on a scrupulous observance of the ''Vinaya'', the Buddhist monastic code, and of the protocols, the instructions for the daily activities of the monk. He taught that virtue was a matter of the mind, not of rituals, and that intention forms the essence of virtue, not the proper conduct of rituals.{{sfn|Thanissaro|2015|loc=[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1S40nS_0R9Y&t=2070s]}}
He asserted that meditative concentration was necessary on the Buddhist path and that the practice of jhana{{sfn|Thanissaro|2015|loc=[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1S40nS_0R9Y&t=2460s]}} and the experience of Nirvana was still possible even in modern times.{{sfn|Thanissaro|2015|loc=[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1S40nS_0R9Y&t=2670s]}}

====Resistance====
{{expand section|date=November 2018}}


Ajahn Mun's approach met with resistance from the religious establishment.<ref name="Sujato_Reform" group="web" /> He challenged the text-based approach of the city-monks, opposing their claims about the non-attainability of ''[[jhāna]]'' and ''[[nibbāna]]'' with his own experience-based teachings.<ref name="Sujato_Reform" group="web" />

His report of having reached a noble attainment was met with mixed reactions among the Thai clergy. The ecclesiastical official Ven. Chao Khun Upali held Ajahn Mun in high esteem, which would be a significant factor in the subsequent leeway that state authorities gave him and his students. Tisso Uan (1867–1956), who later rose to Thailand's highest ecclesiastical rank of ''somdet,'' thoroughly rejected the authenticity of Ajahn Mun's attainment.{{sfn|Thanissaro|2015|loc=[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1S40nS_0R9Y&t=2880s]}}

The tension between the forest tradition and the Thammayut administrative hierarchy escalated in 1926 when Tisso Uan attempted to drive a senior Forest Tradition monk named Ajahn Sing—along with his following of 50 monks and 100 nuns and laypeople—out of [[Ubon]], which was under Tisso Uan's jurisdiction. Ajahn Sing refused, saying he and many of his supporters were born there, and they weren't doing anything to harm anyone. After arguments with district officials, the directive was eventually dropped.{{sfn|Taylor|1993|p=137}}

===Institutionalisation and growth (1930s–1990s)===

====Acceptance in Bangkok====
In the late 1930s, Tisso Uan formally recognized the Kammaṭṭhāna monks as a faction. However, even after Ajahn Mun died in 1949, Tisso Uan continued to insist that Ajahn Mun had never been qualified to teach because he hadn't graduated from the government's formal Pali studies courses.

With the passing of Ajahn Mun in 1949, [[Ajahn Thate]] Desaransi was designated the ''de facto'' head of the Forest Tradition until his death in 1994. The relationship between the Thammayut ecclesia and the Kammaṭṭhāna monks changed in the 1950s when Tisso Uan become ill and Ajahn Lee went to teach meditation to him to help cope with his illness.{{sfn|Lee Dhammadaro|2012}}{{refn|group=note|Ajahn Lee: "One day he said, "I never dreamed that sitting in ''samadhi'' would be so beneficial, but there's one thing that has me bothered. To make the mind still and bring it down to its basic resting level (''bhavanga''): Isn't this the essence of becoming and birth?" "That's what ''samadhi'' is," I told him, "becoming and birth." "But the Dhamma we're taught to practice is for the sake of doing away with becoming and birth. So what are we doing giving rise to more becoming and birth?" "If you don't make the mind take on becoming, it won't give rise to knowledge, because knowledge has to come from becoming if it's going to do away with becoming. This is becoming on a small scale—''uppatika bhava''—which lasts for a single mental moment. The same holds true with birth. To make the mind still so that samadhi arises for a long mental moment is birth. Say we sit in concentration for a long time until the mind gives rise to the five factors of jhana: That's birth. If you don't do this with your mind, it won't give rise to any knowledge of its own. And when knowledge can't arise, how will you be able to let go of unawareness [''avijja'']? It'd be very hard. "As I see it," I went on, "most students of the Dhamma really misconstrue things. Whatever comes springing up, they try to cut it down and wipe it out. To me, this seems wrong. It's like people who eat eggs. Some people don't know what a chicken is like: This is unawareness. As soon as they get hold of an egg, they crack it open and eat it. But say they know how to incubate eggs. They get ten eggs, eat five of them and incubate the rest. While the eggs are incubating, that's "becoming." When the baby chicks come out of their shells, that's "birth." If all five chicks survive, then as the years pass it seems to me that the person who once had to buy eggs will start benefiting from his chickens. He'll have eggs to eat without having to pay for them, and if he has more than he can eat he can set himself up in business, selling them. In the end, he'll be able to release himself from poverty. "So it is with practicing ''samadhi'': If you're going to release yourself from becoming, you first have to go live in becoming. If you're going to release yourself from birth, you'll have to know all about your own birth."{{sfn|Lee Dhammadaro|2012}}}}
[[File:Ajaan Lee statue.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.35|Ajahn Lee Dhammadaro]]
Tisso Uan eventually recovered, and a friendship between Tisso Uan and Ajahn Lee began, that would cause Tisso Uan to reverse his opinion of the Kammaṭṭhāna tradition, inviting Ajahn Lee to teach in the city. This event marked a turning point in relations between the Dhammayut administration and the Forest Tradition, and interest continued to grow as a friend of Ajahn Maha Bua's named [[Nyanasamvara Suvaddhana|Nyanasamvara]] rose to the level of ''somdet'' and later the Sangharaja of Thailand. Additionally, the clergy who had been drafted as teachers from the Fifth Reign onwards were now being displaced by civilian teaching staff, which left the Dhammayut monks with a crisis of identity.{{sfn|Thanissaro|2005}}{{sfn|Taylor|p=139}}

====Recording of forest doctrine====
{{Main|Ajahn Lee}}

In the tradition's beginning the founders famously neglected to record their teachings, instead wandering the Thai countryside offering individual instruction to dedicated pupils. However, detailed meditation manuals and treatises on Buddhist doctrine emerged in the late 20th century from Ajahn Mun and Ajahn Sao's first-generation students as the Forest tradition's teachings began to propagate among the urbanities in Bangkok and subsequently take root in the West.

[[Ajahn Lee]], one of Ajahn Mun's students, was instrumental in disseminating Mun's teachings to a wider Thai lay audience. Ajahn Lee wrote several books which recorded the doctrinal positions of the forest tradition and explained broader Buddhist concepts in the Forest Tradition's terms. Ajahn Lee and his students are considered a distinguishable sub-lineage that is sometimes referred to as the "[[Chanthaburi]] Line". An influential Western student in the line of Ajahn Lee is [[Thanissaro Bhikkhu]].

'''<big>Forest monasteries in the South</big>'''
[[File:BuddhadasaAsiti60.jpg|thumb|Ajahn Buddhadasa Bhikkhu]]
Ajahn [[Buddhadasa Bhikkhu]] (May 27, 1906 - May 25, 1993) became a Buddhist monk at Wat Ubon, Chaiya, [[Surat Thani Province|Surat Thani]] in Thailand on July 29, 1926, when he was twenty years old, in part to follow the tradition of the day and to fulfill his mother’s wishes. His preceptor gave him the Buddhist name “Inthapanyo” which means “The wise one”. He was a Mahanikaya monk and graduated at the third level of Dharma studies in his hometown and in Pali language studies at the third level in Bangkok. After he finished learning the Pali language, he realized that living in Bangkok was not suitable for him because monks and people there did not practice to achieve the heart and core of Buddhism. So he decided to go back to Surat Thani and practice rigorously and taught people to practice well according to the core teachings of the Buddha. Then he established Suanmokkhabālārama (The Grove of the Power of Liberation) in 1932 which is the mountain and forest for 118.61 acres at Pum Riang, Chaiya district, Surat Thani Thailand. It is a forest Dhamma and Vipassana meditation center. In 1989, he founded The Suan Mokkh International Dharma Hermitage for international Vipassana meditation practitioners around the world. There is a 10-day silent meditation retreat that starts on the 1st of each month for the whole year which is free, of no charge for international practitioners who are interested in practicing meditation. He was a central monk in the popularization of the Thai Forest Tradition in the South of Thailand. He was a great Dhamma author who wrote many well-known Dhamma books: Handbook for Mankind, Heart-wood from the Bo Tree, Keys to Natural Truth, Me and Mine, Mindfulness of Breathing and The A, B, Cs of Buddhism etc. On October 20, 2005, The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) announced praise to “Buddhadasa Bhikkhu”, an important person in the world and celebrated the 100th anniversary on May 27, 2006. They held an academic activity to disseminate the Buddhist principles that Ajahn Buddhadasa had taught people around the world. So, he was the practitioner of a great Thai Forest Tradition who practiced well and spread Dhammas for people around the world to realize the core and heart of Buddhism.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Ajahn Buddhadasa |publisher=Suan Mokkh |url=https://www.suanmokkh.org/buddhadasa}}</ref>

====Forest monasteries in the West====
[[File:AJiang Cha.jpg|thumb|right|Ajahn Chah]]
{{main|Forest Tradition of Ajahn Chah}}

[[Ajahn Chah]] (1918–1992) was a central person in the popularisation of the Thai Forest Tradition in the west.{{sfn|Zuidema|2015}}{{refn|group=note|Zuidema: "Ajahn Chah (1918–1992) is the most famous Thai Forest teacher. He is acknowledged to have played an instrumental role in spreading the Thai Forest tradition to the west and in making this tradition an international phenomenon in his lifetime."{{sfn|Zuidema|2015}}}} In contrast to most members of the Forest Tradition he was not a Dhammayut monk, but a Mahanikaya monk. He only spent one weekend with Ajahn Mun, but had teachers within the Mahanikaya who had more exposure to Ajahn Mun. His connection to the Forest Tradition was publicly recognized by Ajahn Maha Bua. The community that he founded is formally referred to as ''The Forest Tradition of Ajahn Chah''.

