wiki143 - User contributions [en]

Spring Hill, Iowa

2025-09-16T13:42:14Z

128.228.164.236:

{{Use American English|date=June 2025}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=July 2023}}
{{Infobox settlement
| official_name = Spring Hill, Iowa
| settlement_type = [[City]]
| motto =
| image_skyline = SpringHillIowaWelcomeSign.jpg
| imagesize =
| image_caption =
| image_map = Warren_County_Iowa_Incorporated_and_Unincorporated_areas_Spring_Hill_Highlighted.svg
| mapsize = 250x200px
| map_caption = Location of Spring Hill, Iowa

| subdivision_type = [[List of sovereign states|Country]]
| subdivision_name = [[United States]]
| subdivision_type1 = [[U.S. state|State]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Iowa]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of counties in Iowa|County]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Warren County, Iowa|Warren]]

| government_footnotes =
| government_type = Council-Mayor
| leader_title1 = Clerk/Treasurer
| leader_name1 =
| established_title =
| established_date =

| unit_pref = Imperial
| area_footnotes = <ref name="CenPopGazetteer2020">{{cite web|title=2020 U.S. Gazetteer Files|url=https://www2.census.gov/geo/docs/maps-data/data/gazetteer/2020_Gazetteer/2020_gaz_place_19.txt|publisher=United States Census Bureau|accessdate=March 16, 2022}}</ref>
| area_total_km2 = 0.32
| area_land_km2 = 0.32
| area_water_km2 = 0.00
| area_total_sq_mi = 0.13
| area_land_sq_mi = 0.13
| area_water_sq_mi = 0.00

| population_as_of = [[2020 United States census|2020]]
| population_footnotes =
| population_total = 68
| population_density_km2 = 210.21
| population_density_sq_mi = 544.00

| timezone = [[North American Central Time Zone|Central (CST)]]
| utc_offset = -6
| timezone_DST = CDT
| utc_offset_DST = -5
| elevation_footnotes = <ref name=gnis/>
| elevation_ft = 873
| coordinates = {{coord|41|24|44|N|93|39|00|W|region:US_type:city|display=inline,title}}

| postal_code_type = [[ZIP code]]
| postal_code = 50125
| area_code = [[Area code 515|515]]
| blank_name = [[Federal Information Processing Standard|FIPS code]]
| blank_info = 19-74685
| blank1_name = [[Geographic Names Information System|GNIS]] feature ID
| blank1_info = 2395933<ref name=gnis>{{GNIS|2395933}}</ref>
| website =
| footnotes =
}}

'''Spring Hill''' is a city in [[Warren County, Iowa|Warren County]], [[Iowa]], United States. The population was 68 at the time of the [[2020 United States census|2020 census]].<ref name=cen2020>{{cite web |title=2020 Census State Redistricting Data |url=https://www2.census.gov/programs-surveys/decennial/2020/data/01-Redistricting_File--PL_94-171/Iowa/ |website=census.gov |publisher=United states Census Bureau |access-date=12 August 2021}}</ref> It is part of the [[Des Moines, Iowa|Des Moines]]–[[West Des Moines, Iowa|West Des Moines]] [[Des Moines metropolitan area|Metropolitan Statistical Area]].

==History==
Spring Hill was laid out in 1872.<ref>{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y1M0AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA501 | title=The History of Warren County, Iowa: Containing a History of the County, Its Cities, Towns, &c, Volume 1 | publisher=Higginson Book Company | year=1879 | pages=501}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_Z1A0AQAAMAAJ | title=History of Warren County, Iowa: From Its Earliest Settlement to 1908 | publisher=S.J. Clarke Publishing Company | year=1908 | pages=[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_Z1A0AQAAMAAJ/page/n284 308]}}</ref>

==Geography==
[[File:SpringHillIowaAerialView.jpg|thumb|left|An aerial view of Spring Hill, taken on May 31, 2025]]
Spring Hill is located along the [[Middle River (Iowa)|Middle River]].<ref>[[DeLorme]] (1998). ''Iowa Atlas & Gazetteer''. Yarmouth, Maine: DeLorme. {{ISBN|0-89933-214-5}}.</ref>

According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the city has a total area of {{convert|0.12|sqmi|sqkm|2}}, all of it land.<ref name="Gazetteer files">{{cite web|title=US Gazetteer files 2010|url=https://www.census.gov/geo/www/gazetteer/files/Gaz_places_national.txt|publisher=[[United States Census Bureau]]|access-date=2012-05-11|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120125061959/http://www.census.gov/geo/www/gazetteer/files/Gaz_places_national.txt|archive-date=2012-01-25}}</ref>
{{clear left}}

==Demographics==
{{Historical populations
|title= Historical populations
|type= USA
|align= left
|1880|137
|1910|94
|1920|489
|1930|101
|1940|146
|1950|86
|1960|111
|1970|131
|1980|95
|1990|86
|2000|92
|2010|63
|2020|68
|source={{center|U.S. Decennial Census<ref name="DecennialCensus">{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/programs-surveys/decennial-census.html|title=Census of Population and Housing|publisher=Census.gov|accessdate=June 4, 2015}}</ref><ref name=cen2020/>}}|footnote=Source:{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov|publisher=[[United States Census Bureau]]|title=U.S. Census website|access-date=2020-03-29}} and [http://data.iowadatacenter.org/datatables/PlacesAll/plpopulation18502000.pdf Iowa Data Center]
}}

===2020 census===
As of the [[United States census|census]] of 2020,<ref>{{cite web |title=2020 Census |url=https://www.census.gov/programs-surveys/decennial-census/decade/2020/2020-census-main.html |publisher=United States Census Bureau}}</ref> there were 68 people, 27 households, and 18 families residing in the city. The [[population density]] was 546.2 inhabitants per square mile (210.9/km2). There were 32 housing units at an average density of 257.0 per square mile (99.2/km2). The [[Race and ethnicity in the United States census|racial]] makeup of the city was 92.6% [[White Americans|White]], 0.0% [[African Americans|Black or African American]], 0.0% [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]], 0.0% [[Asian Americans|Asian]], 0.0% [[Pacific Islander Americans|Pacific Islander]], 0.0% from other races and 7.4% from two or more races. [[Hispanic and Latino Americans|Hispanic or Latino]] persons of any race comprised 2.9% of the population.

Of the 27 households, 29.6% of which had children under the age of 18 living with them, 40.7% were [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 14.8% were cohabitating couples, 22.2% had a female householder with no spouse or partner present and 22.2% had a male householder with no spouse or partner present. 33.3% of all households were non-families. 29.6% of all households were made up of individuals, 11.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years old or older.

The median age in the city was 43.5 years. 17.6% of the residents were under the age of 20; 8.8% were between the ages of 20 and 24; 25.0% were from 25 and 44; 33.8% were from 45 and 64; and 14.7% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 51.5% male and 48.5% female.

===2010 census===
As of the [[census]]<ref name ="wwwcensusgov">{{cite web|title=U.S. Census website|url=https://www.census.gov|publisher=[[United States Census Bureau]]|accessdate=2012-05-11}}</ref> of 2010, there were 63 people in 28 households, including 15 families, in the city. The population density was {{convert|525.0|PD/sqmi|PD/km2|1}}. There were 30 housing units at an average density of {{convert|250.0|/mi2|/km2|disp=preunit|units |units|}}. The [[Race and ethnicity in the United States Census#2010 census|racial makup]] of the city was 98.4% White and 1.6% African American.

Of the 28 households 28.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 25.0% were married couples living together, 17.9% had a female householder with no husband present, 10.7% had a male householder with no wife present, and 46.4% were non-families. 32.1% of households were one person and 10.7% were one person aged 65 or older. The average household size was 2.25 and the average family size was 2.93.

The median age was 41.8 years. 19% of residents were under the age of 18; 11.2% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 26.9% were from 25 to 44; 25.4% were from 45 to 64; and 17.5% were 65 or older. The gender makeup of the city was 55.6% male and 44.4% female.

===2000 census===
As of the [[census]]<ref name="GR2">{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov|publisher=[[United States Census Bureau]]|accessdate=2008-01-31|title=U.S. Census website}}</ref> of 2000, there were 92 people in 31 households, including 23 families, in the city. The population density was {{convert|773.4|PD/sqmi|PD/km2|sp=us|adj=off}}. There were 33 housing units at an average density of {{convert|277.4|/mi2|/km2|disp=preunit|units |units|}}. The [[Race and ethnicity in the United States Census#2010 census|racial makup]] of the city was 98.91% White and 1.09% Asian.

Of the 31 households 48.4% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 58.1% were married couples living together, 16.1% had a female householder with no husband present, and 22.6% were non-families. 19.4% of households were one person and none had someone living alone who was 65 or older. The average household size was 2.97 and the average family size was 3.42.

The age distribution was 34.8% under the age of 18, 6.5% from 18 to 24, 30.4% from 25 to 44, 26.1% from 45 to 64, and 2.2% 65 or older. The median age was 32 years. For every 100 females, there were 84.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 100.0 males.

The median household income was $33,750 and the median family income was $31,875. Males had a median income of $22,500 versus $25,000 for females. The per capita income for the city was $11,671. There were 10.5% of families and 10.7% of the population living below the [[poverty line]], including 14.8% of under eighteens and none of those over 64.

==References==

<references/>

{{Warren County, Iowa}}

{{authority control}}

[[Category:Cities in Warren County, Iowa]]
[[Category:Cities in Iowa]]
[[Category:Des Moines metropolitan area]]
[[Category:1872 establishments in Iowa]]

Diu (Cantonese)

2025-09-02T13:51:16Z

128.228.164.236: I removed the technical banner.

{{short description|Cantonese profanity, describing sexual intercourse}}
{{More citations needed|date=November 2015}}
{{SpecialChars}}
[[File:Diu1.svg|thumb|100px|The written form of ''diu'' commonly seen in Hong Kong]]
'''''Diu''''' ([[Chinese language|Chinese]]: [[Wikt:屌|屌]], [[Hong Kong]] cangjie: [[Wikt:𨳒|𨳒]] [門+小], [[jyutping]]: diu2) is a common profanity in [[Standard Cantonese|Cantonese]]. It can be regarded as the Cantonese equivalent of the English ''[[fuck]]''.

==In classic Chinese==
''Diu'' is a word in the [[Cantonese language]]. It appears frequently in the text of the classic novel ''[[Water Margin]]'', and is written as [[Wikt:鳥|鳥]] (meaning "bird", pronounced niǎo in Mandarin and niu5 in Cantonese when used in this usual sense). It is used as an emphatic [[adjective]] with a function similar to the English "fucking", "bloody" or "god damned". For example,
<blockquote>
<big>{{lang|zh-hant|武松指著蔣門神，說道：「休言你這廝'''鳥'''蠢漢！景陽岡上那隻大蟲，也只三拳兩腳，我兀自打死了！量你這個直得甚麼！快交割還他！但遲了些個，再是一頓，便一發結果了你廝！」}}</big>''Water Margin'', Chp. 29
</blockquote>
''Diu'' means primarily the [[penis]]. It is written as 屌 when used in this sense, but usually as 鳥 when used as an emphatic adjective. For example,
<blockquote>
<big>{{lang|zh-hant|木寸、馬户、尸巾，你道我是個「村驢'''屌'''」？}}</big>''[[Romance of the Western Chamber]]'' ({{lang|zh|西廂記}}), Act 5, Scene 3 ({{lang|zh|第五本第三折}})
</blockquote>
{{lang|zh|屌}} has its female equivalent [[Wikt:屄|屄]] (pronounced bī in Mandarin and hai1 in Cantonese) in the traditional Chinese written language. In the [[Qu (poetry)|Yuan Dynasty operas]], the word, meaning penis, is sometimes written as [[Wikt:頹|頹]]. For example,
<blockquote>
<big>{{lang|zh-hant|我見了些覓前程俏女娘，見了些鐵心腸男子漢，便一生里孤眠，我也直甚'''頹'''！}}</big>''lan jiao'' ({{lang|zh|救風塵}}), Act 1 ({{lang|zh|第一折}})
</blockquote>

==In Hong Kong and Macau==
The written form {{lang|zh-hk|𨳒}} [{{lang|zh|門}}+{{lang|zh|小}}] is mainly seen in Hong Kong, although the younger generation use {{lang|zh-hk|屌}} for example on [[graffiti]]. In Cantonese, it is used as a [[transitive verb]] meaning to [[copulate]]. In a manner similar to the [[English language|English]] word [[fuck]], it is also used to express dismay, disgrace, disapproval and so on. For example, someone may shout "diu nei!" ("fuck you!" or "fuck off!") at somebody when he or she finds that other person annoying.

"Diu nei lou mou" ({{lang|zh|屌你老母 or 𨳒你老母}}, "fuck your mother")<ref>Hutton, Christopher and Bolton, Kingsley; A Dictionary of Cantonese Slang, page 95; University of Hawai'i Press, Honolulu; 2005</ref> is a highly offensive profanity in Cantonese when directed against a specific person instead of used as a general exclamation. In contrast to the English phrase "fuck your mother", which indicates that the person being attacked commits sexual acts with his own mother, the Cantonese expression has the implied meaning of "I fuck your mother".

The form {{lang|zh|𨳒}} is absent in the [[Big-5]] [[character set]] on computers. The [[Government of Hong Kong]] has extended [[Unicode]] and the Big-5 character set with the [[Hong Kong Supplementary Character Set]] (HKSCS), which includes Chinese characters only used in Cantonese, including the [[Cantonese profanity|Five Great Profanities]]. The government explained that the reason for these characters being included is to allow for the [[Hong Kong Police]] to record criminal suspects' statements. Consequently, these characters are now also in Unicode.

In Hong Kong Cantonese, ''yiu'' ({{lang|zh|[[Wikt:妖|妖]]}}), ''tiu'' ({{lang|zh|[[Wikt:挑|挑]]}}), ''siu'' ({{lang|zh|[[Wikt:小|小]]}}), ''chiu'' ({{lang|zh|[[Wikt:超|超]]}}), ''biu'' ({{lang|zh|[[Wikt:表|表]]}}), and ''hiu'' ({{lang|zh|[[Wikt:曉|曉]]}}) are all [[minced oath]]s for ''diu'', as they all rhyme with "iu".

==See also==
*[[Cantonese profanity]]
*[[Hong Kong Cantonese]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
*Robert S. Bauer and Paul K. Benedict (1997). ''Modern Cantonese Phonology''. Berlin and New York: Mouton de Gruyter. {{ISBN|3-11-014893-5}}. Part of the chapter 3 concerns the "bad" words in Cantonese.
*Kingsley Bolton and Christopher Hutton, "Bad boys and bad language: chou hau and the sociolinguistics of swearwords in Hong Kong Cantonese", in Grant Evans and Maria Tam ed. (1997). ''Hong Kong: the Anthropology of a Chinese Metropolis''. Richmond, Surrey: Curzon. {{ISBN|0-7007-0601-1}}.

==External links==
*{{in lang|zh}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20040611212551/http://hk.geocities.com/xcantonese/ 廣州話粗口研究網]
*{{in lang|ja}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20131213183044/http://hongkong.sakura.ne.jp/c-1.html 広東語の粗口]

[[Category:Culture of Hong Kong]]
[[Category:Cantonese words and phrases]]
[[Category:Cantonese profanity]]

Hong Kong Convention and Exhibition Centre

2025-08-20T15:52:43Z

128.228.164.236: /* Construction */

{{Short description|Events venue in Wan Chai, Hong Kong}}
{{Use Hong Kong English|date=July 2014}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2014}}
{{More citations needed|date=January 2010}}

{{Infobox building
| name = Hong Kong Convention and Exhibition Centre
| native_name = 香港會議展覽中心
| native_name_lang =
| former_names =
| alternate_names =
| status = Complete
| image = HKCEC.jpg
| image_alt =
| caption = Hong Kong Convention and Exhibition Centre in August 2008
| map_type =
| map_alt =
| map_caption =
| altitude =
| building_type = Congress Centre
| architectural_style =
| structural_system =
| cost =
| ren_cost =
| client =
| owner =
| current_tenants =
| landlord =
| location =
| address = 1 Expo Drive, [[Wan Chai]]
| location_town = [[Wan Chai]], [[Hong Kong]]
| coordinates = {{Coord|22|17|1.18|N|114|10|22.25|E|region:HK_scale:1000|display=inline,title}}
| groundbreaking_date =
| start_date = {{Start date and age|df=yes|1985|3|8}} (Old Wing) {{Start date and age|1994}} (New Wing)
| completion_date = {{End date and age|1988}} (Old Wing) {{End date and age|1989}} (Topside development, including [[Grand Hyatt Hong Kong]])
| opened_date = {{Start date and age|df=yes|1988|11|25}} (Old Wing) {{Start date and age|df=yes|1997|6|14}} (New Wing)<ref name="worldarchitecturemap.org">{{cite web|title=World Architecture Map-Hong Kong Convention Centre|url=http://www.worldarchitecturemap.org/buildings/hong-kong-convention-centre|access-date=29 November 2012}}</ref>
| inauguration_date =
| renovation_date = 2006–2009
| demolition_date =
| destruction_date =
| height =
| diameter =
| antenna_spire =
| roof =
| top_floor =
| other_dimensions =
| floor_count = 6
| floor_area =
| seating_type =
| seating_capacity = 3,800 (Grand Hall)<ref>[https://www.hkcec.com/en/grand-hall Grand Hall]</ref>
| elevator_count =
| main_contractor =
| architect = [[Larry Oltmanns]]<ref name="worldarchitecturemap.org"/>
| architecture_firm = [[Skidmore, Owings & Merrill]]
| structural_engineer = Skidmore, Owings & Merrill
| services_engineer =
| civil_engineer =
| other_designers =
| quantity_surveyor =
| awards =
| designations =
| ren_architect =
| ren_firm =
| ren_str_engineer =
| ren_serv_engineer =
| ren_civ_engineer =
| ren_oth_designers =
| ren_qty_surveyor =
| ren_awards =
| website = {{url|www.hkcec.com/}}
| embedded =
| references =
}}
{{Chinese
|pic=HKCEC, Harbour Road Entrance.jpg
|caption=Harbour Road Entrance to the Hong Kong Convention and Exhibition Centre in November 2005
|t=香港會議展覽中心
|s=香港会议展览中心
|j=Hoeng1 gong2 wui6 ji5 zin2 laam5 zung1 sam1
|y=Hēunggóng Wuihyíhjínláahm Jūngsām
|p=Xiānggǎng Huìyìzhǎnlǎn Zhōngxīn
}}

[[Image:HKCEC Grand Hall Outside View 201107.jpg|thumb|Grand Hall of Hong Kong Convention and Exhibition Centre in July 2011]]
[[Image:HKCEC, Interior.jpg|thumb|upright|Interior at Northbound of Phase 2 of the Centre in October 2005]]
[[Image:HKCEC2-interior.jpg|thumb|upright|Interior at Southbound of Phase 2 of the Centre in October 2005]]
[[Image:HKCEC Atrium View 201107.jpg|thumb|upright|Interior of Phase 2 of the Centre in July 2011]]

The '''Hong Kong Convention and Exhibition Centre''' ('''HKCEC''') is one of the two major convention and exhibition venues in [[Hong Kong]], along with [[AsiaWorld–Expo]]. It is located in [[Wan Chai|Wan Chai North]], [[Hong Kong Island]]. Built along the [[Victoria Harbour]], it is linked by covered walkways to nearby hotels and commercial buildings. The venue was designed by [[Skidmore, Owings & Merrill|Skidmore, Owings & Merrill LLP]], in association with [[Wong & Ouyang|Wong & Ouyang (HK) Ltd.]] [[Larry Oltmanns]] led the design as the Design Partner with SOM.

==Construction==

The original building was built on [[Land reclamation in Hong Kong|reclaimed land]] off [[Gloucester Road, Hong Kong|Gloucester Road]] in 1988. The glass curtain was the world's largest at the time, overlooking the Victoria Harbour on three sides.

The second phase of the centre, located on an [[artificial island]], was constructed from 1994 to 1997, and features a bird-like rooftop (also referred to as a turtle by some critics{{Who|date=January 2010}}). The project took 48 months from reclamation to completion. The main constructor of the extension was a joint venture named Hip Hing Construction Co Ltd Dragages et Travaux Publics. Originally, Phase Two was connected to Phase One with an atrium link (a sky bridge), and to Convention Road with two road bridges, but now the two phases are connected by an expanded exhibition hall.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.news.gov.hk/en/category/infrastructureandlogistics/051021/html/051021en06005.htm |title=Convention centre link to be revamped |access-date=2005-10-21 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060308004752/http://www.news.gov.hk/en/category/infrastructureandlogistics/051021/html/051021en06005.htm |archive-date=8 March 2006 |df=dmy-all }}</ref>

The complex's construction was financed by [[New World Development]], with the [[Renaissance Harbour View Hotel]], [[Grand Hyatt Hong Kong]] and [[Harbour View Apartments]] being built on top of it.

HKCEC made a second expansion during 2006–2009. Upon completion, the HK$1.4 billion expansion added {{Convert|19,400|m2}} to the HKCEC, bringing the total exhibition space to nearly {{Convert|83,000|m2}} and total rentable function space to over {{Convert|92,000|m2}}.

==Management==

The Hong Kong Convention and Exhibition Centre (Management) Limited, a wholly owned subsidiary of [[NWS Holdings]] ({{lang|zh-Hant-HK|新創建集團有限公司}}), is contracted by the [[Hong Kong Trade Development Council|HKTDC]] for the day-to-day management and operation of the HKCEC. The 850 member staff's responsibilities include administration, marketing, booking, scheduling, event co-ordination, maintenance, security and food and beverage operations. The latter including banqueting, and managing the centre's restaurants. The managing director of the company is Monica Lee-Müller.

== Convention facilities and statistics ==
[[Image:HK Art Basel 2015 View1.JPG|thumb|[[Art Basel]] Exhibition in the Centre in March 2015]]
*5 exhibition halls: {{Cvt|53,292|m2}}
*2 convention halls: {{Cvt|5,699|m2}}; total seating for 6,100
*2 theatres: {{Cvt|800|m2}}; total seating for 1,000
*52 meeting rooms: {{Cvt|6,004|m2}}
*Pre-function areas: {{Cvt|8,000|m2}}
*7 restaurants: total seating for 1,870
*Business centre: {{Cvt|150|m2}}
*Carpark spaces parking: for 1,300 cars and 60 vans
*Total available rental space: {{Cvt|92,061|m2}}
*Capacity: 140,000 visitors per day

The HKCEC has facilities for video-conferencing, teleconferencing, satellite links, simultaneous interpretation in up to eight languages, audio-visual equipment, foyer registration space, and event signage.

==Functions held at the site==


Numerous functions are held at the HKCEC each year, including exhibitions, conventions/meetings, banquets, the [[HKTDC Food Expo |Hong Kong Food Expo]], [[Hong Kong Food Festival]], the [[Hong Kong Book Fair]], the [[Hong Kong Optical Fair]], and other special events.

The centre hosts more than 45 international trade fairs for buyers from more than 100 countries each year, including the world's largest leather fair and watch and clock fair. The regular international fairs for giftware, toys, fashion, jewellery, electronics and optical products are Asia's largest.

In addition, HKCEC hosts the annual film expo CineAsia where all major Hollywood studios present their upcoming productions to the Asian theatrical industry.

It also served as the site of the 1997 [[Hong Kong handover ceremony]], which signified the end of [[British Empire|British colonial rule]].

The [[World Trade Organization Ministerial Conference of 2005|Sixth WTO Ministerial Conference]] took place at the HKCEC from 13–18 December 2005. The NGO Centre was located at "Phase I" of the centre. This is the first time a WTO Ministerial Conference and the NGO Centre was located under the same roof as the Conference proceedings.

Since 2013, a huge countdown clock was installed at facade of HKCEC to celebrate the [[New Year's Eve]] with fireworks and light show and was held ever since.

In May 2023, the HKCEC cancelled an event planned by pro-democracy singer [[Anthony Wong Yiu-ming|Anthony Wong]], after initially approving it.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Chau |first=Candice |date=2023-05-28 |title=Hong Kong's exhibition centre axed booking for concert without reason, says pro-democracy singer Anthony Wong |url=https://hongkongfp.com/2023/05/29/hong-kongs-exhibition-centre-axed-booking-for-concert-without-reason-says-pro-democracy-singer-anthony-wong/ |access-date=2023-05-29 |website=Hong Kong Free Press HKFP |language=en-GB}}</ref>

==Access==
Located on the north shore of Hong Kong Island, the HKCEC is easily accessible via the [[Star Ferry]] service, whose [[Wan Chai Pier]] is situated just east of the main building and operates from the HKCEC across Victoria Harbour to [[Star Ferry Pier, Tsim Sha Tsui|Tsim Sha Tsui Pier]], adjacent to the [[Hong Kong Cultural Centre|Cultural Centre]].

[[Exhibition Centre station (MTR)|Exhibition Centre station]] on the cross-harbour section of the [[East Rail line]] and the proposed [[North Island line]] is directly located under the HKCEC. [[Wan Chai station]] on the [[Island line (MTR)|Island line]] of the [[MTR]] is within walking distance and is linked to the HKCEC via a [[pedestrian bridge]] over O'Brien Road.

In addition, the HKCEC is served by numerous [[Bus services in Hong Kong|franchised bus routes]] operated by [[Citybus (Hong Kong)|Citybus]], including several cross-harbour routes operated jointly with [[Kowloon Motor Bus]].

==In popular culture==

*The structure played a major part in the film ''[[Transformers: Age of Extinction]]'', where a Decepticon ship is seen destroying the structure from above.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Fernández |first=Eduard |date=6 July 2018 |title=Five times Hollywood destroyed Hong Kong landmarks … or the entire city |url=https://www.scmp.com/culture/film-tv/article/2154111/five-times-hollywood-destroyed-hong-kong-landmarks-or-entire-city |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200523025149/https://www.scmp.com/culture/film-tv/article/2154111/five-times-hollywood-destroyed-hong-kong-landmarks-or-entire-city |archive-date=23 May 2020 |access-date=12 June 2021 |newspaper=[[South China Morning Post]]}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Architecture|Hong Kong}}
* [[Golden Bauhinia Square]]
* [[Hong Kong Trade Development Council]] (and [[Hong Kong Trade Development Council Trade Fairs|HKTDC Trade Fairs]])
* [[Wan Chai]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite journal |last1=[[Wong & Ouyang (HK)]] |first1= |date=2009 |title=Bridge to the Future. Hong Kong Convention and Exhibition Centre Expansion Project |url=https://www.hkia.net/uploads/tc/publication/journal/HKIA_Journal_54.pdf |journal=[[Hong Kong Institute of Architects|HKIA]] Journal |volume=54 |issue= |pages=26-29 |doi= |access-date=}}
* [[Wong & Ouyang (HK) Ltd.]], [http://www.building.hk/comprofile/20100118wongouyang.pdf "More than half-a-century of architectural design experience in Hong Kong"], section "Hong Kong Convention and Exhibition Centre Expansion Project", pp. 52–57, September 2009

==External links==
{{Commons category|Hong Kong Convention and Exhibition Centre}}
* [http://www.hkcec.com.hk The HKCEC Official website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130701151411/http://www.hkcec.com.hk/ |date=1 July 2013 }} {{in lang|en}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060929163455/http://www.aiachicago.org/special_features/1999_Design_Awards/DBA/winners/02.html AIA Chicago:Distinguished Building Award: Hong Kong Convention and Exhibition Centre Extension]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20091016034808/http://www.som.com/content.cfm/hong_kong_convention_and_exhibition_centre SOM Project Webpage]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20160303172634/http://www.wongouyang.com/PJins-menu-A.html Wong & Ouyang Project Webpage]

{{s-start}}
{{succession box
|title=[[Miss World]] Venues
|before=''[[Royal Albert Hall]]''
|after=''[[London Palladium]]''
|years='''[[Miss World 1989|1989]]'''
}}
{{succession box
| title = Home of the [[Provisional Legislative Council]] of Hong Kong
| years = 1 July 1997
| before = [[Shenzhen Guesthouse Hotel]]
| after = [[Old Supreme Court Building, Hong Kong|Legislative Council Building]]
}}
{{s-end}}
{{Wan Chai District}}
{{Convention and exhibition centres in Hong Kong}}
{{Skidmore, Owings & Merrill}} {{Authority control}}

[[Category:1997 establishments in Hong Kong]]
[[Category:Artificial islands of Hong Kong]]
[[Category:Commercial buildings completed in 1997]]
[[Category:Convention and exhibition centres in Hong Kong]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures completed in 1997]]
[[Category:Landmarks in Hong Kong]]
[[Category:Music venues in Hong Kong]]
[[Category:NWS Holdings]]
[[Category:Skidmore, Owings & Merrill buildings]]
[[Category:Wan Chai North]]

Nippon Life

2025-08-12T15:46:32Z

128.228.164.236:

{{Short description|Japanese life insurance company}}
{{Redirect-distinguish | Nissay | Nissan|Nissei (disambiguation){{!}}Nissei|Nissae|Nisse (disambiguation){{!}}Nisse}}{{Expand language|topic=|langcode=ja|otherarticle=日本生命保険|date=July 2025}}
{{No reliable sources|date=July 2025}}
{{Nihongo|'''Nippon Life Insurance Company'''|日本生命保険相互会社|Nihon Seimei Hoken Sōgo-gaisha}}, also known as {{Nihongo|'''Nissay'''|ニッセイ|Nissei}} or {{Nihongo|'''Nihon Seimei'''|日本生命|}} is the largest [[Japan]]ese life insurance company by revenue.<ref name="fox">{{Cite web |last=Fox |first=David |date=2024-12-12 |title=Nippon Life takes over Bermudian reinsurer |url=https://www.royalgazette.com/reinsurance/business/article/20241212/nippon-life-takes-over-bermuda-reinsurer/ |access-date=2025-07-15 |website=www.royalgazette.com |language=en-US}}</ref> The company was founded in 1889 as the ''Nippon Life Assurance Co., Inc.'' In structure it is a [[mutual organization|mutual company]]. It first paid policyholder dividends in 1898.<ref>{{cite web | title = 2006 Annual Report, Chapter 4 | publisher = Nippon Life Insurance Company | url = https://www.nissay.co.jp/english/annual/pdf/ar2006.pdf | access-date = 2007-01-08 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Sanjai|first1=P.R.|last2=Bhaskaran|first2=Deepti|title=Nippon Life to pay Rs2,265 crore to raise stake in Reliance Life to 49%|url=http://www.livemint.com/Companies/1FucZOG5iYA5uPpPpjtaeP/Nippon-Life-to-pay-Rs2265-crore-to-raise-stake-in-Reliance.html|access-date=26 June 2016|publisher=Live Mint|date=December 2, 2015}}</ref>

==Overview==
Nippon Life employs 70,519 employees and has 70,608 billion yen in assets as of 2016.<ref name=2016AnnualReport>{{cite web|title=2016 Nissay Annual Report|url=https://www.nissay.co.jp/english/annual/pdf/ar2016.pdf}}</ref> The company is headquartered in Imabashi Sanchōme, [[Chūō-ku, Osaka|Chūō-ku]], [[Osaka]], Japan. It has a wholly owned subsidiary, Resolution Life, which operates in Southeast Asia and the United States.<ref name="fox" />

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Portal|Companies}}
*[http://www.nissay.co.jp/ Company website] (in Japanese)
*[http://www.nissay.co.jp/english/ Company website] (in English)

{{Major insurance companies}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Nippon Life| ]]
[[Category:Insurance companies of Japan]]
[[Category:Mutual insurance companies]]
[[Category:Companies based in Osaka Prefecture]]
[[Category:Financial services companies established in 1889]]
[[Category:1889 establishments in Japan]]
[[Category:Japanese brands]]
[[Category:Chūō-ku, Osaka]]

{{insurance-company-stub}}
{{japan-company-stub}}

Namba

2025-08-06T15:56:33Z

128.228.164.236:

{{Short description|District of Osaka, Japan}}
{{About||the type of Vanuatan clothing|Namba (clothing)}}
{{Redirect|Nanba|the Japanese surname|Nanba (surname)|the upcoming Indian film|Nanba (film)}}
{{More citations needed|date=February 2017}}
{{Expand language|langcode=ja|name=難波|topic=Geography}}
{{Infobox place
| name = Namba
| settlement_type = [[Chōme]]
| image_skyline = Namba Station.JPG
| image_caption = Nankai Namba Station & Takashimaya Osaka Department Store
| pushpin_map = Japan Osaka Prefecture#Japan
| coordinates = {{coord|34|39|57|N|135|39|04|E|region:JP|format=dms|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = [[List of sovereign states|Country]]
| subdivision_name = {{flag|Japan}}
| subdivision_type1 = [[Prefectures of Japan|Prefecture]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[Cities of Japan|City]]
| subdivision_type3 = [[Wards of Japan|Ward]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Osaka Prefecture|Osaka]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Osaka]]
| subdivision_name3 = [[Chūō-ku, Osaka|Chūō]] and [[Naniwa-ku, Osaka|Naniwa]]
}}
'''Namba''' ({{Langx|ja|難波}}, {{IPA|ja|namba|IPA}}) is a district in [[Chūō-ku, Osaka|Chūō]] and [[Naniwa-ku, Osaka|Naniwa]] wards of [[Osaka]], [[Japan]]. It is regarded as the center of Osaka's ''Minami'' ([[:ja:ミナミ]], "South") region.<ref name="Minami">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jMylBmGjWkwC&dq=Minami+Osaka&pg=PA161|title=Minami |isbn=9781741040852 |access-date=2009-02-16|last1=Rowthorn |first1=Chris |year=2005 }}</ref> Its name came from a variation of ''[[Osaka|Naniwa]]'', the former name of Osaka. Namba hosts some of the city's main south-central railway terminals, as [[West Japan Railway Company|JR]], [[Kintetsu Railway|Kintetsu]], [[Nankai Railway|Nankai]], [[Hanshin Electric Railway|Hanshin]], and three [[Osaka Metro]] subway lines all have stations within this region.

==Railway stations==
;[[Namba Station]]
:●[[Nankai Electric Railway]]
::●[[Nankai Main Line|Nankai Line]]
::●[[Nankai Koya Line|Koya Line]]
:[[Osaka Metro]]
::●[[Midōsuji Line]] (M20)
::●[[Yotsubashi Line]] (Y15)
::●[[Sennichimae Line]] (S16)
;[[JR Namba Station]]
:●[[JR West]]
::●[[Kansai Main Line]] ([[Yamatoji Line]])
;[[Ōsaka Namba Station]]
:●[[Kintetsu Railway|Kintetsu]]
::[[Kintetsu Namba Line|Namba Line]] (through service to the [[Nara Line (Kintetsu)|Nara Line]])
:●[[Hanshin Railway]]
::●[[Hanshin Namba Line]]

==References==
{{Wikivoyage|Osaka/Minami|Minami - Osaka}}
{{Reflist}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Tourist attractions in Osaka]]
[[Category:Chūō-ku, Osaka]]
[[Category:Naniwa-ku, Osaka]]

Lantau Link

2025-07-30T19:56:07Z

128.228.164.236: /* Infrastructure */

{{Short description|Road linking western and central Hong Kong}}
{{Use Hong Kong English|date=December 2018}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2018}}
{{Infobox road
|country=HKG
|type=Route
|route=8
|name=Lantau Link
|alternate_name=Part of [[Route 8 (Hong Kong)|Route 8]]
|maint=
|map=
|map_ntoes=
|length_km=4.0
|length_round=
|length_ref=
|length_notes=
|established=27 April 1997
|decommissioned=
|direction_a=East
|terminus_a= [[Tsing Yi]]
|junction= 3; [[Image:HK Route3.svg|22px]] [[Route 3 (Hong Kong)|Route 3]] at [[Tsing Yi]]
|direction_b=West
|terminus_b= [[Lantau Island|Lantau]] (near [[Tsing Chau Tsai]])
|cities=
}}
{{Chinese|t=青嶼幹線|s=青屿干线|p=Qīngyǔ Gànxiàn| y=ching1 yu4 gon3 sin3}}
[[File:HongKongAirportExpwyTollGate.jpg|thumb|260px|Lantau Link toll plaza at [[Tsing Chau Tsai]], on [[Lantau Island]].]]
[[File:Hong Kong Bay.jpg|thumb|260px|The Lantau Link crossing the island of [[Ma Wan]]. From left to right: [[Tsing Ma Bridge]], [[Ma Wan Viaduct]] (on the island) and [[Kap Shui Mun Bridge]].]]
The '''Lantau Link''', formerly known as the '''Lantau Fixed Crossing''',<ref name="govt">[http://www.info.gov.hk/archive/napco/p-llink.html Government information about the Lantau Link]</ref> is a [[fixed link|roadway]] in Hong Kong forming part of [[Route 8 (Hong Kong)|Route 8]] linking [[Lantau Island]] to [[Tsing Yi]], from which other roads lead to the urban areas of [[Kowloon]] and the rest of the [[New Territories]]. It is part of the [[Airport Core Programme]] centred on the new [[Hong Kong International Airport]] on Lantau. The link was officially opened on 27 April 1997, and it opened to traffic on 22 May the same year.<ref name="govt"/>

==Infrastructure==
The Lantau Link is {{convert|3.5|km|mi}} long and consists of:
* the [[Tsing Ma Bridge]], a [[suspension bridge]] linking [[Tsing Yi]] to [[Ma Wan]] island
* the [[Ma Wan Viaduct]], a [[viaduct]] crossing Ma Wan
* the [[Kap Shui Mun Bridge]], a [[cable-stayed bridge]] linking Ma Wan to [[Lantau Island]]

The link is split into two traffic levels; the upper level is an open, 3-lane [[divided highway]], while the lower level is a [[double-track railway]] line used by the [[MTR]] [[Airport Express (MTR)|Airport Express]] and [[Tung Chung line]] and also contains two single-lane roads for emergency use in both directions. The speed limit is {{convert|80|km/h|mph}} on the upper level and {{convert|50|km/h|mph}} on the lower level. The lower level is generally used only in special circumstances such as strong wind or serious accidents which could lead to the closure of the upper level. The lower level is not connected to Ma Wan.

The Lantau Link is one of the two land passageways connecting Lantau and other parts of Hong Kong; [[Tuen Mun–Chek Lap Kok Link]] via [[Tuen Mun]] opened on 27 December 2020 as the second land connection, reducing the traffic pressure on Lantau Link.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.info.gov.hk/gia/general/202012/21/P2020121800402.htm|title=Tolls of Lantau Link to be waived from 0.00am on December 27|newspaper=Hong Kong Government|date=21 December 2020|access-date=28 July 2021}}</ref>

Near the Tsing Yi end of the Lantau Link is the [[Cable-stayed bridge|cable-stayed]] [[Ting Kau Bridge]], and the [[Cheung Tsing Tunnel|Cheung Tsing]] and [[Nam Wan Tunnel|Nam Wan]] tunnels, the latter of which leads to the [[Stonecutters Bridge]]. Tsing Yi is also home to the [[Lantau Link Visitors Centre]], a museum and viewing platform for the Lantau Link.<ref name="am730November2023">{{Cite web |author1=羅庸軒 |date=24 November 2023 |title=am專訪｜青嶼幹線觀景台活化正收集建議葵青DO鄧顯權：公眾參與最重要冀善用潛力搞旺設施 |url=https://www.am730.com.hk/%E6%9C%AC%E5%9C%B0/am%E5%B0%88%E8%A8%AA-%E9%9D%92%E5%B6%BC%E5%B9%B9%E7%B7%9A%E8%A7%80%E6%99%AF%E5%8F%B0%E6%B4%BB%E5%8C%96%E6%AD%A3%E6%94%B6%E9%9B%86%E5%BB%BA%E8%AD%B0-%E8%91%B5%E9%9D%92do%E9%84%A7%E9%A1%AF%E6%AC%8A-%E5%85%AC%E7%9C%BE%E5%8F%83%E8%88%87%E6%9C%80%E9%87%8D%E8%A6%81-%E5%86%80%E5%96%84%E7%94%A8%E6%BD%9B%E5%8A%9B%E6%90%9E%E6%97%BA%E8%A8%AD%E6%96%BD/413176 |access-date=20 December 2024 |website=[[am730]] |language=zh}}</ref>

==Interchanges==
{{RJL|date=November 2021}}
{| border=1 cellpadding=2 style="margin-left:1em; margin-bottom: 1em; color: black; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;" class="wikitable"
|- align="center" bgcolor="006a4d" style="color: white;font-size:120%;"
| colspan="3" | '''Lantau Link''' [[Image:HK Route8.svg|20px]]
|- align="center" style="background:#000000; color:white;"
| width="250px"|Inbound exits
| width="50px"|Exit number
| width="250px"|Lantau-bound exits
|- align="center"
| style="background: #ececec; color: grey;" class="table-na" | ''End '''Lantau Link''''' continues as [[Tsing Sha Highway]] [[File:HK Route8.svg|13px|link=Route 8 (Hong Kong)]]
| style="background: #ececec; color: grey;" class="table-na" | -
| style="background: #ececec; color: grey;" class="table-na" | ''Start '''Lantau Link'''''
|- align="center"
| '''[[Cheung Tsing Highway]]''' [[File:HK Route3.svg|13px|link=Route 3 (Hong Kong)]] [[Kwai Tsing Container Terminals|Container Terminals 1-7]], [[Kowloon]], [[Hong Kong Island|Hong Kong]]
| 4A
| style="background: #ececec; color: grey;" class="table-na" | ''no exit''
|- align="center"
| '''[[Tsing Long Highway]]''' [[File:HK Route3.svg|13px|link=Route 3 (Hong Kong)]] [[Yuen Long]], [[Tuen Mun]]
| 4B
| style="background: #ececec; color: grey;" class="table-na" | ''no exit''
|- align="center"
| colspan="3"|'''[[Tsing Ma Bridge]]'''
|- align="center"
| colspan="3"|'''[[Ma Wan Viaduct]]'''
|- align="center"
| style="background: #ececec; color: grey;" class="table-na" | ''no exit''
| 4C
| '''Ma Wan Road''' [[Ma Wan]] ''enter by permit only''
|- align="center"
| colspan="3"|'''[[Kap Shui Mun Bridge]]'''
|- align="center"
| style="background: #ececec; color: grey;" class="table-na" | ''Start '''Lantau Link'''''
| style="background: #ececec; color: grey;" class="table-na" | -
| style="background: #ececec; color: grey;" class="table-na" | ''End '''Lantau Link''''' continues as [[North Lantau Highway]] [[Image:HK Route8.svg|13px]]
|}

==See also==
* [[Route 8 (Hong Kong)]]
* [[Tsing Ma Control Area]]
* [[Transport in Hong Kong]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Lantau Link}}
* [https://maps.google.com/maps?f=d&hl=en&geocode=&saddr=22.35336,114.082471&daddr=%E9%9D%92%E5%B6%BC%E5%B9%B9%E7%B7%9A+%4022.339280,+114.043260&mrcr=0&mrsp=0&sz=17&mra=dme&sll=22.352745,114.079961&sspn=0.004068,0.007296&ie=UTF8&ll=22.34631,114.06285&spn=0.032548,0.058365&z=14&om=1 Google Maps of Lantau Link]

{{HK routes|r8;}}
{{sequence
|prev=[[Tsing Sha Highway]]
|list=[[Route 8 (Hong Kong)|Hong Kong Route 8]] [[Image:HK Route8.svg|x20px]] Lantau Link
|next=[[North Lantau Highway]]
}}

[[Category:Expressways in Hong Kong]]
[[Category:Route 8 (Hong Kong)]]
[[Category:Lantau Island]]
[[Category:Tsing Yi]]
[[Category:Ma Wan]]
[[Category:Extra areas operated by NT taxis]]

Shaftesbury Avenue

2025-07-15T19:05:06Z

128.228.164.236: I removed a trivial factoid.