In 1967, Ajahn Chah founded [[Wat Pah Pong]]. That same year, an American monk from another monastery, Venerable Sumedho (Robert Karr Jackman, later ''[[Ajahn Sumedho]]'') came to stay with Ajahn Chah at Wat Pah Pong. He found out about the monastery from one of Ajahn Chah's existing monks who happened to speak "a little bit of English". In 1975, Ajahn Chah and Sumedho founded [[Wat Pah Nanachat]], an international forest monastery in Ubon Ratchatani which offers services in English.{{Citation needed|date=October 2024}}

In the 1980s the Forest Tradition of Ajahn Chah expanded to the West with the founding of [[Amaravati Buddhist Monastery]] in the UK. Ajahn Chah stated that the spread of Communism in Southeast Asia motivated him to establish the Forest Tradition in the West. The Forest Tradition of Ajahn Chah has since expanded to cover Canada, Germany, Italy, New Zealand, Brazil, and the United States.{{sfn|Harvey|2013|p=443}}

===Involvement in politics (1994–2011)===

====Royal patronage and instruction to the elite====
With the passing of Ajahn Thate in 1994, [[Ajahn Maha Bua]] was designated the new ''Ajahn Yai''. By this time, the Forest Tradition's authority had been fully routinized, and Ajahn Maha Bua had grown a following of influential conservative-loyalist Bangkok elites.{{sfn|Taylor|2008|pp=118–128}} He was introduced to the Queen and King by Somdet Nyanasamvara Suvaddhano (Charoen Khachawat), instructing them how to meditate.

====Forest closure====
[[File:Isansatellite.jpg|thumb|left|Satellite photo of Northeast Thailand: The once-lush area of Isan, where the Forest Tradition began, has now been almost entirely deforested.]]

In recent times, the Forest Tradition has undergone a crisis surrounding the destruction of forests in Thailand. Since the Forest Tradition had gained significant pull from the royal and elite support in Bangkok, the Thai Forestry Bureau decided to deed large tracts of forested land to Forest Monasteries, knowing that the forest monks would preserve the land as a habitat for Buddhist practice. The land surrounding these monasteries have been described as "forest islands" surrounded by barren clear-cut area.

====''Save Thai Nation''====
In the midst of the [[1997 Asian financial crisis|Thai Financial crisis]] in the late 1990s, Ajahn Maha Bua initiated ''Save Thai Nation''—a campaign which aimed to raise capital to underwrite the Thai currency. By the year 2000, 3.097 tonnes of gold was collected. By the time of Ajahn Maha Bua's death in 2011, an estimated 12 tonnes of gold had been collected, valued at approximated US$500 million. 10.2 million dollars of foreign exchange was also donated to the campaign. All proceeds were handed over to the Thai central bank to back the Thai Baht.{{sfn|Taylor|2008|pp=118–128}}

The Thai administration under Prime Minister Chuan Leekpai attempted to thwart the ''Save Thai Nation'' campaign in the late 1990s. This led to Ajahn Maha Bua's striking back with heavy criticism, which is cited as a contributing factor to the ousting of Chuan Leekpai and the election of Thaksin Shinawatra as prime minister in 2001. The Dhammayut hierarchy, teaming-up with the Mahanikaya hierarchy and seeing the political influence that Ajahn Maha Bua could wield, felt threatened and began to take action.{{sfn|Thanissaro|2005}}{{refn|group=note|Thanissaro: "The Mahanikaya hierarchy, which had long been antipathetic to the Forest monks, convinced the Dhammayut hierarchy that their future survival lay in joining forces against the Forest monks, and against Ajaan Mahabua in particular. Thus the last few years have witnessed a series of standoffs between the Bangkok hierarchy and the Forest monks led by Ajaan Mahabua, in which government-run media have personally attacked Ajaan Mahabua. The hierarchy has also proposed a series of laws—a Sangha Administration Act, a land-reform bill, and a “special economy” act—that would have closed many of the Forest monasteries, stripped the remaining Forest monasteries of their wilderness lands, or made it legal for monasteries to sell their lands. These laws would have brought about the effective end of the Forest tradition, at the same time preventing the resurgence of any other forest tradition in the future. So far, none of these proposals have become law, but the issues separating the Forest monks from the hierarchy are far from settled."{{sfn|Thanissaro|2005}}}}

In the late 2000s bankers at the Thai central bank attempted to consolidate the bank's assets and move the proceeds from the ''Save Thai Nation'' campaign into the ordinary accounts which discretionary spending comes out of. The bankers received pressure from Ajahn Maha Bua's supporters which effectively prevented them from doing this. On the subject, Ajahn Maha Bua said that "it is clear that combining the accounts is like tying the necks of all Thais together and throwing them into the sea; the same as turning the land of the nation upside down."{{sfn|Taylor|2008|pp=118–128}}

In addition to Ajahn Maha Bua's activism for Thailand's economy, his monastery is estimated to have donated some 600 million Baht (US$19 million) to charitable causes.{{sfn|Taylor|2008|pp=126–127}}

====Politic interest and death of Ajahn Maha Bua====
Throughout the 2000s, Ajahn Maha Bua was accused of political leanings—first from Chuan Leekpai supporters, and then receiving criticism from the other side after his vehement condemnations of Thaksin Shinawatra.{{refn|group=note|On being accused of aspiring to political ambitions, Ajaan Maha Bua replied: "If someone squanders the nation's treasure [...] what do you think this is? People should fight against this kind of stealing. Don't be afraid of becoming political, because the nation's heart (''hua-jai'') is there (within the treasury). The issue is bigger than politics. This is not to destroy the nation. There are many kinds of enemies. When boxers fight do they think about politics? No. They only think about winning. This is Dhamma straight. Take Dhamma as first principle."{{sfn|Taylor|2008|p=123}}}}

Ajahn Maha Bua was the last of Ajahn Mun's prominent first-generation students. He died in 2011. In his will he requested that all of the donations from his funeral be converted to gold and donated to the Central Bank—an additional 330 million Baht and 78 kilograms of gold.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.buddhistchannel.tv/index.php?id=9,9910,0,0,1,0#.WXZJvLNXa0q|title = Buddhist Channel | Personality}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thaivisa.com/forum/topic/448638-nirvana-funeral-of-revered-thai-monk|title = ASEAN NOW formerly Thai Visa Forum}}</ref>

==Practices==

===Meditation practices===

The purpose of practice is to attain the [[amrita|deathless]] (Pali: ''amata-dhamma''), i.e. [[Nirvana (Buddhism)|Nibbāna]]. According to the Thai Forest Tradition's exposition, awareness of the deathless is boundless and unconditioned and cannot be conceptualized, and must be arrived at through mental training which includes states of [[samadhi|meditative concentration]] (Pali: ''[[jhana]]''). Forest teachers thus directly challenge the notion of "dry insight"{{sfn|Lopez|2016|p=61}} (insight without any development of [[Noble Eightfold Path#Right concentration|concentration]]) and teach that ''nibbāna'' must be arrived at through mental training which includes deep states of [[samadhi|meditative concentration]] (Pali: ''[[Dhyāna in Buddhism|jhāna]]''), and "exertion and striving" to "cut" or "clear the path" through the "tangle" of defilements, setting awareness free,{{sfn|Robinson|Johnson|Ṭhānissaro Bhikkhu|2005|p=167}}{{sfn|Taylor|1993|pp=16–17}} and thus allowing one to [[vipassanā|see them clearly]] for what they are, eventually leading one to be released from these defilements.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.dhammatalks.org/books/FoodForThought/Section0017.html |title=Stop & Think |last=Ajahn Lee |author-link=Ajahn Lee |date=20 July 1959 |website=dhammatalks.org |access-date=27 June 2020 |quote=Insight isn’t something that can be taught. It’s something you have to give rise to within yourself. It’s not something you simply memorize and talk about. If we were to teach it just so we could memorize it, I can guarantee that it wouldn’t take five hours. But if you wanted to understand one word of it, three years might not even be enough. Memorizing gives rise simply to memories. Acting is what gives rise to the truth. This is why it takes effort and persistence for you to understand and master this skill on your own. When insight arises, you’ll know what’s what, where it’s come from, and where it’s going—as when we see a lantern burning brightly: We know that, ‘That’s the flame... That’s the smoke… That’s the light.’ We know how these things arise from mixing what with what, and where the flame goes when we put out the lantern. All of this is the skill of insight. Some people say that tranquility meditation and insight meditation are two separate things—but how can that be true? Tranquility meditation is ‘stopping,’ insight meditation is ‘thinking’ that leads to clear knowledge. When there’s clear knowledge, the mind stops still and stays put. They’re all part of the same thing. Knowing has to come from stopping. If you don’t stop, how can you know? For instance, if you’re sitting in a car or a boat that is traveling fast and you try to look at the people or things passing by right next to you along the way, you can’t see clearly who’s who or what’s what. But if you stop still in one place, you’ll be able to see things clearly. [...] In the same way, tranquility and insight have to go together. ''You first have to make the mind stop in tranquility and then take a step in your investigation: This is insight meditation. The understanding that arises is discernment. To let go of your attachment to that understanding is release.''}} Italics added.</ref>

==== Kammaṭṭhāna — The Place of Work ====
''[[Kammaṭṭhāna]]'', (Pali: meaning “place of work”) refers to the whole of the practice to ultimately eradicate defilement from the mind.{{refn|group=note|Ajaan Maha Bua: "The word “kammaṭṭhāna” has been well known among Buddhists for a long time and the accepted meaning is: “the place of work (or basis of work).” But the “work” here is a very important work and means the work of demolishing the world of birth (bhava); thus, demolishing (future) births, kilesas, taṇhā, and the removal and destruction of all avijjā from our hearts. All this is in order that we may be free from dukkha. In other words, free from birth, old age, pain and death, for these are the bridges that link us to the round of saṁsāra (vaṭṭa), which is never easy for any beings to go beyond and be free. This is the meaning of “work” in this context rather than any other meaning, such as work as is usually done in the world. The result that comes from putting this work into practice, even before reaching the final goal, is happiness in the present and in future lives. Therefore, those [monks] who are interested and who practise these ways of Dhamma are usually known as Dhutanga Kammaṭṭhāna Bhikkhus, a title of respect given with sincerity by fellow Buddhists.{{sfn|Maha Bua Nyanasampanno|2010|p=1}}}}

The practice that monks in the tradition generally begin with are meditations on what Ajahn Mun called the five "root meditation themes": the hair of the head, the hair of the body, the nails, the teeth, and the skin. One of the purposes of meditating on these externally visible aspects of the body is to counter the infatuation with the body and to develop a sense of dispassion. Of the five, the skin is described as being especially significant. Ajahn Mun writes, "When we get infatuated with the human body, the skin is what we are infatuated with. When we conceive of the body as being beautiful and attractive, and develop love, desire, and longing for it, it's because of what we conceive of the skin."{{sfn|Mun Bhuridatta|2016}}

Advanced meditations include the classical themes of contemplation and mindfulness of breathing:
*''[[anussati|The ten recollections]]'': a list of ten meditation themes considered especially significant by the Buddha.
*''[[asubha|The asubha contemplations]]'': contemplations of foulness for combating sensual desire.
*''[[brahmavihara|The brahmaviharas]]'': assertions of goodwill for all beings to combat ill will.
*''[[satipatthana|The four satipatthana]]'': frames of reference to get the mind into deep concentration

''[[Kayagatasati Sutta|Mindfulness immersed in the body]]'' and ''[[anapanasati|mindfulness of in-and-out breathing]]'' (ānāpānasati) are both part of the ten recollections and the four satipatthana and are commonly given special attention as primary themes for a meditator to focus on.

===Monastic routine===

==== Precepts and ordination ====
{{Main|Pāṭimokkha}}
There are several [[precept]] levels: [[Five Precepts]], [[Eight Precepts]], [[Bodhisattva Precepts|Ten Precepts]], and the [[patimokkha]]. The Five Precepts (''Pañcaśīla'' in Sanskrit and ''Pañcasīla'' in Pāli) are practiced by laypeople, either for a given period or for a lifetime. The Eight Precepts are a more rigorous practice for laypeople. Ten Precepts are the training rules for [[śrāmaṇera|sāmaṇeras]] and [[śrāmaṇerī|sāmaṇerīs]] (novitiate monks and nuns). The Patimokkha is the basic Theravada code of monastic discipline, consisting of 227 rules for bhikkhus and 311 for nuns [[bhikkhuni]]s (nuns).{{ref|http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/ariyesako/layguide.html}}

Temporary or short-term ordination is so common in Thailand that men who have never been ordained are sometimes referred to as "unfinished."{{citation needed|date=October 2015}} Long-term or lifetime ordination is deeply respected. The [[Sangha (Buddhism)#Women's role in the Sangha|ordination process]] usually begins as an [[anagarika]], in white robes.{{ref|http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/ariyesako/layguide.html}}

==== Customs ====
Monks in the tradition are typically addressed as "[[Venerable]]", alternatively with the Thai [[Ayya (Pali word)|Ayya]] or Taan (for men). Any monk may be addressed as "bhante" regardless of seniority.
For Sangha elders who have contributed significantly to their tradition or order, the title ''Luang Por'' (Thai: ''Venerable Father'') may be used.{{ref|http://www.buddhism-guide.com/buddhism/thai_forest_tradition.htm}}

According to ''The Isaan'': "In Thai culture, it is considered impolite to point the feet toward a monk or a statue in the shrine room of a monastery."{{ref|http://the-isaan.blogspot.com/2012/06/kamattan-and-thai-buddhism.html}} In Thailand, monks are usually greeted by lay people with the ''[[Thai greeting|wai]]'' gesture, though, according to Thai custom, monks are not supposed to wai laypeople.{{ref|http://www.littlebang.org/addressing-monks/}} When making offerings to the monks, it is best not to stand while offering something to a monk who is sitting down.{{ref|http://www.gotpassport.org/2010/10/05/dos-and-donts-when-visiting-a-buddhist-temple-anywhere-in-the-world/}}

==== Daily routine ====
[[File:Luang Ta Maha Bua and Phra Maha Amborn in Ban Taad, Udon Thani, 1965.jpg|thumb|[[Ajahn Maha Bua]] led the monks (in this photo, he was followed by [[Ariyavongsagatanana (Amborn Ambaro)|Phra Maha Amborn Ambaro]], later the 20th [[Supreme Patriarch of Thailand]]) for morning alms around Ban Taad, Udon Thani, in 1965.]]

All Thai monasteries generally have a morning and evening chant, which usually takes an hour long for each, and each morning and evening chant may be followed by a meditation session, usually around an hour as well.{{ref|http://www.buddhanet.net/e-learning/buddhistworld/wat_m5.htm}}

At Thai monasteries the monks will go for alms early in the morning, sometimes around 6:00 AM,{{ref|http://www.buddhanet.net/e-learning/buddhistworld/wat_m5.htm}} although monasteries such as [[Wat Pah Nanachat]] and Wat Mettavanaram start around 8:00 AM and 8:30 AM, respectively.{{ref|www.watpahnanachat.org/8-precepts.php}}{{ref|http://www.watmetta.org/dailySchedule.html}} At Dhammayut monasteries (and some Maha Nikaya forest monasteries, including [[Wat Pah Nanachat]]),{{ref|www.watpahnanachat.org/8-precepts.php}} monks will eat just one meal per day. For young children it is customary for the parent to help them scoop food into monks bowls.{{sfn|Thanissaro|2003}}{{Incomplete short citation|date=February 2017}}

At Dhammayut monasteries, ''anumodana'' (Pali, ''rejoicing together'') is a chant performed by the monks after a meal to recognize the morning's offerings, as well as the monks' approval for the lay people's choice of generating [[Merit (Buddhism)|merit]] (Pali: ''puñña'') by their generosity towards the [[Sangha (Buddhism)|Sangha]].{{refn|group=note|Among the thirteen verses to the Anumodana chant, three stanzas are chanted as part of every Anumodana, as follows:

{{blockquote|
1. (LEADER):
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break|width=50%}}
:Yathā vārivahā pūrā
: Paripūrenti sāgaraṃ
:Evameva ito dinnaṃ
: Petānaṃ upakappati
:Icchitaṃ patthitaṃ tumhaṃ
: Khippameva samijjhatu
:Sabbe pūrentu saṃkappā
: Cando paṇṇaraso yathā
:Mani jotiraso yathā.
{{col-break}}
: ''Just as rivers full of water fill the ocean full,''
: ''Even so does that here given''
: ''benefit the dead (the hungry shades).''
: ''May whatever you wish or want quickly come to be,''
: ''May all your aspirations be fulfilled,''
: ''as the moon on the fifteenth (full moon) day,''
: ''or as a radiant, bright gem. ''
{{col-end}}
2. (ALL):
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break|width=50%}}
:Sabbītiyo vivajjantu
: Sabba-rogo vinassatu
:Mā te bhavatvantarāyo
: Sukhī dīghāyuko bhava
:Abhivādana-sīlissa
: Niccaṃ vuḍḍhāpacāyino
:Cattāro dhammā vaḍḍhanti
: Āyu vaṇṇo sukhaṃ balaṃ.
{{col-break}}
: ''May all distresses be averted,''
: ''may every disease be destroyed,''
: ''May there be no dangers for you,''
: ''May you be happy & live long.''
: ''For one of respectful nature who''
: ''constantly honors the worthy,''
: ''Four qualities increase:''
: ''long life, beauty, happiness, strength.''
{{col-end}}
3.
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break|width=50%}}
:Sabba-roga-vinimutto
: Sabba-santāpa-vajjito
:Sabba-vera-matikkanto
: Nibbuto ca tuvaṃ bhava
{{col-break}}
: ''May you be:''
: ''freed from all disease,''
: ''safe from all torment,''
: ''beyond all animosity,''
: ''& unbound.''{{ref|http://www.abuddhistlibrary.com/Buddhism/B%20-%20Theravada/Chanting%20Books/I%20-%20A%20Chanting%20Guide/anumodana.html}}
{{col-end}}
}}}}