{{short description|Major street in the West End of London}}
{{for|the racehorse|Shaftesbury Avenue (horse)}}
{{Use British English|date=June 2015}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2015}}
[[File:London (44761485915).jpg|thumb|300px|Shaftesbury Avenue in 2016, with [[West End theatre]]s visible along the right side of the road]]
[[File:London , Kodachrome by Chalmers Butterfield edit.jpg|thumb|300px|Shaftesbury Avenue from [[Piccadilly Circus]] in 1949]]
[[File:Forbidden Planet London January 2012.jpg|300px|thumb|right|The [[Forbidden Planet (retail store)|Forbidden Planet]] comic store on the road]]
[[File:Odeon, Covent Garden, WC2 (3368645054).jpg|thumb|right|300px|[[Odeon Cinema]] at 135 Shaftesbury Avenue]]

'''Shaftesbury Avenue''' is a major road in the [[West End of London]], named after [[Anthony Ashley Cooper, 7th Earl of Shaftesbury|The 7th Earl of Shaftesbury]]. It runs north-easterly from [[Piccadilly Circus]] to [[New Oxford Street]], crossing [[Charing Cross Road]] at [[Cambridge Circus, London|Cambridge Circus]]. From Piccadilly Circus to Cambridge Circus, it is in the [[City of Westminster]], and from Cambridge Circus to New Oxford Street, it is in the [[London Borough of Camden]].

Shaftesbury Avenue was built between 1877 and 1886 by the architect [[Metropolitan Board of Works|George Vulliamy]] and the engineer [[Sir Joseph Bazalgette]],<ref>[http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.asp?compid=41455 Shaftesbury Avenue, volumes 31 and 32: St James Westminster, Part 2], ''Survey of London'', 1963</ref><ref>[http://www.talkingcities.co.uk/london_pages/sights_alpha12.htm London Sights and Attractions - Shaftesbury Avenue] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070806070913/http://www.talkingcities.co.uk/london_pages/sights_alpha12.htm |date=6 August 2007}}, ''talkingcities.co.uk'', 2006</ref> to provide a north–south traffic artery through the crowded districts of [[St. Giles, London|St. Giles]] and [[Soho]].

The avenue is generally considered the heart of London's [[West End theatre#Theatreland|West End theatre district]], with the [[Lyric Theatre, London|Lyric]], [[Apollo Theatre|Apollo]], [[Gielgud Theatre|Gielgud]] and [[Sondheim Theatre|Sondheim]] theatres clustered together on the west side of the road between Piccadilly Circus and Charing Cross Road. At the intersection of Shaftesbury Avenue and Charing Cross Road is the large [[Palace Theatre, London|Palace Theatre]]. Finally, the north-eastern end of the road has another large theatre, the [[Shaftesbury Theatre]].

Also on Shaftesbury Avenue is the former [[Saville Theatre]], which became a cinema in 1970. It was first known as ABC1 and ABC2 but, since 2001, it has been the Odeon Covent Garden. Another cinema, the Soho [[Curzon Cinemas|Curzon]], is located about halfway along the street.

Between 1899 and 1902, no. 67 Shaftesbury Avenue was the location of the [[Bartitsu]] School of Arms and Physical Culture, which is the first commercial [[Asian martial arts]] training school in the Western world.<ref>Web page - Visiting the site of the original Bartitsu club http://bartitsusociety.com/visiting-the-site-of-the-original-bartitsu-club/</ref>

Shaftesbury Avenue marks the boundary of three discrete West End areas. The subsection of the road from Piccadilly Circus to Cambridge Circus marks the southern border of Soho. Of that subsection a slightly shorter stretch thereof, from [[Great Windmill Street]] to Cambridge Circus, denotes the southern edge of the Soho [[gay village]]. Overlapping the gay village boundary, the still-shorter part of the street from [[Wardour Street]] to [[Greek Street]] marks the interface between gay Soho and [[Chinatown, London|London's Chinatown]].

The number of Chinese businesses on the street has been on the increase. On the ground level in August 2007, there were two traditional Chinese medicine practices, five Chinese restaurants, three Chinese supermarkets, three Chinese travel agents, two Chinese mobile phone outlets, a Chinese cake shop, two Chinese hair salons, a Chinese fishmonger, a Chinese newsagent, a Chinese [[bureau de change]], and three Chinese banks.<ref>[http://www.558.net/uk/business.html Chinese business directory] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070821101230/http://www.558.net/uk/business.html |date=21 August 2007}}, [[Spectrum Radio]], August 2007</ref>

In the evening, street artists gather on the pavement outside the HQ of [[ICE - International Currency Exchange]] and [[Raphaels Bank]] (previously the home of [[NatWest]]) at the Piccadilly Circus end of Shaftesbury Avenue, and produce portraits for the tourists.<ref>[http://www.newstatesman.com/200111120018 Hopes of immortality], ''[[New Statesman]]'', Nov 2001</ref>

==See also==
* [[List of London theatres]]
* [[Chinatown, London]]
* [[List of eponymous roads in London]]

== Notes ==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
* [http://www.touruk.co.uk/london_streets/shaftsburyavenue_street1.htm Shaftesbury Avenue London W1] — TourUK information
* [https://booth.lse.ac.uk/map/16/-0.1294/51.5132/100/0?marker=529903.0,181017.0 Shaftesbury Avenue shown on a Poverty Map] — Charles Booth's London
* [http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.asp?compid=41455#s12 Survey of London] — detailed architectural history
* [http://www.nimaxtheatres.com/nimax/lyric-theatre Lyric Theatre]
* [http://www.nimaxtheatres.com/nimax/apollo-theatre Apollo Theatre]
* [http://www.delfontmackintosh.co.uk/Theatres/gielgud_theatre.php Gielgud Theatre]
* [https://www.sondheimtheatre.co.uk/ Sondheim Theatre]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100401173402/http://www.reallyuseful.com/theatres/palace-theatre Palace Theatre]
* [http://www.shaftesburytheatre.com/ Shaftesbury Theatre]

{{Metropolitan Board of Works}}
{{coord|51.512|-0.132|region:GB_type:landmark|display=title}}

[[Category:West End theatre]]
[[Category:Roads designated in 1886]]
[[Category:Streets in the London Borough of Camden]]
[[Category:Streets in the City of Westminster]]
[[Category:Entertainment districts in the United Kingdom]]

Bamseom

2025-07-01T20:58:19Z

128.228.164.236:

{{short description|Two islets in Seoul, South Korea}}
{{More citations needed|date=November 2021}}
{{Infobox island
|image = Korea_Bamseom_Island_04_%2814707330307%29.jpg
|location = [[Han River (Korea)|Han River]] in [[Seoul]], South Korea
|area_km2 =0.24
|mapframe-zoom=13
|module = {{Infobox Korean name/auto
|hangul=^밤섬
|child=yes
}}
}}

'''Bamseom''' ({{Korean|hangul=밤섬|lit=Chestnut Island}}<ref>{{cite web |title=Bamseom Island |url=https://www.ydp.go.kr/english/contents.do?key=4318& |accessdate=12 January 2020 |website=Yeongdeungpo-gu Official Website |language=en}}</ref>) is a pair of [[islet]]s in the [[Han River (Korea)|Han River]] in [[Seoul]], South Korea. The uninhabited islets, with a total area of about {{cvt|0.24|sqkm}} and length of {{convert|1147|m|0|abbr=on}}, are located between the larger island of [[Yeouido]], to which they were once connected,<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://parks.seoul.go.kr/main/english/youido/history.htm |title=Introduction - Changes to Yeouido |access-date=2007-08-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070704103738/http://parks.seoul.go.kr/main/english/youido/history.htm |archive-date=2007-07-04 |url-status=dead }}</ref> and the north shore. They remain connected to one another by a narrow strip of sedimentary silt. [[Seogang Bridge]] passes directly over the western islet, though there is no access available, as the islets have been left as a natural sanctuary. There is, however, an observation point for bird-watching. Migratory birds use the islets often and among the birds which can be seen are [[mallard]]s, [[great egret]]s, [[Mandarin duck|mandarins]], [[common kestrel]]s, and [[Eastern spot-billed duck]]s.<ref>[http://english.seoul.go.kr/today/about/about_05han_0503.html Seoul Metropolitan Government - "A Clean, Attractive & Global City, Seoul!"]</ref>

==History==
The islands were inhabited until the [[Seogang Bridge]] was built over them, using the west islet as a support for one of the beams. Most of the inhabitants of Bamseom in the [[Joseon|Joseon era]] were shipbuilders.

February 10, 1968, Bamseom was detonated for the purpose of collecting rubble required for the construction of the embankment for the development of Yeouido, and the island was divided into upper Bamseom (northwest) and Lower Bamseom.

==Ecosystem==
Bamseom is a key location for a wide variety of bird species, such as the [[Mandarin duck]], and it serves as a shelter for migratory birds during the winter. There are also about 108 species of plants on the island, such as willow trees and [[itch reeds]]. Additionally, Bamseom is an excellent place for children living in the city to experience nature. In 1999, the Seoul metropolitan government registered Bamseon as a
"natural preservation district".<ref>Yeongdeungpo Park(영등포공원) http://park.ydp.go.kr/PD020000.asp1(Kor){{Dead link|date=November 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

Banseom was designated [[Ramsar site]] 2050 on 21-06-2012.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Han River-Bamseom Islets {{!}} Ramsar Sites Information Service |url=https://rsis.ramsar.org/ris/2050 |access-date=2024-03-25 |website=rsis.ramsar.org}}</ref> Banseom's waters are a spawning and nursery ground for many Korean indigenous fish, including ''[[Acheilognathus yamatsutae]]'', ''[[Khanka spiny bitterling|Acanthorhodeus gracilis]]'', and ''[[Rainbow gudgeon|Sarcocheilichthys nigripinnus morii]]''. It is also a wintering habitat for many waterfowl, and in summer it is a breeding ground for species such as [[Indian spot-billed duck|Spot-billed Ducks]] (''Anas poecilorhyncha'') and [[Black-crowned night heron|Black-crowned Night Herons]] (''Nycticorax nycticorax'').<ref name=":0" />

==West Islet==
The west islet, over which [[Seogang Bridge]] passes, has a length of {{convert|560|m}}. This is the more forested of the two islets, particularly at the western point.

==East Islet==
The east islet has a length of {{convert|655|m}}. This islet contains a bay which opens onto the strip of water between the islets. This bay has largely silted up and is therefore marshy and contains many reeds and reed-dwelling organisms.

===Gallery===
<gallery mode=packed heights=160px>
File:Seogang Bridge Seoul.jpg|Seogang Bridge and the western islet of Bamseom
File:Bamseom and Yeouido.jpg|Bamseom with Yeouido in the background
File:Bamseom - East Islet from Seogang Bridge.jpg|Bamseom's East Islet from [[Seogang Bridge]]
File:Bamseom and Namsan.jpg|Bamseom and [[Namsan]]
</gallery>

==Park==
Bamseon has extensive facilities for tourists and visitors. So far, 6 observatory platforms and direction boards for visitors have been erected. The facility allows citizens to visit from December to February.<ref>Yeongdeungpo Park</ref> This timetable was set by a 1999 governmental decision, as this is a [[Ramsar site]]<ref name=":0" /> and protecting the birds is critical when choosing a time for observation of the birds by ornithologists and naturalists.

==Films==
Bamseon is the primary location in the [[List of South Korean films of 2009|2009 Korean film]] ''[[Castaway on the Moon]]'' in which a man ([[Jung Jae-young]]) decides to commit suicide by jumping into the [[Han River (Korea)|Han river]], only to find himself washed ashore and stranded on the island.

==See also==
{{Portal|Islands}}
* [[Desert island]]
* [[List of islands]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Seoul parks}}

{{Authority control}}

{{coord|37|32|N|126|55|E|region:KR_type:isle|display=title}}

[[Category:Uninhabited islands of South Korea]]
[[Category:Islands of the Han River (Korea)]]
[[Category:Parks in Seoul]]
[[Category:Islands of Seoul]]
[[Category:Ramsar sites in South Korea]]

Expressways in South Korea

2025-07-01T20:18:40Z

128.228.164.236: /* Electronic toll collection */

{{short description|none}}
{{Infobox highway system
|title=National Expressways 고속국도 / ''Gosokgukdo''
|markers=[[File:Korea Expressway No.1.svg|50px]]
|caption=The sign of [[Gyeongbu Expressway]]
|map=Expressways in South Korea.svg
|map_notes=A map of the South Korean ''National Expressway'' network
|maint=
|formed=2 September 1967 (assigned) 21 December 1968 (opened)
|length_km=5,017
|length_ref= (2024)
|notes=
|label1=[[controlled-access highway|Expressways]]:
|field1={{lang|ko|XX고속도로}} {{lang|ko|고속국도 n호선 XX선}} Expressway n XX Expressway (Expwy)
|links=
|country=KOR
|type=E}}

'''Expressways''' ({{Korean|고속도로|高速道路|Gosokdoro}}) in [[South Korea]], officially known as '''National Expressways''' ({{Korean|고속국도|高速國道|Gosokgukdo}}), are [[Controlled-access highway|controlled-access highways]] that form the highest level of the country's road network. Most sections are [[toll road|tolled]] and maintained by the [[Korea Expressway Corporation]], though a few routes are built and managed by approved private companies.

== History ==
On 2 September 1967, the first expressway of South Korea, nowadays [[Gyeongin Expressway]], was assigned<ref>{{in lang|ko}} [https://law.go.kr/lsInfoP.do?lsiSeq=23999 대통령령 제3202호 1급국도와2급국도의노선지정의건] (Presidential Decree No. 3202 Assignment of First-class National Highways and Second-class National Highways), 2 September 1967.</ref> as Second-class National Highway 95 Seoul–Incheon ({{lang|ko|2급국도 제95호선 서울인천선}}) by the presidential decree. The very first section of expressway was opened<ref>{{cite news|author=|title=京水京仁高速道路개통|newspaper=The Dong-A Ilbo|location=Seoul|pages=1|language=ko|date=21 December 1968|url=https://newslibrary.naver.com/viewer/index.naver?articleId=1968122100209201006&editNo=2&printCount=1&publishDate=1968-12-21&officeId=00020&pageNo=1&printNo=14523&publishType=00020|access-date=3 January 2025}}</ref> on 21 December 1968. At first, expressways were assigned as a part of [[National highways of South Korea|national highways]], but since 31 August 1971, they were assigned as the new separated class: '''National Expressways'''.<ref>{{in lang|ko}} [https://law.go.kr/lsInfoP.do?lsiSeq=9599 대통령령 제5770호 고속국도노선지정령] (Presidential Decree No. 5770 Assignment of National Expressways), 31 August 1971.</ref>

Under the new numbering scheme implemented on 25 August 2001,<ref>{{in lang|ko}} [https://law.go.kr/lsInfoP.do?lsiSeq=49897 대통령령 제17228호 고속국도노선지정령] (Presidential Decree No. 17228 Assignment of National Expressways), 25 August 2001.</ref> expressway numbers were assigned based on a grid system, reflecting the layout proposed in the 3rd Comprehensive National Territorial Planning<ref>{{cite map|author=|date=December 2019|title=The National Atlas of Korea|edition=2019|volume=I|url=http://nationalatlas.ngii.go.kr/pages/page_1819.php|publisher=National Geography Information Institute|section=3rd Comprehensive National Territorial Planning|access-date=3 January 2025}}</ref> ({{Korean|제3차국토종합개발계획}}) in 1992. This updated system was influenced by the numbering conventions of the [[Interstate Highway System]] in the [[United States]]. The details are:
* '''Trunk routes''': These are numbered with two digits. North–south routes are assigned odd numbers, while east–west routes are given even numbers. Primary routes are numbered progressively from south to north or west to east, with the first digit increasing and the last digit ending in either '''5''' or '''0'''.
* '''Branch routes''': Branch routes off trunk routes have three-digit numbers, with the first two digits corresponding to the main trunk route number.
* '''Circular routes''': Circular routes are numbered in increments of 100, based on the postal code system used from 1988 to 2015.
** Seoul: 1, [[Capital Region First Ring Expressway]] (Expressway 100)
** Daejeon/Chungcheong: 3, [[Daejeon Southern Ring Expressway]] (Expressway 300)
** Incheon/Gyeonggi: 4, [[Capital Region Second Ring Expressway]] (Expressway 400)
** Gwangju/Jeolla: 5, [[Gwangju Ring Expressway]] (Expressway 500)
** Busan/South Gyeongsang: [[Busan Ring Expressway]] (Expressway 600)
** Daegu/North Gyeongsang: [[Daegu Ring Expressway]] (Expressway 700)
* Route numbers ranging from 70 to 99 are reserved for potential use following [[Korean reunification]] and are currently unused.
* There are a few exceptions:
** The [[Gyeongbu Expressway]] is an exception to the numbering rules. Due to its critical importance in the network, it retains the route number 1.
** There are multiple east–west branches on [[Capital Region First Ring Expressway]] (Expressway 100), but they are not numbered as the rule of branch routes; instead, they are numbered [[Second Gyeongin Expressway|110]], [[Gyeongin Expressway|120]], and [[Incheon International Airport Expressway|130]], respectively.

The current highway shield for expressways is inspired by U.S. highway signage, combining the shape of [[United States Numbered Routes|U.S. Highway shields]] with the red, white, and blue color scheme of U.S. Interstate shields which are the same colors used in [[flag of South Korea|the South Korean flag]].

Most of the expressway network is managed by the [[Korea Expressway Corporation]]. Since 2000, however, some routes have been constructed and operated by private companies under government approval. These privately operated routes are managed for a limited time before transitioning to public control.

== List of expressways ==
{| class="wikitable" style="font-size: small; text-align: center;"
! rowspan="2" | Number
! colspan="2" | Name
! rowspan="2" | Origin
! rowspan="2" | Terminus
! colspan="2" | Length
! rowspan="2" | Note
|-
! English
! Korean
! km
! mi
|-
| {{sort|1|[[File:Korea Expressway No.1.svg|32px]]}}
| [[Gyeongbu Expressway|Gyeongbu]]
| {{lang|ko|경부고속도로}}
| [[Geumjeong District|Geumjeong]], [[Busan]]
| [[Seocho District|Seocho]], [[Seoul]]
| style="text-align: right;" | 416.1
| style="text-align: right;" | {{convert|416.1|km|mi|disp=number}}
|
|-
| rowspan="2" | {{sort|10|[[File:Korea Expressway No.10.svg|32px]]}}
| rowspan="2" | [[Namhae Expressway|Namhae]]
| rowspan="2" | {{lang|ko|남해고속도로}}
| Haksan, [[Yeongam County|Yeongam]]
| Haeryong, [[Suncheon]]
| style="text-align: right;" | 106.8
| style="text-align: right;" | {{convert|106.8|km|mi|disp=number}}
|
|-
| Seo, Suncheon
| [[Buk District, Busan|Buk]], [[Busan]]
| style="text-align: right;" | 166.3
| style="text-align: right;" | {{convert|166.3|km|mi|disp=number}}
|
|-
| rowspan="2" | {{sort|12|[[File:Korea Expressway No.12.svg|32px]]}}
| [[Muan–Gwangju Expressway|Muan–Gwangju]]
| {{lang|ko|무안광주고속도로}}
| Mang-un, [[Muan County|Muan]]
| Gwangsan, [[Gwangju]]
| style="text-align: right;" | 41.3
| style="text-align: right;" | {{convert|41.3|km|mi|disp=number}}
|
|-
| [[Gwangju–Daegu Expressway|Gwangju–Daegu]]
| 광주대구고속도로
| [[Buk District, Gwangju|Buk District]], Gwangju
| Okpo, [[Dalseong County|Dalseong]]
| style="text-align: right;" | 176.0
| style="text-align: right;" | {{convert|176.0|km|mi|disp=number}}
| Partially concurrent with Honam Expwy
|-
| {{sort|14|[[File:Korea Expressway No.14.svg|32px]]}}
| [[Hamyang–Ulsan Expressway|Hamyang–Ulsan]]
| {{lang|ko|함양울산고속도로}}
| ''Jigok, [[Hamyang County|Hamyang]]''
| Cheongnyang, [[Ulju County|Ulju]]
| style="text-align: right;" | ''144.6''
| style="text-align: right;" | ''{{convert|144.6|km|mi|disp=number}}''
| Partially opened
|-
| {{sort|15|[[File:Korea Expressway No.15.svg|32px]]}}
| [[Seohaean Expressway|Seohaean]]
| {{lang|ko|서해안고속도로}}
| Samhyang, Muan
| [[Geumcheon District|Geumcheon]], Seoul
| style="text-align: right;" | 336.1
| style="text-align: right;" | {{convert|336.1|km|mi|disp=number}}
|
|-
| {{sort|16|[[File:Korea Expressway No.16.svg|32px]]}}
| [[Ulsan Expressway|Ulsan]]
| {{lang|ko|울산고속도로}}
| Eonyang, Ulju
| [[Nam District, Ulsan|Nam]], [[Ulsan]]
| style="text-align: right;" | 14.3
| style="text-align: right;" | {{convert|14.3|km|mi|disp=number}}
|
|-
| rowspan="2" | {{sort|17|[[File:Korea Expressway No.17.svg|32px]]}}
| [[Iksan–Pyeongtaek Expressway|Iksan–Pyeongtaek]]
| {{lang|ko|익산평택고속도로}}
| ''Wanggung, [[Iksan]]''
| Anjung, [[Pyeongtaek]]
| style="text-align: right;" | ''131.7''
| style="text-align: right;" | ''{{convert|131.7|km|mi|disp=number}}''
| Partially opened Private operation
|-
| [[Pyeongtaek–Paju Expressway|Pyeongtaek–Paju]]
| 평택파주고속도로
| Oseong, Pyeongtaek
| ''Gunnae, [[Paju]]''
| style="text-align: right;" | ''117.7''
| style="text-align: right;" | ''{{convert|117.7|km|mi|disp=number}}''
| Partially opened Private operation
|-
| rowspan="3" | {{sort|20|[[File:Korea Expressway No.20.svg|32px]]}}
| rowspan="3" | [[Saemangeum–Pohang Expressway|Saemangeum–Pohang]]
| rowspan="3" | {{lang|ko|새만금포항고속도로}}
| ''Jinbong, [[Gimje]]''
| Sanggwan, [[Wanju County|Wanju]]
| style="text-align: right;" | ''55.1''
| style="text-align: right;" | ''{{convert|55.1|km|mi|disp=number}}''
| Under construction
|-
| Sanggwan, Wanju
| Janggye, [[Jangsu County|Jangsu]]
| style="text-align: right;" | 36.5
| style="text-align: right;" | {{convert|36.5|km|mi|disp=number}}
|
|-
| [[Dong District, Daegu|Dong]], [[Daegu]]
| Heunghae, [[Pohang]]
| style="text-align: right;" | 69.4
| style="text-align: right;" | {{convert|69.4|km|mi|disp=number}}
|
|-
| {{sort|25|[[File:Korea Expressway No.25.svg|32px]]}}
| [[Honam Expressway|Honam]]
| {{lang|ko|호남고속도로}}
| Seo, Suncheon
| Mokcheon, [[Cheonan]]
| style="text-align: right;" | 276.2
| style="text-align: right;" | {{convert|276.2|km|mi|disp=number}}
| Partially in private operation (previously separated as [[Nonsan–Cheonan Expressway|Nonsan–Cheonan Expwy]])
|-
| {{sort|27|[[File:Korea Expressway No.27.svg|32px]]}}
| [[Suncheon–Wanju Expressway|Suncheon–Wanju]]
| {{lang|ko|순천완주고속도로}}
| Haeryong, Suncheon
| Yongjin, Wanju
| style="text-align: right;" | 117.8
| style="text-align: right;" | {{convert|117.8|km|mi|disp=number}}
|
|-
| rowspan="3" | {{sort|29|[[File:Korea Expressway No.29.svg|32px]]}}
| rowspan="3" | [[Sejong–Pocheon Expressway|Sejong–Pocheon]]
| rowspan="3" | {{lang|ko|세종포천고속도로}}
| [[Guri]]
| Sinbuk, [[Pocheon]]
| style="text-align: right;" | 44.6
| style="text-align: right;" | {{convert|44.6|km|mi|disp=number}}
| Private operation
|-
| Geumgwang, [[Anseong]]
| Guri
| style="text-align: right;" | 72.2
| style="text-align: right;" | {{convert|72.2|km|mi|disp=number}}
|
|-
| ''Janggun, [[Sejong City|Sejong]]''
| Geumgwang, Anseong
| style="text-align: right;" | ''55.9''
| style="text-align: right;" | ''{{convert|55.9|km|mi|disp=number}}''
| Under construction
|-
| {{sort|30|[[File:Korea Expressway No.30.svg|32px]]}}
| [[Seosan–Yeongdeok Expressway|Seosan–Yeongdeok]]
| {{lang|ko|서산영덕고속도로}}
| ''Daesan, [[Seosan]]''
| Yeongdeok, [[Yeongdeok]]
| style="text-align: right;" | ''330.8''
| style="text-align: right;" | ''{{convert|330.8|km|mi|disp=number}}''
| Partially opened Partially concurrent with [[Honam Expressway Branch|Honam Branch]] and [[Gyeongbu Expressway|Gyeongbu Expwy]]
|-
| {{sort|32|[[File:Korea Expressway No.32.svg|32px]]}}
| [[Dangjin–Cheongju Expressway|Dangjin–Cheongju]]
| {{lang|ko|당진청주고속도로}}
| ''Songak, [[Dangjin]]''
| Ochang, [[Cheongju]]
| style="text-align: right;" | ''71.8''
| style="text-align: right;" | ''{{convert|71.8|km|mi|disp=number}}''
| Partially opened Partially in private operation Partially concurrent with Gyeongbu Expwy
|-
| rowspan="2" | {{sort|35|[[File:Korea Expressway No.35.svg|32px]]}}
| [[Tongyeong–Daejeon Expressway|Tongyeong–Daejeon]]
| {{lang|ko|통영대전고속도로}}
| Yongnam, [[Tongyeong]]
| [[Dong District, Daejeon|Dong]], [[Daejeon]]
| style="text-align: right;" | 215.3
| style="text-align: right;" | {{convert|215.3|km|mi|disp=number}}
|
|-
| [[Jungbu Expressway|Jungbu]]
| {{lang|ko|중부고속도로}}
| Nami, Cheongju
| [[Hanam]]
| style="text-align: right;" | 117.2
| style="text-align: right;" | {{convert|117.2|km|mi|disp=number}}
|
|-
| {{sort|37|[[File:Korea Expressway No.37.svg|32px]]}}
| [[Second Jungbu Expressway|2nd Jungbu]]
| {{lang|ko|제2중부고속도로}}
| Majang, [[Icheon]]
| Hanam
| style="text-align: right;" | 31.1
| style="text-align: right;" | {{convert|31.1|km|mi|disp=number}}
|
|-
| {{sort|40|[[File:Korea Expressway No.40.svg|32px]]}}
| [[Pyeongtaek–Jecheon Expressway|Pyeongtaek–Jecheon]]
| {{lang|ko|평택제천고속도로}}
| Cheongbuk, Pyeongtaek
| Geumseong, [[Jecheon]]
| style="text-align: right;" | 127.4
| style="text-align: right;" | {{convert|127.4|km|mi|disp=number}}
|
|-
| {{sort|45|[[File:Korea Expressway No.45.svg|32px]]}}
| [[Jungbu Naeryuk Expressway|Jungbu Naeryuk]]
| {{lang|ko|중부내륙고속도로}}
| Naeseo, [[Changwon]]
| Okcheon, [[Yangpyeong County|Yangpyeong]]
| style="text-align: right;" | 301.7
| style="text-align: right;" | {{convert|301.7|km|mi|disp=number}}
|
|-
| {{sort|50|[[File:Korea Expressway No.50.svg|32px]]}}
| [[Yeongdong Expressway|Yeongdong]]
| {{lang|ko|영동고속도로}}
| [[Namdong District|Namdong]], [[Incheon]]
| Seongsan, [[Gangneung]]
| style="text-align: right;" | 234.4
| style="text-align: right;" | {{convert|234.4|km|mi|disp=number}}
|
|-
| {{sort|52|[[File:Korea Expressway No.52.svg|32px]]}}
| [[Gwangju–Wonju Expressway|Gwangju–Wonju]]
| {{lang|ko|광주원주고속도로}}
| Chowol, [[Gwangju, Gyeonggi|Gwangju]]
| [[Wonju]]
| style="text-align: right;" | 57.0
| style="text-align: right;" | {{convert|57.0|km|mi|disp=number}}
| Private operation
|-
| {{sort|55|[[File:Korea Expressway No.55.svg|32px]]}}
| [[Jungang Expressway|Jungang]]
| {{lang|ko|중앙고속도로}}
| [[Sasang District|Sasang]], Busan
| [[Chuncheon]]
| style="text-align: right;" | 388.1
| style="text-align: right;" | {{convert|388.1|km|mi|disp=number}}
| Partially in private operation Partially concurrent with Gyeongbu Expwy
|-
| {{sort|60|[[File:Korea Expressway No.60.svg|32px]]}}
| [[Seoul–Yangyang Expressway|Seoul–Yangyang]]
| {{lang|ko|서울양양고속도로}}
| [[Gangdong District|Gangdong]], Seoul
| Seo, [[Yangyang County|Yangyang]]
| style="text-align: right;" | 150.2
| style="text-align: right;" | {{convert|150.2|km|mi|disp=number}}
| Partially in private operation
|-
| rowspan="2" | {{sort|65|[[File:Korea Expressway No.65.svg|32px]]}}
| rowspan="2" | [[Donghae Expressway|Donghae]]
| rowspan="2" | {{lang|ko|동해고속도로}}
| [[Haeundae District|Haeundae]], Busan
| ''Ganggu, [[Yeongdeok]]''
| style="text-align: right;" | ''131.8''
| style="text-align: right;" | ''{{convert|131.8|km|mi|disp=number}}''
| Partially opened Partially in private operation
|-
| Geundeok, [[Samcheok]]
| [[Sokcho]]
| style="text-align: right;" | 122.6
| style="text-align: right;" | {{convert|122.6|km|mi|disp=number}}
|
|-
| {{sort|100|[[File:Korea Expressway No.100.svg|32px]]}}
| [[Capital Region First Ring Expressway|Capital Region 1st Ring]]
| {{lang|ko|수도권제1순환고속도로}}
| [[Seongnam]]
| Seongnam
| style="text-align: right;" | 128.0
| style="text-align: right;" | {{convert|128.0|km|mi|disp=number}}
| Partially in private operation
|-
| {{sort|102|[[File:Korea Expressway No.102.svg|32px]]}}
| [[Namhae Expressway Branch 1|Namhae Branch 1]]
| {{lang|ko|남해고속도로제1지선}}
| Sanin, [[Haman County|Haman]]
| Dong, Changwon
| style="text-align: right;" | 17.9
| style="text-align: right;" | {{convert|17.9|km|mi|disp=number}}
|
|-
| {{sort|104|[[File:Korea Expressway No.104.svg|32px]]}}
| [[Namhae Expressway Branch 2|Namhae Branch 2]]
| {{lang|ko|남해고속도로제2지선}}
| [[Gimhae]]
| Sasang, Busan
| style="text-align: right;" | 20.6
| style="text-align: right;" | {{convert|20.6|km|mi|disp=number}}
|
|-
| {{sort|105|[[File:Korea Expressway No.105.svg|32px]]}}
| [[Namhae Expressway Branch 3|Namhae Branch 3]]
| {{lang|ko|남해고속도로제3지선}}
| Changwon
| Jillye, Gimhae
| style="text-align: right;" | 15.3
| style="text-align: right;" | {{convert|15.3|km|mi|disp=number}}
| Private operation
|-
| {{sort|110|[[File:Korea Expressway No.110.svg|32px]]}}
| [[Second Gyeongin Expressway|2nd Gyeongin]]
| {{lang|ko|제2경인고속도로}}
| [[Jung District, Incheon|Jung]], Incheon
| Seongnam
| style="text-align: right;" | 70.0
| style="text-align: right;" | {{convert|70.0|km|mi|disp=number}}
| Partially in private operation
|-
| {{sort|120|[[File:Korea Expressway No.120.svg|32px]]}}
| [[Gyeongin Expressway|Gyeongin]]
| {{lang|ko|경인고속도로}}
| [[Seo District, Incheon|Seo]], Incheon
| [[Yangcheon District|Yangcheon]], Seoul
| style="text-align: right;" | 13.4
| style="text-align: right;" | {{convert|13.4|km|mi|disp=number}}
|
|-
| {{sort|130|[[File:Korea Expressway No.130.svg|32px]]}}
| [[Incheon International Airport Expressway|Incheon Int'l Airport]]
| {{lang|ko|인천국제공항고속도로}}
| Jung, Incheon
| [[Goyang]]
| style="text-align: right;" | 36.5
| style="text-align: right;" | {{convert|36.5|km|mi|disp=number}}
| Private operation
|-
| {{sort|151|[[File:Korea Expressway No.151.svg|32px]]}}
| [[Seocheon–Gongju Expressway|Seocheon–Gongju]]
| {{lang|ko|서천공주고속도로}}
| Hwayang, [[Seocheon County|Seocheon]]
| Useong, [[Gongju]]
| style="text-align: right;" | 61.4
| style="text-align: right;" | {{convert|61.4|km|mi|disp=number}}
|
|-
| {{sort|153|[[File:Korea Expressway No.153.svg|32px]]}}
| [[Pyeongtaek–Siheung Expressway|Pyeongtaek–Siheung]]
| {{lang|ko|평택시흥고속도로}}
| Cheongbuk, Pyeongtaek
| [[Siheung]]
| style="text-align: right;" | 42.6
| style="text-align: right;" | {{convert|42.6|km|mi|disp=number}}
| Private operation
|-
| rowspan="2" | {{sort|171|[[File:Korea Expressway No.171.svg|32px]]}}
| [[Osan–Hwaseong Expressway|Osan–Hwaseong]]
| {{lang|ko|오산화성고속도로}}
| [[Osan]]
| [[Hwaseong, Gyeonggi|Hwaseong]]
| style="text-align: right;" | 2.6
| style="text-align: right;" | {{convert|2.6|km|mi|disp=number}}
| Private operation
|-
| [[Yongin–Seoul Expressway|Yongin–Seoul]]
| {{lang|ko|용인서울고속도로}}
| [[Yongin]]
| Seocho, Seoul
| style="text-align: right;" | 22.9
| style="text-align: right;" | {{convert|22.9|km|mi|disp=number}}
| Private operation
|-
| 173
| [[Iksan–Pyeongtaek Expressway Branch|Iksan–Pyeongtaek Branch]]
| {{lang|ko|익산평택고속도로지선}}
| Hyeondeok, Pyeongtaek
| Poseung, Pyeongtaek
| style="text-align: right;" | 5.7
| style="text-align: right;" | {{convert|5.7|km|mi|disp=number}}
| Private operation
|-
| {{sort|202|[[File:Korea Expressway No.202.svg|32px]]}}
| [[Saemangeum–Pohang Expressway Branch|Saemangeum–Pohang Branch]]
| {{lang|ko|새만금포항고속도로지선}}
| ''Gigye, Pohang''
| ''Heunghae, Pohang''
| style="text-align: right;" | ''24.0''
| style="text-align: right;" | ''{{convert|24.0|km|mi|disp=number}}''
| ''Planned''
|-
| 204
| [[Saemangeum–Pohang Expressway Branch|Saemangeum–Pohang Branch]]
| {{lang|ko|새만금포항고속도로지선}}
| Wanggung, Iksan
| Sanggwan, Wanju
| style="text-align: right;" | 24.5
| style="text-align: right;" | {{convert|24.5|km|mi|disp=number}}
|
|-
| {{sort|251|[[File:Korea Expressway No.251.svg|32px]]}}
| [[Honam Expressway Branch|Honam Branch]]
| {{lang|ko|호남고속도로지선}}
| Yeonmu, [[Nonsan]]
| [[Daedeok District|Daedeok]], Daejeon
| style="text-align: right;" | 54.0
| style="text-align: right;" | {{convert|54.0|km|mi|disp=number}}
|
|-
| {{sort|253|[[File:Korea Expressway No.253.svg|32px]]}}
| [[Gochang–Damyang Expressway|Gochang–Damyang]]
| {{lang|ko|고창담양고속도로}}
| Gosu, [[Gochang County|Gochang]]
| Daedeok, [[Damyang County|Damyang]]
| style="text-align: right;" | 42.5
| style="text-align: right;" | {{convert|42.5|km|mi|disp=number}}
|
|-
| 255
| [[Gangjin–Gwangju Expressway|Gangjin–Gwangju]]
| {{lang|ko|강진광주고속도로}}
| ''Jakcheon, [[Gangjin County|Gangjin]]''
| ''[[Seo District, Gwangju|Seo]], Gwangju''
| style="text-align: right;" | ''51.1''
| style="text-align: right;" | ''{{convert|51.1|km|mi|disp=number}}''
| Under construction
|-
| 292
| [[Sejong–Pocheon Expressway Osong Branch|Osong Branch]]
| {{lang|ko|세종포천고속도로오송지선}}
| ''Jeondong, Sejong''
| ''Osong, Cheongju''
| style="text-align: right;" | ''6.2''
| style="text-align: right;" | ''{{convert|6.2|km|mi|disp=number}}''
| Under construction
|-
| {{sort|300|[[File:Korea Expressway No.300.svg|32px]]}}
| [[Daejeon Southern Ring Expressway|Daejeon Southern Ring]]
| {{lang|ko|대전남부순환고속도로}}
| [[Yuseong District|Yuseong]], Daejeon
| Dong, Daejeon
| style="text-align: right;" | 20.9
| style="text-align: right;" | {{convert|20.9|km|mi|disp=number}}
| Partially concurrent with Tongyeong–Daejeon Expwy
|-
| {{sort|301|[[File:Korea Expressway No.301.svg|32px]]}}
| [[Yeongcheon–Sangju Expressway|Yeongcheon–Sangju]]
| {{lang|ko|영천상주고속도로}}
| Bugan, [[Yeongcheon]]
| Nakdong, [[Sangju]]
| style="text-align: right;" | 93.9
| style="text-align: right;" | {{convert|93.9|km|mi|disp=number}}
| Private operation
|-
| rowspan="9" | {{sort|400|[[File:Korea Expressway No.400.svg|32px]]}}
| rowspan="9" | [[Capital Region Second Belt Expressway|Capital Region 2nd Ring]]
| rowspan="9" | {{lang|ko|수도권제2순환고속도로}}
| Mado, Hwaseong
| Docheok, Gwangju
| style="text-align: right;" | 63.0
| style="text-align: right;" | {{convert|63.0|km|mi|disp=number}}
| Private operation
|-
| Docheok, Gwangju
| ''Sanbuk, [[Yeoju]]''
| style="text-align: right;" | ''19.4''
| style="text-align: right;" | ''{{convert|19.4|km|mi|disp=number}}''
| Under construction
|-
| Mado, Hwaseong
| Ansan
| style="text-align: right;" | 13.5
| style="text-align: right;" | {{convert|13.5|km|mi|disp=number}}
| Fully concurrent with Pyeongtaek–Siheung Expwy
|-
| [[Ansan]]
| Siheung
| style="text-align: right;" | 2.4
| style="text-align: right;" | {{convert|2.4|km|mi|disp=number}}
|
|-
| Jung, Incheon
| Yangchon, [[Gimpo]]
| style="text-align: right;" | 28.9
| style="text-align: right;" | {{convert|28.9|km|mi|disp=number}}
| Private operation
|-
| Yangchon, Gimpo
| ''Paju, Paju''
| style="text-align: right;" | ''25.4''
| style="text-align: right;" | ''{{convert|25.4|km|mi|disp=number}}''
| Under construction
|-
| ''Paju, Paju''
| Yangju
| style="text-align: right;" | ''24.8''
| style="text-align: right;" | ''{{convert|24.8|km|mi|disp=number}}''
| Partially opened
|-
| [[Yangju]]
| Soheul, Pocheon
| style="text-align: right;" | 6.0
| style="text-align: right;" | {{convert|6.0|km|mi|disp=number}}
| Private operation
|-
| Soheul, Pocheon
| Okcheon, Yangpyeong
| style="text-align: right;" | 46.3
| style="text-align: right;" | {{convert|46.3|km|mi|disp=number}}
|
|-
| {{sort|451|[[File:Korea Expressway No.451.svg|32px]]}}
| [[Jungbu Naeryuk Expressway Branch|Jungbu Naeryuk Branch]]
| {{lang|ko|중부내륙고속도로지선}}
| Hyeonpung, Dalseong
| [[Buk District, Daegu|Buk]], Daegu
| style="text-align: right;" | 30.0
| style="text-align: right;" | {{convert|30.0|km|mi|disp=number}}
|
|-
| {{sort|500|[[File:Korea Expressway No.500.svg|32px]]}}
| [[Gwangju Ring Expressway|Gwangju Ring]]
| {{lang|ko|광주외곽순환고속도로}}
| Gwangsan, Gwangju
| Nam, [[Jangseong County|Jangseong]]
| style="text-align: right;" | 9.7
| style="text-align: right;" | {{convert|9.7|km|mi|disp=number}}
|
|-
| {{sort|551|[[File:Korea Expressway No.551.svg|32px]]}}
| [[Jungang Expressway Branch|Jungang Branch]]
| {{lang|ko|중앙고속도로지선}}
| Gimhae
| [[Yangsan]]
| style="text-align: right;" | 18.1
| style="text-align: right;" | {{convert|181.|km|mi|disp=number}}
|
|-
| {{sort|600|[[File:Korea Expressway No.600.svg|32px]]}}
| [[Busan Ring Expressway|Busan Ring]]
| {{lang|ko|부산외곽순환고속도로}}
| Jinyeong, Gimhae
| Ilgwang, [[Gijang County|Gijang]]
| style="text-align: right;" | 48.8
| style="text-align: right;" | {{convert|48.8|km|mi|disp=number}}
|
|-
| {{sort|700|[[File:Korea Expressway No.700.svg|32px]]}}
| [[Daegu Ring Expressway|Daegu Ring]]
| {{lang|ko|대구외곽순환고속도로}}
| [[Dalseo District|Dalseo]], Daegu
| Dong, Daegu
| style="text-align: right;" | 32.9
| style="text-align: right;" | {{convert|32.9|km|mi|disp=number}}
|
|-
|}