====Retreats====


[[Dhutanga]] (meaning "austere practice" Thai) is a word generally used in the commentaries to refer to the thirteen ascetic practices. Thai Buddhism has been adapted to refer to extended periods of wandering in the countryside, where monks will take one or more of these ascetic practices.{{ref|https://www.abhayagiri.org/about/thai-forest-tradition}} During these periods, monks will live off of whatever is given to them by laypersons they encounter during the trip and sleep wherever they can. Sometimes monks bring a large umbrella tent with attached mosquito netting known as a ''crot'' (also spelled krot, clot, or klod). The crot usually has a hook on the top so that it may be hung on a line between two trees.{{ref|https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MjGu9Uj5uCA&index=8&list=PL26D39C0FC5169E26}}

== Teachings ==
=== Original mind ===
{{further|Ajahn Maha Bua#Some basic teachings on the 'Citta'}}
The mind (Pali: ''[[citta]]'', ''[[Manas (early Buddhism)|mano]]'', used interchangeably as "heart" or "mind" ''[[en masse]]''), within the context of the Forest Tradition, refers to the most essential aspect of an individual, that carries the responsibility of "taking on" or "knowing" mental preoccupations.{{refn|group=note|This characterization deviates from what is conventionally known in the West as [[mind]].}} While the activities associated with thinking are often included when talking about the mind, they are considered mental processes separate from this essential knowing nature, which is sometimes termed the "primal nature of the mind".{{sfn|Lee Dhammadaro|2010|p=19}}{{refn|group=note|The assertion that the mind comes first was explained to Ajaan Mun's pupils in a talk, which was given in a style of wordplay derived from an Isan song-form known as ''[[maw lam]]'': "The two elements, ''namo'', [water and earth elements, i.e. the body] when mentioned by themselves, aren't adequate or complete. We have to rearrange the vowels and consonants as follows: Take the ''a'' from the ''n'', and give it to the ''m''; take the ''o'' from the ''m'' and give it to the ''n'', and then put the ''ma'' in front of the ''no''. This gives us ''mano'', the heart. Now we have the body together with the heart, and this is enough to be used as the root foundation for the practice. ''Mano'', the heart, is primal, the great foundation. Everything we do or say comes from the heart, as stated in the Buddha's words: ''mano-pubbangama dhamma'' ''mano-settha mano-maya'' 'All dhammas are preceded by the heart, dominated by the heart, made from the heart.' The Buddha formulated the entire Dhamma and Vinaya from out of this great foundation, the heart. So when his disciples contemplate in accordance with the Dhamma and Vinaya until ''namo'' is perfectly clear, then ''mano'' lies at the end point of formulation. In other words, it lies beyond all formulations. All supposings come from the heart. Each of us has his or her own load, which we carry as supposings and formulations in line with the currents of the flood (''ogha''), to the point where they give rise to unawareness (''avijja''), the factor that creates states of becoming and birth, all from our not being wise to these things, from our deludedly holding them all to be 'me' or 'mine'.{{sfn|Mun Bhuridatta|2016}}}}

{{quote box
|title = '''The Ballad of Liberation from the Khandas (Excerpt)'''
|align = right
|width = 240px
|source = {{small|''by Phra Ajaan Mun Bhuridatta, date unknown''{{sfn|Mun Bhuridatta|2015}}}}
|quote =

"The object of the unmoving heart,
: still & at respite,
: quiet & clear.
No longer intoxicated, 
no longer feverish, 
its desires all uprooted, 
its uncertainties shed, 
its entanglement with the khandas 
all ended & appeased, 
the gears of the three levels of the cos- 
mos all broken, 
overweening desire thrown away, 
its loves brought to an end, 
with no more possessiveness, 
all troubles cured 
as the heart had aspired."
}}

Original Mind is considered to be [[luminous mind|radiant, or luminous]] (Pali: "pabhassara").{{sfn|Lee Dhammadaro|2010|p=19}}{{sfn|Lopez|2016|p=147}} Teachers in the forest tradition assert that the mind simply "knows and does not die."{{sfn|Maha Bua Nyanasampanno|2010}}{{refn|group=note|Maha Bua: "... the natural power of the mind itself is that it knows and does not die. This deathlessness is something that lies beyond disintegration [...] when the mind is cleansed so that it is fully pure and nothing can become involved with it—that no fear appears in the mind at all. Fear doesn’t appear. Courage doesn’t appear. All that appears is its own nature by itself, just its own timeless nature. That’s all. This is the genuine mind. ‘Genuine mind’ here refers only to the purity or the ‘saupādisesa-nibbāna’ of the arahants. Nothing else can be called the ‘genuine mind’ without reservations or hesitations. "<ref>Venerable Ācariya
Mahā Boowa Ñāṇasampanno, ''Straight from the Heart'', chapter [https://www.dhammatalks.org/books/StraightFromTheHeart/Section0013.html ''The Radiant Mind Is Unawareness'']; translator Thanissaro Bikkhu</ref>}} The mind is also a fixed-phenomenon (Pali: "thiti-dhamma"); the mind itself does not move or follow out after its preoccupations, but rather receives them in place.{{sfn|Lee Dhammadaro|2010|p=19}} Since the mind as a phenomenon often eludes attempts to define it, the mind is often simply described in terms of its activities.{{refn|group=note|Ajahn Chah: "The mind isn’t 'is' anything. What would it 'is'? We’ve come up with the supposition that whatever receives preoccupations—good preoccupations, bad preoccupations, whatever—we call “heart” or 'mind.' Like the owner of a house: Whoever receives the guests is the owner of the house. The guests can’t receive the owner. The owner has to stay put at home. When guests come to see him, he has to receive them. So who receives preoccupations? Who lets go of preoccupations? Who knows anything? [Laughs] That’s what we call 'mind.' But we don’t understand it, so we talk, veering off course this way and that: 'What is the mind? What is the heart?' We get things way too confused. Don’t analyze it so much. What is it that receives preoccupations? Some preoccupations don’t satisfy it, and so it doesn’t like them. Some preoccupations it likes and some it doesn’t. Who is that—who likes and doesn’t like? Is there something there? Yes. What’s it like? We don’t know. Understand? That thing... That thing is what we call the “mind.” Don’t go looking far away."{{sfn|Chah|2013}}}}

The primal or original mind in itself is however not considered to be equivalent to the awakened state but rather as a basis for the emergence of mental formations,<ref>{{cite AV media |last=Ṭhānissaro Bhikkhu | author-link=Ṭhānissaro Bhikkhu |date=19 September 2015 |title="The Thai Forest Masters (Part 2)" |language=en |url=https://www.dhammatalks.org/Archive/Lectures/IMC/20150919-Thanissaro_Bhikkhu-IMC-the_thai_forest_masters_part_2.mp3 | minutes=46 |quote=''The word ‘mind’ covers three aspects: (1) The primal nature of the mind. (2) Mental states. (3) Mental states in interaction with their objects. The primal nature of the mind is a nature that simply knows. The current that thinks and streams out from knowing to various objects is a mental state. When this current connects with its objects and falls for them, it becomes a defilement, darkening the mind: This is a mental state in interaction. Mental states, by themselves and in interaction, whether good or evil, have to arise, have to disband, have to dissolve away by their very nature. The source of both these sorts of mental states is the primal nature of the mind, which neither arises nor disbands. It is a fixed phenomenon (ṭhiti-dhamma), always in place.'' The important point here is - as it goes further down - even that "primal nature of the mind", that too as to be let go. The cessation of stress comes at the moment where you are able to let go of all three. So it's not the case that you get to this state of knowing and say 'OK, that's the awakened state', it's something that you have to dig down a little bit deeper to see where your attachement is there as well.}} ''Italics'' are excerpt of him quoting his translation of Ajahn Lee's "Frames of references".</ref> it is not to be confused for a metaphysical statement of a true self<ref>{{cite AV media |last=Ṭhānissaro Bhikkhu | author-link=Ṭhānissaro Bhikkhu |date=19 September 2015 |title="The Thai Forest Masters (Part 1)" |language=en |url=https://www.dhammatalks.org/Archive/Lectures/IMC/20150919-Thanissaro_Bhikkhu-IMC-the_thai_forest_masters_part_1.mp3 | minutes=66 |quote=[The Primal Mind] it's kind of an idea of a sneaking of a self through the back door. Well there's no label of self in that condition or that state of mind.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.dhammatalks.org/books/StillFlowingWater/Section0012.html |title=The Knower |last=Ajahn Chah |author-link=Ajahn Chah |website=dhammatalks.org |access-date=28 June 2020}}</ref> and its radiance being an emanation of [[avijjā]] it must eventually be let go of.<ref>{{cite AV media |last=Ajahn Maha Bua | author-link=Ajahn Maha Bua |title="Shedding tears in Amazement with Dhamma" |language=en |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iI5TQnYcFn8 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211221/iI5TQnYcFn8 |archive-date=2021-12-21 |url-status=live|quote=At that time my [[citta]] possessed a quality so amazing that it was incredible to behold. I was completely overawed with myself, thinking: “Oh my! Why is it that this citta is so amazingly radiant?” I stood on my meditation track contemplating its brightness, unable to believe how wondrous it appeared. But this very radiance that I thought so amazing was, in fact, the Ultimate Danger. Do you see my point? We invariably tend to fall for this radiant citta. In truth, I was already stuck on it, already deceived by it. You see, when nothing else remains, one concentrates on this final point of focus – a point which, being the center of the perpetual cycle of birth and death, is actually the fundamental ignorance we call [[avijjā]]. This point of focus is the pinnacle of avijjā, the very pinnacle of the citta in [[Saṃsāra|samsāra]]. Nothing else remained at that stage, so I simply admired avijjā’s expansive radiance. Still, that radiance did have a focal point. It can be compared to the filament of a pressure lantern. [...] ''If there is a point or a center of the knower anywhere, that is the nucleus of existence.'' Just like the bright center of a pressure lantern’s filament. [...] There the Ultimate Danger lies – right there. The focal point of the Ultimate Danger is a point of the most amazingly bright radiance which forms the central core of the entire world of conventional reality. [...] Except for the central point of the citta’s radiance, the whole universe had been conclusively let go. Do you see what I mean? That’s why this point is the Ultimate danger.}}{{cbignore}}</ref>