=== Numbering scheme until 2001 ===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|-
! colspan="2" | Route number
! colspan="2" | Route name
! rowspan="2" | Origins (former)
! rowspan="2" | Terminal (former)
! rowspan="2" | Approval
|-
! Former !! Current !! English !! Korean
|-
| 1 || 1 || Gyeongbu || 경부선 || Seoul || Busan || 8 April 1969
|-
| 2 || 120 || Gyeongin || 경인선 || Seoul || Incheon || 2 September 1967
|-
| 3 || 25, 251 || Honam || 호남선 || Daejeon || Suncheon || 21 April 1970
|-
| 3-2 || 253 || Gwangju Bypass || 광주외곽선 || Jangseong || Damyang || 27 August 1997
|-
| 4 || 50 || Yeongdong || 영동선 || Yongin || Gangneung || 31 August 1971
|-
| 5 || 65 || Donghae || 동해선 || Sokcho || Donghae || 23 August 1973
|-
| 6 || 10, 102 || Namhae || 남해선 || Busan || Suncheon || 8 December 1971
|-
| 6-2 || 104 || Namhae 2nd Branch || 남해제2지선 || Busan || Gimhae || 22 June 1978
|-
| 6-3 || 10 || Masan Bypass || 마산외곽선 || Changwon || Haman || 27 August 1997
|-
| 7 || 45, 451 || Guma || 구마선 || Daegu || Masan || 19 March 1976
|-
| 8 || 16 || Ulsan || 울산선 || Ulju || Ulsan || 22 June 1978
|-
| 9 || 12 || 88 Olympic || 88올림픽선 || Dalseong || Damyang || 22 June 1978
|-
| 10 || 35 || Jungbu || 중부선 || Hanam || Cheongwon || 29 May 1985
|-
| 10-2 || 37 || 2nd Jungbu || 제2중부선 || Hanam || Icheon || 27 August 1997
|-
| 11 || 15, 50, 110 || Seohaean || 서해안선 || Incheon || Muan || 25 July 1991
|-
| 12 || 50 || Singal–Ansan || 신갈~안산선 || Yongin || Ansan || 14 July 1988
|-
| 13 || 300 || Daejeon Southern Ring || 대전남부순환선 || Daejeon || Daejeon || 14 July 1988
|-
| 14 || 55 || Jungang || 중앙선 || Daegu || Chuncheon || 20 October 1989
|-
| 15 || 110 || 2nd Gyeongin || 제2경인선 || Anyang || Incheon || 25 July 1991
|-
| 16 || 15 || Seoul–Ansan || 서울~안산선 || Seoul || Ansan || 29 April 1992
|-
| 17 || 35 || Daejeon–Tongyeong || 대전~통영선 || Daejeon || Tongyeong || 29 April 1992
|-
| 18 || 45 || Jungbu Naeryuk || 중부내륙선 || Yeoju || Dalseong || 29 April 1992
|-
| 19 || 55 || Busan–Daegu || 부산~대구선 || Busan || Daegu || 29 April 1992
|-
| 19-2 || 551 || Branch of Busan–Daegu || 부산~대구선 지선 || Gimhae || Yangsan || 29 April 1992
|-
| 20 || 130 || Incheon International Airport || 인천국제공항선 || Goyang || Incheon || 27 September 1993
|-
| 21 || 25 || Cheonan–Nonsan || 천안~논산선 || Cheonan || Nonsan || 1 July 1996
|-
| 22 || 30 || Daejeon–Dangjin || 대전~당진선 || Daejeon || Dangjin || 1 July 1996
|-
| 23 || 30 || Cheongju–Sangju || 청주~상주선 || Cheongwon || Sangju || 1 July 1996
|-
| 24 || 40 || Pyeongtaek–Eumseong || 평택~음성선 || Pyeongtaek || Eumseong || 27 August 1997
|-
| 25 || 151 || Gongju–Seocheon || 공주~서천선 || Gongju || Seocheon || 27 August 1997
|-
| 26 || 20 || Iksan–Jangsu || 익산~장수선 || Iksan || Jangsu || 27 August 1997
|-
| 27 || ''22'',<ref>Abandoned</ref> 20 || Gimcheon–Pohang || 김천~포항선 || Gimcheon || Pohang || 27 August 1997
|-
| 27-2 || 20 || Branch of Gimcheon–Pohang || 김천~포항선 지선 || Daegu || Yeongcheon || 27 August 1997
|-
| 101 || 100 || Seoul Ring || 서울외곽순환선 || Seongnam || Seongnam || 14 January 1988
|-
|}

== Electronic toll collection ==
{{Main|Hi-pass}}
[[File:Jungang Expwy Hoengseong ICTG Hipass Only(Exit) 1.jpg|right|thumb|Hipass-only lane in Hoengseong IC TG, [[Jungang Expressway]]]]
'''Hi-pass''' is an [[electronic toll collection]] system for the expressways in South Korea.

Some interchanges are designed only for cars with hi-pass.

== Traffic restrictions ==
[[File:Gyeongbu Expressway Bus Only Lane.JPG|thumb|right|Highway bus lane on [[Gyeongbu Expressway]] in the [[Republic of Korea]]]]
From Sintanjin interchange, Daejeon to Yangjae interchange, Seoul, a pair of central lanes are dedicated as a [[bus lane]] on holidays; technically, it is operated as HOV-6 with cars with 9+ passenger capacity. On weekdays, the restriction is narrowed to Anseong interchange, Anseong to Yangjae interchange.

[[File:Korean Sign - Vehicles Only and No Thoroughfare for Motorcycles 3.JPG|thumb|Motorway ahead and no motorcycles sign]]

Since June 1, 1972, all motorcycles except [[police motorcycle|police motorcycles]] are prohibited from driving on expressways in South Korea, regardless of [[engine displacement]]. Before 1972, motorcycles with an engine displacement greater than 250 cc were permitted on expressways.<ref>{{in lang|ko}} [http://newslibrary.naver.com/viewer/index.nhn?articleId=1972052300209207001&editNo=2&printCount=1&publishDate=1972-05-23&officeId=00020&pageNo=7&printNo=15579&publishType=00020 Prohibit the driving on Expressways for Three-wheeled Vehicles and Motorcycles] May 23, 1972, [[Dong-a Ilbo]]</ref><ref>{{in lang|ko}} [http://newslibrary.naver.com/viewer/index.nhn?articleId=1972052400099207006&editNo=1&printCount=1&publishDate=1972-05-24&officeId=00009&pageNo=7&printNo=1912&publishType=00020 Prohibit the driving on Expressways for Three-wheeled Vehicles etc] May 24, 1972, [[Maeil Business Newspaper]]</ref>

Since March 15, 1992, all motorcycles except police motorcycles have been banned from certain other roads designated for motor vehicles only.<ref>{{in lang|ko}} Article 58 the [http://www.law.go.kr/lsInfoP.do?lsiSeq=5609&ancYd=19911214&ancNo=04421&efYd=19920315&nwJoYnInfo=N&efGubun=Y&chrClsCd=010202#0000 South Korea Road Traffic Act](Revised for December 14, 1991, Enforced from to March 15, 1992)</ref><ref>{{in lang|ko}} Article 63 of the [http://www.law.go.kr/lsInfoP.do?lsiSeq=73842&ancYd=20060428&ancNo=07936&efYd=20060601&nwJoYnInfo=N&efGubun=Y&chrClsCd=010202 South Korea Road Traffic Act](Revised for May 31, 2005 and April 28, 2006, Enforced from to June 1st 2006)</ref><ref>{{in lang|ko}} Article 63 of the [http://www.law.go.kr/lsSc.do?menuId=0&p1=&subMenu=1&query=%EB%8F%84%EB%A1%9C%EA%B5%90%ED%86%B5%EB%B2%95&x=53&y=12#AJAX South Korea Road Traffic Act](Revised for June 8, 2011, Enforced from to December 9, 2011)</ref><ref>Law Available in English, requires manual click, [https://www.law.go.kr/LSW/eng/engLsSc.do?menuId=2&section=lawNm&query=road+traffic+act+16037&x=30&y=28#liBgcolor1 South Korea Road Traffic Act]</ref> These roads are marked by a circular blue sign with a white silhouette of a car.

== See also ==
* [[Transport in South Korea]]
** [[Road transport in South Korea]]
** [[Rail transport in South Korea]]
** [[Rapid transit in South Korea]]
* [[Highway system in South Korea]]
** [[National highways of South Korea]]
** [[Local highways of South Korea]]
** [[Motorways in North Korea]]

== References ==
<references />

== External links ==
* [http://english.molit.go.kr MOLIT] – [[Government of South Korea|South Korean Government]] [[Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport (Korea)|Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport]]

{{South Korean expressways}}
{{Motorways in Asia}}
{{Highway systems of South Korea}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Roads And Expressways In South Korea}}
[[Category:Expressways in South Korea| ]]
[[Category:Roads in South Korea]]
[[Category:South Korea geography-related lists]]
[[Category:Lists of roads by country|Korea, South]]
[[Category:Lists of buildings and structures in South Korea]]
[[Category:South Korea transport-related lists]]

Bow Road tube station

2025-07-01T14:41:33Z

128.228.164.236: /* Location */

{{short description|London Underground station}}
{{about|a London Underground station|the former Great Eastern station|Bow Road railway station}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2021}}
{{Use British English|date=August 2012}}
{{Infobox London station
| name = Bow Road
| symbol = underground
| alt_name =
| manager = [[London Underground]]
| owner = [[Transport for London]]
| locale = [[Bow, London|Bow]]
| borough = [[London Borough of Tower Hamlets]]
| platforms = 2
| fare_zone = 2
| railcode =
| image_name = File:Bow Road tube station - geograph.org.uk - 574727.jpg
| coordinates = {{coord|51.52722|-0.02472|type:railwaystation_region:GB|display=inline,title}}
| map_type =
| original = [[Whitechapel and Bow Railway]]
| years1 = 11 June 1902
| years2 = 1950
| years3 =
| years4 =
| years5 =
| years6 =
| years7 =
| years8 =
| years9 =
| events1 = Opened
| events2 = Ownership transferred to [[London Transport Executive|London Transport]]
| events3 =
| events4 =
| events5 =
| events6 =
| events7 =
| events8 =
| events9 =
| listing_detail =
| listing_grade = II
| listing_start = {{Start date and age|df=y|1973|9|27}}
| listing_amended =
| listing_entry = 1357787
| listing_reference = <ref name=eh1357787>{{NHLE|num=1357787|desc=Bow Road London Transport Underground Station|access-date=12 November 2012}}</ref>
| railexits0203 =
| railexits0405 =
| railexits0506 =
| railexits0607 =
| railexits0708 =
| railint0203 =
| railint0405 =
| railint0506 =
| railint0607 =
| railint0708 =

| interchange = [[Bow Church DLR station|Bow Church]] {{rail-interchange|london|dlr}}
| interchange_note = <ref name="ReferenceA">{{citation London station interchange January 2016}}</ref>
}}
'''Bow Road''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|b|oʊ|_|ˈ|r|oʊ|d}}) is a [[London Underground]] station located on [[Bow Road]] in [[Bow, London]], [[England]]. It is on the [[District line|District]] and [[Hammersmith & City line|Hammersmith & City]] lines. The station is interlinked as an [[Oyster card#Out-of-station interchange|out of station interchange (OSI)]] with [[Bow Church DLR station|Bow Church station]] on the [[Docklands Light Railway]] which is about {{cvt|300|metres|abbr=off}} away via [[Bow Road]]. The two stations are classed as a single station for ticketing purposes as well as on [[tube map]]s but both are managed separately.

==Location==
The station is situated on the road that reflects its own name, while a fire exit leads to Wellington Way. [[National Rail]] [[c2c]] tracks and Mornington Grove Road cross above the District line to the east of the platforms. Nearby landmarks include the Minnie Lansbury Memorial, Phoenix Primary and Secondary School, Thames Magistrates' Court, Bow Road police station and Tower Hamlets Cemetery Park. The station serves a medium-sized population, as part of its catchment overlaps [[Mile End tube station|Mile End station]].<ref name=maps>{{cite map |url=https://www.google.com.my/maps/@51.5269408,-0.0248414,142m/data=!3m1!1e3?hl=en |title=Bow Road tube station |access-date=6 February 2019 |website=Google Maps}}</ref>

==History==
The station was opened on 11 June 1902 by the [[Whitechapel and Bow Railway]] in the [[Metropolitan Borough of Poplar]], (which was later incorporated into the District line), with the [[Hammersmith & City line]] (then the [[Metropolitan line]]) following in 1936.

The [[Great Eastern Railway]] [[Bow Road railway station]], which closed in 1949, stood on the opposite side of Bow Road.

Ownership of the station passed to London Underground in 1950.<ref name="LT transfer">{{ cite web | url=http://www.london-gazette.co.uk/issues/38824/pages/480/page.pdf | title= Transport Act, 1947 | work=The London Gazette| date=27 January 1950 |page=480 | access-date=28 November 2012 }}</ref>

==Design and layout==
[[File:Bow Road (LT) railway station 1866821 ec289c7a.jpg|thumb|left|View eastward at platform level in 1961]]
The station building is Grade II listed since 27 September 1973. Red bricks form the exterior facade, featuring stone eaves cornice and brick blocking course. The structure is topped with a slate roof, and has round arched doors. The doors are finished with fanlights, with four windows arranged alternately. An enclosed footbridge hangs across the platforms sheltered with canopies, both of which are made of wood. The canopies are barrel-vaulted, supported by cast iron beams and wall brackets, and hexagonal cast iron pillars. The pillars are arranged in line, following the curvature of the platforms. There are 12 pillars on one platform, while the other has 14.<ref name=eh1357787/>

[[File:Bow, emerging from underground - geograph.org.uk - 863925.jpg|thumb|Looking east along the platform]]
Bow Road station has two platforms, and marks the point where westbound trains from [[Upminster station|Upminster]] and [[Barking station|Barking]] enter a tunnel; the gradient of the tunnel approach, which is to the east of the station, is 1 in 28, the steepest on the tube network.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.trainweb.org/tubeprune/Statistics.htm|title=London Underground Statistics|access-date=25 September 2012|publisher=trainweb.org}}</ref> The station platforms are below street level, where the western end of the platforms is in tunnel while the eastern end is in an open cutting.<ref name=maps/> Other stations on the District Line are designed in a similar way, such as High Street Kensington and Sloane Square.

==Services and connections==
[[File:Bow Road stn roundel.JPG|thumb|upright=0.75|Sign to Bow Church DLR.]]
Bow Road is served by both the [[District line|District]] and [[Hammersmith & City line|Hammersmith & City]] lines, between [[Mile End tube station|Mile End]] and [[Bromley-by-Bow tube station|Bromley-by-Bow stations]], in [[List of stations in London fare zone 2|Travelcard Zone 2]]. Off-peak services on the District line generally run between Richmond or Ealing Broadway to Upminster. During peak hours, trains also operate to Wimbledon. The typical off-peak services, in trains per hour (tph) are:
*District line:<ref name=culgdistrict>{{cite web |url=http://www.davros.org/rail/culg/district.html |work=Clive's Underground Line Guides |title=District line |last=Feather |first=Clive |access-date=22 March 2015 |date=17 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150403112633/http://www.davros.org/rail/culg/district.html |archive-date=3 April 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref>
**12 tph eastbound to Upminster
**6 tph westbound to Richmond
**6 tph westbound Ealing Broadway
*Hammersmith & City line:<ref name=culgh&c>{{cite web |url=https://www.davros.org/rail/culg/hammersmith.html |last=Feather |first=Clive |title=Hammersmith & City line |work=Clive's Underground Line Guides |date=16 November 2018 |access-date=6 February 2019 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190206064832/https://www.davros.org/rail/culg/hammersmith.html |archive-date=6 February 2019}}</ref>
**6 tph eastbound to Barking
**6 tph westbound to Hammersmith

[[London Buses]] services routes [[London Buses route 25|25]] and [[London Buses route 205|205]], local route [[London Buses route 425|425]], and night route [[London Buses route N25|N25]] and [[London Buses route N205|N205]] serve the station.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://tfl.gov.uk/bus/stop/490G00029Q/bow-road-station |title=Bow Road Station |publisher=[[Transport for London]] }}</ref>

Bow Road is connected eastwards via the [[Bow Road|thoroughfare]] of the same name to [[Bow Church DLR station|Bow Church station]] on the [[Docklands Light Railway]] (DLR) as an [[Oyster card#Out-of-station interchange|out of station interchange (OSI)]]; they are classed as a single station for ticketing purposes but managed as separate stations.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{citation London station interchange January 2016}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{commons category|Bow Road tube station}}

{{Adjacent stations|system=London Underground
|line1=Hammersmith & City|left1=Mile End|right1=Bromley-by-Bow
|line2=District|left2=Mile End|right2=Bromley-by-Bow|type2=Upminster
|header3=Former services
|line3=Metropolitan|left3=Mile End |right3=Bromley-by-Bow |to-left!=Hammersmith |to-right3=Barking |note-mid3=[[Metropolitan Railway#Hammersmith & City Railway|Hammersmith branch]] (1936–1990)
}}

{{District line navbox}}
{{Hammersmith & City line navbox}}
{{Metropolitan line navbox}}

[[Category:Hammersmith & City line stations]]
[[Category:District line stations]]
[[Category:Grade II listed buildings in the London Borough of Tower Hamlets]]
[[Category:Grade II listed railway stations]]
[[Category:Tube stations in the London Borough of Tower Hamlets]]
[[Category:Former Whitechapel and Bow Railway stations]]
[[Category:Railway stations in Great Britain opened in 1902]]
[[Category:Bow, London]]

Maritime Square

2025-06-25T21:17:05Z

128.228.164.236: /* External links */

{{short description|Shopping centre in Tsing Yi, Hong Kong}}
{{for|the location formerly known as Maritime Square in [[Singapore]]|HarbourFront}}
{{primary sources|date=September 2011}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2017}}
{{Use Hong Kong English|date=November 2017}}
{{infobox shopping mall
| name = Maritime Square
| logo = MaritimeSquareLogo.svg
| image = Maritime Square Enterance 2009.jpg
| caption = Maritime Square entrance after renovation
| address = 33 Tsing King Road (Phase 1) 31 Tsing King Road (Phase 2)
| location = [[Tsing Yi|Tsing Yi Island]], Hong Kong
| coordinates = {{coord|22.3557|114.1082|display=inline,title}}
| opening_date = {{Start date and age|df=yes|1999|4|1}} (Phase 1), {{Start date and age|df=yes|2017|12|16}} (Phase 2)
| developer = [[MTR Corporation|MTR Corporation Limited]]
| number_of_stores = 140
| number_of_anchors =
| floor_area = {{cvt|46,000|sqm}}
| manager = MTR Properties Management
| owner =
| floors = 4
| publictransit = [[Tsing Yi station]]
}}
{{Chinese
|c=青衣城
|j=Cing1 ji1 sing4
|y=Chīng yī sìhng
|p=Qīngyī Chéng
|l=Tsing Yi City
}}
[[File:Maritime Square Void 201307.jpg|thumb|Atrium of Maritime Square]]
[[File:Maritime Square Aquatic Fantaria 201307.jpg|thumb|Aquatic Fantaria inside the mall]]

'''Maritime Square''' is a four-storey [[shopping centre]] located on [[Tsing Yi|Tsing Yi Island]] in the [[New Territories]] of Hong Kong. It was built and is owned by [[MTR Corporation]] (MTRC) in conjunction with the opening of [[Tsing Yi station]].
==History==
The shopping centre opened on 1 April 1999 and has a floor area of {{convert|46,000|m2}}. The landlords claimed in December 2004 that daily pedestrian traffic at the mall is 170,000.<ref>{{cite news
|last = Lau
|first = Eli
|title = MTRC malls face rent rises
|publisher = [[Hong Kong Standard]]
|date = 3 December 2004
|url = http://www.thestandard.com.hk/news_detail.asp?pp_cat=&art_id=1870&sid=&con_type=1&d_str=20050121&sear_year=2005
|access-date = 2007-02-06
|url-status = dead
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090217072337/http://www.thestandard.com.hk/news_detail.asp?pp_cat=&art_id=1870&sid=&con_type=1&d_str=20050121&sear_year=2005
|archive-date = 17 February 2009
|df = dmy-all
}}</ref>

MTR expanded the shopping centre onto the site of the Tsing Yi lorry park.<ref name="expansion">{{cite news|last1=Li|first1=Sandy|title=MTR Corp breaks ground on HK$2.4 billion shopping mall in Tsing Yi|url=http://www.scmp.com/business/companies/article/1820671/mtr-corp-breaks-ground-hk24-billion-shopping-mall-tsing-yi|work=South China Morning Post|date=12 June 2015}}</ref> Some opposed the plan because it blocks the already crowded skyline. The MTR broke ground on the $2.4 billion project in 2015, and work was completed in 2017.<ref name="expansion"/>

==Design==
Maritime Square is the first shopping mall in Hong Kong adopting ocean and navigation as the design theme.

==Shops==
Maritime Square houses a total of 140 shops. There are a wide variety of restaurants, bookstores, fashion stores, electrical appliances stores, supermarket, cinema and banks, etc. Numerous types of restaurants are available. For example, fast food restaurants like [[Café de Coral]], traditional Chinese restaurants, cafés like [[Starbucks]] and restaurants providing Japanese and Thai food. There is also a Hong Kong Jockey Centre, which is the first off-course betting branch of the [[Hong Kong Jockey Club]] to be opened on the island.<ref>[http://www.maritimesquare.com/eng/ms/shopping/list ''Shops in Maritime Square''], Official website</ref>

==Facilities==
The following various customer services are available at the Customer Service Centres:<ref>[http://www.maritimesquare.com/eng/ms/inmallservice/inmallservice.jsp ''Facilities in Maritimes Square''], Official website</ref>

* Enquiries on mall promotional activities and transportation information
* Wheelchair lending (within the mall area only)
* Baby stroller lending (within the mall area only and limited supply)
* Emergency mobile phone battery charging
* Disposable raincoat
* Umbrella lending (limited supply)
* Lost child handling and lost & found service
* Octopus card add-value service

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category inline|Maritime Square}}
* {{official website|http://www.maritimesquare.com/eng/ms/main/index.jsp}}

{{Kwai Tsing District}}
{{Shopping centres in Hong Kong}}

[[Category:Tsing Yi]]
[[Category:MTR Corporation]]
[[Category:Shopping malls established in 1998]]
[[Category:Private housing estates in Hong Kong]]
[[Category:Shopping centres in Hong Kong]]

Template:Supertall

2025-06-25T20:29:24Z

128.228.164.236: I removed "Taipei 101" as that is a building, whereas all the other towers on this list are non-building towers.

{{Navbox
| name = Supertall
| title = Supertall structures
| bodyclass = hlist
| state = {{{state|collapsed}}}
| above = ''Italics'' indicate structures under construction

| group1 = [[List of tallest structures|Towers]]
| list1 =
* [[Almaty Tower]]
* [[Aspire Tower]]
* [[Bailong Elevator]]
* [[Baku TV Tower]]
* [[Fernsehturm Berlin|Berliner Fernsehturm]]
* [[Canton Tower]]
* [[Central Radio & TV Tower|China Central Radio & TV Tower]]
* [[CN Tower]]
* [[Dragon Tower]]
* [[Eiffel Tower]]
* [[Emley Moor transmitting station]]
* [[Europaturm]]
* [[Fazilka TV Tower]]
* [[Gerbrandy Tower]]
* [[Indosiar Television Tower]]
* [[Jaisalmer TV Tower]]
* [[Jiangsu Nanjing Broadcast Television Tower]]
* [[KCTV Tower]]
* [[Kyiv TV Tower]]
* [[Kuala Lumpur Tower]]
* [[Liaoning Broadcast and TV Tower]]
* [[Liberation Tower (Kuwait)|Liberation Tower]]
* [[Lotus Tower]]
* [[Macau Tower]]
* [[Milad Tower]]
* [[Mumbai Television Tower]]
* [[N Seoul Tower]]
* [[Oriental Pearl Tower]]
* [[Ostankino Tower]]
* [[Pitampura TV Tower]]
* [[Rameswaram TV Tower]]
* [[Riga Radio and TV Tower]]
* [[Saint Petersburg TV Tower]]
* [[Samatra TV Tower]]
* [[Sint-Pieters-Leeuw Tower]]
* [[Sky Tower (Auckland)|Sky Tower]]
* [[The Strat|Strat Tower]]
* [[Sydney Tower]]
* [[Tallinn TV Tower]]
* [[Tashkent Tower]]
* [[Tbilisi TV Broadcasting Tower]]
* [[Tianjin Radio and Television Tower]]
* [[Tokyo Skytree]]
* [[Tokyo Tower]]
* [[Torreta de Guardamar]]
* [[Tortoise Mountain TV Tower]]
* [[Turner Broadcasting tower]]
* [[TVRI Tower]]
* [[Vilnius TV Tower]]
* [[Vinnytsia TV Mast]]
* [[West Pearl Tower]]
* [[WHDH-TV tower]]
* [[WITI TV Tower]]
* [[WSB-TV tower]]
* [[Yerevan TV Tower]]
* [[Zhongyuan Tower]]

| group2 = [[List of tallest bridges|Bridges]]
| list2 =
* [[Millau Viaduct]] (343 m)
* [[1915 Çanakkale Bridge]] (334 m)
* [[Yavuz Sultan Selim Bridge]] (322 m)
* [[Russky Bridge]] (321 m)
* [[Sutong Yangtze River Bridge]] (306 m)

| group3 = [[List of tallest dams|Dams]]
| list3 =
* [[Shuangjiangkou Dam]] (312 m)
* [[Jinping-I Dam]] (305 m)
* [[Nurek Dam]] (300 m)

| group4 = Electricity pylons
| list4 =
* [[Jintang-Cezi Overhead Powerline Link]] (380 m)
* [[Zhoushan Island Overhead Powerline Tie]] (370 m)
* [[Yangtze River power line crossings]] (346.5 m)

| group5 = Wind turbines
| list5 =
* [[Schipkau GICON Wind Turbine]] (under construction) (363 m)

| group6 = [[List of tallest oil platforms|Oil platforms]]
| list6 =
* [[Petronius (oil platform)|Petronius]] (640 m)
* [[Baldpate (oil platform)|Baldpate Platform]] (579.7 m)
* [[Bullwinkle (oil platform)|Bullwinkle]] (529.1 m)
* [[Pompano Platform|Pompano]] (477 m)
* [[Troll A platform]] (472 m)
* [[Benguela-Belize Lobito-Tomboco Platform|BBLT]] (512m)
* [[Gullfaks C]] (380 m)

| below =
* [[List of tallest structures|Tallest structures]]
* [[History of the world's tallest structures]]
* [[Tallest structures by category]]
}}<noinclude>
{{Documentation|content=
{{Collapsible option}}
* [https://tools.wmflabs.org/templatetransclusioncheck/index.php?lang=en&name=Template%3ASupertall Transclusion check]

[[Category:Skyscraper navigational boxes| ]]
}}</noinclude>

Macau Tower

2025-06-25T20:26:56Z

128.228.164.236:

{{Short description|Observation tower in Macau}}
{{Stack begin}}
{{Infobox building
|name = Macau Tower Convention and Entertainment Center (Macau Tower)
|native_name = {{lang|zh-Hant|澳門旅遊塔會展娛樂中心}} {{lang|pt|Centro de Convenções e Entretenimento da Torre de Macau}}
|image = Macau Tower CE Centre.jpg
|image_size = 200px
|caption = View underneath Macau Tower showing the outer rim.
|location = [[Sé, Macau|Sé]], [[Macau]]
|coordinates = {{coord|22|10|47|N|113|32|12|E|region:MO|display=inline,title}}
|status =
|start_date = 1998
|completion_date = 2001
|opening = December 19, 2001
|building_type = Communications, mixed use
|antenna_spire = {{convert|338|m|ft|1|abbr=on}}
|roof = {{convert|248|m|ft|1|abbr=on}}
|top_floor = {{convert|223|m|ft|1|abbr=on}}
|floor_count = 63 Equivalent
|elevator_count = 4
|cost = 1.2 billion patacas
|floor_area =
|architect = Craig Craig Moller Ltd.
|structural_engineer= Beca Carter Hollings & Ferner Ltd.
|main_contractor =
|developer =
|owner = Sociedade de Turismo e Diversões de Macau, S.A.R.L. (STDM)
|management = Shun Holdings
}}
{{Infobox Chinese|headercolor=#2E8B57|title=Macau Tower Convention and Entertainment Center (Macau Tower)
|t={{linktext|澳門|旅遊|塔|會展|娛樂|中心}} |s=澳门旅游塔会展娱乐中心
|j=ou3 mun4*2 leoi5 jau4 taap3 wui5 zin2 jyu4 lok6 zung1 sam1
|p=Àomén Lǚyóutǎ Huìzhǎn Yúlèzhōngxīn
|por=Centro de Convenções e Entretenimento da Torre de Macau}}
{{Stack end}}

The '''Macau Tower Convention and Entertainment Center''' ({{lang-zh|t=澳門旅遊塔會展娛樂中心}}; {{langx|pt|Centro de Convenções e Entretenimento da Torre de Macau}}), also known as '''Macau Tower''' ({{lang-zh|t=澳門塔|j=ou3 mun4*2 taap3}}; {{langx|pt|Torre de Macau}}), is a [[tower]] located in [[Sé, Macau|Sé]], [[Macau]]. The tower measures 338 m (1,109 ft) in height from ground level to the highest point. Its observation deck features views, restaurants, theaters, shopping malls and the Skywalk X, a walking tour around the outer rim. It offers the best view of Macau and in recent years has been used for a variety of adventurous activities. At {{convert|233|m|sp=us}}, the Macau Tower's tethered "skyjump" and [[Bungee jump]] by [[A J Hackett|AJ Hackett]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://s181386383.websitehome.co.uk/intl/macau/index.htm |title=Macau Tower bungy AJ Hackett - Official Website |publisher=S181386383.websitehome.co.uk |access-date=2012-12-20 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120923235433/http://s181386383.websitehome.co.uk/intl/macau/index.htm |archive-date=2012-09-23 }}</ref> from the tower's outer rim, is the highest commercial skyjump in the world, and is also the second highest commercial decelerator descent facility in the world, after Vegas' Stratosphere skyjump at {{convert|252|m|sp=us}}.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://d2br62l25pxkcl.cloudfront.net/Media/PDFs/SkyJump_FactSheet.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=2011-01-22 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110814052735/http://d2br62l25pxkcl.cloudfront.net/Media/PDFs/SkyJump_FactSheet.pdf |archive-date=2011-08-14 }}</ref>

The tower was created by Moller Architects and is one of the members of the World Federation of Great Towers. In addition to observation and entertainment, the [[Radio masts and towers|tower]] is used for telecommunications and broadcasting. It and the [[Grand Lisboa]] hotel are the most recognizable landmarks of the Macau skyline.

==History==
[[File:Macau Tower edit1.JPG|thumb|left|Macau Tower]]
On a visit to [[Auckland]], New Zealand, Macau casino billionaire [[Stanley Ho|Stanley Ho Hung-Sun]] was so impressed by the [[Sky Tower (Auckland)|Sky Tower]] in Auckland that he commissioned a similar one to be built in Macau. The tower was designed by Gordon Moller<ref name=":132">{{Cite book |last=Simpson |first=Tim |title=Betting on Macau: Casino Capitalism and China's Consumer Revolution |date=2023 |publisher=[[University of Minnesota Press]] |isbn=978-1-5179-0031-1 |series=Globalization and Community series |location=Minneapolis}}</ref>{{Rp|page=93}} and engineered by New Zealand firm [[Beca Group]] for [[Sociedade de Turismo e Diversões de Macau]].
Construction work of the tower started in 1998,<ref name=":132" />{{Rp|page=93}} and the tower was officially opened on December 19, 2001. The architect for the tower was Les Dykstra.<ref>[http://www.architects-ldl.co.nz/ Les Dykstra is now Director of Architects-ldl]</ref> The Macau Tower's construction cost US$130 million.<ref name=":132" />{{Rp|page=93}} Construction of the Macau Tower was part of the US$1 billion Nam Van [[Land reclamation in China|land reclamation project]] which transformed the [[Praia Grande (Macau)|Praia Grande]] neighborhood.<ref name=":132" />{{Rp|page=|pages=93–94}} The land reclamation project added 130 hectares of additional land and increased the overall size of the Macau peninsula by 20%.<ref name=":132" />{{Rp|page=93}}

{{multiple image|caption_align=center|header_align=center
| align = center
| direction = horizontal
| width = 250
| header =
| image1 = Macau Tower Outdoor Observation Deck.jpg
| alt1 =
| caption1 = 61°F Outdoor Observation Deck
| image2 = Macau Tower Observation Deck 2008.jpg
| alt2 =
| caption2 = 58°F Observation Deck
}}

==Bungee jumping==
[[File:Macau Tower.jpg|left|thumb|The tower is also home to several stores and a [[movie theater]].]]
The tower has routinely been used as a site for staged bungee jumping events, by professional jumpers or as part of entertainment shows.

On December 17, 2006, the father of contemporary [[bungee jumping]], [[A J Hackett]], and popular artist [[Edison Chen]] broke two [[Guinness World Record]]s at the Macau Tower. A J Hackett, broke his own Guinness World Record of "The Highest Bungee Jump from a Building" achieved in 1987 from the [[Eiffel Tower]]. Edison Chen represented Macau Tower in the inaugural jump to bid for "The World's Highest Bungee Jump Facility".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.macautower.com.mo/eng/press/20061217.asp |title=Breaking Two Guinness World Records |access-date=2006-12-16 |publisher=Macau Tower - Press |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070804061802/http://www.macautower.com.mo/eng/press/20061217.asp |archive-date=2007-08-04 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

[[Jack Osbourne]] bungee-jumped off the tower as part of the third series of ''[[Jack Osbourne: Adrenaline Junkie]]''. [[Anthony Bourdain]] bungee-jumped from the top floor of the building in an episode of ''[[Anthony Bourdain: No Reservations]]''. It was also used on the Chinese variety show ''{{ill|Up Idol (season 2)|zh|我们来了 (第一季)}}'' for episode 1. The two team captains, [[Wang Han (host)|Wang Han]] and [[Yuan Hong (actor)|Yuan Hong]], with their members, were given a mission - sky relay - to be completed on the tower as short a time as possible. Yuan Hong's team won the game, and Wang Han's team was given the punishment of bungee-jumping from the Tower. The jump was carried out by team members [[Xie Na]] and [[Joe Chen]].

==In popular culture==
The tower served as the venue of photoshoot of Episode 10, ''[[America's Next Top Model]]'' Cycle 18: British Invasion. In a 2018 Instagram post, contestant Annaliese Dayes revealed that during the photoshoot in the girls experienced “hail stones and gail force winds at {{convert|388|m|sp=us}} above the ground”. She also revealed that the weather was so bad, that the tower was closed “to the public due to the treacherous weather”.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.instagram.com/p/BpSaAs5hx4W/ |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/iarchive/s/instagram/BpSaAs5hx4W |archive-date=2021-12-24 |url-access=limited|title=Annaliese Dayes on Instagram: "Just another #ANTM #throwback for your Tuesday night! So this day in #Macau🇲🇴 was TERRIFYING... Started at 5am when camera crews &…"|website=Instagram|language=en|access-date=2020-01-01}}{{cbignore}}</ref>

It was also featured in the [[List of An Idiot Abroad episodes#ep19|third episode]] of ''[[An Idiot Abroad|An Idiot Abroad 3]]'', with [[Karl Pilkington]] and [[Warwick Davis]] walking around the perimeter of one of the highest floors and Davis undertaking a controlled descent to the ground.

It was used on the South Korean variety show ''[[Running Man (South Korean TV series)|Running Man]]'' for episode 133. The cast (not including Kim Jongkook) and their guests, [[Lee Dong-wook]] and [[Han Hye-jin (actress)|Han Hye-jin]], were given three missions - sky jump, mast climb, and sky walk - to be completed on the tower to acquire the three characters they needed to continue onto the next mission.

The tower was the site of a [[The Amazing Race#Roadblock|"Roadblock"]] task in an episode of American version of ''[[The Amazing Race 11|The Amazing Race: All-Stars]]'' that originally aired on April 22, 2007, on [[CBS]] as well as a Roadblock on ''[[The Amazing Race Canada 2]]'' in 2014. The tower also appeared in one Roadblock each on two episodes of ''[[The Amazing Race Asia 3]]''.

==See also==
* [[List of towers]]
* [[List of tallest freestanding structures in the world]]
* [[Sky Tower (Auckland)]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{commons category}}
* {{Official website|http://www.macautower.com.mo}}
* {{structurae|id=20004457}}
{{Sé, Macau}}
{{Supertall}}

[[Category:Towers completed in 2001]]
[[Category:Skyscrapers in Macau]]
[[Category:Tourist attractions in Macau]]
[[Category:Observation towers in China]]
[[Category:Sé, Macau]]
[[Category:Landmarks in Macau]]
[[Category:Towers with revolving restaurants]]
[[Category:2001 establishments in Macau]]
[[Category:Bungee jumping sites]]

Wynn Macau

2025-06-25T18:08:40Z

128.228.164.236: /* Awards and ratings */

{{Short description|Leisure resort in Macau}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2021}}
{{Infobox Casino
| casino=Wynn Macau
| native_name={{nativename|yue|永利澳門}}
| theme= [[Life imitating art]]
| address=Rua Cidade de Sintra, NAPE
| location = [[Sé, Macau]]
| logo=Wynn_Macau_Logo_2025.png
| image=Wynn Macau Resort.jpg
| rooms=1,008 (594 in Wynn tower, 414 in Encore at Wynn Macau)
| date_opened={{start date and age|6 September 2006}}
| space_gaming={{Convert|273000|sqft|m2|-2|order=flip}}
| attractions=
| shows=
| notable_restaurants=Golden Flower Mizumi Restorante il Teatro Wing Lei
| owner=[[Wynn Resorts Limited]], Wynn Macau Limited
| casino_type=Land-Based American-styled casino
| renovations=2014 (Guestrooms and Suites)
| names_pre=
| website= {{URL|https://www.wynnresortsmacau.com/en/wynn-macau}}
| coordinates = {{Coord|22|11|17|N|113|32|45|E|display=it|type:landmark}}
}}
{{Infobox Chinese
| title = Wynn Macau
| t = 永利澳門
| s = 永利澳门
| p = Yǒnglì Àomén
| j = wing5 lei6 ou3 mun4*2
}}
'''Wynn Macau''' ({{lang-zh|c=永利澳門}}) is a luxury hotel and casino resort in [[Macau]]. It comprises two towers containing a total of 1,008 rooms and suites, approximately {{Convert|273000|sqft|m2|-2|order=flip}} of casino space, over {{Convert|59000|sqft|m2|-2|order=flip}} of retail space, eight casual and fine dining restaurants, two spas, a salon and a pool.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.hkexnews.hk/listedco/listconews/sehk/2017/0806/LTN20170806007.pdf|title=UNAUDITED RESULTS FOR THE SECOND QUARTER AND THE FIRST HALF OF FISCAL 2017}}</ref> Wynn Macau is operated by international resort developer [[Wynn Resorts]].<ref>{{cite web|last1=Kester|first1=Jennifer|title=Forbes Travel Guide Reveals Its 2017 Star Award Winners|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/forbestravelguide/2017/02/22/forbes-travel-guide-reveals-its-2017-star-award-winners/1|website=Forbes|language=en}}</ref> Wynn Macau opened on 6 September 2006 and its second tower, Encore, opened on 21 April 2010.<ref>{{cite news|title=Corporate Profile|url=http://en.wynnmacaulimited.com/phoenix.zhtml?c=231614&p=irol-homeprofile|access-date=22 December 2015|publisher=Wynn Macau Limited}}</ref>

== History ==

Wynn Macau opened to the public on 6 September 2006.<ref name=Wynn1>{{cite web | author=Wynn Macau | title=Corporate Profile
| url=http://en.wynnmacaulimited.com/phoenix.zhtml?c=231614&p=irol-homeProfile&t=&id=& | access-date=2013-12-01}}</ref> In December 2007, Wynn Macau completed an expansion, adding more gaming space and additional food and beverage and retail shops.<ref name=Wynn1/>

===Encore at Wynn Macau===
On 21 April 2010, the company opened '''Encore at Wynn Macau''',<ref name=Wynn1/><ref name="Encore at Wynn Macau Opens Today">{{cite web|url=http://multivu.prnewswire.com/mnr/wynn/43604/ |title=Encore at Wynn Macau Opens Today |publisher=Multivu.prnewswire.com |access-date=29 January 2012}}</ref> an all-suite boutique hotel, which is fully integrated into the existing operations at Wynn Macau similar to [[Encore Las Vegas]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://phx.corporate-ir.net/phoenix.zhtml?c=132059&p=irol-newsArticle&ID=1337133&highlight= |title=Wynn Macau Prices Hong Kong IPO at the Top of the Range LAS VEGAS-(BUSINESS WIRE)-Sep. 30, 2009 |publisher=Phx.corporate-ir.net |access-date=29 January 2012}}</ref> Encore Macau has 410 suites, including 41 Grand Salon Suites, bringing the total number of rooms at Wynn Macau to 1,008.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.macautripping.com/tripping/post.php?p=376 |title=Steve Wynn on Encore Macau & Wynn Cotai – Macao and Cotai Strip Travel Blog |publisher=MacauTripping.com |access-date=29 January 2012}}</ref><ref name=Wynn1/><ref name="Encore at Wynn Macau Opens Today"/>

=== Awards and ratings ===
In 2009, Wynn Macau received its first Five-Star award by Forbes.<ref name=Wynn1/> {{As of|2020}} Wynn Macau is currently ranked amongst the top 25 hotels worldwide.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/larryolmsted/2020/02/18/las-vegas-5-star-luxurywynn-resort-breaks-record-for-forbes-stars/|title = Las Vegas Luxury: Wynn Resorts Breaks Forbes Travel Guide Five-Star Record| website=[[Forbes]] }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.hotelsdigest.org|title=Hotels Digest|website=www.hotelsdigest.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.top25hotels.com|title=World's Best Luxury Hotels|website=www.top25hotels.com}}</ref>

== Gallery ==

<gallery>

Image:Wynn Macao.jpg|Wynn Hotel and Casino, Macau, at night
File:Wynn Encore Macau.jpg|Encore at Wynn Macau
Image:A carved ceiling in the Wynn Macau, representing the signs of the Zodiak.jpg|A carved ceiling representing the signs of the Zodiac
File:Wynn Macau Hotel Enterance Lobby.jpg|Wynn Macau lobby
File:Wynn Macau Wynn Esplanade.jpg|Wynn Macau Esplanade
File:Wynn Macau客室.jpg|Wynn Macau guest room
</gallery>

==See also==
* [[List of casinos#Macau|List of Macau casinos]]
* [[Macau gaming law]]
* [[Gambling in Macau]]
* [[Wynn Palace]]
* [[List of integrated resorts]]

==References==
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}

==External links==
{{commons category|Wynn Macau}}
* [https://www.wynnresortsmacau.com/en/wynn-macau Wynn Macau Resort]
* [https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna14680162 Wynn Macau opens – MSNBC – AP]

{{Wynn Resorts}}

[[Category:Casinos completed in 2006]]
[[Category:Hotels established in 2006]]
[[Category:Hotel buildings completed in 2006]]
[[Category:Resorts in Macau]]
[[Category:Hotels in Macau]]
[[Category:Sé, Macau]]
[[Category:Companies listed on the Hong Kong Stock Exchange]]
[[Category:2006 establishments in Macau]]
[[Category:Casino hotels in Macau]]

Macanese Portuguese

2025-06-25T15:39:48Z

128.228.164.236: /* History */

{{short description|Form of Portuguese language used in Macau}}
{{For|the Portuguese-based creole|Macanese Patois}}
{{primary sources|date=June 2009}}
{{Infobox language
| name = Macanese Portuguese
| nativename = {{lang|pt-MO|português macaense}}
| speakers = {{sigfig|6,240|2}} in Macau
| date = 2014
| ref = <ref>{{e18|por|Portuguese (China-Macau)}}</ref>
| familycolor = Indo-European
| fam2 = [[Italic languages|Italic]]
| fam3 = [[Latin]]
| fam4 = [[Romance languages|Romance]]
| fam5 = [[Western Romance languages|Western Romance]]
| fam6 = [[Ibero-Romance languages|Ibero-Romance]]
| fam7 = [[West Iberian languages|West-Iberian]]
| fam8 = [[Galician–Portuguese]]
| fam9 = [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]
| isoexception = dialect
| script = {{plainlist|
*[[Latin script|Latin]] ([[Portuguese alphabet]])
*[[Portuguese Braille]]}}
| glotto = none
| image = File:Macau-Chinese&Portuguese.jpg
| imagecaption = Bilingual sign in Macau
| ietf = pt-MO
| nation = {{flag|Macau}}
}}

'''Macanese Portuguese''' ({{langx|pt|português macaense}}) is a [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] dialect spoken in [[Macau]], where Portuguese is [[official language|co-official]] with [[Cantonese]]. Macanese Portuguese is spoken, to some degree either natively or as a second language, by roughly 2.3%<ref>{{cite web |title=Resultados globais dos Intercensos 2016 |url=https://www.dsec.gov.mo/getAttachment/af61b58c-11b3-4467-87d5-b152d2097cc2/P_ICEN_PUB_2016_Y.aspx |publisher=Direcção dos Serviços de Estatística e Censos |access-date=9 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230407212112/https://www.dsec.gov.mo/getAttachment/af61b58c-11b3-4467-87d5-b152d2097cc2/P_ICEN_PUB_2016_Y.aspx |archive-date=7 April 2023 |location=Macau |lang=pt-MO}}</ref> of the [[population of Macau]]. It should not be confused with [[Macanese Patois|Macanese language]] (or {{lang|pt-MO|patuá}}), a distinct [[Portuguese creole]] that developed in Macau during the Portuguese rule.

==History==
{{Infobox language
| name = Macau Pidgin Portuguese
| states =
| region =
| speakers = none
| dia1 = produced [[Macanese Patois]]
| date =
| ref =
| familycolor = pidgin
| family = Portuguese–based pidgin
| glotto2 = maca1264
| glottorefname2 = Macao Pidgin Portuguese
}}

Macau had its first contact with the Portuguese language in 1557 when the territory was established as a trade center of [[Portugal]] to other parts of [[Asia]]. The language largely entered Macau in the 19th century when [[China]] ceded Macau to Portugal and Macau was declared a formal [[Portuguese Empire|Portuguese province]]. At that time, it was made an official language along with Cantonese. Despite being a Portuguese colony for over four centuries, the Portuguese language was never widely spoken in Macau and remained limited to administration and higher education and was spoken primarily by the Portuguese colonists, [[Macanese people]] of mixed ancestry (many of whom instead once spoke [[Macanese Patois]]), and elites and middle-class people of pure Chinese blood. A Portuguese [[pidgin]] was used more widely. Currently, there is only one school in Macau where Portuguese is the medium of instruction, the [[Macau Portuguese School]]; Portuguese is also mainly taught in government schools.

Macau was transferred sovereignty from Portugal to People's Republic of China in 1999, but Portuguese remained an official language. Although Portuguese use was in decline in Asia in the early 21st century after Macau was ceded to China in 1999, there has been an increase in the teaching of Portuguese, mostly due to East Timor's (closest Portuguese-speaking country to Macau) boost in the number of speakers in the last five years, but also the Chinese authorities' protection of Portuguese as an official language in Macau, owing to the growing trade links between China and [[lusophone]] nations such as Portugal, [[Brazil]], [[Angola]], [[Mozambique]], and [[East Timor]], with 5,000 students learning the language.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Brooke |first=James |date=2004-10-21 |title=China Sees Advantages in Macao's Portuguese Past |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2004/10/21/business/worldbusiness/china-sees-advantages-in-macaos-portuguese-past.html |access-date=2025-06-25 |work=The New York Times |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331}}</ref>

==Features==

===Phonology===
The Macanese dialect was traditionally an Old Portuguese variety. However, nowadays, it closely follows the standard European dialect in pronunciation and vocabulary. The only Portuguese-medium school teaches the standard European dialect, as with most of the [[Community of Portuguese-Speaking Countries|CPLP]] like in [[East Timorese Portuguese|East Timor]]. There are still some phonological differences affected by Cantonese phonology made by those who speak Portuguese as a second language, such as a [[rhotic and non-rhotic accents|non-rhotic accent]]: final {{IPA|/ɾ/}} in infinitive verbs is dropped (cf. {{lang|pt|come'''r'''}} 'to eat', {{lang|pt|dormi'''r'''}} 'to sleep, but not {{lang|pt|mar}} 'sea'), as in [[African Portuguese]] and most Brazilian speakers, and {{IPA|[ʒ]}} is devoiced to {{IPA|[ʃ]}}, a trait almost unique to Macau. These phonological differences do not apply to Chinese who have higher education in Portuguese.

===Lexicon===
Vocabulary is the same as in Portugal, but there are some differences due to Cantonese influence. Macau Portuguese also [[loanword|borrowed words]] from [[Malay language|Malay]] and from other [[Indo-European languages]] like [[Sinhalese language|Sinhalese]], [[Konkani people|Konkani]], and [[Marathi language]]s from the beginning as the Portuguese settlers often married women from [[Portuguese Malacca]], [[Portuguese India]] and [[Portuguese Ceylon]] rather than from neighbouring [[China]]. In the 17th century it was further influenced by the influx of immigrants from other Portuguese colonies in Asia, especially from Portuguese Malacca, [[Portuguese colonialism in Indonesia|Indonesia]], and Portuguese Ceylon, that had been displaced by the [[Dutch Republic|Dutch]] expansion in the [[East Indies]], and [[Japanese Christian]] refugees. These include {{lang|pt-MO|tim sam}}, [[dim sum]]; {{lang|pt-MO|goh lor}}, [[goh low]]; and {{lang|pt-MO|shu tiu}}, [[si tiu]]. It reached to countries and regions where Portuguese is spoken, especially Portugal where it was brought by Portuguese returnees and some Chinese and Macanese (who are loyal to them) who brought Chinese and Macanese culture. Vocabulary even went to Brazil through leaving Portuguese settlers with some Macanese and Chinese settlers.

==See also==
*[[East Timorese Portuguese]]
*[[Portuguese language in Goa|Goan Portuguese]]

==References==
<references />

==External links==
* [http://www.linguaportuguesa.ufrn.br/pt_3.5.php O Português na Asia]
{{Languages of Macau}}
{{Languages of China}}
{{Portuguese dialects}}

[[Category:Languages of Macau]]
[[Category:Portuguese dialects]]
[[Category:Portuguese language in Asia]]

Sai Van Bridge

2025-06-25T15:37:02Z

128.228.164.236:

{{Expand Chinese|西灣大橋|date=August 2024}}
{{Infobox bridge
|bridge_name= Sai Van Bridge
|image= Southwest View Macau Peninsula2021.jpg
|caption=
|official_name= Ponte de Sai Van
|also_known_as=
|carries= 6 [[lane]]s of roadway (upper), 2 [[Macau Light Rail Transit|Macau LRT]] rail tracks (lower)
|crosses= [[Praia Grande (Macau)|Praia Grande Bay]]
|locale= [[Macau Peninsula]] and [[Taipa]]
|maint=
|id=
|design= [[Cable-stayed bridge]]
|mainspan= {{convert|180|m|ft|0}}
|length= {{convert|2200|m|ft|0}}
|width= {{convert|28|m|ft|0}}
|clearance_above=
|clearance_below=
|traffic= cars
|open= 19 December 2004
|closed=
|toll= free
|map_cue=
|map_image=
|map_text=
|map_width=
|coordinates= {{coord|22|10|20|N|113|32|10|E|display=inline, title|type:landmark}}
|lat=
|long=
}}
{{Infobox Chinese
|pic=
|piccap=Ponte de Amizade and the [[Hong Kong-Macau Ferry Pier, Macau|Hong Kong-Macau Ferry Terminal]]
|t=西灣大橋
|s=西湾大桥
|j=sai1 waan1 daai6 kiu4
|p=Xīwān Dàqiáo
|l=west bay bridge
|por=Ponte de Sai Van
}}

The '''Sai Van Bridge''' ({{langx|zh|西灣大橋}}, {{langx|pt|Ponte de Sai Van}}) is a [[cable-stayed bridge]] located in [[Macau]]. Inaugurated on 19 December 2004, the bridge measures {{convert|2.2|km|mi|1|sp=us}} long and is the third one to cross the [[Praia Grande (Macau)|Praia Grande Bay]] connecting [[Taipa Island]] and [[Macau Peninsula]] on Hsiang-shan Island. It features a [[double-deck bridge|double-deck design]], with an enclosed lower deck to be used in the event of strong typhoons when the other three bridges connecting Taipa and Macau Peninsula, both of which are single-deck, namely [[Ponte Governador Nobre de Carvalho]] and [[Ponte de Amizade]], are closed. It is the world's first prestressed concrete double-deck main beam cable-stayed bridge and the world's largest-span double-deck concrete bridge. The lower deck of the bridge also carries the [[Macau Light Transit System]],<ref>{{Cite news |date=July 30, 2019 |title=Rosário Takes 22 Lawmakers on Their 1st LRT Ride |work=Macao News |url=https://macaonews.org/rosario-takes-22-lawmakers-on-their-1st-lrt-ride/}}</ref> which started revenue operation on 8 December 2023.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.tdm.com.mo/en/news-detail/907256 | title=TDM }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.tdm.com.mo/en/news-detail/908156?lang=en&isvideo=false | title=TDM }}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Transport in Macau]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Ponte de Sai Van|Sai Van Bridge}}
*[https://archive.today/20051029122024/http://www.macautourism.gov.mo/new_site/sightseeing/sightseeing.php?lang=en&catid=13 MGTO – Sightseeing]: Brief introduction to the bridge by Macau Government Tourist Office
*Administrative Regulation No. 21/2005, "Sai Van Bridge Regulation" – [https://bo.io.gov.mo/bo/i/2005/48/regadm21_cn.asp in Chinese] and [https://bo.io.gov.mo/bo/i/2005/48/regadm21.asp in Portuguese] via the official website of the [[Printing Bureau (Macao)|Printing Bureau]].

{{Bridges and tunnels in Macau}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Bridges completed in 2004|Sai Van]]
[[Category:Bridges in Macau|Sai Van]]
[[Category:Road-rail bridges|Sai Van]]
[[Category:Transport in Macau]]
[[Category:2004 establishments in Macau]]

{{macau-struct-stub}}
{{Asia-bridge-struct-stub}}

Alto de Coloane

2025-06-25T15:36:21Z

128.228.164.236:

{{Short description|Highest point of Macau}}
{{Infobox mountain
| name = Alto de Coloane 疊石塘山
| photo = Alto de Coloane.jpg
| photo_caption =
| elevation_m = 172.4
| elevation_ref =
| prominence_m = 172.4
| prominence_ref =
| map = Macau
| map_caption =
| map_size = 150
| label_position =
| listing =
| location = [[Coloane]], [[Macau]]
| range =
| coordinates = {{coord|22|07|15|N|113|33|41|E|type:mountain_region:MO_scale:100000|format=dms|display=inline,title}}
| range_coordinates =
| coordinates_ref =
| topo =
| type =
| age =
| first_ascent =
| easiest_route =
}}

'''Alto de Coloane''' ({{zh|first=t,j|t=疊石塘山|p=Diéshí Tángshān|cy=Daahpsehk Tòhngsāan}}, {{Langx|pt|Alto de Coloane}}) is the highest point of [[Macau]]. The {{convert|172.4|m|adj=mid|abbr=on||-tall}} mountain is located on the island of [[Coloane]].

==See also==
* [[Geography of Macau]]

==External links==
{{Commons inline}}

{{Highest points of Asia}}

[[Category:Landforms of Macau|Coloane Alto]]
[[Category:Coloane]]
[[Category:Hills of China]]
[[Category:Highest points of Chinese provinces]]

{{Coloane-stub}}

Crystal Lake (Michigan)

2025-06-25T15:34:19Z

128.228.164.236:

{{Short description| Lake in the state of Michigan, United States}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=April 2025}}
'''Crystal Lake''' may refer to the following lakes in '''Michigan''':


*[[Crystal Lake (Benzie County, Michigan)]], largest at {{coord|44|39|N|86|09|W}}
*[[Alcona County, Michigan|Alcona County]] in [[Haynes Township, Michigan|Haynes Township]] near the village of [[Lincoln, Michigan|Lincoln]] at {{coord|44|41|24|N|83|23|24|W|}}
*[[Calhoun County, Michigan|Calhoun County]] in [[Fredonia Township, Michigan|Fredonia Township]] near [[Marshall, Michigan|Marshall]] at {{coord|42|14|25|N|84|58|55|W|}}
*[[Dickinson County, Michigan|Dickinson County]] in [[Iron Mountain, Michigan|Iron Mountain]] at {{coord|45|48|42|N|88|04|41|W|}}
*Rural [[Dickinson County, Michigan|Dickinson County]] at {{coord|45|56|50|N|87|55|19|W|}}
*[[Gogebic County, Michigan|Gogebic County]] on the border with [[Wisconsin]] just east of [[U.S. Highway 45|US 45]] at {{coord|46|09|25|N|89|10|45|W|}}
*[[Hillsdale County, Michigan|Hillsdale County]] in [[Somerset Township, Michigan|Somerset Township]] just north of [[Somerset Center, Michigan|Somerset Center]] at {{coord|42|03|51|N|84|24|43|W|}}
*[[Houghton County]] in the [[Ottawa National Forest]] a few miles west of [[Sidnaw, Michigan|Sidnaw]] on [[M-28 (Michigan highway)|M-28]] at {{coord|46|30|09|N|88|45|42|W|}}
*[[Manistee County, Michigan|Manistee County]] in [[Norman Township, Michigan|Wellston, Manistee County, Michigan]] from M-55 Hwy, take Seaman Road south less than 1 mile, lake on west side of Seaman Road (no motor boats are allowed).
*[[Montcalm County, Michigan|Montcalm County]] in [[Crystal Township, Montcalm County, Michigan|Crystal Township]] about 15 mile (24 km) southwest of [[Alma, Michigan|Alma]] at {{coord|43|15|43|N|84|55|53|W|}}
*[[Montmorency County, Michigan|Montmorency County]] in [[Albert Township, Michigan|Albert Township]] a few miles northwest of [[Lewiston, Michigan|Lewiston]] at {{coord|44|55|14|N|84|20|52|W|}}
*[[Newaygo County, Michigan|Newaygo County]] in [[Sherman Township, Newaygo County, Michigan|Sherman Township]] midway between [[Fremont, Michigan|Fremont]] and [[White Cloud, Michigan|White Cloud]] at {{coord|43|30|22|N|85|51|54|W|}}
*[[Oakland County, Michigan|Oakland County]] near [[Pontiac, Michigan|Pontiac]] at {{coord|42|37|16|N|83|18|14|W|}}
*[[Oakland County, Michigan|Oakland County]] in [[Holly Township, Michigan|Holly Township]] in the [[Holly State Recreation Area]] at {{coord|42|48|32|N|83|35|12|W|}}
*[[Oceana County, Michigan|Oceana County]] in [[Hart Township, Michigan|Hart Township]] midway between [[Shelby, Oceana County, Michigan|Shelby]] and [[Hart, Michigan]] just east of [[U.S. Route 31 in Michigan|U.S. Highway 31]] at {{coord|43|39|08|N|86|22|49|W|}}

==See also==
*[[Crystal Lake Township, Michigan]]
*[[List of lakes in Michigan]]

{{lake index}}

{{authority control}}

[[Category:Lists of coordinates]]
[[Category:Lists of lakes of Michigan]]

Culture of Macau

2025-06-25T15:22:00Z

128.228.164.236: /* Facilities */

{{Short description|none}} 
{{Culture of Macau}}[[Macau]] is an autonomous territory within [[China]]. A [[Portuguese Empire|Portuguese colony]] until 1999, Macau has a diverse culture firmly rooted in [[Cantonese culture]], with a mix of influences from [[East Asia]] and [[Western Europe]]. Macau is known for being the largest [[Gambling in Macau|gambling center]] in the world.

==People and languages==
{{Bar box
|title=Most commonly used daily languages
|titlebar=#DDD
|left1=
|right2=
|float=right
|width=410px
|barwidth=250px
|bars=
{{bar percent|Cantonese|red|80.01}}
{{bar percent|Mandarin|green|5.5}}
{{bar percent|Tagalog|blue|3.0}}
{{bar percent|Portuguese|purple|0.6}}
{{bar percent|English|orange|2.8}}
|caption=From the 2016 census result.<ref>{{cite report
| author = 
| author-link =
| date = 
| title = Intercensos 2016 Resultados Globais
| url = https://www.dsec.gov.mo/getAttachment/af61b58c-11b3-4467-87d5-b152d2097cc2/P_ICEN_PUB_2016_Y.aspx
| publisher = Direcção dos Serviços de Estatística e Censos, Governo da Região Administrativa Especial de Macau
| format =
| others =
| edition =
| location =
| chapter =
| section = População local, segundo o domínio de línguas, por grupo etário e sexo
| page =
| pages =
| docket =
| access-date = 7 June 2024
| quote =
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20240517195555/https://www.dsec.gov.mo/getAttachment/af61b58c-11b3-4467-87d5-b152d2097cc2/P_ICEN_PUB_2016_Y.aspx
| archive-date = 17 May 2024
| language = zh-MO-Hant, pt-MO
}}</ref>
}}

The two official languages of Macau are [[Chinese language|Chinese]] and [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], although the latter is only spoken by a small minority. [[English language|English]] is also widely spoken. {{As of|2016}}, 80.1% of the population speak [[Cantonese]] as their daily language.{{cn|date=February 2025}}

In 2018 [[Reuters]] stated "there are signs that Chinese is being prioritized in government."<ref name=ReutersPortel>{{cite web|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-macau-china-law/in-macau-portuguese-elites-feel-squeezed-out-by-chinese-influence-idUSKCN1MF0OQ|title=In Macau, Portuguese elites feel squeezed out by Chinese influence|work=[[Reuters]]|date=2018-10-05|accessdate=2021-02-12}}</ref>

The [[Macanese language]], generally known as ''Patuá'', is a distinctive [[Creole language|creole]] that is still spoken by several dozen members of the [[Macanese people]], an ethnic group of mixed [[Asian people|Asian]] and [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]] ancestry that accounts for a small percentage of Macau's population.{{cn|date=February 2025}}

[[Image:Macau-Chinese&Portuguese.jpg|thumb|right|A sign in both [[Chinese language|Chinese]] and Portuguese in Macau - "{{lang|zh-MO|主教座堂辦公室}}" (in Chinese) and "{{lang|pt|Cartório da Sé|italics=no}}" (in Portuguese), which means "Office of the Cathedral."]]

Signs in Macau are displayed in both [[Traditional Chinese]] and Portuguese. In contrast to mainland China, Macau—along with [[Hong Kong]] and [[Taiwan]]—generally does not use [[Simplified Chinese|Simplified Chinese characters]].

Among the main migrants of the country are skilled workers from the [[Philippines]], hence [[Tagalog language|Tagalog]] is one of the most-heard foreign languages.{{cn|date=February 2025}}

===Cultural identity===
The worldwide popularity of Cantonese food and [[Chinese martial art]]s (''[[kung fu (term)|kung fu]]'' or ''[[wushu (sport)|wu shu]]'') has made them popular in Portugal as well.

In 1998, the first ''Festival da Lusofonia'' took place in Macau, a festival of Portuguese-speaking communities. In November 2013, the 16th edition of the festival took place over the duration of two and a half days with musical activities, kids programmes, traditional Portuguese games and food from Portuguese-speaking countries' cuisines.<ref>{{cite web | author=Instituto Para Os Assuntos Civicos E Minicipais (IACM) | title=16º Festival da Lusofonia | url=http://www.iacm.gov.mo/p/activity/detail/60e8bf69-0ba4-4ab4-98c2-829cd508441c,scrweb | date=2013-10-11 | access-date=2013-11-03 | url-status=dead | archive-url=https://archive.today/20131104094506/http://www.iacm.gov.mo/p/activity/detail/60e8bf69-0ba4-4ab4-98c2-829cd508441c,scrweb | archive-date=2013-11-04 }}</ref>

===Mass media===
{{Main|Communications in Macau}}
Most of the pop music that can be heard on the channel ''TDM Teledifusão de Macau'' (澳廣視)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://portugues.tdm.com.mo/eng_news.php|title=Macau TDM|website=Portugues.tdm.com.mo|access-date=29 January 2018}}</ref> is imported from Hong Kong or overseas (mainly [[Japan]]). However, more and more local songs are being recorded by locals. Some Brazilian TV stations are also broadcast in Macau.

==Cuisine==
{{Main|Macanese cuisine}}
Macanese cuisine is a blend of [[southern China|southern Chinese]] (especially [[Cantonese|Cantonese cuisine]]) and Portuguese cuisines, with significant influences from Southeast Asia and the Lusophone world. The most famous snack is the Portuguese-style [[egg tart]]. It is widely popular in Southeast Asia, especially in [[Taiwan]] and [[Hong Kong]]. The most famous Macanese food is [[galinha à portuguesa]], which is served in numerous varieties in Macau restaurants.

In 2018 Reuters stated that the cuisine was one of the few remaining Portuguese influences in Macau.<ref name=ReutersPortel/>

==Religion==
{{Main|Religion of Macau}}
The primary religion is [[Buddhism]]. [[Roman Catholicism]] has considerable influence in education and social welfare in Macau. However, adherents only count for about six percent of the population. [[Protestantism]] is spreading quickly, especially among the younger demographic groups.

==Arts==
[[File:Teatro Don Pedro V, Macao, 2013-08-08, DD 01.jpg|thumbnail|Dom Pedro V theatre]]

===Film===
{{See also category|Films shot in Macau|Films set in Macau}}
A few independent films have been produced since the late 1990s. Recent Macau film productions include:
* 窗前熗後 by Vincent Hui (2000)
* ''Love Is Not A Sin'' ({{lang|zh-MO|鍾意無罪}}) by Doug Chan (2003). Winner of Golden DV Award (27th HKIFF), Winner of The Best Original Screenplay Award (1st Downunder International Film Festival, Darwin).
* ''macau.xmas.2005'' ({{lang|zh-MO|澳門.聖誕.2005}})<ref>{{cite web|url=http://macau-creatives.org/xmas|title=macau.xmas.2005|website=Macau-creatives.org|access-date=29 January 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160527001912/http://macau-creatives.org/xmas/|archive-date=27 May 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref> by Sio (2005).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://diffproductions.com|title=Home|website=Diffproductions.com|access-date=29 January 2018}}</ref>
* ''Macao 2525'' (2021). Nominated for best digital animation at the Film & TV World Cup 2021 at the Lima Web Fest in Peru.
* ''[[The Edge Of Human]]'' by [[Johan Karlberg]] and Angela Lao (2022). First Macanese Cyberpunk movie, nominated for best experimental film at the Film & TV World Cup 2022 Pinewood Studios Lift Off Sessions in London UK. Finished 4th place of 42 in the network round.<ref>{{cite web|url= https://liftoffnetwork.typeform.com/report/IDzoNsSG/x6qoi3DEFvjbMh3N |title=Final Results Vote 2022|access-date=14 September 2022}} </ref>
* ''[[Return To Earth - Macau Sci-fi]]'' (2023) by [[Johan Karlberg]] and [[Angela Lao]]. Finished Top 4 of 15 nominated finalists at BCT Cinema E Televisione festival in Italy (best feature film);. declared the best Asian feature film in the festival. <ref>{{cite web|url= https://www.festivalbeneventocinematv.it/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/OFFICIAL-SELECTION-2023-GREATEST-INDIPENDENT.pdf |title=Greatest Indie Film Nominee|access-date=28 April 2023}} </ref><ref>{{cite web|url= https://www.festivalbeneventocinematv.it/wp-content/uploads/2023/06/libretto-2023-web.pdf |title=BCT Benevento Cinema E Televisione Schedule |access-date=8 June 2023}} </ref>

===Music===
The Macau International Music Festival is conducted by the Cultural Affairs Bureau of the Macau SAR Government every autumn.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www3.icm.gov.mo/gate/gb/www.icm.gov.mo/fimm/NewsDE.asp?id=5338|title=17th Macau International Music Festival|access-date=2007-06-01|publisher=Instituto Cultural do Governo da R.A.E. de Macau |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927215344/http://www3.icm.gov.mo/gate/gb/www.icm.gov.mo/fimm/NewsDE.asp?id=5338  |archive-date=2007-09-27}}</ref> The 20th anniversary of the MIMF was celebrated in 2007 with performances of [[Jazz]], [[classical music]], [[electronica]], Chinese [[Folk music|folk]]-pop, [[Rock music|rock]] and [[Fado]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://traveloscopy.com/CMS/content/view/731/2/|title=20th MACAU INTERNATIONAL MUSIC FESTIVAL|access-date=2007-06-01|website=Travelscopy.com|archive-date=2007-09-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929012610/http://traveloscopy.com/CMS/content/view/731/2/|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Other [[Lusophone music]] types popular in Macao are ''[[samba]]'', ''[[bossa nova]]'', and ''[[kizomba]]''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://traveloscopy.com/CMS/content/view/731/2/|title=20th Macau International Music Festival - Traveloscopy|website=Traveloscopy.com|access-date=29 January 2018|archive-date=30 January 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180130013638/http://traveloscopy.com/CMS/content/view/731/2/|url-status=dead}}</ref>

In 2005, the [[Hush!! Full Band Festival]] got established, a government-sponsored modern music festival featuring pop rock and hard rock bands from all over Asia with a focus on Macau bands. The festival is free of charge and it's in its 9th edition in 2013.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ccm.gov.mo/HUSH/c/info/default.aspx |title=HUSH!! Full Band 馬拉松搖滾音樂祭2013 |website=Ccm.gov.mo|access-date=2013-10-28}}</ref>

===Literature===
[[File:Biblioteca Robert Ho Tung, Macao, 2013-08-08, DD 01.jpg|thumbnail|Robert Ho Tung library in Macau.]]
The literature of Macanese (i.e. those with Portuguese descent) is a multi-dimensional art.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Chun |title=A literatura macaense de expressão portuguesa |journal=Revista de Cultura |issue=April/June 1995 |url=https://www.icm.gov.mo/rc/viewer/30023/1789|publisher=Instituto Cultural de Macau}}</ref> Their literature appeared as early as the 19th century. At the beginning of the 20th century, a group of well-known writers appeared:
* Anthology "Lonely Road": TancareiraBela, Tancareira Pensativa and CancāoDe Tancareira by Leanel Alves.
* Anthology "Blessed Garden, Macau" by [[Jose dos Santos Ferreira]].
* Short fiction "The Gown" by [[Deolinda de Conceição]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.arscives.com/Deolinda/introduction.htm|title=Introduction|website=Arscives.com|access-date=29 January 2018|archive-date=3 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303173030/http://www.arscives.com/Deolinda/introduction.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* Long fiction: "Love and small toes" & "The Bewitching Braid" written by [[Henrique de Senna Fernandes]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.informac.gov.mo/aam/portuguese/advogado/0028.htm |title=Archived copy |access-date=2006-08-28 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929081346/http://www.informac.gov.mo/aam/portuguese/advogado/0028.htm |archive-date=2007-09-29 }}</ref>
* Anthology "Four Seasons in One Day" – [[Carlos Marreiros]]<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.imprensa.macau.gov.mo/galeria/pt/dinastia/biografia.asp |title=Carlos Marreiros |website=Dinastia Macau |publisher=Imprensa Oficial |language=pt |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060512172950/http://www.imprensa.macau.gov.mo/galeria/pt/dinastia/biografia.asp |archive-date=2006-05-12 |access-date=2006-08-28}}</ref>
* Other:
** "Chinese Urheen" by [[Camilo Pessanha]] (1867–1926)
** "The Chart of Maritime Countries ({{lang|zh-MO|海國圖志}})", "Listens to the [[Hammered dulcimer|Dulcimer]] & Song playing by a foreign lady in the Macau Garden ({{lang|zh|澳门花园听夷女洋琴歌}})" written by Wei Yuan ({{lang|zh|魏源}} 1794–1857), displayed his personal feeling and understanding of [[classical music]].

===Cantonese opera===
{{Main|Cantonese opera}}
[[Cantonese opera]]<ref>{{Citation |title=Cantonese Opera to be proposed for World Heritage |date=2002-11-21 |url=http://www.macauheritage.net/Trends/NewsE.asp?nid=5196 |work=Macau Heritage Net |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041027205023/http://www.macauheritage.net/Trends/NewsE.asp?nid=5196 |archive-date=2004-10-27}}</ref> is quite popular, especially among elderly residents. In 2003, the Cultural Institute of the Macau S.A.R Government, in collaboration with the Leisure and Cultural Services Department of the Hong Kong SAR, organized the exhibition "Fong Yim Fun – The Life and Work of a [[Cantonese Opera]] Artiste".<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.macaumuseum.gov.mo/htmls/tempexhi/FongYimFun/Intro_eng.htm |title=Fong Yim Fun - The Life and Work of a Cantonese Opera Artiste |website=Museum of Macau |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060108172219/http://www.macaumuseum.gov.mo/htmls/tempexhi/FongYimFun/Intro_eng.htm |archive-date=2006-01-08 |access-date=2006-08-28}}</ref> As a well-known actress and opera artiste in [[Guangdong]], Hong Kong and Macau, Fong Yim Fun performed in more than 150 operas and films. Part of her works was exhibited in the [[Museum of Macau]] at that time.

===Facilities===
[[File:Praca do Centro Cultural.JPG|left|thumb|The Plaza of Cultural Centre]]
[[File:Macao Cultural Center 2011.JPG|right|thumb|[[Macao Cultural Centre]]]]

The [[Macao Cultural Centre]] was established in 1999, for the purpose of offering unique venues for artistic events, international conferences and exhibitions, enhancing cultural exchange, and helping to expand culture horizons among Macau residents. Hundreds of programs and events take place there almost every day—e.g., [[martial arts]] performances, European traditional music, Chinese traditional music, foreign music, varies types of dancing, etc.

The Macau Ricci Institute is a recent foundation of the [[Jesuits]] in Macau. Its aim is to continue the process of friendly encounters between [[Culture of China|Chinese]] and [[Culture of Europe|European]] cultures and traditions, which was begun by [[Matteo Ricci]] 1552–1610 many years ago.<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://www.riccimac.org/eng/mris/index.htm | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051027211435/http://www.riccimac.org/eng/mris/index.htm | url-status=dead | archive-date=2005-10-27 |title = The Macau Ricci Institute - Macau Ricci Institute Studies}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|China|Society}}
* [[Architecture of Macau]]
* [[List of museums in Macau]]
* [[Lingnan culture]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.ccm.gov.mo/HUSH/c/info/default.aspx HUSH!! Full Band Festival], official CCM website
* [http://wiki.rockinchina.com/w/Macau Macau scene overview] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029214734/http://wiki.rockinchina.com/w/Macau |date=2013-10-29 }} at RockinChina.com

{{Macau topics}}
{{Languages of Macau}}
{{Culture of Asia}}

[[Category:Culture of Macau| ]]

Bank of China Building, Macau

2025-06-25T15:13:44Z

128.228.164.236:

{{Short description|Office building in Macau, China}}
{{Infobox building
| name = Bank of China Building
| native_name = {{lang-zh|中國銀行大廈}} {{langx|pt|Edifício do Banco da China}}
| native_name_lang =
| former_names =
| alternate_names =
| status =Complete
| image =
| image_alt =
| image_size = 240
| caption = Front view of Bank of China Building in Macau
| location = [[Sé, Macau|Sé]], [[Macau]]
| address =
| location_town =
| location_country = [[China]]
| coordinates = {{coord|22.189861|113.542974|display=inline}}
| groundbreaking_date =
| start_date = 1989
| completion_date = 1991
| opened_date =
| inauguration_date =
| demolition_date =
| destruction_date =
| architect = [[P & T Architects & Engineers Ltd]]
| landlord =
| owner =
| cost =
| floor_area = 2,172 sq m
| floor_count = 38
| map_type = Macau
| map_alt =
| map_caption = Location in Macau
| relief =
| altitude =
| building_type = Skyscraper
| architectural_style = Modernism
| structural_system =
| ren_cost =
| client =
| current_tenants =
| renovation_date =
| height = 163 m
| architectural =
| tip =
| antenna_spire =
| roof =
| observatory =
| other_dimensions =
| elevator_count =
}}
{{Infobox Chinese|t=中國銀行大廈|s=中国银行大厦|j=zung1 gwok3 ngan4 hong4 daai6 haa6|p=Zhōngguó Yínháng Dàshà|por=Edifício do Banco da China}}
'''Bank of China Building''' ({{zh|first=t|t=中國銀行大廈}}, {{langx|pt|Edifício do Banco da China}}) is the ninth tallest building in [[Macau]]. At 38 floors and {{convert|163|m|ft}} tall, it was designed by [[P&T Architects & Engineers Ltd]] and it is home to the [[Bank of China]] operations in Macau.<ref name="emporisa">{{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20131204191922/http://www.emporis.com/building/bank-of-china-building-macau-china Building information at EMPORIS]}}</ref> Construction started in 1989 and was completed in 1991.<ref name="emporisa"/>

==Gallery==
<gallery>
File:Bank of China Building, Macau.jpg|Front view of Bank of China Building in Macau
File:MacauBOCBuilding SAR10thAnniversary.jpg
File:Grand-Lisboa-at-night-0839.jpg|Building (left)
File:BOC Macau Building.jpg
</gallery>

==See also==
* [[List of tallest buildings in Macau]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20131204191922/http://www.emporis.com/building/bank-of-china-building-macau-china Building information at EMPORIS]}}
*{{Commons category-inline}}

{{Sé, Macau}}
{{Bank of China}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Skyscrapers in Macau]]
[[Category:Bank of China]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Macau]]
[[Category:1991 establishments in Macau]]
[[Category:Skyscraper office buildings in China]]
[[Category:Office buildings completed in 1991]]

Avenida de Almeida Ribeiro

2025-06-25T15:10:26Z

128.228.164.236: /* External links */ I removed a category that was redundant.

{{Chinese|pic=Avenida de Almeida Ribeiro.jpg
|piccap=The street sign of Avenida de Almeida Ribeiro
|t= 亞美打利庇盧大馬路
|s=亚美打利庇卢大马路
|j=aa3 mei5 daa2 lei6 bei3 lou4 daai6 maa5 lou6
|p=Yàměidá Lìbìlú Dàmǎlù
|t2=新馬路
|s2=新马路
|j2=san1 maa5 lou6
|p2=Xīnmǎlù
|por=Avenida de Almeida Ribeiro}}

'''Avenida de Almeida Ribeiro''' ({{zh|t=亞美打利庇盧大馬路}}), also commonly known as '''San Ma Lou''' ({{zh|t= 新馬路}}; "new road"), is the main avenue in the heart of [[Macau Peninsula]]. The 620 metres long avenue was laid out in 1920 and it extends from the Inner to the Outer harbour, passing through the old residential area with its rows of colourful street shops.

==History==
The avenue used to be a small, winding alley. It was not until 1918 that buildings and hills alongside was being altered or demolished for the construction of the avenue. Then being the newest road in the city the widespread '''San Ma Lou'''<ref>{{Cite web |last=Lei |first=Yuki |date=2023-01-11 |title=San Ma Lou pedestrian area now slated for CNY: IC |url=https://www.macaupostdaily.com/news/16607 |access-date=2025-03-29 |website=Macau Post Daily |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-07-08 |title=How San Ma Lou Became Macau’s Lifeline |url=https://macaulifestyle.com/culture/local-knowledge/san-ma-lou/ |access-date=2025-03-29 |website=Macau Lifestyle |language=en-US}}</ref> name was given by locals, literally "New Road".

==Shopping area==
The main shopping belt is marked by the streets of {{ill|Avenida do Infante Dom Henrique|zh|殷皇子大馬路}} (殷皇子大馬路) and Avenida Almeida Ribeiro, [[São Domingos Market]], [[Rua da Palha]], {{ill|Rua do Campo|zh|水坑尾街}} (水坑尾街), and {{ill|Rua Pedro Nolasco da Silva|zh|伯多祿局長街}}. Nearby, on the lanes around the [[Rua das Estalagens]], is a local [[flea market]], a popular spot to look for Chinese [[antiques]].

From [[Largo do Senado]] heading towards the Inner Harbour along the Avenida Almeida Ribeiro, a cluster of jewellery or gold shops can be easily found. Also, [[antique shop]]s can be seen near [[Cathedral of Saint Paul in Macau|St. Paul's]], along Avenida Almeida Ribeiro, on [[Travessa do Pagode]] and opposite the [[Kun Lam Temple]]. [[Liquor]]s, [[tobacco]], [[Portuguese wine]] are largely found in many shops on Avenida de Almeida Ribeiro.

[[Gambling]] used to flourish along the avenue but most were relocated to newer, less urbanized regions like [[Cotai]] since the 1990s.

==Landmarks==
Avenida de Almeida Ribeiro hosts a mix of European and Chinese styled buildings along its length, most dated back to the 1920s. Historic landmarks situated there include [[Largo do Senado]], [[Leal Senado Building]], Macau General Post Office and [[Hotel Central]].