Ajahn Mun further argued that there is a unique class of "objectless" or "themeless" consciousness specific to Nirvana, which differs from the consciousness aggregate.{{sfn|Thanissaro|2015|loc=[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1S40nS_0R9Y&t=2680s]}} Scholars in Bangkok at the time of Ajahn Mun stated that an individual is wholly composed of and defined by the five aggregates,{{refn|group=note|The five ''[[Five Aggregates|khandas]]'' (Pali: ''pañca khandha'') describes how consciousness (''vinnana'') is conditioned by the body and its senses (''rupa'', "form") which perceive (''sanna'') objects and the associated feelings (''vedana'') that arise with sense-contact, and lead to the "fabrications" (''sankhara''), that is, craving, clinging and becoming. }} while the Pali Canon states that the aggregates are completely ended during the experience of Nirvana.

=== Twelve nidanas and rebirth ===
{{See also|Twelve nidanas}}

The twelve nidanas describe how, in a continuous process,{{sfn|Mun Bhuridatta|2016}}{{refn|group=note|Ajaan Mun says: "In other words, these things will have to keep on arising and giving rise to each other continually. They are thus called sustained or sustaining conditions because they support and sustain one another." {{sfn|Mun Bhuridatta|2016}}}} ''[[avijja]]'' ("ignorance," "unawareness") leads to the mind's preoccupation with its contents and the associated [[Vedanā|feelings]] that arise from sense-contact. This absorption darkens the mind and becomes a "defilement" (Pali: ''[[kilesa]]''),{{sfn|Maha Bua Nyanasampanno|2005}} which lead to [[Taṇhā|craving]] and [[upadana|clinging]] (Pali: ''[[upadana]]''). This in turn leads to [[bhava|becoming]], which conditions [[Jāti (Buddhism)|birth]].{{sfn|Thanissaro|2013|p=9}}

While birth is traditionally explained as rebirth in a new life, it is also explained in Thai Buddhism as the birth of self-view, which gives rise to renewed clinging and craving.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Indapanno |first=Buddhadasa |title=Concerning Birth by Buddhadasa Bhikkhu |url=https://www.suanmokkh.org/books/14 |access-date=2022-03-15 |website=Suan Mokkh}}</ref>

== Teachers ==

===Ajahn Mun===
{{Main|Ajahn Mun}}

When Ajahn Mun returned to the Northeast to start teaching, he brought a set of radical ideas, many of which clashed with what scholars in Bangkok were saying at the time:
*Like Mongkut, Ajahn Mun stressed the importance of scrupulous observance of the Buddhist monastic code (Pali: Vinaya). Ajahn Mun went further, and also stressed what are called the protocols: instructions for how a monk should go about daily activities such as keeping his hut, interacting with other people, etc. Ajahn Mun also taught that virtue was a matter of the mind, and that intention forms the essence of virtue. This ran counter to what people in Bangkok said at the time, that virtue was a matter of ritual, and by conducting the proper ritual one gets good results.{{sfn|Thanissaro|2015|loc=[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1S40nS_0R9Y&t=2070s]}}
*Ajahn Mun asserted that the practice of jhana was still possible even in modern times, and that meditative concentration was necessary on the Buddhist path. Ajahn Mun stated that one's meditation topic must be keeping in line with one's temperament—everyone is different, so the meditation method used should be different for everybody. Ajahn Mun said the meditation topic one chooses should be congenial and enthralling, but also give one a sense of [[samvega|unease and dispassion]] for ordinary living and the sensual pleasures of the world.{{sfn|Thanissaro|2015|loc=[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1S40nS_0R9Y&t=2460s]}}
*Ajahn Mun said that not only was the practice of jhana possible, but the experience of Nirvana was too.{{sfn|Thanissaro|2015|loc=[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1S40nS_0R9Y&t=2670s]}} He stated that Nirvana was characterized by a state of activityless consciousness, distinct from the consciousness aggregate. To Ajahn Mun, reaching this mode of consciousness is the goal of the teaching—yet this consciousness transcends the teachings. Ajahn Mun asserted that the teachings are abandoned at the moment of Awakening, in opposition to the predominant scholarly position that Buddhist teachings are confirmed at the moment of Awakening. Along these lines, Ajahn Mun rejected the [[Two truths doctrine|notion of an ultimate teaching]], and argued that all teachings were conventional—no teaching carried a universal truth. Only the experience of Nirvana, as it is directly witnessed by the observer, is absolute.{{sfn|Thanissaro|2015|loc=[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1S40nS_0R9Y&t=2760s]}}

===Ajahn Lee===
{{Main|Ajahn Lee}}

Ajahn Lee emphasized his metaphor of Buddhist practice as a skill, and reintroduced the Buddha's idea of skillfulness—acting in ways that emerge from having trained the mind and heart. Ajahn Lee said that good and evil both exist naturally in the world, and that the skill of the practice is ferreting out good and evil, or skillfulness from unskillfulness. The idea of "skill" refers to a distinction in Asian countries between what is called warrior-knowledge (skills and techniques) and scribe-knowledge (ideas and concepts). Ajahn Lee brought some of his own unique perspectives to Forest Tradition teachings:
* Ajahn Lee reaffirmed that meditative concentration (''samadhi'') was necessary, yet further distinguished between right concentration and various forms of what he called wrong concentration—techniques where the meditator follows awareness out of the body after visions, or forces awareness down to a single point were considered by Ajahn Lee as off-track.{{sfn|Lee Dhammadaro|2012b|p=60}}
* Ajahn Lee stated that discernment (panna) was mostly a matter of trial-and-error. He used the metaphor of basket-weaving to describe this concept: you learn from your teacher, and from books, basically how a basket is supposed to look, and then you use trial-and-error to produce a basket that is in line with what you have been taught about how baskets should be. These teachings from Ajahn Lee correspond to the factors of the first jhana known as directed-thought (Pali: "vitakka"), and evaluation (Pali: "vicara").{{sfn|Thanissaro|2015|loc=[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1S40nS_0R9Y&t=3060s]}}
* Ajahn Lee said that the qualities of virtue that are worked on correspond to the qualities that need to be developed in concentration. Ajahn Lee would say things like "don't ''kill'' off your good mental qualities", or "don't ''steal'' the bad mental qualities of others", relating the qualities of virtue to mental qualities in one's meditation.{{sfn|Thanissaro|2015|loc=[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1S40nS_0R9Y&t=3120s]}}

===Ajahn Maha Bua===
{{Main|Ajahn Maha Bua}}

Ajahn Mun and Ajahn Lee would describe obstacles that commonly occurred in meditation but would not explain how to get through them, forcing students to come up with solutions on their own. Additionally, they were generally very private about their own meditative attainments.