==Gallery==
<gallery>
Image:Macau Avenida de Almeida Ribeiro road.JPG|Avenida de Almeida Ribeiro, the main street of Macau Peninsula.
Image:Avenida de Almeida Ribeiro.JPG|Bank of China (left) and [[Banco Nacional Ultramarino]], two well-known [[landmark]]s along Avenida de Almeida Ribeiro.
Image:MacauPonte16_2.jpg|The Ponte 16 site (west end of Avenida de Almeida Ribeiro) is located in the Inner Harbour of Macau's Pier 16, one of the oldest districts in the former Portuguese enclave.
File:Avenida de Almeida Ribeiro - 20100923.jpg|Avenida de Almeida Ribeiro
</gallery>

==See also==
* [[Transport in Macau]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Avenida de Almeida Ribeiro}}
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20070928074319/http://192.203.232.181/Macauweb/Encyclopedia/html/40903.htm Avenida de Almeida Ribeiro '''(Chinese)''']
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20071112083301/http://www.planetware.com/macao-macau/avenida-almeida-ribeiro-mco-mc-aa.htm Planet Ware: Avenida de Almeida Ribeiro]
*[http://www.wcities.com/en/record/,234758/406/record.html Gold shops on Avenida de Almeida Ribeiro]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20071030080714/http://www.macautourism.gov.mo/en/discovering/shopping.php Shopping in Macau: Avenida de Almeida Ribeiro]

{{Macau topics}}

[[Category:Macau Peninsula]]
[[Category:Roads in Macau]]
[[Category:Classified immovable properties]]

{{Macau-stub}}

Chek Lap Kok

2025-06-25T13:10:35Z

128.228.164.236:

{{Short description|Island in New Territories, Hong Kong}}
{{About|the island in Hong Kong|the airport located on the island|Hong Kong International Airport}}
{{Infobox islands
| name = Chek Lap Kok
| native_name = {{nobold|赤鱲角}}
| native_name_lang = zh-HK-Hant
| image_name = A bird's eye view of Hong Kong International Airport.JPG
| image_size =
| image_caption = Aerial view of the airport island in 2010
| map_image = Chek Lap Kok location map.svg
| map_size =
| map_caption = Location of Chek Lap Kok in Hong Kong
| label =
| label_position =
| coordinates = {{coord|22|18|19.1|N|113|55|18.6|E|type:island_region:HK|display=inline,title}}
| location = North of [[Lantau Island]]
| pop =
| archipelago =
| waterbody =
| total_islands =
| major_islands =
| area_km2 = 12.48
| rank =
| length_km = 4
| width_km =
| coastline_km = 
| elevation_m =
| highest_mount =
| country = Hong Kong
| country_capital_type =
| country_largest_city_type =
| country_capital_and_largest_city =
| country_area_km2 = 
| population =
}}
{{Chinese
| order = ts
| t = 赤鱲角
| s = 赤𫚭角
| j = cek3 laap6 gok3
| y = Cheklaahpgok
| ci = {{IPAc-yue|c|ek|3|.|l|aap|6|.|g|ok|3}}
| p = Chìlièjiǎo
| l = Red Perch Cape
| w = {{tonesup|Ch‘ih4-lieh4-chiao3}}
| mi = {{IPAc-cmn|ch|^|4|.|l|ie|4|.|j|iao|3}}
| bpmf = ㄔˋ ㄌㄧㄝˋ ㄐㄧㄠˇ
}}
[[File:Lantau Island reclamation.png|right|thumb|Map showing the reclaimed land of [[Lantau Island]], [[Lam Chau]] and Chek Lap Kok.]]

'''Chek Lap Kok''' is an [[Islands of Hong Kong|island]] in the western waters of [[Hong Kong]]'s [[New Territories]]. Unlike the smaller [[Lam Chau]], it was only partially leveled when it was assimilated via [[Land reclamation in Hong Kong|land reclamation]] into the {{convert|12.48|km2|adj=on}} island for the current [[Hong Kong International Airport]], which opened for commercial aviation in 1998. The airport is popularly referred to as ''Chek Lap Kok Airport'' to distinguish it from the former Hong Kong International Airport, now commonly known as [[Kai Tak Airport]].

[[Hong Kong SkyCity]], a business and entertainment complex, is also located on Chek Lap Kok. It includes [[AsiaWorld–Expo]], a convention and exhibition centre, which opened in 2005. [[Cathay City|Cathay Pacific City]], the head office of [[Cathay Pacific]];<ref>"[http://www.cathaypacific.com/cpa/en_INTL/contactus/portcountrycontacts?countryCode=HK Hong Kong]." [[Cathay Pacific]]. Retrieved on 8 September 2010.</ref> [[HAECO]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.haeco.com/en/Contact-Us/Location-Map|title=Location Map|publisher=[[HAECO]]|access-date=2020-03-08|quote=Hong Kong Aircraft Engineering Co. Ltd. (HAECO Group) 80 South Perimeter Road Hong Kong International Airport Lantau, Hong Kong|archive-date=2020-08-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200802001632/https://www.haeco.com/en/Contact-Us/Location-Map|url-status=dead}}</ref> and formerly [[Hong Kong Airlines]]<ref>"[http://www.hongkongairlines.com/cms/language!dispatchModule.action?menuId=299&country_code=HK&request_locale=en_GB Contact Us > Hong Kong]." Hong Kong Airlines. Retrieved on 7 November 2011. "Headquarter Office Address: L2 CNAC House, 12 Tung Fai Road, Hong Kong International Airport, Lantau, Hong Kong"</ref> are also located on the airport platform.

==Name==
The name of the island may be derived from the bareness of the island ('da chek lak'), that the shape of the island resembles the [[Pagrus pagrus|Pagrus]] ('chek lap', {{lang|yue-HK|赤鱲}}), or that the fish was once abundant in its vicinity.<ref name="AMO history">{{Cite web |url=http://www.lcsd.gov.hk/ce/Museum/Monument/en/oe_lantau_island.php |title=Antiquities and Monuments Office: Chek Lap Kok Island and its history |access-date=2011-04-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110809053942/http://www.lcsd.gov.hk/CE/Museum/Monument/en/oe_lantau_island.php |archive-date=2011-08-09 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

==Geography==
The island is located north of [[Lantau Island]] off [[Ma Wan Chung]] and [[Tung Chung]]. Before the building of the airport platform, it was a small and hilly island, about {{convert|4|km}} long, with an area of {{convert|3.02|km2}}<ref name="site prep">{{cite book |author1=Plant, G.W. |author2=Covil, C.S. |author3=Hughes, R.A. |author4=Airport Authority Hong Kong | title=Site Preparation for the New Hong Kong International Airport | publisher=Thomas Telford | year=1998 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NVlGrr9WOp4C | isbn=978-0-7277-2696-4}}</ref> (other sources mention {{convert|2.8|km2}}).<ref name="AMO history" /> The southern end of the island formed a small peninsula, which has been left largely undeveloped.<ref name="site prep" /> This area is facing Tung Chung and is now named [[Scenic Hill (Hong Kong)|Scenic Hill]].<ref>[http://hk.centamap.com/gc/centamaplocation.aspx?x=811309&y=817133&sx=811309.95751&sy=817133.36618&z=4&lg=b5 Map of Chek Lap Kok showing Scenic Hill] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719174210/http://hk.centamap.com/gc/centamaplocation.aspx?x=811309&y=817133&sx=811309.95751&sy=817133.36618&z=4&lg=b5 |date=July 19, 2011 }}</ref><ref>[http://www.epd.gov.hk/eia/register/report/eiareport/eia_0902003/Figuresrev1/Sec_9%20(CH)rev1.htm Tung Chung - Ngong Ping Cable Car Project: Cultural Heritage Impact Assessment, March 2003]</ref> It is the site of the Ancient Kiln Park<ref>[http://www.hongkongairport.com/eng/media/press-releases/pr_828.html Press release: "HKIA unveils Airport Trail and historical park", 18 March 2006]</ref> and the Airport Island Angle Station of the [[Ngong Ping 360]] cable car.<ref>[http://www.legco.gov.hk/yr02-03/english/bc/bc04/papers/bc40331cb1-1311-1e.pdf Presentation of the Tung Chung Cable Car Project, 31 March 200]</ref>

==History==
The island has been inhabited on and off since the [[Middle Neolithic]] period 6,000 years ago.<ref name="AMO history"/>

During the 19th and 20th centuries, the inhabitants of the island practiced farming, including rice cultivation,<ref name="site prep"/> and quarrying.<ref>{{cite book |last= |first= |author-link= |date=August 1994 |title=Geology of Chek Lap Kok |url=http://www.cedd.gov.hk/eng/publications/sheet/sheet_g2.htm |series=Hong Kong Geological Survey Sheet Report No. 2|location=Hong Kong |publisher=Geotechnical Engineering Office, [[Civil Engineering and Development Department|Civil Engineering Department]] |page= |issn=1022-6168 |isbn=|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110927043455/http://www.cedd.gov.hk/eng/publications/sheet/sheet_g2.htm|archive-date= 2011-09-27}}</ref>

At the time of the 1911 census, the population of Chek Lap Kok was 77. The number of males was 55.<ref>{{Cite journal| last = Hase| first = Patrick |author-link=Patrick Hase| title = Traditional Life in the New Territories: The Evidence of the 1911 and 1921 Censuses| journal =Journal of the [[Royal Asiatic Society Hong Kong Branch]]| volume = 36| page = 82| year = 1996| url = https://hkjo.lib.hku.hk/archive/files/ecc123316b3526a31a101b3c4cf08a12.pdf| issn = 1991-7295}}</ref> The population was about 200 in the 1950s, rising sharply in the 1960s. The population later declined, with some 20 families remaining on the island when the plan for the construction of a new airport was announced in the early 1990s.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.lcsd.gov.hk/ce/Museum/Monument/en/oe_lantau_modern.php |title=Antiquities and Monuments Office: Chek Lap Kok Island and its history. Modern Period |access-date=2011-04-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121017033403/http://www.lcsd.gov.hk/ce/Museum/Monument/en/oe_lantau_modern.php |archive-date=2012-10-17 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Archeological surveys and investigations were conducted on the island starting in the late 1970s.<ref name="AMO history"/> A salvage archaeology project started in October 1990.<ref>[http://www.seaa-web.org/arc-eaa-04.htm#4 Robert Esser, Chek Lap Kok: project synopsis as of 20 May 1991] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110301075451/http://www.seaa-web.org/arc-eaa-04.htm#4 |date=March 1, 2011 }}</ref>

The original farming and fishing villages on the island were relocated to Chek Lap Kok New Village aka. Chek Lap Kok San Tsuen ({{zh|t=赤鱲角新村|labels=no}}) near Tung Chung on Lantau Island. A [[Tin Hau temples in Hong Kong|Tin Hau Temple]] had been built in 1823 at the north east of the island. The entire temple was built of granite quarried on the island.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.cedd.gov.hk/eng/publications/sheet/doc/g2_chapter_8.pdf |title=Geology of Chek Lap Kok. Chapter 8. 1994 |access-date=2011-04-07 |archive-date=2012-03-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120318211759/http://www.cedd.gov.hk/eng/publications/sheet/doc/g2_chapter_8.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> It was dismantled in 1991 and rebuilt in 1994 at its present location.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.islandsdc.gov.hk/index.php?action=sight&did=2&sid=8 |title=Exploring Islands - Tung Chung |access-date=2011-04-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120222174607/http://www.islandsdc.gov.hk/index.php?action=sight&did=2&sid=8 |archive-date=2012-02-22 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Chek Lap Kok San Tsuen is a recognized village under the [[New Territories]] [[Small House Policy]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.landsd.gov.hk/doc/en/small-house/rv0909.pdf |title=List of Recognized Villages under the New Territories Small House Policy |last= |first= |date=September 2009 |website= |publisher=[[Lands Department]] |access-date= |quote=}}</ref>

Also, [[Romer's tree frog]] (''Philautus romeri''), a unique [[species]] of finger-sized [[frog]] found only in Hong Kong, was relocated from Chek Lap Kok to new [[habitat (ecology)|habitat]]s on Lantau Island before construction of the airport.

A third runway at Hong Kong Airport is being built as part of the [[Hong Kong International Airport Master Plan 2030]].

<gallery widths="200px" heights="155px">

File:20091002 Hong Kong Ngong Ping 360 Skyrail 6420.jpg|View of the Airport Island Angle Station of the [[Ngong Ping 360]] cable car system built on [[Scenic Hill (Hong Kong)|Scenic Hill]], the unlevelled peninsula in the south of Chek Lap Kok.
File:Scenic_Hill_Pavilion.jpg|Scenic Hill Pavilion
File:HK ChepLapKokTinHauTemple.JPG|Rebuilt Tin Hau Temple in the new Chek Lap Kok Village.
</gallery>

==Climate==
{{Weather box|width=auto
|location = [[Hong Kong International Airport]] (Averages and extremes, 1998–present)
|metric first=yes
|single line=yes
|Jan record high C = 27.2
|Feb record high C = 29.6
|Mar record high C = 31.4
|Apr record high C = 33.5
|May record high C = 37.6
|Jun record high C = 36.6
|Jul record high C = 38.3
|Aug record high C = 37.8
|Sep record high C = 37.4
|Oct record high C = 34.2
|Nov record high C = 33.4
|Dec record high C = 29.6
|Jan high C = 19.4
|Feb high C = 20.9
|Mar high C = 23.5
|Apr high C = 27.2
|May high C = 30.3
|Jun high C = 32.0
|Jul high C = 33.0
|Aug high C = 32.9
|Sep high C = 32.0
|Oct high C = 29.8
|Nov high C = 25.8
|Dec high C = 21.2
|year high C = 27.3
|Jan mean C = 16.3
|Feb mean C = 17.8
|Mar mean C = 20.2
|Apr mean C = 24.0
|May mean C = 27.2
|Jun mean C = 29.0
|Jul mean C = 29.8
|Aug mean C = 29.6
|Sep mean C = 28.7
|Oct mean C = 26.5
|Nov mean C = 22.5
|Dec mean C = 18.0

|Jan low C = 13.7
|Feb low C = 15.3
|Mar low C = 17.7
|Apr low C = 21.6
|May low C = 24.7
|Jun low C = 26.6
|Jul low C = 27.2
|Aug low C = 26.9
|Sep low C = 26.2
|Oct low C = 24.1
|Nov low C = 19.9
|Dec low C = 15.2

|Jan record low C = 2.9
|Feb record low C = 6.0
|Mar record low C = 7.7
|Apr record low C = 12.2
|May record low C = 17.5
|Jun record low C = 20.4
|Jul record low C = 23.6
|Aug record low C = 23.5
|Sep record low C = 20.2
|Oct record low C = 15.9
|Nov record low C = 8.8
|Dec record low C = 4.8
|precipitation colour = green
|Jan precipitation mm = 29.6
|Feb precipitation mm = 34.2
|Mar precipitation mm = 65.8
|Apr precipitation mm = 155.5
|May precipitation mm = 246.6
|Jun precipitation mm = 426.2
|Jul precipitation mm = 272.5
|Aug precipitation mm = 335.5
|Sep precipitation mm = 214.5
|Oct precipitation mm = 38.4
|Nov precipitation mm = 41.8
|Dec precipitation mm = 41.2
|Jan humidity = 67
|Feb humidity = 73
|Mar humidity = 74
|Apr humidity = 76
|May humidity = 75
|Jun humidity = 76
|Jul humidity = 74
|Aug humidity = 75
|Sep humidity = 71
|Oct humidity = 65
|Nov humidity = 65
|Dec humidity = 61

|unit rain days = 0.5 mm
|Jan rain days = 3.3
|Feb rain days = 4.7
|Mar rain days = 6.7
|Apr rain days = 8.3
|May rain days = 12.4
|Jun rain days = 16.5
|Jul rain days = 15.3
|Aug rain days = 13.6
|Sep rain days = 9.8
|Oct rain days = 3.6
|Nov rain days = 3.7
|Dec rain days = 3.8
|source 1 = Hong Kong Observatory<ref>{{cite web
| url = http://www.weather.gov.hk/aviat/amt_e/monthlymean_e.htm
| title = Monthly Means of the Meteorological Elements at Hong Kong International Airport January 1998 - December 2014
| publisher = Hong Kong Observatory
| access-date = April 5, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web
| url = http://www.weather.gov.hk/cis/region_climat/HKA/HKA_statistic_e.htm
| title = Monthly Means of Meteorological Elements for Hong Kong International Airport, 1998-2015: Cold/Hot Weather and Rainfall statistics
| publisher = Hong Kong Observatory
| access-date = April 5, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.hko.gov.hk/en/wxinfo/dailywx/dailywx.htm|title = Daily Weather Summary and Radiation Level|publisher=Hong Kong Observatory}}</ref>
}}

== Education ==
Most of Lantau Island, including Chek Lap Kok New Village, is in Primary One Admission (POA) School Net 98, which contains multiple [[aided schools]] on Lantau Island; no government primary schools are in this net.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.edb.gov.hk/attachment/en/edu-system/primary-secondary/spa-systems/primary-1-admission/school-lists/2023dpnet-98b.pdf|title=POA School Net 98|publisher=[[Education Bureau]]|accessdate=2022-09-12}}</ref>

== See also ==
{{portal|Islands}}
* {{Portal inline|Hong Kong}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Chek Lap Kok}}
* [https://www.had.gov.hk/rre/images/village_map1922/T/t-tc-08.pdf Delineation of area of existing village Chek Lap Kok (Tung Chung) for election of resident representative (2019 to 2022)] (Chek Lap Kok New Village)

{{Reclaimed land in Hong Kong}}
{{Islands District}}
{{Islands of Hong Kong}}
{{NTTaxi}}
{{Lantautaxi}}
{{HKIA}}

[[Category:Chek Lap Kok| ]]
[[Category:Artificial islands of Hong Kong]]
[[Category:Islands District]]
[[Category:Restricted areas of Hong Kong red public minibus]]
[[Category:Islands of Hong Kong]]
[[Category:Populated places in Hong Kong]]

Right of abode in Hong Kong

2025-06-24T21:30:10Z

128.228.164.236:

{{good article}}
{{Use Hong Kong English|date=February 2015}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2015}}
{{Short description|Right to live in Hong Kong}}{{Demographics and Culture of Hong Kong}}
{{Chinese
|order=ts
|t=香港居留權
|s=香港居留权
|j=hoeng1 gong2 geoi1 lau4 kyun4
|p=Xiānggǎng Jūliúquán
}}
'''Right of abode in Hong Kong''' entitles a person to live and work in the territory without any restrictions or conditions of stay. Someone who has that right is a [[Hong Kong]] [[Hong Kong residents|permanent resident]]. Foreign nationals may acquire the [[right of abode]] after meeting a seven-year residency requirement and are given most rights usually associated with citizenship, including the right to vote in [[Elections in Hong Kong|regional elections]]. However, they are not entitled to hold [[Hong Kong Special Administrative Region passport|territorial passports]] or stand for office in some [[Legislative Council of Hong Kong|Legislative Council]] constituencies, unless they also naturalise as [[Chinese nationality law|Chinese citizens]].

As a [[Special administrative regions of China|special administrative region of China]], Hong Kong does not have its own nationality law and natural-born residents are generally Chinese citizens. Prior to 1997, the territory was a [[British Hong Kong|colony of the United Kingdom]] and right of abode was tied to [[British nationality law]]. Although Hong Kong, [[mainland China]], and [[Macau]] constitute a single country, local residents with Chinese citizenship do not have automatic residence rights in either of the other two jurisdictions, which both control immigration separately. Similarly, mainland Chinese and Macanese residents do not automatically have residence or employment rights in Hong Kong.

{{TOC limit}}

== History ==
=== Colonial era policy ===
{{See also|British nationality law and Hong Kong|History of Hong Kong}}

Hong Kong was a [[British Hong Kong|British colony]] from 1842 until its [[Handover of Hong Kong|transfer to China]] in 1997.<ref>{{harvnb|Carroll|2007|p=1}}.</ref> Accordingly, regulations on local residence rights were closely tied to [[British nationality law]] during colonial rule.<ref>{{harvnb|Chen|1988|pp=670}}.</ref> All [[British subject]]s previously had unrestricted access to live and work in any British territory.<ref>{{harvnb|Hansen|1999|p=71}}.</ref> [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|Parliament]] gradually restricted this from 1962 to 1971, when subjects originating from outside of the [[British Islands]] first had immigration controls imposed on them when entering the United Kingdom.<ref>{{harvnb|Evans|1972|pp=508–509}}.</ref> Hong Kong followed suit and imposed greater restrictions on subjects from outside the territory. British subjects born in the colony were given [[belonger status]], to indicate their possession of right of abode in Hong Kong.<ref>{{harvnb|Chen|1988|pp=647–648}}.</ref> [[British Nationality Act 1981|Nationality law reform in 1981]] reclassified the vast majority of Hong Kong belongers as [[British Overseas Territories citizen|British Dependent Territories citizens]] (BDTCs).<ref>{{harvnb|Chen|1988|pp=670–671}}.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|1996 Population By-Census}}, p. 31.</ref>

The border between Hong Kong and [[mainland China]] was not regulated for over 100 years after establishment of the colony.<ref>{{harvnb|Law|Lee|2006|p=219}}.</ref> Border controls did not exist until 1950, after communist victory in the [[Chinese Civil War]].<ref>{{harvnb|Chen|1988|p=640}}.</ref> Although the border was guarded, the Hong Kong government was relatively lax in deporting illegal immigrants due to a shortage of unskilled labour within the territory, allowing large numbers of them to register as residents.<ref name="LawLeeP220">{{harvnb|Law|Lee|2006|p=220}}.</ref> Still, colonial authorities held almost unlimited discretionary deportation powers over Chinese migrants until 1971, when those resident in the territory for more than seven years were given the ''right to land''. This exempted them from immigration control, though they could still be deported for serious crimes.<ref>{{harvnb|Chen|1988|p=644}}.</ref> Immigration became more restricted in 1974 at the start of the [[Touch Base Policy]]. Under this system, illegal immigrants captured by law enforcement were immediately deported but those who had managed to reach urban areas of Hong Kong and found housing accommodation were given legal status. This policy ended in 1980, after which all free migration was stopped.<ref name="LawLeeP220" />

Chinese migrants moving to Hong Kong forfeited their ''[[hukou]]'' in mainland China and became ineligible for [[Chinese passport]]s. These individuals were treated as if they were [[statelessness|stateless]]. The colonial government issued [[Hong Kong Document of Identity for Visa Purposes|Documents of Identity]] as travel documents to those who could not obtain passports. After seven years of residence, they were issued [[Hong Kong Certificate of Identity|Certificates of Identity]] (CIs).<ref>{{harvnb|Lau|2009|p=5}}.</ref>

=== Transitionary arrangements ===
{{See also|Sino-British Joint Declaration|Handover of Hong Kong}}

The British and Chinese governments entered negotiations over the future of Hong Kong in the early 1980s and agreed on the [[Sino-British Joint Declaration]] in 1984.<ref>{{harvnb|Carroll|2007|pp=178, 181}}.</ref> The basic principles for the right of abode are set as part of this treaty<ref>{{harvnb|Sino-British Joint Declaration Annex 1}}, section XIV.</ref> and further defined in the [[Hong Kong Basic Law]] in Article 24,<ref name="BasicLawC3A24">{{harvnb|Basic Law Chapter III}} Article 24.</ref> which encompass the right to land with the added entitlement that a bearer cannot be deported. Belonger status was renamed ''permanent resident status'' in 1987, when landed Chinese residents were given the right of abode along with Hong Kong BDTCs.<ref>{{harvnb|Chen|1988|pp=673–674}}.</ref> All BDTCs who did not have a connection with a remaining [[British Overseas Territories|British Dependent Territory]] other than Hong Kong lost BDTC status on 1 July 1997.<ref>{{harvnb|The Hong Kong (British Nationality) Order 1986}}, section 3.</ref> Former ethnic Chinese BDTCs became [[Chinese nationality law|Chinese national]]s and could only retain British nationality if they had registered as [[British National (Overseas)|British Nationals (Overseas)]] prior to the transfer of sovereignty. Individuals who were not ethnically Chinese, had not registered as BN(O)s, and would have been stateless at that date automatically became [[British Overseas citizen]]s.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/118595/british-national-dep-citizens.pdf |title=British National (Overseas) and British Dependent Territories Citizens |publisher=[[Government of the United Kingdom]] |access-date=8 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181211001422/https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/118595/british-national-dep-citizens.pdf |archive-date=11 December 2018 |url-status=live |df=dmy-all }}</ref> Holders of CIs were able to replace them with [[Hong Kong Special Administrative Region passport]]s after the handover.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.refworld.org/pdfid/4f45faf52.pdf |title=Country Advice – Hong Kong |publisher=[[Refugee Review Tribunal]] |location=Australia |pages=1–2 |access-date=4 June 2020 }}</ref>

== Acquisition and loss ==
{{See also|Immigration Ordinance|Chinese nationality law}}How an individual could acquire (or lose) his or her right of abode in Hong Kong depends on his or her nationality.[[File:Hong Kong Right of Adobe.png|thumb|Flowchart to determine Right of Abode]]

=== Acquisition ===
Acquisition by birth operates on a modified ''[[jus soli]]'' basis; Chinese nationals born in Hong Kong are automatically permanent residents, while foreign nationals must have at least one parent who possesses right of abode.<ref>{{harvnb|Immigration Ordinance Schedule 1}}, para. 2.</ref> Children born outside of Hong Kong acquire right of abode if they are also Chinese nationals at birth. Chinese nationality is usually conferred by descent to children born abroad, unless the parents have obtained permanent residency in another country or foreign citizenship.<ref>{{cite web |title=Frequently Asked Questions - Right of Abode |url=https://www.immd.gov.hk/eng/faq/faqroa.html |publisher=[[Immigration Department (Hong Kong)|Immigration Department]] |access-date=6 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181025035121/https://www.immd.gov.hk/eng/faq/faqroa.html |archive-date=25 October 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref> However, while Chinese nationals born in mainland China to Hong Kong permanent resident parents do have right of abode, they must first be approved for [[People's Republic of China Permit for Proceeding to Hong Kong and Macao|One-way Permit]]s by mainland authorities before claiming permanent residency.<ref>{{harvnb|Standing Committee Interpretation Regarding Article 22(4) and Article 24(2)(3) of the Hong Kong Basic Law}}.</ref> Residents of [[Macau]] also do not have automatic right of entry into Hong Kong.<ref>{{cite web |title=Entry Arrangements for Mainland, Macao, Taiwan & Overseas Chinese Residents |url=https://www.immd.gov.hk/eng/services/visas/overseas-chinese-entry-arrangement.html |publisher=[[Immigration Department (Hong Kong)|Immigration Department]] |access-date=18 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191027205703/https://www.immd.gov.hk/eng/services/visas/overseas-chinese-entry-arrangement.html |archive-date=27 October 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Non-residents seeking to apply to become permanent residents must have ordinarily resided in Hong Kong for a continuous period of at least seven years.<ref name="ImmOrdS1P1">{{harvnb|Immigration Ordinance Schedule 1}}, para. 1.</ref> ''Ordinarily resident'' in this context excludes certain classes of people, including central government officials, [[Foreign domestic helpers in Hong Kong|foreign domestic helpers]], and incarcerated individuals.<ref>{{harvnb|Immigration Ordinance Section 2(4)}}.</ref> Chinese nationals may qualify using any seven-year residence period, while foreigners are only eligible on the basis of the seven years immediately preceding their applications.<ref name="ImmOrdS1P1" /> Individuals from mainland China seeking to settle in Hong Kong are additionally subject to emigration control by the [[State Council of the People's Republic of China|central government]].<ref>{{harvnb|Basic Law Chapter II}} Article 22.</ref>

=== Loss ===
Permanent residents who are not Chinese nationals will automatically lose their right of abode if they have been absent from Hong Kong for more than 36 months after they ceased to have ordinarily resided in Hong Kong. These individuals are then given the right to land, which also allows them unrestricted access to live and work in the territory.<ref name="ROALoss">{{cite web |title=Loss of Hong Kong Permanent Resident Status |date=November 2018 |url=https://www.immd.gov.hk/pdforms/rop152.pdf |publisher=[[Immigration Department (Hong Kong)|Immigration Department]] |access-date=28 November 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191026055456/https://www.immd.gov.hk/pdforms/rop152.pdf |archive-date=26 October 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref> Foreign permanent residents can [[naturalization|naturalise]] as Chinese nationals and become exempt from automatic loss, but are required to renounce their previous nationality on successful application.<ref>{{cite web |title=Naturalisation as a Chinese National |date=March 2015 |publisher=[[Immigration Department (Hong Kong)|Immigration Department]] |url=https://www.immd.gov.hk/pdforms/id874ae.pdf |access-date=6 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181025060706/https://www.immd.gov.hk/pdforms/id874ae.pdf |archive-date=25 October 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref> Children with foreign nationality who were born in Hong Kong and have permanent residency by descent also automatically lose right of abode at age 21 and are given the right to land. They may subsequently reapply for right of abode on the basis of a seven-year residence period.<ref name="ROALoss" /> Chinese nationals with right of abode may only be deprived of the status if they lose their Chinese nationality.<ref>{{cite web |title=Can Hong Kong permanent resident status be lost? |publisher=[[University of Hong Kong]] |url=https://www.clic.org.hk/en/topics/immigration/hk_permanent_residence/q3.shtml |access-date=3 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170125063304/http://www.clic.org.hk/en/topics/immigration/hk_permanent_residence/q3.shtml |archive-date=25 January 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Prior to 1997, acquisition of the right of abode was dependent on [[British nationality law|British nationality]]. Individuals born overseas to Hong Kong-connected BDTCs also became BDTCs and Hong Kong permanent residents by descent.<ref>{{harvnb|White|1988|pp=235–236}}.</ref> After the transfer of sovereignty, if these individuals did not also acquire Chinese nationality or return to Hong Kong within three years, they would be nonpermanent residents with the right to land.<ref name="ROALoss" />

Individuals who lost permanent resident status before 1997 can immediately resume the right of abode under limited circumstances. Those who returned to settle in Hong Kong within 18 months after the transfer of sovereignty were automatically regranted the status, while former residents who return after that period can only immediately regain the right of abode if they have not been absent from the territory for any period longer than three years.<ref>{{harvnb|Immigration Ordinance Schedule 1}}, para. 6.</ref>

== Rights and restrictions ==
{{See also|Hong Kong identity card|Hong Kong Special Administrative Region passport}}

Permanent residents have the unrestricted right to live and work in Hong Kong and cannot be deported from the territory, regardless of their nationality.<ref>{{harvnb|Immigration Ordinance Section 2A}}.</ref> They are required to register for [[Hong Kong identity card|Hong Kong permanent identity card]]s<ref>{{harvnb|Registration of Persons Ordinance Section 3}}.</ref> (as opposed to standard identity cards which are issued to any person admitted to the territory for more than 180 days),<ref>{{cite web |title=What types of identity card are there? |publisher=[[University of Hong Kong]] |url=https://www.clic.org.hk/en/topics/immigration/passports_and_identity_cards/q4.shtml |access-date=28 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200528073736/https://www.clic.org.hk/en/topics/immigration/passports_and_identity_cards/q4.shtml |archive-date=28 May 2020 |url-status=live }}</ref> eligible for welfare benefits,<ref>{{harvnb|Chia|2012|p=10}}.</ref> and able to vote in regional elections.<ref>{{harvnb|Guidelines on the Legislative Council Election|2016|pp=9–11}}.</ref> Chinese nationals with territorial right of abode are eligible to hold [[Hong Kong Special Administrative Region passport]]s, which are different from [[Chinese passport|those issued to mainland residents]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Guidance Notes on Local Application for HKSAR Passport for applicants aged 16 or above |date=February 2018 |publisher=[[Immigration Department (Hong Kong)|Immigration Department]] |url=https://www.immd.gov.hk/pdforms/ID(E)841An.pdf |access-date=2 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191026055421/https://www.immd.gov.hk/pdforms/ID(E)841An.pdf |archive-date=26 October 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref> Those who additionally do not possess right of abode in foreign countries may stand for office in [[Geographical constituency|geographical constituencies]] of the [[Legislative Council of Hong Kong|Legislative Council]]<ref>{{harvnb|Guidelines on the Legislative Council Election|2016|p=42}}.</ref> and can serve as [[Principal officials of Hong Kong|principal official]]s of the government.<ref>{{harvnb|Basic Law Chapter IV}} Articles 44, 55, 61, 71, 90, 101.</ref> A limited number of residents with foreign nationality or right of abode in other countries may be elected to [[Functional constituency (Hong Kong)|functional constituency]] seats in the legislature.<ref>{{harvnb|Guidelines on the Legislative Council Election|2016|pp=43–44}}.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Basic Law Chapter IV}} Article 67.</ref>

According to Article 99 of the [[Hong Kong Basic Law]], public servants serving in all government departments of the HKSAR must be permanent residents of the HKSAR except where otherwise provided for in Article 101, however, there is no stipulated requirement about the nationality or passport of a civil servant.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Civil Service Bureau - FAQ |url=https://www.csb.gov.hk/english/admin/oathserving/2770.html |access-date=2023-12-15 |website=www.csb.gov.hk |language=en}}</ref>

Hong Kong permanent residents do not have automatic residence or employment rights in mainland China. The central government issues [[Mainland Travel Permit for Hong Kong and Macao Residents|Home Return Permit]]s to residents who are Chinese citizens for travel purposes<ref>{{harvnb|Leung|2013}}.</ref> and [[Residence Permit for Hong Kong, Macao, and Taiwan Residents|Residence Permit]]s if they intend to reside or work in the mainland for longer than six months.<ref>{{harvnb|Su|2018}}.</ref> Hong Kong permanent residents are also subject to immigration controls in [[Macau]], and must obtain residence permits if living there for more than one year.<ref>{{harvnb|Administrative Regulation No. 5/2003, Entry, stay and residence permit regulation}}, Article 10(2).</ref>

== Legal challenges to eligibility requirements ==
The eligibility criteria for right of abode has been a contentious issue and repeatedly challenged in court since the transfer of sovereignty. Because constitutional issues require central government review,<ref>{{harvnb|Basic Law Chapter VIII}}.</ref> litigation on right of abode issues has highlighted conflicting differences between the legal systems of the territory and mainland<ref>{{harvnb|Chan|2016}}.</ref> and xenophobic sentiment among local residents.<ref name="ButlerSuntikulP59">{{harvnb|Butler|Suntikul|2017|p=59}}.</ref>

=== Children born in mainland China ===
In 1999, the [[Court of Final Appeal (Hong Kong)|Court of Final Appeal]] (CFA) issued two judgements that granted right of abode in Hong Kong to children born in mainland China with at least one parent who had the right of abode,<ref>{{harvnb|''Ng Ka Ling and Another v the Director of Immigration''}}, at para. 108–112.</ref> including those whose parents had become a permanent resident after the time of birth.<ref>{{harvnb|''Chan Kam Nga v the Director of Immigration''}}, at para. 32.</ref><ref name="SixMonthReport1999P4">{{harvnb|Six-monthly Report on Hong Kong January–June|1999|p=4}}.</ref> The regional government expected that 1.67 million new immigrants from the mainland would seek to acquire the right of abode on these terms over the next decade,<ref>{{cite press release |title=Interpretation: A "legal and constitutional" option |url=https://www.info.gov.hk/gia/general/199905/18/0518159.htm |publisher=Hong Kong Government |date=18 May 1999 |access-date=8 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303204617/http://www.info.gov.hk/gia/general/199905/18/0518159.htm |archive-date=3 March 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> and projected that Hong Kong would not be able to absorb such a sudden population increase.<ref name="SixMonthReport1999P5">{{harvnb|Six-monthly Report on Hong Kong January–June|1999|p=5}}.</ref> Although the CFA is the highest territorial court, the Court clarified that its authority to interpret the Basic Law derives from the [[Standing Committee of the National People's Congress]] (NPCSC).<ref name="SixMonthReport1999P4" /> The government subsequently asked the Standing Committee to provide a new interpretation of Basic Law Article 24, which defines right of abode eligibility, and Article 22, which stipulates that people from other parts of China are required to seek central government approval before entering Hong Kong.<ref name="SixMonthReport1999P5" /> The NPCSC duly issued an interpretation that reinforced requirements for mainland exit procedures and restricted eligibility for right of abode to the criteria as it was before the CFA rulings.<ref name="SixMonthReport1999P6">{{harvnb|Six-monthly Report on Hong Kong January–June|1999|p=6}}.</ref> The CFA confirmed its effect in local law in ''[[Lau Kong Yung v Director of Immigration]]''.<ref>{{harvnb|''Lau Kong Yung v Director of Immigration''}}, at para. 74.</ref>

While the interpretation resolved the immediate immigration crisis, the constitutionality and legality of bypassing the Court of Final Appeal was widely debated. Many legislators, especially the [[Pro-democracy camp (Hong Kong)|pro-democracy camp]],<ref name="SixMonthReport1999P5" /> and the [[Hong Kong Bar Association]] believed that amending the Basic Law would have been the appropriate course of remedy.<ref>{{cite letter |last=Tong |first=Ronny K.W. |author-link=Ronny Tong |recipient=[[Tung Chee-hwa]] |subject=Open Letter to the Chief Executive on the Right of Abode Case |date=5 May 1999 |url=http://www.martinlee.org.hk/TheBar5.5.99.html |access-date=8 March 2019 |title=Open Letter to the Chief Executive on the Right of Abode Case |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110221133857/http://www.martinlee.org.hk/TheBar5.5.99.html |archive-date=21 February 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref> They argued that arbitrary NPCSC interpretations without formal requests for them from the CFA would weaken the principle of "[[one country, two systems]]", damage the rule of law, and erode the authority of the CFA as the territory's final appellate court.<ref name="SixMonthReport1999P6" /> Although constitutional [[judicial review]] is routine in [[common law]] systems, Beijing viewed the process as a limit to its authority as the sovereign power and preferred more flexible interpretation of the law.<ref>{{harvnb|Kam|2002|p=634}}.</ref> Additionally, the regional government believed that revising the Basic Law would delay resolving the issue for too long since amendments require review by the entire [[National People's Congress]], which only meets once each spring.<ref name="SixMonthReport1999P5" />

=== Children of mainland visitors ===
The Court of Final Appeal issued a further ruling in 2001 that all Chinese nationals born in Hong Kong would have right of abode in the region, even if neither parent was a permanent resident.<ref>{{harvnb|''Director of Immigration v Chong Fung Yuen''}}, at para. 8.3.</ref> This change directly led to a growing trend of [[Birth tourism in Hong Kong|birth tourism]]; increasing numbers of expectant mothers from the mainland entered Hong Kong to give birth with the express purpose of exploiting the healthcare system and giving their children permanent residency in the territory.<ref name="ButlerSuntikulP59" /> Overcrowding in hospital maternity wards became a major factor in contributing to growing consternation among residents and the emergence of a hostile environment against mainland tourists.<ref>{{harvnb|LaFraniere|2012}}.</ref>

=== Foreign domestic helpers ===
[[Foreign domestic helpers in Hong Kong|Foreign domestic helpers]] (FDHs), live-in female household workers mostly from the [[Philippines]] or Indonesia, constitute the largest non-Chinese minority group in Hong Kong.<ref>{{harvnb|Chia|2012|p=5}}.</ref> They are not considered ordinarily resident in the territory and cannot claim permanent residency.<ref>{{harvnb|Chia|2012|pp=5–6}}.</ref> Racial tension between these workers and local residents,<ref name="ChiaP9">{{harvnb|Chia|2012|p=9}}.</ref> pervasive perceptions of FDHs as being lower class,<ref>{{harvnb|Chia|2012|p=7}}.</ref> and a general public unwillingness to integrate them<ref name="ChiaP9" /> led some FDHs to more actively protest their disadvantaged legal status.<ref>{{harvnb|Chia|2012|pp=10–11}}.</ref> However, in 2013, the Court of Final Appeal upheld existing government exclusion of FDHs from right of abode eligibility in ''[[Vallejos v Commissioner of Registration]]''.<ref>{{harvnb|''Vallejos v Commissioner of Registration''}}, at para. 89.</ref><ref name="Bradsher2013">{{harvnb|Bradsher|2013}}.</ref> A majority of Hongkongers did not support the extension of residency rights to this minority group, fearing an increase in government spending to accommodate them.<ref name="Bradsher2013" /> The current regulatory environment for FDHs, including the lack of access to right of abode,<ref>{{harvnb|Ewing|2018}}.</ref> continues to be criticised for making this class of minorities particularly vulnerable to domestic exploitation and abuse.<ref>{{harvnb|Heifetz|2017}}.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Branigan|2014}}.</ref>

== See also ==
{{Portal|Hong Kong}}
* ''[[Hukou]]''
* [[Right of abode in Macau]]
* [[Right of abode in the United Kingdom]]

== References ==
=== Citations ===
{{Reflist}}

=== Sources ===
==== Publications ====
{{refbegin|2}}
* {{cite book |last1=Butler |first1=Richard |last2=Suntikul |first2=Wantanee |date=2017 |title=Tourism and Political Change |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZGk3DwAAQBAJ |location=Oxford |publisher=Goodfellow Publishers |isbn=978-1-910158-83-8 }}
* {{cite book |last=Carroll |first=John |title=A Concise History of Hong Kong |year=2007 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D37ijXG-FykC |isbn=978-0-7425-3422-3 }}
* {{cite journal |last=Chen |first=Albert H.Y. |date=1988 |title=The Development of Immigration Law and Policy: The Hong Kong Experience |journal=McGill Law Journal |volume=33 |issue=4 |pages=631–675 |url=https://lawjournal.mcgill.ca/wp-content/uploads/pdf/2158218-chen.pdf |access-date=1 November 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191101183242/https://lawjournal.mcgill.ca/wp-content/uploads/pdf/2158218-chen.pdf |archive-date=1 November 2019 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite journal |last=Chia |first=Galvin |date=2012 |title=Focussing the Familiar? Locating the Foreign Domestic Worker in Postcolonial Hong Kong Discourse |journal=Cross-sections, the Bruce Hall Academic Journal |volume=8 |pages=1–18 |url=http://press-files.anu.edu.au/downloads/press/n1694/pdf/book.pdf |issn=1834-7983 |access-date=9 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190808062039/https://press-files.anu.edu.au/downloads/press/n1694/pdf/book.pdf |archive-date=8 August 2019 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite journal |last=Evans |first=J. M. |title=Immigration Act 1971 |journal=The Modern Law Review |year=1972 |volume=35 |issue=5 |pages=508–524 |jstor=1094478 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-2230.1972.tb02363.x }}
* {{cite report |title=Guidelines on the Legislative Council Election |publisher=[[Electoral Affairs Commission]] |date=2016 |url=https://www.eac.gov.hk/pdf/legco/2016lc_guide/en/lc_full_guide.pdf |access-date=28 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181122213234/https://www.eac.gov.hk/pdf/legco/2016lc_guide/en/lc_full_guide.pdf |archive-date=22 November 2018 |url-status=live |ref={{harvid|Guidelines on the Legislative Council Election|2016}} }}
* {{cite journal |last=Hansen |first=Randall |author-link=Randall Hansen |title=The Politics of Citizenship in 1940s Britain: The British Nationality Act |journal=Twentieth Century British History |year=1999 |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=67–95 |doi=10.1093/tcbh/10.1.67 }}
* {{cite journal |last=Kam |first=Karmen |date=2002 |title=Right of Abode Cases: The Judicial Independence of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region v. The Sovereignty Interests of China |journal=Brooklyn Journal of International Law |volume=27 |issue=2 |pages=611–637 |url=https://brooklynworks.brooklaw.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1408&context=bjil |oclc=773242624 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Law |first1=Kam-yee |last2=Lee |first2=Kim-ming |date=2006 |title=Citizenship, economy and social exclusion of mainland Chinese immigrants in Hong Kong |journal=Journal of Contemporary Asia |volume=36 |issue=2 |pages=217–242 |doi=10.1080/00472330680000131 |s2cid=154437658 }}
* {{cite journal |last=Lau |first=K.L. Alex |date=2009 |title=Immigration and Nationality Anomalies of Hong Kong |journal=LEWI Working Paper Series |issue=93 |pages=1–16 |url=https://repository.hkbu.edu.hk/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1007&context=lewi_wp |access-date=4 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200319131533/https://repository.hkbu.edu.hk/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1007&context=lewi_wp |archive-date=19 March 2020 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite conference |last=Leung |first=Nancy Ling Sze |date=30 August 2013 |title=A new population policy challenge towards the cross border birth issue in Hong Kong |conference=IUSSP International Population Conference |location=Busan |url=https://iussp.org/sites/default/files/event_call_for_papers/IUSSP%20Busan%20PDF.pdf |access-date=7 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170808071856/https://iussp.org/sites/default/files/event_call_for_papers/IUSSP%20Busan%20PDF.pdf |archive-date=8 August 2017 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite report |title=Main Report |work=1996 Population By-Census |publisher=[[Census and Statistics Department (Hong Kong)|Census and Statistics Department]] |date=December 1996 |url=https://www.statistics.gov.hk/pub/hist/1991_2000/B11200831996XXXXE0100.pdf |access-date=10 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181013094501/https://www.statistics.gov.hk/pub/hist/1991_2000/B11200831996XXXXE0100.pdf |archive-date=13 October 2018 |url-status=live |df=dmy-all |ref={{sfnref|1996 Population By-Census}} }}
* {{cite report |title=Six-monthly Report on Hong Kong January–June 1999 |publisher=[[Foreign and Commonwealth Office]] |date=July 1999 |url=https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/500961/1999_Jan-Jun.pdf |access-date=28 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190725232726/https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/500961/1999_Jan-Jun.pdf |archive-date=25 July 2019 |url-status=live |df=dmy-all |ref={{harvid|Six-monthly Report on Hong Kong January–June|1999}} }}
* {{cite journal |last=White |first=Robin |date=1988 |title=Nationality Aspects of the Hong Kong Settlement |journal=Case Western Reserve Journal of International Law |volume=20 |issue=1 |pages=225–251 |url=https://scholarlycommons.law.case.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1702&context=jil }}
{{refend}}

==== Legislation and case law ====
{{refbegin|2}}
* {{wikicite |reference=Basic Law [http://www.basiclaw.gov.hk/en/basiclawtext/chapter_2.html Chapter II] |ref={{sfnref|Basic Law Chapter II}}}}
* {{wikicite |reference=Basic Law [http://www.basiclaw.gov.hk/en/basiclawtext/chapter_3.html Chapter III] |ref={{sfnref|Basic Law Chapter III}}}}
* {{wikicite |reference=Basic Law [http://www.basiclaw.gov.hk/en/basiclawtext/chapter_4.html Chapter IV] |ref={{sfnref|Basic Law Chapter IV}}}}
* {{wikicite |reference=Basic Law [http://www.basiclaw.gov.hk/en/basiclawtext/chapter_8.html Chapter VIII] |ref={{sfnref|Basic Law Chapter VIII}}}}
* {{wikicite |reference={{Cite Hong Kong case |litigants=Chan Kam Nga v the Director of Immigration |list=FACV |number=13 |year=1998 |date=29 January 1999 |id=19413 |pinpoint=32 |hklii=16}} |ref={{sfnref|''Chan Kam Nga v the Director of Immigration''}}}}
* {{wikicite |reference={{Cite Hong Kong case |litigants=Director of Immigration v Chong Fung Yuen |list=FACV |number=26 |year=2001 |date=20 July 2001 |id=22558 |pinpoint=8.3 |hklii=48}} |ref={{sfnref|''Director of Immigration v Chong Fung Yuen''}}}}
* {{wikicite |reference={{cite Hong Kong ordinance|name=Immigration Ordinance|115|2|4}} |ref={{sfnref|Immigration Ordinance Section 2(4)}}}}
* {{wikicite |reference={{cite Hong Kong ordinance|name=Immigration Ordinance|115|2A}} |ref={{sfnref|Immigration Ordinance Section 2A}}}}
* {{wikicite |reference={{cite Hong Kong ordinance|name=Immigration Ordinance|115}} [http://www.hklii.hk/eng/hk/legis/ord/115/sch1.html Schedule 1] |ref={{sfnref|Immigration Ordinance Schedule 1}}}}
* {{wikicite |reference={{Cite Hong Kong case |litigants=Lau Kong Yung v Director of Immigration |list=FACV |number=10 |year=1999 |date=3 December 1999 |id=18930 |pinpoint=74 |hklii=4}} |ref={{sfnref|''Lau Kong Yung v Director of Immigration''}}}}
* {{wikicite |reference={{Cite Hong Kong case |litigants=Ng Ka Ling and Another v the Director of Immigration |list=FACV |number=14 |year=1998 |date=29 January 1999 |id=34052 |hklii=72}} |ref={{sfnref|''Ng Ka Ling and Another v the Director of Immigration''}}}}
* {{wikicite |reference={{cite Hong Kong ordinance|name=Registration of Persons Ordinance|177|3}} |ref={{sfnref|Registration of Persons Ordinance Section 3}}}}
* {{wikicite |reference={{cite act |title=Regulamento sobre a entrada, permanência e autorização de residência |trans-title=Entry, stay and residence permit regulation |type=Administrative Regulation |number=5 |year=2003 |language=pt |url=https://images.io.gov.mo/bo/i/2003/15/rega-5-2003.pdf |access-date=3 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180205144713/http://images.io.gov.mo/bo/i/2003/15/rega-5-2003.pdf |archive-date=5 February 2018 |url-status=live }} |ref={{sfnref|Administrative Regulation No. 5/2003, Entry, stay and residence permit regulation}} }}
* {{wikicite |reference=Sino-British Joint Declaration ([http://www.hklii.hk/eng/hk/legis/instrument/A301/declaration.html Instrument A301]) [http://www.hklii.hk/eng/hk/legis/instrument/A301/annux1.html Annex 1] |ref={{sfnref|Sino-British Joint Declaration Annex 1}}}}
* {{wikicite |reference=Standing Committee Interpretation Regarding Article 22(4) and Article 24(2)(3) of the Hong Kong Basic Law ([http://www.hklii.hk/eng/hk/legis/instrument/A106/interpretation.html Instrument A106]) |ref={{sfnref|Standing Committee Interpretation Regarding Article 22(4) and Article 24(2)(3) of the Hong Kong Basic Law}}}}
* {{wikicite |reference={{Cite legislation UK |type=si |year=1986 |number=948 |section=3 |si=The Hong Kong (British Nationality) Order 1986}} |ref={{sfnref|The Hong Kong (British Nationality) Order 1986}}}}
* {{wikicite |reference={{Cite Hong Kong case |litigants=Vallejos v Commissioner of Registration |list=FACV |number=19 |year=2013 |date=16 July 2013 |id=86304 |pinpoint=89 |hklii=17}} |ref={{sfnref|''Vallejos v Commissioner of Registration''}}}}
{{refend}}

==== News articles ====
{{refbegin|2}}
* {{cite news |last=Bradsher |first=Keith |date=25 March 2013 |title=Hong Kong Court Denies Foreign Domestic Helpers Right to Permanent Residency |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/03/26/world/asia/hong-kong-court-denies-foreign-domestic-helpers-right-to-permanent-residency.html |url-access=limited |work=[[The New York Times]] |access-date=18 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190604001158/https://www.nytimes.com/2013/03/26/world/asia/hong-kong-court-denies-foreign-domestic-helpers-right-to-permanent-residency.html |archive-date=4 June 2019 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite news |last=Branigan |first=Tania |date=28 February 2014 |title=Foreign domestic workers across Asia rise up over exploitation |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/feb/28/foreign-domestic-workers-asia-exploitation |work=[[The Guardian]] |access-date=18 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191222092452/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/feb/28/foreign-domestic-workers-asia-exploitation |archive-date=22 December 2019 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite news |last=Chan |first=Cora |date=9 November 2016 |title=How Hong Kong's courts interpret Beijing's interpretation of the Basic Law may yet surprise |url=https://www.scmp.com/comment/insight-opinion/article/2044385/how-hong-kongs-courts-interpret-beijings-interpretation |work=[[South China Morning Post]] |access-date=8 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180216224218/http://www.scmp.com/comment/insight-opinion/article/2044385/how-hong-kongs-courts-interpret-beijings-interpretation |archive-date=16 February 2018 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite news |last=Ewing |first=Kent |date=4 March 2018 |title=High Court ruling on 'live-in' rule guarantees further abuse of Hong Kong's domestic workers |url=https://www.hongkongfp.com/2018/03/04/high-court-ruling-live-rule-guarantees-abuse-hong-kongs-domestic-workers/ |work=[[Hong Kong Free Press]] |access-date=18 January 2020 }}
* {{cite magazine |last=Heifetz |first=Justin |date=4 April 2017 |title=Foreign Domestic Worker Abuse Is Rampant in Hong Kong |url=https://www.vice.com/en/article/foreign-domestic-worker-abuse-is-rampant-in-hong-kong-v24n3/ |magazine=[[Vice (magazine)|Vice]] |access-date=18 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191214152212/https://www.vice.com/en_us/article/ezwavk/foreign-domestic-worker-abuse-is-rampant-in-hong-kong-v24n3 |archive-date=14 December 2019 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite news |last=LaFraniere |first=Sharon |date=22 February 2012 |title=Mainland Chinese Flock to Hong Kong to Give Birth |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/23/world/asia/mainland-chinese-flock-to-hong-kong-to-have-babies.html |url-access=limited |work=[[The New York Times]] |access-date=8 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612204036/https://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/23/world/asia/mainland-chinese-flock-to-hong-kong-to-have-babies.html |archive-date=12 June 2018 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite news |last=Su |first=Xinqi |date=16 August 2018 |title=New ID card will give Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan residents same access to public services as mainland Chinese counterparts |url=https://www.scmp.com/news/hong-kong/politics/article/2159989/new-id-card-will-give-hong-kong-macau-and-taiwan-residents |work=[[South China Morning Post]] |access-date=11 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190315103644/https://www.scmp.com/news/hong-kong/politics/article/2159989/new-id-card-will-give-hong-kong-macau-and-taiwan-residents |archive-date=15 March 2019 |url-status=live }}
{{refend}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Right Of Abode In Hong Kong}}
[[Category:Law of Hong Kong]]
[[Category:Politics of Hong Kong]]
[[Category:Chinese nationality law]]
[[Category:British nationality law]]
[[Category:Immigration law]]
[[Category:Human rights in Hong Kong]]

Jordan, Hong Kong

2025-06-24T19:57:18Z

128.228.164.236:

{{Use Hong Kong English|date=December 2020}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2020}}

{{Infobox settlement
| name = Jordan
| native_name = 佐敦
| native_name_lang = yue
| settlement_type = [[Suburb]]
| image_skyline = File:Jordan View from ICC 201607.jpg
| image_caption = Aerial view of Jordan, with [[Austin station (MTR)|Austin Station]] in the lower part of the picture. The colorful building is Kwun Chung Municipal Services Building.
| image_map =
| map_caption =
| latd = |latm = |lats = |latNS =
| longd = |longm = |longs = |longEW =
| subdivision_type2 = Region / Country
| subdivision_name2 = {{HKG}} ([[Special administrative regions of the People's Republic of China|special administrative region]]) / {{nowrap|{{CHN}}}}
| subdivision_type = [[Districts of Hong Kong|District]]
| subdivision_name = [[Yau Tsim Mong District]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Kowloon]]
| subdivision_type1 = Statutorily-defined area
| established_date =
| seat_type =
| seat =
| leader_party =
| leader_title =
| leader_name =
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_total_km2 =
| length_km =
| width_km =
| elevation_m =
| population_as_of = 2011
| population_total = 41,248<ref>Census and Statistics Department. [http://www.census2011.gov.hk/en/constituency-area-ytm.html "District Profiles: Yau Tsim Mong District Council District"], ''[[2011 Population Census]]'', Hong Kong, 31 December 2012. Retrieved on 14 September 2016.</ref>
| population_density_km2 = auto
}}
{{Infobox Chinese
|order=
|showflag=
|c=佐敦
|j=Zo2 deon1
|y=Jo dēun
|h=Zo4 dun1
|p=Zuǒdūn
}}

'''Jordan''' ({{zh|t=佐敦}}) is an area in [[Hong Kong]], located on [[Kowloon Peninsula]]. It is named after a [[Jordan Road, Hong Kong|road]] of the same name in the district. The area is bordered by [[King's Park, Hong Kong|King's Park]] to the east, [[Tsim Sha Tsui]] to the south, [[Ferry Point, Hong Kong|Ferry Point]] to the west, and [[Yau Ma Tei]] to the north. Administratively, it is part of [[Yau Tsim Mong District]].

==Geography==
Jordan is located in the central part of the [[Yau Tsim Mong District]]. The western portion is officially known as [[Kwun Chung]] ({{lang|zh-Hant-HK|官涌}}), especially before the [[MTR]] [[rapid transit|metro]] system went into service in 1979.

Jordan is considered as an area surrounded by [[Cox's Road, Hong Kong|Cox's Road]] to the east, [[Austin Road]] to the south, [[Ferry Street, Hong Kong|Ferry Street]] to the west, and {{ill|Kansu Street|yue|%E7%94%98%E8%82%85%E8%A1%97}} to the north. This would make Jordan approximately {{convert|1|km2|sqmi|adj=on}} in size with a population of about 150,000.

Like most of southern [[Kowloon]], Jordan is entirely developed and urbanised other than a few small parks. Motor and pedestrian traffic throughout most of the day is very dense.

==Character==
[[File:Jordan, Hong Kong May2006.jpg|250px|right|thumb|A food stand near the corner of Woosung St. and Nanking St., Jordan, Hong Kong]]
Jordan is a microcosm of working-class Hong Kong. Like nearby districts of [[Mong Kok]] and [[Tsim Sha Tsui]], large sections of Jordan hosts a mix of older residential high-rises, office buildings, street markets, hotels, eateries and an almost infinite variety of small shops. There are also sections offering [[karaoke]], [[hostess bar]]s and massage parlours; nearby Mong Kok is better known for such services, however.

Although Jordan lacks the sights and comforts to support mass mainstream tourism, it still attracts a small cadre of adventurous tourists interested in experiencing authentic working-class life in Hong Kong. For locals, many live in Jordan for its relatively affordable housing, its centralised location on the spine of Hong Kong's transportation network and its diverse cultural flavour.

Jordan is home to a large number of Indians, Pakistanis, Nepalese and other ethnic minorities. The area bordering [[Ferry Point, Hong Kong|Ferry Point]] therefore hosts a wide array of South Asian and other restaurants and market stores.

==Tourism and recreation==
The following noteworthy places are located in Jordan:
{{Div col}}
* [[Australia Dairy Company]]
* [[Diocesan Girls' School]]
* [[Gun Club Hill Barracks]]
* [[Jade Market & Jade Street]]
* [[Kowloon Union Church]]
* [[Man Wah Sun Chuen]]
* [[Temple Street Night Market]]
* [[King George V Memorial Park, Kowloon]]
* [[Kowloon Cricket Club]]
* [[Kowloon Park]] (North Entrance)
{{Div col end}}

Jordan is also home to a number of prominent hotels in [[Kowloon]]:
* [[Novotel Nathan Road Kowloon Hong Kong]]
* [[Eaton Hotel Hong Kong]]
* [[Nathan Hotel]]
* [[Mayfair Garden Hotel]]

== Major roads and streets ==
[[Image:Parkes Street dusk view 201801.jpg|250px|right|thumb|Parkes Street]]
{{Div col}}
*[[Austin Road]]
*[[Battery Street]]
*[[Bowring Street]]
*[[Gascoigne Road]]
*[[Cox's Road, Hong Kong|Cox's Road]]
*[[Jordan Path]]
*[[Jordan Road, Hong Kong|Jordan Road]]
*[[Kansu Street]]
*[[Kwun Chung Street]]
*[[Min Street]]
*[[Nanking Street]]
*[[Ning Po Street]]
*[[Pak Hoi Street]]
*Parkes Street ({{zh|t=白加士街|labels=no}}), named after [[Harry Parkes (diplomat)|Harry Parkes]]
*[[Pilkem Street]]
*[[Reclamation Street]]
*[[Saigon Street]]
*[[Temple Street, Hong Kong|Temple Street]]
*[[Woosung Street]]
{{Div col end}}

==Transport==
[[Nathan Road]] and [[Jordan Road, Hong Kong|Jordan Road]] run through the area. The intersection of these two roads is a major intersection in Kowloon.

Jordan is served by the [[MTR]] [[Jordan station|station of the same name]], on the [[Tsuen Wan line]], as well as numerous bus lines.

Jordan is also the site of a bus terminal for transport to the [[Huanggang Port|Huanggang Border Crossing]] in [[Shenzhen]], China.

==See also==
* [[List of places in Hong Kong]]
* [[Austin station (MTR)|Austin MTR station]]
* [[Jordan station|Jordan MTR station]]
* [[King's Park, Hong Kong|King's Park]]
* [[Tsim Sha Tsui]]
* [[Yau Ma Tei]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Jordan, Hong Kong}}
* [http://www.johomaps.com/as/hongkong/metroatlas/jordan.html Map of Jordan]
* [http://www.mtr.com.hk/jplanner/images/maps/jor.gif MTR Map of Jordan]
{{Yau Tsim Mong District}}
{{Authority control}}
{{Hong Kong Urban Areas}}
{{Reclaimed land in Hong Kong}}

[[Category:Kwun Chung|*]]
[[Category:Places in Hong Kong]]
[[Category:Yau Tsim Mong District]]

Victory Garden, Macau

2025-06-24T19:54:40Z

128.228.164.236:

{{Short description|Park in São Lázaro, Macau}}
{{coord|22.198655|N|113.548747|E|type:isle|display=title}}
{{Infobox park
| name = Victory Garden
| alt_name =
| native_name = {{zh|t=得勝花園}} {{langx|pt|Jardim da Vitória}}
| native_name_lang =
| image = Jardim da Vitoria.jpg
| image_size = 250px
| image_alt =
| image_caption =
| map = 
| map_alt =
| map_width =
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| relief =
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| label_position =
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| type = [[Garden]]
| motto =
| location = [[São Lázaro]], [[Macau]], [[China]]
| nearest_city =
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| coordinates =
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}}
{{Chinese|t=得勝花園|s=得胜花园|j=dak1 sing3 faa1 jyun4*2|p=Déshèng Huāyuán|por=Jardim da Vitória}}
'''Victory Garden''' ({{zh|t=得勝花園}}; {{langx|pt|Jardim da Vitória}}) is a park in [[São Lázaro]], Macau. The park was built to commemorate the victory by the [[Battle of Macau|Portuguese over the Dutch in 1622]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Victory Garden |url=http://en.macaotourism.gov.mo/sightseeing/sightseeing_detail.php?c=5&id=111#.WBKb3S196po |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161028085010/http://en.macaotourism.gov.mo/sightseeing/sightseeing_detail.php?c=5&id=111#.WBKb3S196po |archive-date=2016-10-28 |access-date=2016-10-28 |website= Macao Government Tourism Office}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Vitoria or Victory Garden |url=http://www.macauholiday.com/victory-garden.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161028084300/http://www.macauholiday.com/victory-garden.html |archive-date=2016-10-28 |access-date=2016-10-28 |website=macauholiday.com}}</ref>

The park features a statute commemorating the historic event, a tree, benches and flowers that line the pathways from Avenida de Sidónio Pais.

==See also==
* [[List of tourist attractions in Macau]]

==References==
{{commons category|Victory Garden}}
{{reflist}}
{{São Lázaro}}
[[Category:Urban public parks in Macau]]
[[Category:Classified immovable properties]]

{{Macau parks}}
{{macau-geo-stub}}
{{garden-stub}}

Dr. Sun Yat Sen Municipal Park

2025-06-24T19:54:16Z

128.228.164.236:

{{Short description|Urban park in Macau}}
{{coord|22.216199|N|113.545059|E|type:isle|display=title}}

{{Infobox park
| name = Dr. Sun Yat Sen Municipal Park
| native_name =
{{lang|zh|紀念孫中山市政公園}} 
{{lang|pt|Parque Municipal Dr. Sun Yat Sen}}
| photo = Sun Yat-Sen Statue in Jardim Municipal Dr. Sun Yat Sen.jpg
| photo_width =
| photo_caption =
| map =
| map_width =
| type =
| location = [[Nossa Senhora de Fátima, Macau|Nossa Senhora de Fátima]], [[Macau]], [[China]]
| nearest_city =
| coords =
| area =
| created =
| operator = IACM
| visitation_num =
| status =
| designation =
| opened = 1983
}}
{{Infobox Chinese|t=紀念孫中山市政公園|s=纪念孙中山市政公园|j=gei2 nim6 syun1 zung1 saan1 si5 zing3 gung1 jyun4*2|p=Jìniàn Sūn Zhōngshān Shìzhèng Gōngyuán|por=Parque Municipal Dr. Sun Yat Sen}}

'''Dr. Sun Yat Sen Municipal Park''' ({{lang-zh|t=紀念孫中山市政公園}}; {{langx|pt|Parque Municipal Dr. Sun Yat Sen}}) is an urban park in [[Nossa Senhora de Fátima, Macau]]. The park is named for the founding father of the [[Republic of China (1912–49)|Republic of China]], Dr [[Sun Yat Sen]].

The park is a {{convert|70,000|m2|acre|abbr=off|sp=us}} urban park located in northern [[Macau]] along the border with [[Zhuhai]], [[Mainland China]]. The park is located next to [[Canal dos Patos (Macau)|Canal dos Patos]], but access to the former canal is closed off, and [[Portas do Cerco|Barrier Gate]]. It was originally called '''Canal dos Patos Park''' to commemorate the friendship between [[China]] and [[Portugal]] in 1987. The park is one of forty three parks in the world to bear this name.

The park features:
* old gate that marked the entrance to Macau from the mainland
* aviary
* Victorian greenhouse
* [[flower garden]]s
* feng shui forest
* swimming pool
* playground
* multi use sports fields

<gallery>
File:Swimming Pool at Jardim Municipal Dr. Sun Yat Sen.jpg|Swimming pool
File:New Wong Ieng Kuan Library at Parque Municipal Dr. Sun Yat Sen.jpg|Wong Ieng Kuan Library
File:Forever handshake.jpg|Forever Handshake
</gallery>

==Public library==
The [[Macao Public Library]] Wong Ieng Kuan Library in Dr. Sun Yat-Sen Municipal Park ({{lang|zh|紀念孫中山公園黃營均圖書館}}; {{lang|pt|Biblioteca de Wong Ieng Kuan no Parque Dr. Sun Yat Sen}}) occupies {{convert|459|sqm|sqft}} of space in a former restaurant in the park. One of several created with funding by [[Chinese Peruvian]] Wong Ieng Kuan (黃營均), it opened in a separate building in the park in 1996 and moved to its current building on 24 January 2014.<ref name=Macaulib>"[https://www.library.gov.mo/en/branch-libraries/public-library/macao/central-library#collapse3 Branch Libraries]." [[Macao Public Library]]. Retrieved on April 16, 2017. [https://www.library.gov.mo/pt/branch-libraries/public-library/macao/central-library Portuguese], [https://www.library.gov.mo/zh-hant/branch-libraries/public-library/macao/central-library Traditional Chinese], [https://www.library.gov.mo/zh-hans/branch-libraries/public-library/macao/central-library Simplified Chinese]</ref>

==See also==
*[[Zhongshan Park]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{commons category|Parque Municipal Dr. Sun Yat Sen}}
* [http://www.travelchinaguide.com/attraction/macau/sun.htm Sun Yat Sen Park, Macau]
* [https://digital.lib.hkbu.edu.hk/sunyatsen/index-en.php?park=Dr.%20Sun%20Yat%20Sen%20Municipal%20Park%20(Macau) Dr. Sun Yat Sen Municipal Park] in [https://digital.lib.hkbu.edu.hk/sunyatsen/index-en.php Sun Yat-sen Parks in the World] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210307061145/https://digital.lib.hkbu.edu.hk/sunyatsen/index-en.php |date=2021-03-07 }}, publicly accessible with info on 106 parks, provided by [https://digital.lib.hkbu.edu.hk/digital/project.php Hong Kong Baptist University Library]

{{Nossa Senhora de Fátima, Macau}}
{{Macau parks}}

[[Category:Urban public parks in Macau]]
[[Category:Gardens in Macau]]
[[Category:Monuments and memorials to Sun Yat-sen]]
[[Category:Classified immovable properties]]

S. Francisco Garden

2025-06-24T19:53:35Z

128.228.164.236:

{{Short description|Garden in Sé, Macau}}
{{More citations needed|date=July 2013}}
{{Infobox park
| name = S. Francisco Garden
| alt_name =
| native_name = {{zh|t=加思欄花園}} {{langx|pt|Jardim de S. Francisco}}
| native_name_lang =
| image = S Francisco 5.JPG
| image_size = 250px
| image_alt =
| image_caption =
| map = 
| map_alt =
| map_width =
| map_caption =
| relief =
| label =
| label_position =
| mark =
| mark_width =
| type = [[Garden]]
| motto =
| location = [[Sé, Macau|Sé]], [[Macau]], [[China]]
| nearest_city =
| nearest_town =
| grid_ref_UK =
| grid_ref_Ireland =
| coordinates =
| coords_ref =
| area =
| elevation =
| authorized =
| created =
| established =
| designated =
| opened =
| opening =
| closed =
| founder =
| designer =
| etymology =
| owner =
| administrator =
| manager =
| operator =
| visitation_num =
| visitation_year =
| visitation_ref =
| open =
| status =
| awards =
| camp_sites =
| hiking_trails =
| paths =
| terrain =
| habitat =
| water =
| plants =
| vegetation =
| species =
| collections =
| designation =
| disturbance =
| budget =
| parking =
| publictransit =
| transport =
| free_label =
| free_data =
| other_info =
| facilities =
| website =
| embedded =
| child =
}}
{{Chinese|t=加思欄花園|s=加思栏花园|j=gaa1 si1 laan4 faa1 jyun4*2|p=Jiāsīlán Huāyuán|por=Jardim de S. Francisco|note=Ka-Si-Lán-Fa-Yun in local spelling}}
'''S. Francisco Garden''' ({{zh|t=加思欄花園}}; {{langx|pt|Jardim de S. Francisco}}) is a [[floral]] [[garden]] on Rua de Santa Clara in [[Sé, Macau]].

==History==
The S. Francisco Garden is the oldest garden in Macau.<ref name=garden>{{cite web|title=S. Francisco Garden|url=http://m.cityguide.gov.mo/visit/detail.aspx?id=02010800000000000000&lang=e|accessdate=28 January 2013}}</ref> The history of the garden goes back nearly four centuries. In 1580, a convent stood at the site now occupied by the garden. The convent was built by Castilian friars of the Franciscan order. The builders of the convent were supplanted by Portuguese friars five years later. But the name of the Castilian friars remains closely associated with the place even today: The garden continues to be referred to by its Cantonese name 'Ka-Si-Lán-Fa-Yun', meaning 'Garden of the Castilians'.

==Changes==
The garden has undergone some changes down the years. The most significant of the changes took place in the 1920s, when the wave of modernization also impacted the garden. A new road, the Rua de Sta Clara, was built right through the garden, bisecting it. The garden iconic bandstand was demolished. The garden, however, still managed to salvage its character. One of the oldest features of the garden that still survive are the old arches near the Quartel de S. Francisco wall. The ancient giant trees still stand.

==The garden today==
There is an octagonal pavilion of Chinese architecture on the lower level of the garden. Amazingly, this small building is one of Macau's busiest libraries. The garden also retains most of the beautiful balustrade that goes around it. The balusters also serve as support for the railing of the stairs that join the lower level of the garden to the upper level. On this level the garden features a [[tower]] built by the [[Portugal|Portuguese]] military to honour [[World War I]] war heroes. Once a [[military]] [[barracks]] (now used as office for the [[Secretariat for Security (Macau)|Secretariat for Security]]) and [[Officer (armed forces)|officers]] [[Club (organization)|club]], the grounds are now a garden and home to the Association for the [[handicapped]].

==See also==
* [[List of tourist attractions in Macau]]

==References==
{{commons category|S. Francisco Garden}}
{{reflist}}
{{Sé, Macau}}
{{Macau parks}}

{{coord|22.192473|113.544672|display=title}}

[[Category:Sé, Macau]]
[[Category:Gardens in Macau]]
[[Category:Classified immovable properties]]

{{Macau-geo-stub}}
{{Garden-stub}}

Comendador Ho Yin Garden

2025-06-24T19:52:54Z

128.228.164.236:

{{Short description|Garden in Sé, Macau}}
{{Expand Chinese|topic=geo|date=June 2013}}
{{Coord|22.192131|113.54939|region:MO_type:landmark|display=title}}
{{Infobox park
| name = Comendador Ho Yin Garden
| native_name = 何賢公園
| photo = Gate of Jardim Comendador Ho Yin.jpg
| photo_width =
| photo_caption =
| map =
| map_width =
| type = [[Garden]]
| location = [[Sé, Macau|Sé]], [[Macau]], [[China]]
| nearest_city =
| coords =
| area =
| created =
| operator = IACM
| visitation_num =
| status =
| designation =
| opened = 1993
}}
{{Chinese|t=何賢公園|s=何贤公园|j=ho4 jin4 gung1 jyun4*2|p=Hé Xián Gōngyuán|por=Jardim Comendador Ho Yin}}
The '''Comendador Ho Yin Garden''' ({{zh|t=何賢公園}}; {{langx|pt|Jardim Comendador Ho Yin}}) is a small [[garden]] in a residential area of [[Sé, Macau]], named after [[Ho Yin]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.whereismacau.com/gardens/1221/garden-of-comendador-ho-yin/#.U6ClU5RmO7g |title=Garden of Comenadror Ho Yin Macau |access-date=2014-06-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121022050024/http://www.whereismacau.com/gardens/1221/garden-of-comendador-ho-yin/#.U6ClU5RmO7g |archive-date=2012-10-22 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

== History ==
Comendador Ho Yin Garden was designed by Francisco Caldeira Cabral,<ref name="city">{{cite web|title=何賢公園（香山公園）|url=http://www.cityguide.gov.mo/visit/detail.aspx?id=02010500000000000000|publisher=城市指南|access-date=2010-08-01 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071217051459/http://www.cityguide.gov.mo/visit/detail.aspx?id=02010500000000000000|archive-date=2007-12-17}}</ref> opened by the last [[Governor of Macau]] [[Vasco Joaquim Rocha Vieira]] on 9 October 1993 with the name of '''Heung Shan Garden''' ({{zh|t=香山公園}}) or '''Heung Shan Plaza''' ({{zh|t=香山廣場}}).<ref>{{Cite web|title=城市指南：何賢公園（香山公園）|url=http://www.cityguide.gov.mo/visit/detail.aspx?id=02010500000000000000|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071217051459/http://www.cityguide.gov.mo/visit/detail.aspx?id=02010500000000000000|archive-date=2007-12-17|access-date=2010-08-01 |url-status=live }}</ref>

The garden was renamed on 22 November 1996 by [[Municipal Council of Macau]] to commemorate Ho Yin's devotion to Portuguese-Chinese friendship.

Starting from May 2005, Macau Government started work to renovate the park, including to building a multi-story garage under the park and to cut off the park in order to connect Rua De Pequim and Rua de Luís Gonzaga Gomes.

The garden was gated until June 2007 after the renovation finished, only to be with gates erected again in 2015.<ref name="VKP">{{cite news|date=2007-02-07|title=何賢公園停車場提供九百泊車位|publisher=[[華僑報]]|url=http://www.vakiodaily.com/index.php?tn=viewer&ncid=1&nid=117713&dt=20070207%E2%8C%A9=tw|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150712184533/http://www.vakiodaily.com/index.php?tn=viewer&ncid=1&nid=117713&dt=20070207%E2%8C%A9=tw|archive-date=2015-07-12|access-date=2010-08-01 |url-status=live |language=zh-hant}}</ref>

== Features ==
The park is located on Avenida de Amizade and features the Orient Arch as the central piece.

The park's features include:
* concrete [[chess table]]s
* [[Bench (furniture)|bench]]es
* [[playground]]
* gardens
* [[Coffeehouse|cafe]]

<gallery>
Ho Yim Graden.JPG|Comendador Ho Yin Garden
Library at the Jardim Comendador Ho Yin.jpg|Library
Jardim Comendador Ho Yin 2.jpg|Comendador Ho Yin Garden
Car Parking in Jardim Comendador Ho Yin.jpg|Car Park
</gallery>

==See also==
* [[List of tourist attractions in Macau]]

==References==
{{commons category|Jardim Comendador Ho Yin}}
{{reflist}}

{{Sé, Macau}}
{{Macau parks}}

[[Category:Gardens in Macau]]
[[Category:1993 establishments in Macau]]

{{Garden-stub}}
{{Macau-geo-stub}}

Casa Garden

2025-06-24T19:51:56Z

128.228.164.236:

{{Short description|Building in Santo António, Macau}}
{{Coord|22|12|01.1|N|113|32|23.6|E|display=title}}
[[Image:Casa Garden, 2023 (03).jpg|thumb|240px|Casa Garden]]
{{maplink|frame=yes|frame-width=240|zoom=16|type=point}}
{{Chinese|t=東方基金會會址|s=东方基金会会址|j=dung1 fong1 gei1 gam1 wui6*2 wui? zi2|p=Dōngfāng Jījīnhuì Huìzhǐ}}
The '''Casa Garden''' ({{zh|t=東方基金會會址}}) is a small [[parkette]] in [[Santo António, Macau]]. The area is the headquarters of the Macau delegation of the Orient Foundation.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Casa Garden |url=http://www.macau-airport.com/en/sightseeing-information/123 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402111101/http://www.macau-airport.com/en/sightseeing-information/123 |archive-date=2015-04-02 |access-date=2014-06-17 |website=Macau International Airport}}</ref>

==History==
Built in 1770, the park was originally the residence of a wealthy Portuguese merchant, Manuel Pereira. At a later period, it was rented out to the [[English East India Company]] and was used to house the directors of the Macau branch of the company. In 2005, it was officially enlisted as part of the [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]] ''[[Historic Centre of Macau]]''. Nowadays it is a cultural centre, which promotes a cross between Portuguese and Macau/Chinese art. In 2014 [[Sofia Areal]] had an exhibition in Casa Garden after a monthly residence in [[Macau]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=2014-12-08 |title=Sofia Areal em exposição na Casa Garden |language=pt |work=Ponto Final |url=https://pontofinalmacau.wordpress.com/2014/12/08/sofia-areal-em-exposicao-na-casa-garden/ |url-status=live |access-date=2017-01-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170116143515/https://pontofinalmacau.wordpress.com/2014/12/08/sofia-areal-em-exposicao-na-casa-garden/ |archive-date=2017-01-16}}</ref> Coupled with an exhibition in Lisbon in 2015 in the [[Museum of the Orient]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=A Oriente tudo de novo – Cadernos de viagem |url=http://www.museudooriente.pt/2564/a-oriente-tudo-de-novo---cadernos-de-viagem.htm#.WHdgw7YrKlM |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170106193450/http://www.museudooriente.pt/2564/a-oriente-tudo-de-novo---cadernos-de-viagem.htm#.WHdgw7YrKlM |archive-date=2017-01-06 |access-date=2017-01-12 |website=Museu Fundação Oriente |language=pt}}</ref>

==Architecture==
The park contains the old residence, the [[Old Protestant Cemetery in Macau|Old Protestant Cemetery]] and an art gallery.

==See also==
* [[List of tourist attractions in Macau]]

==References==
{{Commons category|Casa Garden}}
{{reflist}}
{{Santo António, Macau}}
{{Macau parks}}
{{Historic Centre of Macau}}

{{-}}

[[Category:Pocket parks]]
[[Category:Gardens in Macau]]
[[Category:Historic Centre of Macau]]
[[Category:Portuguese Macau]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures completed in 1770]]
[[Category:1770 in Asia]]
[[Category:Portuguese colonial architecture in China]]
[[Category:Classified immovable properties]]

{{Macau-geo-stub}}
{{Garden-stub}}

Arts Garden

2025-06-24T19:08:54Z

128.228.164.236:

{{Short description|Floral garden in Sé, Macau}}
{{Coord|22|11|25.6|N|113|32|55.6|E|display=title}}
{{Chinese|pic=Jadim das artes.JPG|caption=Arts Garden|t=藝園|s=艺园|j=ngai6 jyun4*2|p=Yì Yuán|por=Jardim das Artes}}
'''Arts Garden''' ({{zh|t=藝園}}; {{langx|pt|Jardim das Artes}}) is a floral garden in [[Sé, Macau]]. It runs along Avenida de Amizade and bisects two other parks, [[Comendador Ho Yin Garden]] and [[Dr Carlos d'Assumpcao Park]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Arts Garden |url=http://en.macautourism.gov.mo/sightseeing/sightseeing_detail.php?c=5&id=104#.U6CnGJRmO7g |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304065137/http://en.macautourism.gov.mo/sightseeing/sightseeing_detail.php?c=5&id=104#.U6CnGJRmO7g |archive-date=2016-03-04 |access-date=2014-06-17 |website=Macao Government Tourism Office}}</ref> The park features floral gardens, fountains and statuary.

==See also==
* [[List of tourist attractions in Macau]]

==References==
{{commons category|Arts Garden}}
{{reflist}}
{{Sé, Macau}}
{{Macau parks}}
[[Category:Sé, Macau]]
[[Category:Gardens in Macau]]

{{Macau-geo-stub}}
{{Garden-stub}}

Lou Lim Ioc Garden

2025-06-24T19:08:11Z

128.228.164.236:

{{Short description|Garden in São Lázaro, Macau}}
{{coord|22.200026|N|113.547440|E|display=title}}
{{unsourced|date=February 2021}}
{{Infobox park
| name = Lou Lim Ioc Garden
| alt_name =
| native_name = {{zh|t=盧廉若公園}} {{langx|pt|Jardim de Lou Lim Ioc}}
| native_name_lang =
| image = Lou lim ioc.JPG
| image_size = 250px
| image_alt =
| image_caption =
| map = 
| map_alt =
| map_width =
| map_caption =
| relief =
| label =
| label_position =
| mark =
| mark_width =
| type = [[Garden]]
| motto =
| location = [[São Lázaro]], [[Macau]], [[China]]
| nearest_city =
| nearest_town =
| grid_ref_UK =
| grid_ref_Ireland =
| coordinates =
| coords_ref =
| area =
| elevation =
| authorized =
| created = 1906
| established =
| designated =
| opened =
| opening =
| closed =
| founder =
| designer =
| etymology =
| owner = [[Government of Macau]]
| administrator =
| manager =
| operator =
| visitation_num =
| visitation_year =
| visitation_ref =
| open =
| status =
| awards =
| camp_sites =
| hiking_trails =
| paths =
| terrain =
| habitat =
| water =
| plants =
| vegetation =
| species =
| collections =
| designation =
| disturbance =
| budget =
| parking =
| publictransit =
| transport =
| free_label =
| free_data =
| other_info =
| facilities =
| website =
| embedded =
| child =
}}
{{Chinese|t=盧廉若公園|s=卢廉若公园|j=lou4 lim4 joek6 gung1 jyun4*2|p=Lú Liánruò Gōngyuán|por=Jardim de Lou Lim Ioc}}
'''Lou Lim Ioc Garden''' ({{zh|t=盧廉若公園}}; {{langx|pt|Jardim de Lou Lim Ioc}}) is a garden in [[São Lázaro]] in [[Macau]]. Built in 1906 by local merchant Lou Kau as part of his residence, the garden has a design that follows the well-known Suzhou Gardens. It was turned over to the Macau government in 1974 as a public park, which is popular with local inhabitants.