Ajahn Maha Bua, on the other hand, saw what he considered to be a lot of strange ideas being taught about meditation in Bangkok in the later decades of the 20th century. For that reason Ajahn Maha Bua decided to vividly describe how each noble attainment is reached, even though doing so indirectly revealed that he was confident he had attained a noble level. Though the Vinaya prohibits a monk from directly revealing ones own or another's attainments to laypeople while that person is still alive, Ajahn Maha Bua wrote in Ajahn Mun's posthumous biography that he was convinced that Ajahn Mun was an arahant. Thanissaro Bhikkhu remarks that this was a significant change of the teaching etiquette within the Forest Tradition.{{sfn|Thanissaro|2015|loc=[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1S40nS_0R9Y&t=4200s]}}
*Ajahn Maha Bua's primary metaphor for Buddhist practice was that it was a battle against the defilements. Just as soldiers might invent ways to win battles that aren't found in military history texts, one might invent ways to subdue defilement. Whatever technique one could come up with—whether it was taught by one's teacher, found in the Buddhist texts, or made up on the spot—if it helped with a victory over the defilements, it counted as a legitimate Buddhist practice. {{sfn|Thanissaro|2015|loc=[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1S40nS_0R9Y&t=4260s]}}
*Ajahn Maha Bua is widely known for his teachings on dealing with physical pain. For a period, Ajahn Maha Bua had a student who was dying of cancer, and Ajahn Maha Bua gave a series on talks surrounding the perceptions that people have that create mental problems surrounding the pain. Ajahn Maha Bua said that these incorrect perceptions can be changed by posing questions about the pain in the mind. (i.e. "what color is the pain? does the pain have bad intentions to you?" "Is the pain the same thing as the body? What about the mind?"){{sfn|Thanissaro|2015|loc=[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1S40nS_0R9Y&t=4320s]}}
*There was a widely publicized incident in Thailand where monks in the North of Thailand were publicly stating that Nirvana is the true self, and scholar monks in Bangkok were stating that Nirvana is not-self. (''see: [[Dhammakaya Movement#Dhammakaya meditation and True Self|Dhammakaya Movement]]'') At one point, Ajahn Maha Bua was asked whether Nirvana was self or not-self and he replied "Nirvana is Nirvana, it is neither self nor not-self". Ajahn Maha Bua stated that not-self is merely a perception that is used to pry one away from infatuation with the concept of a self, and that once this infatuation is gone the idea of not-self must be dropped as well.{{sfn|Thanissaro|2015|loc=[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1S40nS_0R9Y&t=4545s]}}

==Related traditions==
Related Forest Traditions are also found in other predominantly Buddhist Asian countries, including the [[Sri Lankan Forest Tradition]] of [[Sri Lanka]], the Taungpulu Forest Tradition of [[Myanmar]], and a related Lao Forest Tradition in [[Laos]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.hermitary.com/articles/thudong.html|title = Thudong: Forest Monks and Hermits of Southeast Asia - Articles - Hermitary}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web | url=http://www.buddhanet.net/pdf_file/Monasteries-Meditation-Sri-Lanka2013.pdf | title=A Guide for Foreign Buddhist Monastics and Lay Practitioners | publisher=Buddhist Forest Monasteries and Meditation Centres in Sri Lanka | date=April 2013}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.nippapanca.org/ |title=Nippapañca Home Page |access-date=2017-02-21 |archive-date=2017-02-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170222053022/http://www.nippapanca.org/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Early Buddhist schools]]
* [[Early Buddhist texts]]
* [[Dhammayuttika Nikaya]]
* [[Maha Nikaya]]
* [[Forest Tradition of Ajahn Chah]]
* [[Sri Kalyani Yogasrama Samstha|Galduwa Forest Tradition]]
* [[Sri Lankan Forest Tradition]]

== Notes ==
{{reflist|group=note|35em}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== Sources ==

===Printed sources===
{{refbegin}}
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{{refend}}

===Web-sources===
{{reflist|group=web|refs=
<ref name="Sujato_Reform">Sujato's Blog (25 Nov. 2009), [https://sujato.wordpress.com/2009/11/25/reform/ ''Reform'']</ref>
}}

==Further reading==
;Primary
* {{Citation|ref=none |last=Maha Bua Nyanasampanno |first=Ajahn |title=Venerable Ācariya Mun Bhuridatta Thera: A Spiritual Biography |url=https://www.buddhanet.net/pdf_file/acariya-mun.pdf/ |year=2004 |publisher=Forest Dhamma Books}}
;Secondary
* {{Cite book|ref=none |last=Taylor |first=J. L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ReIvQpaqwPUC |title=Forest Monks and the Nation-state: An Anthropological and Historical Study in Northeastern Thailand |publisher=[[Institute of Southeast Asian Studies]] |year=1993 |isbn=978-981-3016-49-1 |location=Singapore }}
* {{Cite book|ref=none |last=Tiyavanich |first=Kamala |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YKwwO5oGXwcC&pg=PA245 |title=Forest Recollections: Wandering Monks in Twentieth-Century Thailand |date=January 1997 |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |isbn=978-0-8248-1781-7 }}
* {{Citation|ref=none |last=Lopez |first=Alan Robert |title=Buddhist Revivalist Movements: Comparing Zen Buddhism and the Thai Forest Movement |year=2016 |publisher=Springer}}

== External links ==
{{wikiquote|Āraññikattassa}}
'''Monasteries'''
*[https://forestsangha.org/community/monasteries Portal for monasteries in the Ajahn Chah tradition]
*[http://www.watmetta.org/ Metta Forest Monastery]
*[http://www.forestdhamma.org/ Forest Dhamma Monastery]
'''About the Tradition'''
*[http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/thai/ Significant figures with published and translated dhamma books — Access to Insight]
*[http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/thanissaro/customs.html An essay on the origins of the Thai Forest Tradition by Thanissaro Bhikkhu]
*[http://vimutti.org.nz/vimutti/forest-tradition/ Page about the forest tradition from Vimutti Buddhist monastery in New Zealand]
*[https://www.abhayagiri.org/about/thai-forest-tradition About the Forest Tradition — Abhayagiri.org]
*[https://www.wisdomlib.org/buddhism/book/patipada/d/doc4239.html Book by Ajahn Maha Bua about Kammatthana practice]
'''Dhamma Resources'''
*[http://www.dhammatalks.org/ Thanissaro Bhikkhu's translations and dhamma talks]
*[http://www.forestsangha.org/ Resources on the Ajahn Chah Tradition]
*[http://www.forestdhamma.org/books/english/ Books translated by Ajahn Dick Silaratano, Ajahn Suchard Abhijato, Ajahn Pannavaddho, and Thanissaro Bhikkhu]

{{Theravada Buddhist orders}}
{{Buddhism topics}}
{{Religion in Thailand}}
{{Buddhism in the West}}

[[Category:Thai Forest Tradition| ]]
[[Category:Theravada Buddhist orders]]
[[Category:Buddhism in Thailand]]

Watermelon steak

2025-03-03T13:12:19Z

131.111.5.201:

{{Short description|Cooked slice of watermelon}}
{{Infobox food
| name = Watermelon steak
| image = Grilled watermelon.JPG
| caption = Watermelon steaks on the grill
| alternate_name =
| country =
| region =
| creator =
| course =
| served =
| main_ingredient = [[Watermelon]]
| variations = [[pan frying]], [[baking]], or [[roasting]]
| calories =
| other =
}}
'''Watermelon steaks''' are cooked slices of [[watermelon]]. Cookbooks sometimes suggest watermelon steak as a [[meat substitute]] for [[vegetarians]].<ref>{{cite book |first=Mark |last=Bittman |title=How to Cook Everything: Vegetarian |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]] |year=2007 |chapter=Grilled Watermelon Steak |isbn=978-0-7645-2483-7}}</ref> However, watermelon is not a nutritional substitute for traditional [[steak]], as it is lacking in protein and other nutrients found in meat.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.liveeatlearn.com/pan-seared-watermelon-steak/|title = The BEST Watermelon Steak Recipe|date = 6 July 2020}}</ref>

==Preparation==
Slices of [[watermelon]] are typically prepared by either [[grilling]], [[pan frying]], [[baking]], or [[roasting]]. Depending on the method, cooking can take a few minutes to over two hours.<ref name="water1">{{cite web |url=http://www.today.com/id/25887324 |title=Grilled watermelon steak: It's what's for dinner |publisher=[[Today (NBC program)|Today]] |date=July 29, 2008}}</ref><ref name="fire">{{cite book |last1=Schloss |first1=Andrew |last2=Joachim |first2=David |title=Fire It Up: 400 Recipes for Grilling Everything |publisher=[[Chronicle Books]] |year=2011 |page=345 |isbn=978-0-8118-6505-0}}</ref> When well cooked, most of the fruit's water evaporates, concentrating flavor and texture while leaving the watermelon tender.

==Texture and flavor==

If the watermelon is baked, the resulting texture can be like that of raw fish.<ref>{{Cite web
|url= http://www.pennilessparenting.com/2012/11/baked-watermelon-steak-recipe-and.html
|title= Baked Watermelon Steak Recipe and Method- Raw Fish/Sashimi Replacement for Sushi
|publisher= pennilessparenting.com
|date= 2 November 2012
|accessdate=18 July 2014}}
</ref> ''[[The Phoenix (newspaper)|Boston Phoenix]]'' Writer Robert Nadeau compared a grilled watermelon to seared, raw [[tuna]]. He added that the flavor of the fruit "isn't sweet, although it isn't meaty either, but enough of the browning comes through to make it a little like a piece of meat."<ref>[http://www.bostonphoenix.com/boston/food_drink/dining/documents/04502756.asp Food & Drink | Metropolitan Club]</ref> Cookery writers Andrew Schloss and David Joachim described the result as "kind of like a fillet steak."<ref name="fire"/>

==See also==
{{portal|Food}}
* [[List of melon dishes]]

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

==External links==
* [http://www.boston.com/ae/food/articles/2007/08/08/watermelon_steak/ Recipe from ''The Boston Globe'']
* [http://www.whataboutwatermelon.com/index.php/2010/05/recipe-watermelon-steak/ Recipe from whataboutwatermelon.com]

{{Melons}}

[[Category:Barbecue]]
[[Category:Meat substitutes]]
[[Category:Watermelon dishes]]
[[Category:Vegan cuisine]]
[[Category:Steak]]

Deschapelles

2025-02-16T00:29:51Z

131.111.5.201:

{{For|the French chess master|Alexandre Deschapelles}}
{{more citations needed|date=February 2016}}
{{Infobox settlement


|official_name = Deschapelles
|nickname =
|settlement_type = Town
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|subdivision_name = [[Image:Flag of Haiti.svg|25px]] [[Haiti]]
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|subdivision_name1 = [[Artibonite (department)|Artibonite]]
|subdivision_type2 = [[Arrondissements of Haiti|Arrondissement]]
|subdivision_name2 = [[Saint-Marc Arrondissement|Saint-Marc]]

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'''Deschapelles''' ({{IPA|fr|deʃapɛl}}; {{langx|ht|Dechpel}}) is a town in the [[Verrettes]] [[List of communes of Haiti|commune]], in the [[Artibonite (department)|Artibonite]] [[Departments of Haiti|department]] of [[Haiti]]. It is located approximately 54 km north of the capital, Port-au-Prince, and has 4 to 5000 inhabitants Approximately. Deschapelles is where the [[Hôpital Albert Schweitzer Haiti]] is located.