==See also==
{{commons category|Jardim de Lou Lim Ioc}}
* [[List of tourist attractions in Macau]]

{{São Lázaro}}
{{Macau parks}}
[[Category:1906 establishments in Macau]]
[[Category:Gardens in Macau]]
[[Category:Classified immovable properties]]
[[Category:São Lázaro]]

{{Macau-geo-stub}}
{{garden-stub}}

Hac-Sá Park

2025-06-24T19:07:30Z

128.228.164.236:

{{Short description|Ocean side park in Macau}}
{{unreferenced|date=December 2015}}
[[File:Barbecue Area at Hac Sa Park.jpg|thumb|Barbecue area at Hac Sa Park]]
{{Chinese|t=黑沙公園和黑沙海灘休憩區|s=黑沙公园和黑沙海滩休憩区|j=hak1 saa1 gung1 jyun4*2 wo4 hak1 saa1 hoi2 taan1 jau1 hei3 keoi1|p=Hēishā Gōngyuán hé Hēishā Hǎitān Xiūqì Qū|por=Parque de Hác-Sá}}
The '''Hac Sa Bay Park''' ({{zh|t=黑沙公園}}, {{langx|pt|Parque de Hác-Sá}}) is an oceanfront park on [[Coloane]] in [[Macau]]. It is named for the black sand beaches (including [[Hac Sa Beach]]) in the area.{{citation needed|date=December 2015}}

==See also==
{{commons category|Parque de Hác-Sá}}
* [[List of tourist attractions in Macau]]
{{Coloane}}
{{Macau parks}}
{{coord|22.117953|113.568983|display=title}}

[[Category:Urban public parks in Macau]]
[[Category:Coloane]]

{{Coloane-stub}}

Coloane

2025-06-24T19:05:59Z

128.228.164.236: /* Tourist attractions */

{{Short description|Area of Macau}}{{Distinguish|Cologne (disambiguation){{!}}Cologne}}{{Infobox settlement
| name = Coloane (São Francisco Xavier)
| native_name = {{nobold|{{lang|zh-hans|路環 (聖方濟堂區)}}}}
| other_name =
| settlement_type = [[Parishes of Macau|Freguesia]]
| image_skyline = Coloane and coastline 02.JPG
| image_caption = Avenida Cinco de Outubro along the west coast of Coloane
| image_map = Colaoane 2015.png
| mapsize = 250x250px
| map_caption = Freguesia de São Francisco Xavier in Macau
| coordinates = {{coord|22|07|34|N|113|34|01|E|region:MO_type:isle_scale:25000|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_name = Freguesia de São Francisco Xavier{{ill|‍|lt=|pt|Freguesia de São Francisco Xavier|yue|%E8%81%96%E6%96%B9%E6%BF%9F%E5%90%84%E5%A0%82%E5%8D%80|es|S%C3%A3o Francisco Xavier (Macao)|fr|Freguesia de S%C3%A3o Francisco Xavier|cdo|S%C3%A9ng-hu%C5%8Fng-c%C3%A1%CC%A4-g%C3%A1uk_D%C3%B2ng-k%E1%B9%B3%CC%86}} (coterminous)
| subdivision_type = [[Freguesia]]
| subdivision_name2 = {{flag|Macau}}
| subdivision_type2 = [[Special administrative regions of China|SAR]]
| subdivision_name3 = {{PRC}}
| subdivision_type3 = Sovereign state
| area_total_km2 = 7.6
| elevation_m =
| population_total = 9,300
| population_as_of = 2013
| population_density_km2 = auto
| timezone = [[Macau Standard Time|Macau Standard]]
| utc_offset = +8
| area_code_type =
| area_code =
| website =
}}
{{Infobox Chinese
| title = São Francisco Xavier Parish
| t = 聖方濟堂區
| y = ''shing fōng tsai gok tòhng kūi''
| showflag = y
| j = sing3 fong1 zai3 gok3 tong4 keoi1
| s = 圣方济堂区
| p = Shèng Fāngjǐgè Tángqū
| altname = Coloane
| t2 = 路環
| y2 = ''louh wàhn''
| j2 = lou6 waan4
| s2 = 路环
| p2 = Lùhuán
}}
'''Coloane''' ([[Chinese languages|Chinese]]: 路環''',''' [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]''':''' ''Coloane'') is the southernmost area in [[Macau]], connected to [[Taipa]] through the area known as [[Cotai]], which is largely built from reclaimed land. Known as “''Lou Wan''” in [[Cantonese]], Coloane forms the southern part of Macau. Its population consists of several settlements dotted around the parish, such as Vila de Coloane (Coloane Village), Hac Sa, Ká-Hó, and Cheoc Van. Administratively, the boundaries of the traditional civil parish ({{langx|pt|freguesia}}) of '''São Francisco Xavier''' are coterminous with that of Coloane.

==Etymology==
Coloane was historically known in [[Cantonese]] as ''Gau Ou Saan'' (九澳山 ''lit.'' "Nine-inlet Mountain" or transcribed in Portuguese as '''Ká-Hó''') and ''Yim Jou Waan'' (鹽灶灣, ''lit.'' "Salt-stove Bay"). The [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] name of "Coloane" is derived from the [[Cantonese]] pronunciation of ''Gwo Lou Waan'' (過路環, ''lit.'' "Passing-road Ring").

==Geography==
Coloane has an area of {{convert|8.07|km2|0|abbr=on}}, is {{convert|4|km|0|adj=on|abbr=on}} long and is {{convert|5.6|km|0|abbr=on}} from the [[Macau Peninsula]]. The narrowest part of Coloane is {{convert|300|m}}. The highest points in Macau are eastern and central Coloane, with the highest point being the {{convert|170.6|m}} [[Coloane Alto]] ({{zh|t=疊石塘山|cy=Daahpsehk Tòhngsāan}}, [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]: ''Alto de Coloane'').

Before land reclamation works started beginning in the 1990s, Coloane was a former island, separated from Taipa by the bay of [[Seac Pai Bay|Seac Pai Van]], which from 1969 was crossed by a {{convert|2.2|km}} causeway, the Estrada do Istmo, connecting Coloane to Taipa. However by the early 2000s, extensive [[land reclamation]] physically connected the two islands and a new area called [[Cotai]], intended primarily for entertainment and leisure purposes, was built between Taipa and Coloane, now home to the [[Cotai Strip]] and several other casino projects.

The northern shore of the parish is {{convert|4.5|m}} deep,{{citation needed|date=December 2015}} and is the site of the Macau Deepwater Port.{{citation needed|date=December 2015}}

The eastern [[Hac Sa Beach]] ({{zh|t=黑沙海灘|cy=Hāksā Hóitāan|links=no}}, Portuguese: ''Baía de Hác Sá'') and the southern Cheoc Van Bay ({{zh|t=竹灣|cy=Jūk wāan|links=no}}, Portuguese: ''Baía de Cheoc Van'') are popular swimming beaches and overlook the [[South China Sea]].

==History==
From the [[Song dynasty]] onwards and until the Portuguese annexation of Coloane in 1864,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Macao - Asia |url=https://ermakvagus.com/macao.htm |access-date=2023-09-03 |website=ermakvagus.com}}</ref> Coloane largely served as a [[sea salt]] farm for [[China]]. The annexation of Coloane in the 1860s came as [[Portugal]] sought to expand its influence over [[Macau]] and affirm its sovereignty, turning the city into a fully-fledged [[Portuguese Macau|colony]] and expanding its area to include [[Taipa]], [[Ilha Verde]], Coloane and portions of [[Hengqin]] (Montanha). Due to Coloane’s sparse habitation, mountainous terrain, and geographical isolation yet close adjacency to the flourishing trade on the [[Macau Peninsula]], from the [[Ming dynasty|Ming Dynasty]],<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-11-26 |title=The Not-So Swashbuckling Pirates of Coloane |url=https://macaulifestyle.com/culture/heritage/pirates-coloane-macau/ |access-date=2023-09-03 |website=Macau Lifestyle |language=en-US}}</ref> it had also become a refuge of piracy, which resulted in Coloane’s fishermen having competition from both smugglers and pirates. According to historians, most pirates were likely fishermen seeking to make money. As such, the annexation by [[Portugal]] also sought to dislodge the pirates who had been using Coloane as a refuge and disrupt Macau’s trade.

Despite the annexation, Coloane remained largely deserted, and its Portuguese sovereignty remained disputed as late as 1912 by the local government in [[Guangdong]], which wanted property owners in Coloane not to be forced to pay taxes to the Macau colonial government.<ref>{{Cite web |title= Land of pirates. And mystery|website=Macau Business| date=19 July 2018 |url=https://www.macaubusiness.com/land-of-pirates-and-mystery/}}</ref> Despite several anti-piracy efforts, Coloane remained a base of piracy until an incident in July 1910 where a group of 18 Chinese children were kidnapped by a band of pirates, requesting a ransom amount of 35,000 [[Macanese pataca]]s. In what became the last battle fought by Portuguese troops in Macau, all 310 pirates active in the Coloane area were captured or fled after a 10-day battle, which saw Coloane bombed as a result and some of its inhabitants incarcerated and charged with helping pirates.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-11-26 |title=The Not-So Swashbuckling Pirates of Coloane |url=https://macaulifestyle.com/culture/heritage/pirates-coloane-macau/ |access-date=2023-09-03 |website=Macau Lifestyle |language=en-US}}</ref>

Many of the pirates that fled were caught either by the [[Portuguese Macau|colonial Macau]] government, the [[British Hong Kong|British colonial government in Hong Kong]], or the [[Qing dynasty|Qing government in China.]] Most faced the death penalty by decapitation.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-11-26 |title=The Not-So Swashbuckling Pirates of Coloane |url=https://macaulifestyle.com/culture/heritage/pirates-coloane-macau/ |access-date=2023-09-03 |website=Macau Lifestyle |language=en-US}}</ref>

For many years, July 13 has served as a local holiday in Coloane, celebrating the victory over the pirates, with a statue in front of the Church of St. Francis Xavier (in Largo Eduardo Marques) commemorating the event.

Locally famous for its rural character, the island started to become more populated after the Estrada do Istmo causeway connecting Coloane with Taipa was completed in 1969, and became to become rapidly developed and populated starting in the 1990s, following the beginning of land reclamation works that created the area of [[Cotai]] and developed new towns such as [[Seac Pai Van]].

==Coloane Village==
[[File:Coloane4.jpg|thumb|Old Tin Hau Temple]]
[[File:Macau coloane village 1.jpg|thumb|Chapel of St. Francis Xavier]]
Coloane Village ([[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]: ''Vila de Coloane''; {{zh|c=路環村|cy=Louhwàahn Chyūn|labels=no}}), located on the southwestern coast of Coloane, is the main settlement in the area.

The village centers on Eduardo Marques Square, which is a rectangle paved in [[cobblestone]]s that are black, white and yellow, laid out in a wavy pattern reminiscent of the sea. The square faces a seaside [[promenade]] that traces the channel dividing Macau from the [[Mainland China|mainland Chinese]] hills on Hengqin (Montanha). At the eastern end of the square stands the Chapel of St. Francis Xavier, built in 1928.

A [[Tam Kung Temple (Macau)|Tam Kung Temple]] is located at the southern end of Avenida de Cinco de Outubro (十月初五馬路).

== Lai Chi Vun Village ==
[[File:Lai Chi Vun Shipyard.jpg|thumb|A ship being built in a local shipyard.]]
Lai Chi Vun Village ([[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]: ''Vila de Lai Chi Vun''; {{zh|c=荔枝碗村|cy=|labels=no}}) is a small settlement located directly north of Coloane Village. The route to the village, the Estrada de Lai Chi Vun, begins at the intersection of Estrada de Seac Pai Van and Estrada do Campo in the north and ends at Largo do Cais in the south. The towering banyan tree at the northern end of the marks the northern entrance to the village, whose name is associated with its abundance in lychee trees in the past and its bowl-shaped bay.

The [[Shipyards in Macau#Coloane|shipyards]] that once lay beyond the village are nowadays left in disuse. The single-storey business premises of Veng Lok Shipyard and of Association of Shipbuilders of Macau-Taipa-Coloane are located inside the small courtyard to the right of the road atop the hill. All the way down the road to the western side is the one-storey office building of the Customs office of Coloane in Portuguese architectural style.

Coloane Pier, which was once the only entry and exit point of Coloane, is located along the waterfront facing Largo do Cais the southern end of the road.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://macaostreets.iacm.gov.mo/e/parish7/detail.aspx?id=bd269a47-7e8e-49e2-8784-0b823fc1b322|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170228000537/https://macaostreets.iacm.gov.mo/e/parish7/detail.aspx?id=bd269a47-7e8e-49e2-8784-0b823fc1b322|url-status=dead|archive-date=February 28, 2017|title=Macao Streets Homepage - Estrada de Lai Chi Vun|website=macaostreets.iacm.gov.mo|access-date=2017-02-27}}</ref>

The Lai Chi Vun shipyards are currently being evaluated to determine whether they meet the Macau SAR’s legal definition of cultural relics. The site is potentially significant because Macau's shipbuilding industry began at the shipyards and because of the formation of a historical village near the area.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://macaudailytimes.com.mo/consultation-lai-chi-vun-shipyards-starts-monday.html|title=Consultation on Lai Chi Vun shipyards starts Monday|date=18 January 2018 }}</ref>

==Tourist attractions==
[[File:Tam Kung Miu (Macau) 01.JPG|thumb|Tam Kung Temple]]
[[File:Coloane_Island_rocks.jpg|thumb|Southern coast of Coloane]]
'''Temples'''
* Sam Seng Temple (三圣宫; ''Templo Sam Seng''), also called Kam Fa Temple (金花庙; ''Templo Kam Fa'')<ref>[http://www.temple.mo/?mod=temples&id=112&lang=en Kam Fa Temple (Coloane)], in Macau Temple Civilization website</ref> located at 2 Rua dos Navegantes in Coloane Village. Dedicated to Kam Fa, [[Guanyin|Kun Iam]] and Va Kuong,<ref>[https://macaostreets.iacm.gov.mo/e/route/detail.aspx?gid=8&id=b47c455b-2f6f-46b8-9bea-adac25186c83 Sam Seng Kong Temple] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208121537/https://macaostreets.iacm.gov.mo/e/route/detail.aspx?gid=8&id=b47c455b-2f6f-46b8-9bea-adac25186c83|date=2015-12-08}}, in Macau Streets website</ref> it was built in 1865.<ref>[http://www.macauholiday.com/coloane-temples.html Sam Seng Temple in Coloane], in Ola! Macau Tourism Guide</ref>
* [[Guanyin|Kun Iam]] Temple in Coloane Village, located at Travessa do Caetano.<ref>[http://www.temple.mo/?mod=temples&id=114&lang=en Kun Iam Temple (Coloane)], in Macau Temple Civilization website</ref>
* Old [[Matsu (goddess)|Tin Hau]] Temple (天后古廟; ''Antigo Templo de Tin Hau'') in Coloane Village<ref>[http://www.macauholiday.com/tin-hau-temple-coloane.html Ancient Tin Hau Temple in Coloane], in Ola! Macau Tourism Guide</ref>
* [[Tam Kung Temple (Macau)|Tam Kung Temple]] in Coloane Village. Dedicated to Lord Tam, a [[Taoist]] god of seafarers, it was built in 1862.<ref>[http://www.macauholiday.com/tam-kung-temple.html Tam Kung Temple in Coloane] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151119233724/http://www.macauholiday.com/tam-kung-temple.html|date=2015-11-19}}, in Ola! Macau Tourism Guide</ref><ref>[http://en.macautourism.gov.mo/sightseeing/sightseeing_detail.php?c=4&id=53#.VmMJ_9IrK00 Tam Kong Temple], on Macau Government Tourist Office website</ref>
* Hung Shing Temple in Hac Sa Village<ref>[http://www.temple.mo/?mod=temples&id=110&lang=en Hung Shing Temple in Hac Sa Village], in Macau Temple Civilization website</ref>
* Sam Seng Temple (三聖站廟; ''Templo Sam Seng''), in the Ká-Hó (九澳) area, in the northeastern part of the island<ref>[http://www.temple.mo/?mod=temples&id=111&lang=en Sam Seng Temple], in Macau Temple Civilization website</ref>
* [[Guanyin|Kun Iam]] Temple (Ká-Hó)<ref>[http://www.temple.mo/?mod=temples&id=113&lang=en Kun Iam Temple (Ka Ho)], in Macau Temple Civilization website</ref>
'''Churches'''
* [[Chapel of St. Francis Xavier]] (聖方濟聖堂; ''Capela de São Francisco Xavier)'' of the Freguesia de São Francisco Xavier. The chapel, built in 1928, is located on the southwestern coast of Coloane and stands near a monument commemorating a victory over pirates in 1910. The chapel used to contain some of the most sacred [[Christianity|Christian]] [[relic]]s in Asia, including the remains of [[Twenty-six Martyrs of Japan|26 foreign and Japanese]] Catholic priests who were crucified in [[Nagasaki, Nagasaki|Nagasaki]] in 1597, as well as those of some of the Japanese Christians who were killed during the [[Shimabara Rebellion]] in 1637. They are now located in the Museum of Sacred Art, opened in 1996 next to the [[Ruins of St. Paul's]]. Another relic was a bone from the arm of St. Francis Xavier, who died in 1552 on [[Shangchuan Island]], {{convert|50|mi|km}} from Macau. This relic has been transferred to [[St. Joseph's Seminary and Church|St. Joseph's Church]].<ref>[http://en.macautourism.gov.mo/sightseeing/sightseeing_detail.php?c=3&id=31#.VmMGV9IrK00 Chapel of St. Francis Xavier], on Macau Government Tourist Office website</ref>
* Church of [[Our Lady of Sorrows]] (九澳七苦聖母小堂; ''Igreja de Nossa Senhora das Dores'') in the Ká-Hó area<ref>[http://en.macautourism.gov.mo/sightseeing/sightseeing_detail.php?c=3&id=36#.VmMJo9IrK00 Our Lady of Sorrows Church], on Macau Government Tourist Office website</ref>

'''Others'''
* "Fernando", a [[Portuguese cuisine|Portuguese restaurant]] at Baía de Hác Sá, is famous amongst locals in Macau and visitors from [[Hong Kong]]
* [[Hac Sa Park]]
* [[Macao Giant Panda Pavilion]]
* [[Natural and Agrarian Museum]]
* [[Seac Pai Van Park]]
* Hiking trails of [[Alto de Coloane]]
* Former [[Leper colony|leprosarium]] at Ká-Hó; home to five colonial Portuguese-style homes, once used to house female [[leprosy]] patients.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Former Ká Hó Leprosarium {{!}} Macau, China {{!}} Attractions |url=https://www.lonelyplanet.com/china/macau/coloane/attractions/former-ka-ho-leprosarium/a/poi-sig/1602571/1341099 |access-date=2023-09-03 |website=Lonely Planet |language=en}}</ref>
* [[A-Ma]] Statue (媽祖像; ''Estátua de A-Ma'') opened on October 28, 1998 ([[lunar calendar]]: September 9)
* [[Balneario|Balneário]]-style beachside resort towns of Hac Sa and Cheoc Van

==Government==
* [[Correctional Services Bureau]]

==Infrastructure==
* [[Coloane A Power Station]]
* [[Coloane B Power Station]]

==Healthcare==
Health centres operated by the Macau government in Coloane include Posto de Saúde Coloane (路環衛生站) and Posto de Saúde Provisório de Seac Pai Van de Coloane (路環石排灣臨時衛生站).<ref>"[http://www.ssm.gov.mo/Portal/content/pt/contactus.aspx Contacte-Nos] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201023090349/https://www.ssm.gov.mo/portal/content/pt/contactus.aspx|date=2020-10-23}}." [[Macau Health Bureau]]. Retrieved on April 21, 2018. [http://www.ssm.gov.mo/Portal/content/ch/contactus.aspx Chinese version] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180421031303/http://www.ssm.gov.mo/Portal/content/ch/contactus.aspx|date=2018-04-21}}</ref>

==Education==
[[File:Biblioteca Coloane.JPG|thumb|Coloane Library]]
Public schools:
* Escola Luso-Chinesa de Coloane (路環中葡學校) - Special education<ref>"[http://appl.dsej.gov.mo/eduenquiry/edu/eduweb/schinf/schlistmain.jsp?a_code=119&sid=&lang=p&sh_year=2016&sh_info=schalvara&sh_a_code=&sh_s_code=&sh_name=&sh_level=&sh_special=&sh_system=O&sh_daynight=&sh_language=&sh_free=&sh_area=&search=1&PubPg=0&advance=0&b_submit=search_2Pesquisar Escola Luso-Chinesa de Coloane]." [[Education and Youth Affairs Bureau (Macau)]]. Retrieved on April 9, 2017. "Endereço : AVENIDA 5 DE OUTUBRO, COLOANE" - [http://appl.dsej.gov.mo/eduenquiry/edu/eduweb/schinf/schlistmain.jsp?a_code=119&sid=&lang=c&sh_year=2016&sh_info=schalvara&sh_a_code=&sh_s_code=&sh_name=&sh_level=&sh_special=&sh_system=O&sh_daynight=&sh_language=&sh_free=&sh_area=&search=1&PubPg=0&advance=0&b_submit=search_2Pesquisar Chinese profile]: "學校地址: 路環十月初五馬路"</ref>

Subsidized private schools:
* {{ill|Escola Dom Luís Versíglia|zh|雷鳴道主教紀念學校}} (雷鳴道主教紀念學校) - Primary and secondary school<ref>"[http://appl.dsej.gov.mo/eduenquiry/edu/eduweb/schinf/schlistmain.jsp?a_code=018&sid=&lang=p&sh_year=2016&sh_info=schalvara&sh_a_code=&sh_s_code=&sh_name=&sh_level=&sh_special=&sh_system=&sh_daynight=&sh_language=&sh_free=&sh_area=C&search=1&PubPg=0&advance=0&b_submit=search_2Pesquisar Escola Dom Luís Versíglia]." [[Education and Youth Affairs Bureau (Macau)]]. Retrieved on April 9, 2017. "Endereço : Caminho da Povoacao de Ka Ho" - [http://appl.dsej.gov.mo/eduenquiry/edu/eduweb/schinf/schlistmain.jsp?a_code=018&sid=&lang=c&sh_year=2016&sh_info=schalvara&sh_a_code=&sh_s_code=&sh_name=&sh_level=&sh_special=&sh_system=&sh_daynight=&sh_language=&sh_free=&sh_area=C&search=1&PubPg=0&advance=0&b_submit=search_2Pesquisar Chinese profile]: "學校地址: 九澳村道"</ref>
* Escola de São José de Ká Hó (九澳聖若瑟學校) - Preschool through junior high school<ref>"[http://appl.dsej.gov.mo/eduenquiry/edu/eduweb/schinf/schlistmain.jsp?a_code=091&sid=&lang=p&sh_year=2016&sh_info=schalvara&sh_a_code=&sh_s_code=&sh_name=&sh_level=&sh_special=&sh_system=&sh_daynight=&sh_language=&sh_free=&sh_area=C&search=1&PubPg=0&advance=0&b_submit=search_2Pesquisar Escola de São José de Ká Hó]." [[Education and Youth Affairs Bureau (Macau)]]. Retrieved on April 9, 2017. "Endereço : Aldeia de Ká Hó" - [http://appl.dsej.gov.mo/eduenquiry/edu/eduweb/schinf/schlistmain.jsp?a_code=091&sid=&lang=c&sh_year=2016&sh_info=schalvara&sh_a_code=&sh_s_code=&sh_name=&sh_level=&sh_special=&sh_system=&sh_daynight=&sh_language=&sh_free=&sh_area=C&search=1&PubPg=0&advance=0&b_submit=search_2Pesquisar Chinese profile]: "學校地址: 澳門路環九澳村聖母馬路1151號"</ref>

[[Macao Public Library]] operates the Coloane Library (''Biblioteca de Coloane''; 路環圖書館), which occupies {{convert|170|sqm|sqft}} space in the former Coloane Public Elementary School (路環公局市立學校; ''Escola Básica Pública de Coloane''), a Portuguese-style building. In 1983 the building was renovated so it could serve as a library.<ref>"[https://www.library.gov.mo/en/branch-libraries/public-library/macao/central-library#collapse3 Branch Libraries]." Macao Public Library. Retrieved on April 16, 2017. [https://www.library.gov.mo/pt/branch-libraries/public-library/macao/central-library Portuguese], [https://www.library.gov.mo/zh-hant/branch-libraries/public-library/macao/central-library Traditional Chinese], [https://www.library.gov.mo/zh-hans/branch-libraries/public-library/macao/central-library Simplified Chinese]</ref>

==Transport==
[[File:PRAIA DE HAC SA.JPG|thumb|Bus stop at Hac Sa Beach]]
Coloane is served by buses and taxis, and is planned to be served in the future by the [[Seac Pai Van line|Seac Pai Van]] [[Macau Light Rapid Transit|LRT]] line.

== See also ==
*[[Kai Ho Port]]
*[[Correctional Services Bureau|Macau Prison]]
*[[List of islands and peninsulas of Macau]]

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

== External links ==
{{commons category-inline|Coloane}}
*{{wikivoyage inline|Macau/Coloane|Coloane}}
*[http://maps.google.ca/maps?q=Coloane&oe=utf-8&client=firefox-a&ie=UTF8&hl=en&ll=22.12299,113.562804&spn=0.136283,0.209427&t=h&z=13 Google Maps: Macau / Coloane]

{{Geographic location
| Centre = Freguesia de São Francisco Xavier
| North = [[Cotai|Cotai Landfill Zone]]
| Northeast =
| East = ''[[South China Sea]]''
| Southeast = ''[[South China Sea]]''
| South = ''[[South China Sea]]''
| Southwest =
| West = {{flagicon|PRC}} [[Xiangzhou District, Zhuhai|Xiangzhou District]]
| Northwest =
}}
{{Coloane}}
{{Macau Freguesias}}
{{Major cities along the Pearl River}}
{{Portuguese overseas empire}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Coloane| ]]

Keelung Road

2025-06-24T17:20:29Z

128.228.164.236: /* References */

{{Short description|Road in Taipei, Taiwan}}
[[File:Taipei World Trade Center International Trade Building and Keelung Road 20100721.jpg|thumb|Keelung Road]]

'''Keelung Road''' ({{zh|t=基隆路|p=Jīlóng Lù}} is a major [[arterial road]] and [[highway]] in [[Taipei]], [[Taiwan]], named for [[Keelung]]. It connects the [[Neihu]] district from the MacArthur 1st Bridge in the east with the [[Songshan District, Taipei|Songshan]], [[Xinyi District, Taipei|Xinyi]], and [[Da'an District, Taipei|Daan]] districts towards the southwest, with a connection to [[Yonghe City]] via the Fuhe Bridge.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/taiwan/archives/2015/05/02/2003617305|title=Farglory road expansion 'terrifying,' residents say - Taipei Times|date=2 May 2015}}</ref>

Keelung Road is a very congested route because of its connections to and from Huandong Boulevard, Tiding Boulevard, [[Civic Boulevard]], Xinhai Road/[[National Freeway 3A]], Shuiyuan Expressway, and the Fuhe Bridge, which are all major transportation corridors. There are a series of [[reversible lane]]s and bypasses (above ground and underground) along the corridor to provide traffic relief within the small right-of-way.

== Landmarks ==
Notable landmarks along Keelung Road include:
* [[National Taiwan University]]
* National Taiwan University Hospital Gongguan Branch
* Linjiang Street Night Market
* [[Taipei International Convention Center]]
* [[Taipei World Trade Center]]
* [[Taipei City Council]]

== Sections ==
Unlike most of Taipei arterials, Keelung Road is not divided into any directional sections. However, there are still numbered sections of the road.
* Section 1: MacAuthur 1st Bridge – Xinyi Road
* Section 2: Xinyi Road – Dunhua S. Road
* Section 3: Dunhua S. Road – Changxing Street
* Section 4: Changxing Street – Shuiyuan Expressway

== Major Intersections ==
[[File:Keelung Road and Xinyi Road Sec 5 Intersection.jpg|thumb|Keelung Road and Xinyi Road Sec. 4-5 Intersection]]
* Tayou Road & Nanjing Road (surface road only)
* Tiding Boulevard/MacArthur 1st & 2nd bridges (highway only)
* [[Bade Road|Bade Road Sec. 4]] & [[Civic Boulevard|Civic Boulevard Sec. 5]] (surface road only)
* [[Civic Boulevard|Civic Boulevard expressway]] (highway only)
* Yongji Road & Dongxing Road (surface road only)
* Songlong Road
* [[Zhongxiao Road|Zhongxiao East Road Sec. 4-5]]
* Shifu Road (southbound off-ramp and northbound on-ramp only)
* Songshou Road (diamond interchange)
* [[Xinyi Road|Xinyi Road Sec. 4-5]]
* [[Guangfu Road|Guangfu South Road]]
* [[Heping Road|Heping East Road Sec. 3]]
* [[Dunhua Road|Dunhua South Road Sec. 2]] (surface road only)
* Xinhai Road Sec. 2-3 (surface road only)
* [[Roosevelt Road (Taipei)|Roosevelt Road Sec. 4-5]] (surface road only)
* Shuiyuan Expressway

==See also==
* [[List of roads in Taiwan]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Xinyi Planning District}}
[[Category:Streets in Taipei]]

{{Taiwan-road-stub}}

Taipei World Trade Center

2025-06-24T17:19:55Z

128.228.164.236: /* External links */

{{Short description|Convention center in Taipei}}
{{more citations needed|date=October 2023}}
{{Expand Chinese|topic=struct|date=February 2009}}
{{Infobox building
| name = Taipei World Trade Center 臺北世界貿易中心
| native_name =
| former_names =
| alternate_names =
| image = Jilong Road square of TWTC Exhibition Hall 20090617.jpg
| alt =
| caption = Taipei World Trade Center facing [[Keelung Road|Jilong Road]]
| map_type =
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| client = [[Taiwan External Trade Development Council]]
| owner =
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| location = [[Xinyi District, Taipei|Xinyi]], [[Taipei]], [[Taiwan]]
| address =
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| start_date = 16 October 1982
| completion_date =
| inauguration_date = 31 December 1985
| renovation_date =
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| architect = Haigo T. H. Shen, [[Kenzo Tange|Tange Associates]]
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}}

The '''Taipei World Trade Center''' ('''TWTC'''; {{zh|t=臺北世界貿易中心|p=Táiběi Shìjiè Màoyì Zhōngxīn}}) was inaugurated in January 1986 by [[Taiwan]]'s foremost trade promotion organization, the [[Taiwan External Trade Development Council]] (TAITRA), to provide a single, modern venue that would combine [[Trade fair|exhibition]] space, [[Conference room|conference]] facilities, [[office]]s, and [[hotel]] accommodation for [[international business]]. TWTC combines every possible service that brings together a vast consulting service on trade-related issues, trading partners, [[Distributor (business)|supplier]]s, and [[Market (economics)|markets]].

This four-in-one complex, located in the city's [[Xinyi District, Taipei|Xinyi District]], is designed to accommodate the needs of the international business community, which is why there is not just one, but four structures at the TWTC. The Exhibition Hall, [[Taipei International Convention Center|International Convention Center]], [[TWTC International Trade Building]] and [[Grand Hyatt Taipei]], all comprise one integrated business complex.

==Establishment==
The current Taipei World Trade Center only saw completion in 1985 following many drawbacks in construction and development. However, the history of the [[Taiwan External Trade Development Council]] (TAITRA) began on 1 July 1970, where in an effort by the [[Republic of China]] Government to further develop international trade activities following accelerated economic growth in the 1970s.

Initially, TAITRA did not have a specialized exhibition hall to accommodate the exhibitions of export goods. As a result of the lack of facilities, in March 1974, the [[Taipei Grand Hotel]] was chosen for the first ever [[Taipei Trade Shows]] - "Taiwan Export Clothings Exhibition". Subsequently, the necessity of a new exhibition hall allowed for the establishment of the TAITRA exhibition hall set up at [[Taipei Songshan Airport]]. Yet shortly afterwards due to Taiwan's rapid economic growth as one of the [[Four Asian Tigers]], TAITRA again found itself having to facilitate even larger scale exhibitions.

Architects and engineers selections were conducted through international design competitions. Hellmuth, Obata and Kassabaum (HOK), and William Tao & Associates, both from St. Louis, Missouri, and T.Y. Lin & Associates from San Francisco, USA, were selected to perform master plans, conceptual and schematic designs in 1982. Detailed designs were completed by Haigo Shen & Associates in Taipei, Taiwan. General Consultants and Construction Managers included Bechtel from USA, Sinotech Engineering and CTCI, both from Taipei, Taiwan.

On 31 December 1985, the Taipei World Trade Center had its inaugural exhibition for [[IT Month]], which coincided with the opening of the Exhibition Hall. Following suit, the International Tourist Hotel (completed in 1987, renamed the [[Grand Hyatt Taipei]]), the International Trade Building (completed in 1988) and [[Taipei International Convention Center|International Convention Center]] (completed in 1989, now as TICC) were opened for use. From January 1, 1986, the Exhibition Hall and TICC has been managed by TAITRA under the commission of the Ministry of Economic Affairs to this day. Hence from 8 January 1990, the Taipei World Trade Center exists in its present form as an all-purpose four-in-one complex.

==Main buildings==

===Exhibition Building (Hall 1)===
[[File:Computex Taipei in Taipei World Trade Center 2004-06.jpg|thumb|The exhibition hall in Taipei World Trade Center]]

====Exhibition Hall====
*First floor: Usually referred to as "Exhibition Hall 1". Showroom floor area is 23450 square metres, accommodates 1304 display booths, and is divided into four quadrants (A, B, C, D). Popularly, [[Taipei Trade Shows]] and other larger exhibitions are held here.
*2nd floor: Also known as "Area H", has an aerial bridge that connects to [[Taipei 101]], floor area of 4789 square meters, accommodates 250 standard sized exhibition booths. Exhibitions in this area typically range from small to mid-sized local expositions or education related expositions.

====Convention Room====
Located on the 2nd floor, divided into three rooms, mainly functions as meeting or board room for exhibition organizers, additionally, the 3rd and 4th rooms can be connected accordingly to accommodate varying delegations.

====TAITRA Book Store====
[[File:TAITRA Book Store.jpg|thumb|TAITRA Book Store]]
Open for business during weekdays, or on holidays when there is an exhibition. Book collection mainly comprises sales trading-related items. When [[Taipei Trade Shows]] are going on at the time, it also provides exhibitor directory lists.

====Trade Market (sales display)====
Catering to different needs, the 2nd to 6th floors are set as an "Export Market", with the 7th floor as the "Import Market". First opened in June 1985 for product export companies to register for sales. There are currently 1052 displays.

===Exhibition Hall 3===
Start to use from 18 September 2003, showground area is 7481 square meter, able to accommodate 365 display booths, and floors above 2nd floor are planned into parking area. During large exhibition periods, the parking rate will adjust accordingly.

==Important exhibitions==
[[File:2007AutoTronicsTaipei Day4-21.jpg|thumb|Taipei Trade Shows - AutoTronics Taipei]]
*[[Taipei International Book Exhibition]]
*[[COMPUTEX]]
*[[Taipei Computer Application Show]]
*[[IT Month]]<ref>[http://www.itmonth.org.tw/ IT Month]</ref>
*[[Taipei International Travel Fair]]<ref>[http://www.taipeiitf.org.tw/ Taipei International Travel Fair]</ref>
*[[Taiwan External Trade Development Council|TAITRA]] [[Taiwan Trade Shows]]

==Access==
The building is accessible from [[Taipei 101–World Trade Center metro station|Taipei 101–World Trade Center Station]] of the [[Taipei Metro]].

==See also==
* [[Taipei Nangang Exhibition Center]]
* [[Taipei International Convention Center]]
* [[Grand Hyatt Taipei]]
* [[World Trade Center Taichung]]
* [[List of convention centers in Taiwan]]
* [[List of tourist attractions in Taiwan]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Taipei World Trade Center Exhibition Hall}}
{{Wikinews category|Taipei World Trade Center}}
* {{facebook|臺北世界貿易中心-318898531459466}}
*[http://www.taiwantrade.com.tw/ TAIWANTRADE]
*[http://www.twtc.org.tw/ Taipei World Trade Center]

{{Xinyi Planning District}}
{{Coord|25|2|2|N|121|33|44|E|type:landmark_region:TW|display=title}}

[[Category:1985 establishments in Taiwan]]
[[Category:Infrastructure completed in 1985]]
[[Category:Convention centers in Taipei]]
[[Category:Tourist attractions in Taipei]]
[[Category:Economy of Taipei]]
[[Category:World Trade Centers]]
[[Category:Xinyi Special District]]

Civic Boulevard

2025-06-24T17:18:54Z

128.228.164.236: /* See also */

{{Short description|Highway in Taipei}}
{{Infobox street
| name = Civic Boulevard
| marker_image =
| native_name ={{native name|zh|市民大道}}
| alternate_name =
| image = TaipeiCivicBlvdExpressway.jpg
| image_size = 250px
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| type = [[Highway]]
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| location = [[Taipei]], [[Taiwan]]
| arrondissement =
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| completion_date = 1997
| inauguration_date = 
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}}

{{Infobox Chinese
| title = Civic Boulevard
| c = {{linktext|市民|大道}}
| bpmf = ㄕˋ ㄇㄧㄣˊ ㄉㄚˋ ㄉㄠˋ
| p = Shìmín Dàdào
| w =
| poj = Chhǐ-bîn Tāi-tō͘
| tl =
| altname =
}}

[[File:Road name sign of Section 1 and 2, Civic Boulevard, Taipei 20060622.jpg|thumb|Road name sign in Civic Boulevard]]
'''Civic Boulevard''' ({{zh|c=市民大道}}) is a major [[highway]] located in [[Taipei]], [[Taiwan]]. It was completed in 1997 as part of a multi-modal reconstruction project to improve transportation networks in congested central Taipei. It consists of a four- to six-lane elevated expressway and a surface-level frontage road system below the highway.

The highway begins at the '''MacArthur Bridges''' in the east (connecting the [[Neihu]] district, and [[Keelung Road]] (in the [[Xinyi District, Taipei|Xinyi]] and [[Songshan District, Taipei|Songshan]] districts), heads west, ending at an interchange with the Zhongxiao Bridge and the Huanhe Expressway. It provides direct access to [[Taipei Main Station]], which is just south of Civic Boulevard.

As part of a larger project to move [[Taiwan Railways Administration|Taiwan railway]] tracks underground to reduce congestion at surface railroad crossings, Civic Boulevard was built in the old railroad right-of-way, providing a new east-west highway through Taipei. Other parts of this project included underground parking, underground shopping malls in the vicinity of [[Taipei Main Station]], provisions for utilities, and [[Taiwan High Speed Rail]] railroad tracks under conventional railroad tracks to [[Nangang District (Taipei)|Nangang]].

== Major interchanges ==
* '''[[Zhongxiao Bridge]]''' / '''[[Huanhe Road|Huanhe Expressway]]''' — half-interchange with surface arterial and direct-flyover ramps to Zhongxiao Bridge and Huanhe Expressway
* '''[[Chongqing Road|Chongqing N. Road]]''' — half-interchange
** Provides access to [[Taipei Main Station]]
* '''[[Xinsheng Road|Xinsheng S. Road]]''' (signed eastbound) / '''[[Jianguo Road (Taipei)|Jianguo S. Road]]''' (signed westbound) — full interchange
** Provides access to Xinsheng Road, Jinshan Road, Songjiang Road, Bade Road, and Jianguo Road
* '''[[Guangfu Road|Guangfu S. Road]]''' — half-interchange
* '''[[Keelung Road]]''' — ramps to surface arterial (to [[Xinyi District, Taipei|Xinyi]] and [[Songshan District, Taipei|Songshan]]) and direct-flyover ramps to MacArthur Bridges (to [[Neihu]])

==See also==
* [[List of roads in Taiwan]]

{{coord missing|Taiwan}}

{{commons category|Civic Boulevard, Taipei}}
{{Xinyi Planning District}}

[[Category:1997 establishments in Taiwan]]
[[Category:Viaducts in Taiwan]]
[[Category:Roads in Taipei]]
[[Category:Highways in Taiwan]]

{{Taiwan-road-stub}}

Breeze Center

2025-06-24T17:18:43Z

128.228.164.236: /* External links */

{{Short description|Shopping mall in Songshan, Taipei, Taiwan}}
{{Infobox shopping mall
| name = Breeze Center
| native_name = 微風廣場
| native_name_lang = zh-tw
| logo = Breeze Center logo.svg
| logo_width = 100 px
| image = Breeze Center.JPG
| image_width = 250px
| caption =
| location = [[Songshan District, Taipei|Songshan]], [[Taipei]], [[Taiwan]]
| coordinates = {{coord|25|2|46.1|N|121|32|39.04|E|type:landmark_region:TW|display=inline,title}}
| address =
| opening_date = 26 October 2001
| closing_date =
| developer =
| manager = [[Henry Liao]]
| owner = Breeze Development Co., Ltd.
| architect =
| number_of_stores =
| number_of_anchors =
| floor_area =
| floors =
| parking =
| publictransit =
| website = {{url|1=https://www.breezecenter.com|2=www.breezecenter.com}}
| footnotes =
}}

'''Breeze Center''' ({{zh|t=微風廣場|p=Wéifēng Guǎngchǎng}}) is a [[shopping center]] in [[Songshan District, Taipei|Songshan District]], [[Taipei]], [[Taiwan]].

==History==
The site was originally the production plants of [[HeySong Corporation]]. The shopping center began construction in 1998.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.heysong.com.tw/Index/Index?aspxerrorpath=/web_en/corporation2.htm|title=黑松 HeySong}}</ref> The center was opened on 26 October 2001 by founder [[Paul Liao]].