==Education ==
Centre D'etudes Secondaire de Deschapelles (CESD)

Ecole Nationale du Borel

Ecole Mixte le Pelerin

Ecole Mixte Gerald

==Sister cities==
*{{flagicon|United States}} [[Essex, Connecticut]], [[United States]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sister-cities.org/interactive-map/Deschapelles,%20Haiti |title=Interactive City Directory |publisher=Sister Cities International}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.hashaiti.org/ Hôpital Albert Schweitzer Haiti]

{{coord|19|05|N|72|30|W|display=title|region:HT_type:city_source:GNS-enwiki}}

[[Category:Populated places in Artibonite (department)]]
{{Haiti-geo-stub}}

Futaro Yamada

2025-01-28T10:53:33Z

131.111.5.201:

{{Short description|Japanese writer (1922–2001)}}
[[File:Yamada Futaro.jpg|thumb|Futaro Yamada in 1964]]
{{nihongo|'''Futaro Yamada'''|山田風太郎|Yamada Fūtarō|January 4, 1922 – July 28, 2001}} was the [[pen name]] of {{nihongo|'''Seiya Yamada'''|山田誠也|Yamada Seiya}}, a Japanese author.
He was born in [[Yabu, Hyogo]].
In 1947, he wrote a mystery short story {{nihongo|''Daruma-tōge no Jiken''|達磨峠の事件||{{lit}} "The Incident on Dharma Pass"}} and was awarded a prize by the magazine {{nihongo|''Houseki''|宝石}}.
He was discovered by [[Edogawa Rampo]] and became a novelist.
He wrote many [[ninja]] (忍法帖 ''Ninpōchō'' series) and [[mystery fiction|mystery stories]]. Many of his works have been adapted for film, TV, manga, and anime.

==Works in English translation==
===Novels===
*''[[The Kouga Ninja Scrolls]]'' (original title: 甲賀忍法帖, ''Kōga Ninpōchō''), translation Geoff Sant ([[Del Rey Books|Del Rey]], 2006)
*''The Meiji Guillotine Murders'' (original title: 明治断頭台, ''Meiji Dantōdai'', 1979), translation Bryan Karetnyk ([[Pushkin Press]], 2023)

===Short story===
*"The Yellow Lodger" (original title: ''Kiiroi Geshukunin''), translation Damian Flanagan (''The Tower of London: Tales of Victorian London'', [[Peter Owen Publishers|Peter Owen]], 2005) – A [[Sherlock Holmes pastiches|Sherlock Holmes pastiche]]<ref>{{Cite news |author=Richie, Donald |url=http://www.japantimes.co.jp/culture/2005/02/06/books/the-attractive-helplessness-of-a-reluctant-foreigner/ |title=The attractive helplessness of a reluctant foreigner |work=[[Japan Times]] |date=February 6, 2005 |accessdate=September 1, 2016 }}</ref>

==Awards==
*1949, the 2nd [[Mystery Writers of Japan Award|Detective Story Writers' Club Award]]
*1997, the 45th [[Kikuchi Kan]] Prize
*2000, the 4th Japan Mystery Award
*2004, the [[Kodansha Manga Award]] for general manga for ''[[Basilisk (manga)|Basilisk]]'', the [[manga]] adaptation of ''[[The Kouga Ninja Scrolls]]''<ref name="KodanshaHahn">{{cite web|url=http://www.hahnlibrary.net/comics/awards/kodansha.shtml |author=Joel Hahn |title=Kodansha Manga Awards |work=Comic Book Awards Almanac |accessdate=2007-08-21 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070816031310/http://www.hahnlibrary.net/comics/awards/kodansha.shtml |archivedate=2007-08-16 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

==Selected works==

===Ninja stories ("Ninpōchō" series)===
*{{nihongo|''[[The Kouga Ninja Scrolls]]''|甲賀忍法帖|Kōga Ninpōchō|1959}}<ref>"Shinobi: Heart Under Blade". (January 2007) ''Newtype USA''. Volume 6, Number 1, page 23.</ref> - adapted to film in 2005, to manga in 1963 and two times in 2003, and to anime in 2005 (based on one of the 2003 manga).
*{{nihongo|''Edo Ninpōchō''|江戸忍法帖||1960}} - adapted to film in 1963, and as a TV series in 1966.
*{{nihongo|''Gunkan Ninpōchō''|軍艦忍法帖||1961}}
*{{nihongo|''Kunoichi Ninpōchō''|くノ一忍法帖||1961}} - adapted to film twice: in 1964 (as ''[[Kunoichi ninpō]]'') and in 1991.
*{{nihongo|''Gedō Ninpōchō''|外道忍法帖||1962}} - adapted to film twice in 1964 and 1992.
*{{nihongo|''Ninja Tsukikageshō''|忍者月影抄||1962}} - adapted to film in 1963, 1996, and 2011.
*{{nihongo|''Ninpō-chūshingura''|忍法忠臣蔵||1962}} - adapted to film [[Ninpō-chūshingura|in 1965]], 1983 (TV), and 1994.
*{{nihongo|''Iga Ninpōchō''|伊賀忍法帖||1964}} - adapted to film in 1982 (as ''[[Ninja Wars]]'') and to manga in 2004.
*{{nihongo|''Ninpō Hakkenden''|忍法八犬伝||1964}}
*{{nihongo|''Fūrai Ninpōchō''|風来忍法帖||1964}} - adapted to film in 1965 and 1968.
*{{nihongo|''Yagyū Ninpōchō''|柳生忍法帖||1964|[[Yagyū Jūbei]] Trilogy #1}} - adapted to film in 1998 and to [[The Yagyu Ninja Scrolls|manga]] in 2005.
*{{nihongo|''Ninpō Sōden 73''|忍法相伝73||1965}} - adapted to film in 1969.
*{{nihongo|''Jiraiya Ninpōchō''|自来也忍法帖||1965}} - adapted to film in 1995.
*{{nihongo|''Maten Ninpōchō''|魔天忍法帖||1965}}
*{{nihongo|''Shingen Ninpōchō''|信玄忍法帖||1967}}
*{{nihongo|''[[Makai Tensho|Makai Tenshō]]''|魔界転生||1967|Yagyū Jūbei Trilogy #2}} (serialized as ''Oboro Ninpōchō'') - adapted to film in 1981, 1996 and 2003, to anime in 1997 and to various manga.
*{{nihongo|''Shinobi no Manji''|忍びの卍||1967}} - adapted to film in 1968.
*{{nihongo|''Ninpō Kenshiden''|忍法剣士伝||1968}}
*{{nihongo|''Ginga Ninpōchō''|銀河忍法帖||1968}}
*{{nihongo|''Higisho Sōdatsu''|秘戯書争奪||1968}} - adapted to film in 1993.
*{{nihongo|''Ninpō Fūin Ima Yaburu''|忍法封印いま破る||1969}}
*{{nihongo|''Ninja Kokubyaku Zōshi''|忍者黒白草紙||1969}}
*{{nihongo|''Ninpō Sōtō no Washi''|忍法双頭の鷲||1969}} - adapted to TV in 2018.
*{{nihongo|''Musashi Ninpō Tabi''|武蔵忍法旅||1970}}
*{{nihongo|''Uminari Ninpōchō''|海鳴り忍法帖||1971}}
*{{nihongo|''Ninpō Sōsei-ki''|忍法創世記||2001}}

===Other fiction===
*{{nihongo|''Ganchū no Akuma''|眼中の悪魔||1948}}
*{{nihongo|''Kyozō Inraku''|虚像淫楽||1948}} - adapted to manga in 1978.
*{{nihongo|''Akuryō no Mure''|悪霊の群||1955|with [[Akimitsu Takagi]]}} - adapted to film in 1956.
*{{nihongo|''Jūsankaku Kankei''|十三角関係||1956}}
*{{nihongo|''Idaten Hyakuri''|いだ天百里||1957}} - adapted to manga in 2006.
*{{nihongo|''Onna Rō Hishō''|おんな牢秘抄||1960}} - adapted to TV series in 1972, TV movie in 1983, [[V-cinema]] film in 1995, and to manga in 2006.
*{{nihongo|''Hitsugi no Naka no Etsuraku''|棺の中の悦楽||1962}} - adapted to film in 1965.
*{{nihongo|''Taiyō Kokuten''|太陽黒点||1963}}
*{{nihongo|''Keishichō Sōshi''|警視庁草紙||1975|}} - adapted to TV series in 2001.
*{{nihongo|''Gentō Tsujibasha''|幻燈辻馬車||1976}}
*{{nihongo|''The Meiji Guillotine Murders''|警視庁草紙 —風太郎明治劇場—|Keishichō Sōshi —Fūtarō Meiji Gekijō—|1979}}
*{{nihongo|''Basara''|婆沙羅||1990}}
*{{nihongo|''Yagyū Jūbei Shisu''|柳生十兵衛死す||1992|Yagyū Jūbei Trilogy #3}} - adapted to manga in 2000.

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20070224080601/http://www.fureai-net.tv/kazetarou/index.html Futarou Yamada Museum]　{{in lang|ja}}
*[https://archive.today/20121219022659/http://www.bungaku.pref.hyogo.jp/cgi-bin/jousetsu/sakka.cgi?id=63 Permanent display in the Hyogo Net Museum of Literature] {{in lang|ja}}
*[http://www.booksfromjapan.jp/authors/item/386-futaro-yamada Futaro Yamada] at J'Lit Books from Japan {{in lang|en}}
* [http://www.jlpp.go.jp/en/works/04_18.html Synopsis of ''The Story of the Eight Dog Warriors'' (''Hakkenden'')] at JLPP (Japanese Literature Publishing Project) {{in lang|en}}
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20110208051618/http://www.internationalotaku.com/category/the-war-generations-genius/ The War Generation's Genius - comic about Futaro Yamada's early life]

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Yamada, Futaro}}
[[Category:Japanese historical novelists]]
[[Category:Japanese mystery writers]]
[[Category:Japanese horror writers]]
[[Category:Japanese lexicographers]]
[[Category:Mystery Writers of Japan Award winners]]
[[Category:1922 births]]
[[Category:2001 deaths]]
[[Category:Writers from Hyōgo Prefecture]]
[[Category:Winner of Kodansha Manga Award (General)]]
[[Category:20th-century Japanese novelists]]
[[Category:20th-century lexicographers]]

{{Japan-writer-stub}}

Hereford College of Arts

2025-01-16T15:43:58Z

131.111.5.201:

{{Short description|Art school in Hereford, England}}
{{Multiple issues|
{{one source|date=December 2020}}
{{Advert|date=April 2024}}
}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2022}}
{{Infobox university
| name = Hereford College of Arts
| established = {{start date and age|1851}}
| principal = Abigail Appleton
| city = [[Hereford]]
| state = [[Herefordshire]]
| country = England, United Kingdom
| colours = {{color box|#00aeef}} HCA Blue
| affiliations = [[University of Wales Trinity Saint David]]
| website = http://www.hca.ac.uk/
}}

'''Hereford College of Arts''' ('''HCA''') is an [[art school]] based in Herefordshire, United Kingdom.

==Description==
It offers courses in both [[further education|further]] and [[higher education]] fields, in Art & Design, Music and Performing Arts, to national and international students. The College has two campuses: Folly Lane is home to College-level courses, and the former [[Royal National College for the Blind]] building on College Road is home to University-level courses. The BA (Hons) Artist Blacksmithing Course is taught at a teaching forge in Europe. Music and Performing Arts students stage productions based at the College and at external venues. Students attend specialist shows and conferences.

== Courses ==

The College offers a variety of University Level Courses, which are validated by The University of Wales Trinity Saint David. College Level Courses include
Diploma in Art & Design,
Extended Diploma in Art & Design,
Extended Diploma in Music,
Extended Diploma in Performing Arts, and the post-18 Foundation Diploma in Art & Design.

The College also offers Postgraduate courses in Fine Art and Contemporary Crafts and Short Courses for evening study and businesses, and Saturday Clubs for schoolchildren. BA (Hons) Artist Blacksmithing,
BA (Hons) Contemporary Design Crafts,
BA (Hons) Fine Art,
BA (Hons) Graphic & Media Design,
BA (Hons) Illustration,
BA (Hons) Illustration & Animation,
BA (Hons) Jewellery Design,
BA (Hons) Music,
BA (Hons) Photography,
BA (Hons) Textile Design,
FdA Commercial Photography,
FdA Film & Photography.

== History ==

The college was founded shortly after [[Great Exhibition|The Great Exhibition in 1851]] prompted the [[Government of the United Kingdom|UK Government]] to set up The Department of Practical Art. It was requested to set up an Elementary School of Art on December 4, 1852,<ref>First Report of the Department of Practical Art. 1853. p. 77.</ref> when it had "conformed to all the regulations and [was] waiting for the appointment of masters". Records suggest the school opened in 1853, when it was hailed as a self-sustaining success by South Kensington.<ref>{{Cite book |last= |first= |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZWQoAAAAYAAJ |title=Annual Report for the Year (with Appendices). |date=1854 |language=en}}
</ref> The Hereford School of Art and Science register from 1885<ref>K86/2 Herefordshire Archives and Record Centre</ref> shows students from a wide range of backgrounds and industries enrolled in various courses of study. The School of Art and Science continued until 1903, when it moved to LEA control.

Following the post-shakeup of technical and vocational education in 1944,<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/help-with-your-research/research-guides/technical-colleges-further-education/ | title=The National Archives - Homepage }}</ref> the Art and Science school at Hereford became known as the Hereford School of Art<ref>{{cite book |title=The Jubilee of County Councils Herefordshire |date=1939 |publisher=The County Councils Association |pages=71}}</ref> before becoming the Herefordshire College of Art & Design. The name changed to incorporate the inclusion of Music and Performing Arts. In 2012, a new Arts Space and main entrance for Folly Lane were unveiled, providing a café and exhibition space. Designed by Hewitt Studios and constructed by Keir Moss, the space was funded entirely from college reserves. Landscaped gardens and outdoor areas are integrated into the design. This space has hosted a number of exhibitions and events.

The design has been shortlisted and awarded for:
* 2014 Green Apple Award
* 2013 Civic Trust Award
* 2012 West Midlands RIBA Award
* 2012 West of England LABC Building Excellence Award
* 2012 Wood Award
It has also been profiled by MADE to showcase how design is improving the quality of the built environment in the West Midlands and has been featured in a cross-section of architectural journals and magazines from the UK and abroad.

In June 2013, HCA acquired the former Royal National College building on College Road. This building provides studio and workshop spaces and places degree students closer to the main campus on Folly Lane. During summer 2013, HCA refurbished and adapted the spaces into studios, workshops, an on-site library, photographic studios and stores, darkrooms and IT facilities, including a large digital Mac and printing suite.

== Notable students ==
* [[Olly Alexander]] – actor and lead singer of synth-pop trio [[Years & Years]]
* [[Rose Ellen Dix]] – YouTuber
* [[Sara Radstone]] – ceramic artist<ref name="as">{{cite web|url=http://www.anthonyshawcollection.org/sr/collection_sr.htm |title=Sara Radstone|author=David Whiting|website= The Anthony Shaw Collection|access-date= 20 November 2020}}</ref>
* [[Simon Carroll]] – studio potter<ref>{{cite web|title=An ingenious potter, he took an unconventional approach to both his life and his work|url=https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2009/apr/08/simon-carroll-obituary|work=The Guardian|date=8 April 2009}}</ref>

==See also==

*[[Hereford College of Education]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* http://www.hca.ac.uk College website

{{Cheltenham, Gloucestershire}}
{{Universities and colleges in the West Midlands}}
{{Art schools in the United Kingdom}}
{{Authority control}}

{{Coord |52.061|-2.697|type:edu|display=title}}

[[Category:Education in Hereford]]
[[Category:Art schools in England]]
[[Category:Further education colleges in Herefordshire]]
[[Category:University of Gloucestershire]]
[[Category:University of Wales]]
[[Category:Educational institutions established in 1851]]
[[Category:1851 establishments in England]]
[[Category:Arts organizations established in 1851]]
[[Category:Recipients of Civic Trust Awards]]

Maze runner

2024-09-13T01:12:36Z

131.111.5.201: Undid revision 1244793124 by Pok3MyCactus (talk)

{{Short description|Routing method in electronic design}}
{{About|the electronic design routing method|other uses}}
{{Refimprove|date=December 2006}}

In [[electronic design automation]], '''maze runner''' is a connection [[Routing (electronic design automation)|routing]] method that represents the entire routing space as a grid. Parts of this grid are blocked by components, specialised areas, or already present wiring. The grid size corresponds to the wiring pitch of the area. The goal is to find a chain of grid cells that go from point A to point B.

A maze runner may use the [[Lee algorithm]]. It uses a [[wave propagation]] style (a wave are all cells that can be reached in n steps) throughout the routing space. The wave stops when the target is reached, and the path is determined by backtracking through the cells.

== See also ==
*[[Autorouter]]

== References ==
*{{Citation |author-last=Lee |author-first=C. Y. |title=An Algorithm for Path Connections and Its Applications |journal=IRE Transactions on Electronic Computers |volume=EC-10 |issue=2 |pages=346–365 |date=1961 |doi=10.1109/TEC.1961.5219222}}. One of the first descriptions of a maze router.

[[Category:Electronic engineering]]
[[Category:Electronic design automation]]
[[Category:Electronics optimization]]

{{electronics-stub}}