==Transportation==
The shopping center is accessible within walking distance North from [[Zhongxiao Fuxing metro station|Zhongxiao Fuxing Station]] of the [[Taipei Metro]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.breezecenter.com/floor_guide.htm?storeID=0 |title=Breeze微風廣場 {{!}} 微風廣場 |website=www.breezecenter.com |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121213062315/http://www.breezecenter.com/floor_guide.htm?storeID=0 |archive-date=2012-12-13}} </ref>

==See also==
* [[List of shopping malls in Taipei]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://breezecenter.com Official website]

{{commons category}}

{{Xinyi Planning District}}
{{Shopping malls in Taiwan}}

[[Category:2001 establishments in Taiwan]]
[[Category:Shopping malls established in 2001]]
[[Category:Shopping malls in Taipei]]

{{Taiwan-mall-stub}}

Tokyo Monorail

2025-06-18T15:15:54Z

128.228.164.236:

{{Short description|Monorail line in Tokyo, Japan}}
{{About|the Haneda Airport monorail|the Western Tokyo monorail|Tama Toshi Monorail Line}}
{{Infobox rail line
| name = Tokyo Monorail Haneda Airport Line
| native_name = 東京モノレール羽田空港線
| native_name_lang = ja
| color = 000080
| logo = [[File:Tokyo monorail.svg|250px|class=skin-invert]]
| logo_width =
| image = Tokyo-Monorail-Type10000 Haneda-Airport-Line.jpg
| caption = A train passing through [[Haneda Airport]]
| type = Straddle-beam [[monorail]] ([[Alweg]]{{Nbhyph}}type)
| owner = Tokyo Monorail Co., Ltd.
| operator = 
| locale = [[Tokyo]], Japan
| website = [http://www.tokyo-monorail.co.jp/english/ Tokyo Monorail]
| linelength = {{convert|17.8|km|mi|abbr=on}}
| open = {{start date|1964|09|17|df=y}}
| stations = 11
| start = [[Hamamatsuchō Station|Monorail Hamamatsuchō]] (north)
| end = [[Haneda Airport Terminal 2 Station|Haneda Airport Terminal 2]] (south)
| daily_ridership = 140,173 (2018, average)<ref>{{cite web |script-title=ja:会社概要 |trans-title=Company Profile |url=http://www.tokyo-monorail.co.jp/company/profile.html |language=ja |publisher=Tokyo Monorail Co., Ltd. |access-date=May 12, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190512175123/http://www.tokyo-monorail.co.jp/company/profile.html |archive-date=May 12, 2019}}</ref>
| speed = {{plainlist}}
*{{convert|45|km/h|mph|abbr=on}} (average)
*{{convert|80|km/h|mph|abbr=on}} (top)
{{endplainlist}}
| character = Elevated and underground<ref name="case-study-heavy-duty">{{cite web |url=https://www.hitachi-rail.com/pdf/tokyo_monorail.pdf |title=Case Study: Heavy Duty Performance, Tokyo Monorail |publisher=[[Hitachi Rail]] |date=2014 |access-date=September 4, 2019 |archive-date=December 6, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191206084102/http://www.hitachi-rail.com/pdf/tokyo_monorail.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>
| minradius = {{convert|120|m|ft|abbr=on}}
| map = {{Tokyo Monorail RDT}}
| map_state = hide
| map_name = Route diagram
}}

The {{Nihongo foot|'''Tokyo Monorail'''|東京モノレール|Tōkyō Monorēru|group=lower-alpha|lead=yes}}, officially the {{Nihongo foot|'''Tokyo Monorail Haneda Airport Line'''|東京モノレール羽田空港線|Tōkyō Monorēru Haneda Kūkō sen|group=lower-alpha}}, is a straddle-beam, [[Alweg]]-type [[monorail]] line in [[Tokyo]], Japan. It is an [[airport rail link]] that connects [[Haneda Airport|Tokyo International Airport]] (Haneda) to Tokyo's [[Ōta, Tokyo|Ōta]], [[Shinagawa]], and [[Minato, Tokyo|Minato]] [[Special wards of Tokyo|wards]]. The {{convert|17.8|km|mi|adj=on|sp=us}} line serves 11 stations between the [[Hamamatsuchō Station|Monorail Hamamatsuchō]] and [[Haneda Airport Terminal 2 Station|Haneda Airport Terminal 2]] stations. It runs on a predominantly elevated north–south route that follows the western coast of [[Tokyo Bay]]. The monorail is operated by the ''Tokyo Monorail Co., Ltd.'', which is jointly owned by [[East Japan Railway Company|JR East]], the system's rolling stock supplier [[Hitachi]], and ANA Holdings, Inc. (the holding company of [[All Nippon Airways]]). It carried an average of 140,173 passengers per day in 2018.

Plans to build Japan's first airport rail link surfaced in 1959 as Tokyo was preparing to host the [[1964 Summer Olympics]]. That year, the Yamato Kanko Co., Ltd.—later renamed the Tokyo Monorail Co.—was established to build the rail connection. Construction began in 1963 and completed on 17 September 1964, just 23 days ahead of the Olympic opening ceremony. Upon opening, the monorail operated between the Hamamatsuchō and Haneda stations, making no intermediate stops. It has since been expanded with [[infill station]]s and extensions, and there are plans to extend it to [[Tokyo Station]] in the future.

The Tokyo Monorail is one of two rail lines serving the airport, the other being the [[Keikyū Airport Line]]. At [[Hamamatsuchō Station]], passengers may transfer to the [[Keihin–Tōhoku Line|Keihin–Tōhoku]] and [[Yamanote Line|Yamanote]] lines of [[East Japan Railway Company|JR East]], as well as the [[Asakusa Line|Asakusa]] and [[Oedo Line|Oedo]] lines of the [[Tokyo Metropolitan Bureau of Transportation|Toei Subway]] via nearby [[Daimon Station (Tokyo)|Daimon Station]]. The monorail also connects with Tokyo Waterfront Area Rapid Transit's [[Rinkai Line]] at [[Tennōzu Isle Station]].

==Early history==
[[File:Tokyo Airport (1).jpg|thumb|right|Haneda Airport in the 1950s]]

Tokyo's [[Haneda Airport]] had emerged as the country's international gateway by the time Japan's commercial aviation industry recovered from the [[World War II|Second World War]] in the early 1950s. In 1959, the airport recorded approximately 910,000 total passengers and expected many more for the coming [[1964 Summer Olympics]]. That same year, the government unveiled a plan for a central Tokyo-to-[[airport rail link]]. Opponents of the rail line briefly countered with a proposal to extend the [[Tokyo Expressway]] instead, but fears that this would only worsen vehicular congestion led to a preference for rail.<ref name="air-rail-links">{{cite journal |last=Hirota |first=Ryosuke |journal=Japan Railway & Transport Review |volume=19 |date=March 1999 |title=Air–Rail Links in Japan: 35 Years Old and Healthier than Ever |url=http://www.ejrcf.or.jp/jrtr/jrtr19/pdf/F08_Hirota.pdf |access-date=August 22, 2019}}</ref>{{rp|9}}

In August 1959, the Yamato Kanko Co., Ltd. was established to build the rail line; it renamed to Japan Elevated Railway Co., Ltd. a year later. The company applied for a route license to build a straddle-beam, [[Alweg]]-type monorail in January 1960, which the Japanese government granted the following December.<ref name="モノレールヒストリー">{{cite web |url=http://www.tokyo-monorail.co.jp/fun/history.html |script-title=ja:モノレールヒストリー |trans-title=Monorail History |language=ja |publisher=Tokyo Monorail Co., Ltd. |access-date=May 23, 2020}}</ref> The company selected Alweg due to two factors. First, the company's president, Tetsuzo Inumaru, was an old friend of Dr. [[Axel Wenner-Gren]], the founder of Alweg. Second, [[Hitachi]], which would build the line, was keen on further developing the technology.<ref name="air-rail-links"/>{{rp|9}}

Project planners originally intended the monorail line to extend from Haneda Airport to [[Shimbashi Station|Shimbashi]] or [[Tokyo Station]],<ref name="negative-impact-olympics">{{cite news |last=Whiting |first=Robert |url=http://www.japantimes.co.jp/sports/2014/10/24/olympics/negative-impact-1964-olympics-profound/#.VGNHKY0cR9A |title=Negative impact of 1964 Olympics profound |newspaper=[[The Japan Times]] |date=October 24, 2014 |page=14 |access-date=May 12, 2019}}</ref> and the license that had been acquired allowed building it up to either station.<ref name="company-profile">{{cite web |url=https://www.aecen.org/sites/default/files/tokyo_monorail.pdf |title=Tokyo Monorail, Company Profile |publisher=Tokyo Monorail Co., Ltd. |date=2010 |access-date=May 11, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190511230804/https://www.aecen.org/sites/default/files/tokyo_monorail.pdf |archive-date=May 11, 2019 |url-status=unfit }}</ref>{{rp|3}} However, opposition from residents living near the [[Shibaura|Shibaura Canal]], which had been part of the proposed route,<ref>{{cite news |last=Kusamachi |first=Yoshikazu |script-title=ja:東京モノレール、なぜ浜松町発着？北への延伸は「幻」に終わるか |trans-title=Why does Tokyo Monorail end at Hamamatsuchō? Will the north extension remain a "vision"? |language=ja |newspaper=Norimono News |date=March 25, 2018 |url=https://trafficnews.jp/post/80013 |access-date=September 4, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190905054156/https://trafficnews.jp/post/80013 |archive-date=September 5, 2019}}</ref> as well as [[cost overrun]]s during the construction of the [[Tōkaidō Shinkansen]], which drained government subsidies, resulted in a shortened route from the airport to [[Hamamatsuchō Station]]. To further minimize costs, the line was routed over other public waterways donated by local municipalities, which eliminated the need to acquire expensive private land, but [[Land reclamation|reclaimed]] parts of [[Tokyo Bay]], as well as rivers and canals. The resulting alignment removed a number of fishing and [[Aquaculture|aquatic farming]] operations, and local fishing cooperatives had their licences revoked by the [[Tokyo Metropolitan Government]]. Among them was a seaweed harvesting field in [[Ōta, Tokyo|Ōta Ward]] that had produced a premium brand of [[nori]] since the [[Edo period]] called ''Omori no nori''.<ref name="negative-impact-olympics"/>

The [[Ministry of Transport (Japan)|Ministry of Transport]] authorized the monorail project in December 1961.<ref name="air-rail-links"/>{{rp|9}} A groundbreaking ceremony was held on 1 May 1963, and the subsequent construction of the line progressed rapidly.<ref name="50-years">{{citation |script-title=ja:東京モノレール50年史 1964-2014 |trans-title=Tokyo Monorail 50 Years History 1964-2014 |language=ja |author=Tokyo Monorail Co., Ltd. Corporate History Editorial Committee |publisher=Tokyo Monorail Co., Ltd. |date=September 2014}}</ref>{{rp|248}} In May 1964, Japan Elevated Railway Co., Ltd. again changed its name to Tokyo Monorail Co., Ltd.<ref name="モノレールヒストリー"/> The line cost a total of {{Yen|21.1 billion}} (equivalent to approximately $60 million in 1964 dollars<ref>{{cite magazine |author= |title=Tokyo monorail wins its comeback fight |magazine=[[Business Week]] |year=1970 |issue=2131–2139 |publisher=[[McGraw Hill]] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jrUiAQAAMAAJ |page=56}}</ref>), of which {{Yen|20 billion}} was spent for construction and {{Yen|1.1 billion}} on rolling stock.<ref name="air-rail-links"/>{{rp|9}} Hitachi built the first-generation cars in Japan under license of Alweg (through the Hitachi–Alweg joint venture). Upon its inauguration, the Tokyo Monorail became the world's first commercial monorail service and Japan's first airport rail connection.<ref>{{cite journal |author= |title=Tokyo Monorial Service Opened |journal=[[Railway Gazette International|Railway Gazette]] |date=October 2, 1964 |page=793}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine|title=Tokyo monorail opened |magazine=[[The Railway Magazine]] |issue=763 |date=November 1964 |page=862}}</ref>

Service commenced on 17 September 1964, 23 days ahead of the [[Olympic opening ceremony]] on 10 October.<ref name="terada2013">{{cite book |last=Terada |first=Hirokazu |script-title=ja:データブック日本の私鉄 |trans-title=Databook: Japan's Private Railways |language=ja |publisher=Neko Publishing |date=January 19, 2013 |location=Japan |page=53 |isbn= 978-4-7770-1336-4}}</ref><ref>The Haneda monorail ''[[Modern Railways]]'' issue 431 August 1984 page 406</ref> At the time of opening, the Tokyo Monorail ran a total length of {{convert|13.1|km|mi|sp=us}} and served only its termini: Hamamatsuchō Station and the airport. Most of the artificial islands in Tokyo Bay had not yet been reclaimed, and the line mostly ran over water.<ref>{{cite tweet |user=JPNatArchives |number=776948949903171584 |date=September 16, 2016 |script-title=ja:昭和39年(1964)、東京モノレールが開業しました。開業当時、羽田空港・浜松町間には途中駅がなく、区間13.1kmを約15分で結んだそうです。画像は、開業時の路線図です。#モノレール |trans-title=The Tokyo Monorail opened in 1964. At the time of opening, there was no station on the way between Haneda Airport and Hamamatsucho, and the 13.1-km route took about 15 minutes. The image is a route map at the time of opening. #monorail |language=ja |link=https://twitter.com/JPNatArchives/status/776948949903171584/photo/1 |access-date=August 14, 2020}}</ref><ref name="keizai-shimbun-20140905">{{cite news |author= |script-title=ja:東京モノレール50年車窓から見た湾岸開発史 |trans-title=Tokyo Monorail 50 years: Development history of the bay from the view of a train window |language=ja |newspaper=[[Nihon Keizai Shimbun]] |date=September 5, 2014 |access-date=September 4, 2019 |url=https://www.nikkei.com/article/DGXMZO76335490Z20C14A8000000/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190905050338/https://www.nikkei.com/article/DGXMZO76335490Z20C14A8000000/ |archive-date=September 5, 2019}}</ref> The price for a one-way ticket was {{Yen|250}},<ref>{{cite news |last=Kamizawa |first=Hiroyuki |script-title=ja:(東京五輪物語)浜松町-羽田モノレール開通空港まで15分、突貫工事 |trans-title=(Tokyo Olympics Story) Hamamatsucho–Haneda Monorail opens, airport in 15 minutes, construction rushed |language=ja |newspaper=[[Asahi Shimbun]] |date=14 February 2015 |url=https://www.asahi.com/articles/DA3S11602539.html |access-date=12 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150214200507/http://www.asahi.com/articles/DA3S11602539.html |archive-date=14 February 2015 |url-status=unfit |url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |author= |script-title=ja:東京モノレール開業 |trans-title=Tokyo Monorail Opens |language=ja |newspaper=[[Mainichi Shimbun]] |date=September 17, 1964 |url=http://showa.mainichi.jp/news/1964/09/post-f35f.html |access-date=September 4, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140607043912/http://showa.mainichi.jp/news/1964/09/post-f35f.html |archive-date=June 7, 2014 |url-status=unfit}}</ref> which was relatively more expensive than other available options at the time. It was notably cheaper to take a taxi with four people to the airport than to ride the monorail. A recession following the Olympics resulted in a decrease in airport arrivals, which severely affected ridership. In 1966, the Tokyo Monorail was forced to reduce the price of its fare to {{Yen|150}} to attract more passengers.<ref name="keizai-shimbun-20140905"/>

==Infill stations and later expansions==
[[File:Tokyo monorail international bld sta.jpg|thumb|right|Construction of Haneda Airport Terminal 3 Station, then-named Haneda Airport International Terminal Station, in 2009]]

[[Ōi Keibajō Mae Station|Ōi Keibajō Mae]] became the monorail's first [[infill station]] upon its completion in May 1965. It was originally built as a temporary station above the water along the coast and only operated on days when an event was taking place at [[Ohi Racecourse]]. Its permanent replacement opened two years later. The city government subsequently reclaimed the area around this station and developed a housing complex known as {{ill|Yashio Park Town|ja|八潮 (品川区)}}.<ref name="keizai-shimbun-20140905"/> In November 1967, an overpass connecting the monorail platform to the JR platforms of Hamamatsuchō Station was completed.<ref name="モノレールヒストリー"/> Between 1967 and 1993, four more stations were built along the original alignment; these were Haneda Seibijō, later renamed [[Seibijō Station|Seibijō]] (1967); Shin Heiwajima, later renamed [[Ryūtsū Center Station|Ryūtsū Center]] (1969); [[Shōwajima Station|Shōwajima]] (1985); and [[Tennōzu Isle Station|Tennōzu Isle]] (1992).<ref name="company-profile"/>{{rp|3}}

When the monorail began operating, the passenger terminal at Haneda Airport was located on the west side of the airfield, south of Seibijō, and this was the southern end of the line. Upon the opening of a new passenger terminal—now Terminal 1—in 1993, the monorail was extended to a [[Haneda Airport Terminal 1 Station|new platform]] and another station, [[Shin Seibijō Station|Shin Seibijō]], was built for the employees of nearby maintenance facilities.<ref name="company-profile"/>{{rp|4}} Meanwhile, the former airport passenger terminal was razed and the monorail tunnel beneath it abandoned to make room for an extension of Runway B.<ref name="chizu">{{cite web |last=Imoto |first=Keisuke |script-title=ja:羽田空港の歴史 |trans-title=Haneda Airport History |language=ja |url=https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/jjca/48/4/48_4_4_7/_pdf |publisher=地図 |pages=11–13 |date=December 16, 2010 |access-date=November 28, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180829035008/https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/jjca/48/4/48_4_4_7/_pdf |archive-date=August 29, 2018}}</ref> The original Haneda Station, which was abandoned along with the tunnel, was rebuilt farther west along the new section of tracks and renamed [[Tenkūbashi Station]] in November 1998.<ref>{{cite news |last=Okuyama |first=Seijiro |script-title=ja:東京モノレール５０周年消えた「羽田駅」・実は小さい「天空橋」 |trans-title=Tokyo Monorail 50th Anniversary: Vanished "Haneda Station", actually small "Tenkubashi" |language=ja |url=https://withnews.jp/article/f0140917002qq000000000000000W0080201qq000010851A |newspaper={{ill|withnews|ja|withnews}} |date=September 17, 2014 |access-date=March 5, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200306031743/https://withnews.jp/article/f0140917002qq000000000000000W0080201qq000010851A |archive-date=March 6, 2020}}</ref> Although the rails were removed and its entrance walled off, the now-unused tunnel remains otherwise intact today below the Runway B extension.<ref name="chizu"/>

The monorail has continued to adapt and expand with the terminal changes and expansions of Haneda Airport. A single-station, {{convert|0.9|km|mi|adj=on|sp=us}} extension to the airport's then new Terminal 2 opened on 1 December 2004, and resulted in the renaming of the existing Haneda Airport Station to Haneda Airport Terminal 1 Station. The opening of a [[passing loop]] at Shōwajima allowed for the operation of express services from 18 March 2007.<ref name="モノレールヒストリー"/> A new infill station to serve the airport's new International Terminal opened on 21 October 2010. On 14 March 2020, the three stations serving Haneda Airport were renamed to coincide with the renaming of the International Terminal to Terminal 3. In Japanese, the word {{Nihongo|"building"|ビル|biru}} in the station names was modified to {{Nihongo|"terminal"|ターミナル|tāminaru}}. From north–south, the stations are {{Nihongo foot|[[Haneda Airport Terminal 3 Station]]|羽田空港第3ターミナル駅|group=lower-alpha}}, {{Nihongo foot|[[Haneda Airport Terminal 1 Station]]|羽田空港第1ターミナル駅|group=lower-alpha}}, and {{Nihongo foot|[[Haneda Airport Terminal 2 Station]]|羽田空港第2ターミナル駅|group=lower-alpha}}.<ref name="2020-name-change">{{cite press release |url=http://www.tokyo-monorail.co.jp/news/pdf/press_20191216.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191216085717/http://www.tokyo-monorail.co.jp/news/pdf/press_20191216.pdf |script-title=ja:羽田空港にある3つの駅（羽田空港国際線ビル駅・羽田空港第1ビル駅・羽田空港第2ビル駅）の名称が変わります |trans-title=Three stations at Haneda Airport (Haneda Airport International Terminal Building Station, Haneda Airport Building 1 Station, Haneda Airport Building 1 Station) change names |language=ja |publisher=Tokyo Monorail |date=December 16, 2019 |archive-date=December 16, 2019 |access-date=March 5, 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www3.nhk.or.jp/news/html/20200314/k10012331121000.html |author= |script-title=ja:東京モノレール羽田空港の３つの駅名変更 |trans-title=Tokyo Monorail Haneda Airport changes 3 station names |language=ja |publisher=[[NHK]] |date=March 14, 2020 |access-date=March 15, 2020}}</ref>

===Planned extension to Tokyo Station===
In June 2009, Tokyo Monorail Co., Ltd., formally notified the [[Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism|Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport]] of its intent to convert the present single-track terminal at Hamamatsucho, which has remained unchanged since 1964, into a dual-track, dual-platform structure. To be built in six and a half years at an estimated cost of {{Yen|26 billion}}, this would increase the line's capacity from 18 to 24 trains per hour and lay the groundwork for a long-mooted extension to [[Shimbashi Station]].<ref>{{cite news |script-title=ja:東京モノレール／浜松町駅を複線化／事業費２６０億円、東京駅延伸も視野 |trans-title=Tokyo Monorail: Double-tracking of Hamamatsucho Station - Project cost 26 billion yen, extension to Tokyo also eyed |language=ja |work=The Daily Engineering & Construction News |publisher = The Nikkan Kensetsu Kogyo Shinbun | date=24 June 2009}}</ref> In August 2014, plans were revealed to extend the line from Hamamatsucho to Tokyo Station, running alongside the [[Yamanote Line]] tracks between Shimbashi and Tokyo at a cost of {{Yen|109.5 billion}} with construction taking approximately ten years.<ref name="news24_20140820">{{cite web |url=http://www.news24.jp/articles/2014/08/20/07257561.html |script-title=ja:東京モノレールが「終点・東京駅」構想 |trans-title=Plans for Tokyo Monorail to terminate at Tokyo Station |date= 20 August 2014 |work=News 24 |publisher=Nippon Television Network Corporation |location= Japan|language= ja|access-date= 20 August 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.railwaygazette.com/news/single-view/view/tokyo-monorail-plans-to-extend.html |author= |title=Tokyo Monorail plans to extend |journal=[[Railway Gazette International]] |date=22 August 2014 |access-date=22 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140826224402/https://www.railwaygazette.com/news/single-view/view/tokyo-monorail-plans-to-extend.html|archive-date=2014-08-26}}</ref>
However, in 2021 JR East has announced the construction of the [[Haneda Airport Access Line]] which will connect Tokyo Station with conventional rail.

===New terminus at Hamamatsucho Station===
As part of a redevelopment of [[World Trade Center (Tokyo)|World Trade Center Building]], a new monorail station will be built at Hamamatsucho Station. It is scheduled to be completed by 2027.<ref>{{cite news |title=浜松町駅｢世界貿易センター｣再開発で何が変わる |url=https://toyokeizai.net/articles/-/441296 |access-date=2021-08-04 |publisher=toyokeiza |date=18 July 2021}}</ref>

[[File:Tokyo-monorail-japan-march-28-2016.webm|thumb|Monorail train, 2016]]

==Route==

The Tokyo Monorail is {{convert|17.8|km|mi|sp=us}} long and traverses Tokyo's [[Minato, Tokyo|Minato]], [[Shinagawa]], and Ōta [[Special wards of Tokyo|wards]].<ref name="company-profile"/>{{rp|12}} From its northern terminus at Monorail Hamamatsuchō Station, the line travels southbound as it crosses over the Yamanote, Keihin–Tōhoku, [[Ueno–Tokyo Line|Ueno–Tokyo]], [[Tōkaidō Main Line|Tōkaidō Main]], and Tokaido Shinkansen lines.<ref>{{Google maps |url=https://www.google.com/maps/place/Hamamatsuch%C5%8D+Station/@35.6553852,139.7549402,17z/data=!3m1!4b1!4m5!3m4!1s0x60188bc60592772b:0xe8f68e642f2dcbb1!8m2!3d35.6553809!4d139.7571289 |title=Hamamatsuchō Station |access-date=January 6, 2020}}</ref> Upon entering [[Shibaura]], it follows the edge of canals surrounded by artificial islands.<ref>{{Google maps |url=https://www.google.com/maps/place/Shibaura,+Minato+City,+Tokyo,+Japan/@35.6398548,139.7497402,15.5z/data=!4m5!3m4!1s0x60188bb51e9c07bd:0xad368c5378bedf50!8m2!3d35.643223!4d139.7497416 |title=Shibaura |access-date=August 22, 2020}}</ref> On an artificial island within {{ill|Kōnan, Minato, Tokyo|lt=Kōnan|ja|港南 (東京都港区)}} just east of Shinagawa Station and the main campus of [[Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology]],<ref>{{Google maps |url=https://www.google.com/maps/place/Tokyo+University+of+Marine+Science+and+Technology+Shinagawa+Campus/@35.6262655,139.748757,15.75z/data=!4m5!3m4!1s0x60188a43e00b81c1:0x5fe937a0ec90bc76!8m2!3d35.627002!4d139.7483334 |title=Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology Shinagawa Campus |access-date=August 22, 2020}}</ref> the monorail starts to follow the [[Shuto Expressway]] [[Haneda Route]] alignment with a stop at Tennōzu Isle.<ref>{{Google maps |url=https://www.google.com/maps/place/Tennozu+Isle+Station/@35.6172607,139.7499327,15.75z/data=!4m5!3m4!1s0x60188a6aef859b51:0xb0e6d107cfce2b86!8m2!3d35.622986!4d139.7506374 |title=Tennozu Isle Station |access-date=August 22, 2020}}</ref>

===Service patterns===

The following three service types operate on the line:
* {{Color box|#2ca739}} {{Nihongo|Local|普通|Futsū}}
* {{Color box|#f39700}} {{Nihongo|Rapid|区間快速|Kukan Kaisoku}}
* {{Color box|#e60013}} {{Nihongo|Haneda Express|空港快速|Kūkō Kaisoku}}

Tokyo Monorail trains operate on an average [[headway]] of four minutes. This can be as short as three minutes and 20 seconds during peak hours.<ref name="company-profile"/>{{rp|2}}<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.hitachi.com/rev/pdf/2014/r2014_10_104.pdf |last1=Yamaguchi |first1=Takuma |last2=Nishino |first2=Toru |last3=Ueki |first3=Naoji |last4=Hirano |first4=Syuji |title=Development of 10000 Series Rolling Stock for Tokyo Monorail |date=2014 |journal=Hitachi Review |volume=63 |issue=10 |pages=33–37 |access-date=11 May 2019}}</ref>{{rp|33}} "Local" trains stop at every station, with end-to-end travel taking 24 minutes. "Rapid" trains bypass the Shōwajima, Seibijō, Tenkūbashi, Shin Seibijō stations, and take 21 minutes to travel across the line. "Haneda Express" trains make non-stop runs between Monorail Hamamatsuchō Station and Haneda Airport; these trains arrive at Haneda Airport Terminal 3 in 13 minutes, Haneda Airport Terminal 1 in 16 minutes, and Haneda Airport Terminal 2 in 18 minutes.<ref name="timetables-fares-access">{{cite web |url=http://www.tokyo-monorail.co.jp/english/guidance/index.html |title=Timetables / Fares / Access Information |publisher=Tokyo Monorail Co., Ltd. |access-date=11 May 2019}}</ref> The Tokyo Monorail started operating {{Nihongo|"Rapid"|快速|Kaisoku}} trains in December 2001, which departed from Haneda Airport at 11:50 pm; these trains began running all day three years later. In March 2007, the monorail replaced its original "Rapid" service with the two current "Haneda Express" and "Rapid" service patterns.<ref name="モノレールヒストリー"/>

===Stations===

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Key
|-
|●
|Stops at this station
|-
| {{n/a|}} |
|Skips this station
|}

{| class=wikitable
! No.
! Image
! Name
! Japanese
! Distance
! style="background-color:#2ca739; color:#ffffff;"| Local
! style="background-color:#f39700; color:#ffffff;"| Rapid
! style="background-color:#e60013; color:#ffffff;"| Haneda{{br}}Express
! Connections and notes<ref name="timetables-fares-access"/>
! Location
|-
| {{JRSN|MO|01|size=40}}
| [[File:Monorail-Hamamatsucho-Sta-Platform.JPG|center|120px]]
| [[Hamamatsuchō Station|Monorail Hamamatsuchō]]
| モノレール浜松町
| align="right" | {{convert|0.0|km|abbr=on}}
| align="center" | ●
| align="center" | ●
| align="center" | ●
| {{JRLS|JK}} [[Keihin–Tōhoku Line]]{{br}}{{JRLS|JY}} [[Yamanote Line]]{{br}}{{TSLS|A}} [[Asakusa Line]] (via [[Daimon Station (Tokyo)|Daimon Station]]){{br}}{{TSLS|E}} [[Oedo Line]] (via Daimon Station)
| align="center" | [[Minato, Tokyo|Minato]]
|-
| {{JRSN|MO|02|size=40}}
| [[File:Tennozu isle sta south.jpg|center|120px]]
| {{STN|Tennōzu Isle|x}}
| 天王洲アイル
| align="right" | {{convert|4.0|km|abbr=on}}
| align="center" | ●
| align="center" | ●
| align="center" {{n/a|}} |
| {{RKLS}} [[Rinkai Line]]
| rowspan="2" align="center" | [[Shinagawa]]
|-
| {{JRSN|MO|03|size=40}}
| [[File:Oikeibajo-mae sta.jpg|center|120px]]
| {{STN|Ōi Keibajō Mae|x}}
| 大井競馬場前
| align="right" | {{convert|7.1|km|abbr=on}}
| align="center" | ●
| align="center" | ●
| align="center" {{n/a|}} |
| —
|-
| {{JRSN|MO|04|size=40}}
| [[File:Tokyo Monorail Ryūtsū Center sta 001.jpg|center|120px]]
| {{STN|Ryūtsū Center|x}}
| 流通センター
| align="right" | {{convert|8.7|km|abbr=on}}
| align="center" | ●
| align="center" | ●
| align="center" {{n/a|}} |
| —
| rowspan="8" align="center" | [[Ōta, Tokyo|Ōta]]
|-
| {{JRSN|MO|05|size=40}}
| [[File:Tokyo Monorail Showajima sta 001.jpg|center|120px]]
| {{STN|Shōwajima|x}}
| 昭和島
| align="right" | {{convert|9.9|km|abbr=on}}
| align="center" | ●
| align="center" {{n/a|}} |
| align="center" {{n/a|}} |
| —
|-
| {{JRSN|MO|06|size=40}}
| [[File:Tokyo Monorail Seibijo sta 001.jpg|center|120px]]
| {{STN|Seibijō|x}}
| 整備場
| align="right" | {{convert|11.8|km|abbr=on}}
| align="center" | ●
| align="center" {{n/a|}} |
| align="center" {{n/a|}} |
| —
|-
| {{JRSN|MO|07|size=40}}
| [[File:Tokyo-monorail-MO07-Tenkubashi-station-entrance-20191103-153531.jpg|center|120px]]
| {{STN|Tenkūbashi|x}}
| 天空橋
| align="right" | {{convert|12.6|km|abbr=on}}
| align="center" | ●
| align="center" {{n/a|}} |
| align="center" {{n/a|}} |
| {{KQLS}} [[Keikyū Airport Line]]
|-
| {{JRSN|MO|08|size=40}}
| [[File:Haneda airport International station monorail no3.JPG|center|120px]]
| {{STN|Haneda Airport Terminal 3|x}}
| 羽田空港第3ターミナル
| align="right" | {{convert|14.0|km|abbr=on}}
| align="center" | ●
| align="center" | ●
| align="center" | ●
| {{KQLS}} [[Keikyū Airport Line]]
|-
| {{JRSN|MO|09|size=40}}
| [[File:Tokyo-monorail-MO09-Shin-seibijo-station-entrance-20191103-151846.jpg|center|120px]]
| {{STN|Shin Seibijō|x}}
| 新整備場
| align="right" | {{convert|16.1|km|abbr=on}}
| align="center" | ●
| align="center" {{n/a|}} |
| align="center" {{n/a|}} |
| —
|-
| {{JRSN|MO|10|size=40}}
| [[File:Haneda airport terminal 1 Station - Nov 23 2019.jpeg|center|120px]]
| {{STN|Haneda Airport Terminal 1|x}}
| 羽田空港第1ターミナル
| align="right" | {{convert|16.9|km|abbr=on}}
| align="center" | ●
| align="center" | ●
| align="center" | ●
| {{KQLS}} [[Keikyū Airport Line]] (via [[Haneda Airport Terminal 1·2 Station]])
|-
| {{JRSN|MO|11|size=40}}
| [[File:Haneda Airport Terminal 2 Station 001.JPG|center|120px]]
| {{STN|Haneda Airport Terminal 2|x}}
| 羽田空港第2ターミナル
| align="right" | {{convert|17.8|km|abbr=on}}
| align="center" | ●
| align="center" | ●
| align="center" | ●
| {{KQLS}} [[Keikyū Airport Line]] (via Haneda Airport Terminal 1·2 Station)
|}

==Rolling stock==
All rolling stock that has ever been operated in the Tokyo Monorail since inauguration are built by [[Hitachi#Hitachi Rail|Hitachi Rail]]. {{As of|2020}}, the Tokyo Monorail operates three train types: [[Tokyo Monorail 1000 series|1000 series]], [[Tokyo Monorail 2000 series|2000 series]], and most recently, [[Tokyo Monorail 10000 series|10000 series]]. All trainsets run in a six-car configuration and are capable of running at speeds of up to {{convert|80|km/h|mph|round=5|abbr=on}}. Each car has a combination of aisle-facing bench seats, forward and rear-facing seats, and seats in the center of the aisle. The latter is because the train floor is lower than the diameter of the load bearing wheels above the top of the beam, unlike trains built for newer Japanese Alweg monorails. The trains also feature extra space for hand luggage, as a convenience for air travelers. These trains are stored and maintained at Shōwajima Depot beside Shōwajima Station during off-service hours. The 1000 series trains were introduced from 1989, and the 2000 series trains were introduced from 1997.<ref name="sankei20130911">{{cite web|url= http://sankei.jp.msn.com/life/news/130910/trd13091020170006-n1.htm |script-title= ja:東京モノレール開業５０年新型車両、車内は「和風」２６年導入|date= 10 September 2013|work= MSN Sankei News|publisher= The Sankei Shimbun & Sankei Digital|location= Japan|language= ja|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130912000809/http://sankei.jp.msn.com/life/news/130910/trd13091020170006-n1.htm|archive-date= 2013-09-12|access-date= 11 September 2013|url-status= dead}}</ref>

From 18 July 2014, the first of a fleet of new [[Tokyo Monorail 10000 series|10000 series]] 6-car trains was introduced, replacing the older 1000 series trains.<ref name="sankei20130911"/><ref name="sponichi20140718">{{cite web |url=http://www.sponichi.co.jp/entertainment/news/2014/07/18/kiji/K20140718008585140.html |script-title=ja:指原莉乃が出発進行！東京モノレールに新型車両、「和」デザイン |trans-title=New Tokyo Monorail train with "Wa" design seen off by Rino Sashihara |date=18 July 2014 |work=Sponichi Annex |publisher= Sports Nippon Newspapers |location= Japan|language= ja|access-date=18 July 2014}}</ref>

{{Gallery
| title=Current fleet
| width= 160
| height= 170
| align= center
| footer=
| File:Monorail1000n-wiki.jpg
| alt1=
| 1000 series
| File:Monorail2000n-wiki.jpg
| alt2=
| 2000 series
| File:東京モノレール10000形.jpg
| alt3=
| 10000 series
}}

===Former rolling stock===
Former rolling stock once used on Tokyo Monorail include the 100/200/300/350 series (from 1964 until 1978), 500 series (from 1969 until 1991), 600 series (from 1977 until 1997), and 700/800 series (from 1982 until 1998).

==Service==

The Tokyo Monorail operates from around 5:00 a.m. to midnight with over 500 trains. The first departure towards the airport leaves at 04:58 and the last departure is at 00:01. Towards Hamamatsuchō, the first departure is at 05:11 and the final departure is at 00:05 (final departure serving all stations at 23:38). Passengers using the monorail to travel to the airport can take advantage of check-in facilities at Hamamatsuchō. Japan's domestic airlines ([[Japan Airlines|JAL]], [[All Nippon Airways|ANA]], [[Skymark Airlines]], and [[Air Do]]) have check-in counters and ticket machines right at the station. It carried its 1.5 billionth passenger on January 24, 2007.<ref name="japantimes20070124">{{cite news | title = 1.5 billionth rides monorail to Haneda | work =The Japan Times | publisher = The Japan Times Ltd. |date = 2007-01-24 | url = http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/nb20070125a2.html | access-date = 2007-01-24}}</ref>

An alternative to the monorail is the [[Keikyu Airport Line]] between the airport and [[Shinagawa Station]]. Both railways compete with bus services.

===Ownership===
The monorail line is owned and operated by the {{Nihongo foot|'''Tokyo Monorail Co., Ltd.'''|東京モノレール株式会社|Tōkyō Monorēru Kabushiki-gaisha|group=lower-alpha}}. In 1967, the Tokyo Monorail Co., Ltd. merged with Hitachi Transport Co., Ltd. and Western Hitachi Transport Co., Ltd. to form Hitachi Transport Tokyo Monorail Co., Ltd. after Hitachi Transport System acquired an 81-percent share of the company.<ref name="50-years"/>{{rp|11}} The company re-established as the Tokyo Monorail Co., Ltd. in 1981.<ref name="50-years"/>{{rp|19–21}} [[East Japan Railway Company|JR East]] acquired a 70-percent majority share of the company from Hitachi Transport System in 2002, with the remaining 30 percent going to Hitachi, Ltd.<ref name="50-years"/>{{rp|73}} {{As of|March 2019}}, the Tokyo Monorail Co., Ltd. is divided between JR East (79 percent), Hitachi (12 percent), and [[All Nippon Airways]]' holding company, ANA Holdings Inc. (9 percent).<ref name="50-years"/>{{rp|74}}

===Operation and maintenance===

The {{Nihongo|Shōwajima Center|昭和島車両基地|Shōwajima sharyō kichi}}, located next to Shōwajima Station, is the operations and maintenance center of the Tokyo Monorail. The complex houses an operations control room that controls the movement of trains, a power control room that controls the line's power supply, a [[Motive power depot|vehicle maintenance and storage depot]] where cars are inspected and serviced, a track and trolley inspection and maintenance depot, and a crew depot.

===Fares===
[[File:Tokyo Monorail Seibijo sta 002.jpg|thumb|right|Fare gates and ticket vending machines at Seibijō Station]]

The Tokyo Monorail offers multiple fare types with varying lengths of validity and terms of use. One-way tickets, which are valid for the day of purchase, may be used to travel between two stations without making intermediate stops. Return tickets are similar but allow for a return trip; these are valid if returning to any Haneda Airport station within 10 days and to other stations within two weeks. Multiple-trip tickets are sold in books of 11 and are valid for two to three months. The purchase of "school commutate" multiple-trip tickets requires proof of a [[student discount]] certificate with the [[Open University of Japan]]. Groups of 15 or more can acquire discounted group tickets.<ref name="about-tickets">{{cite web |url=http://www.tokyo-monorail.co.jp/english/tickets/type.html |title=About Tickets |publisher=Tokyo Monorail Co., Ltd. |access-date=June 6, 2020}}</ref> A special discount ticket is offered to riders needing to transfer to JR East's Yamanote Line.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tokyo-monorail.co.jp/english/tickets/value/yamanote.html |title=Monorail and Yamanote Line Discount Ticket |publisher=Tokyo Monorail Co., Ltd. |access-date=June 6, 2020}}</ref> Commuter and travel passes are also available.<ref name="about-tickets"/>

Tokyo Monorail began accepting the [[contactless smart card]] [[Suica]] on 21 April 2002,<ref name="50-years" />{{rp|260}} and accepts other [[Nationwide Mutual Usage Service|Mutual Use]] cards as well, such as [[Pasmo|PASMO]].<ref>{{cite web |script-title=ja:モノレールSuicaとは |trans-title=What is Monorail Suica |url=http://www.tokyo-monorail.co.jp/tickets/suica/outline.html |access-date=June 6, 2020 |publisher=Tokyo Monorail Co., Ltd. |language=ja}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=5 March 2018 |title=The Tokyo Monorail: Haneda Airport to Tokyo |url=https://www.jrailpass.com/blog/tokyo-monorail |access-date=February 28, 2024 |publisher=Japan Railways Group}}</ref> In 2009, the company began selling a specialized Suica design, branded as "Monorail Suica".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tokyo-monorail.co.jp/news/pdf/press_2009newmonorailsuica.pdf |script-title=ja:新モノレールＳｕｉｃａ発売開始について |trans-title=About the launching of the new Monorail Suica |language=ja |publisher=Tokyo Monorail Co., Ltd. |date=April 6, 2009 |access-date=April 19, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090419100236/http://www.tokyo-monorail.co.jp/news/pdf/press_2009newmonorailsuica.pdf |archive-date=April 19, 2009 |url-status=unfit}}</ref> After a suspension of sales (except for commuter passes) due to the [[2020–2023 global chip shortage]], it was announced in January 2025 that the cards would be discontinued in March of that year.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-01-28 |title=東京モノレール、「モノレールSuica」の発売を終了 3月15日以降は「Suica」を発行 |url=https://www.tetsudo.com/news/3340/ |access-date=2025-01-28 |website=鉄道コム |language=ja}}</ref>

Paper tickets may be purchased from [[ticket vending machine]]s at any Tokyo Monorail station.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tokyo-monorail.co.jp/english/tickets/purchase.html |title=Purchasing tickets |publisher=Tokyo Monorail Co., Ltd. |access-date=June 6, 2020}}</ref> {{As of|June 2020}}, tickets can also be purchased from machines at the following airports: [[Fukuoka Airport]], [[Hakodate Airport]], [[Hiroshima Airport]], [[Itami Airport|Itami]] and [[Kansai International Airport|Kansai]] airports in [[Osaka]], [[Kagoshima Airport]], [[Kumamoto Airport]], [[Nagasaki Airport]], [[Naha Airport]], [[New Chitose Airport]] in [[Sapporo]], [[Oita Airport]], [[Okayama Airport]], [[Takamatsu Airport]], and [[Toyama Airport]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tokyo-monorail.co.jp/tickets/type.html |script-title=ja:きっぷのご案内 |trans-title=Ticket Information |language=ja |publisher=Tokyo Monorail Co., Ltd. |access-date=May 23, 2020}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Tokyo|Trains}}
*[[Monorails in Japan]]
{{clear}}

==Notes==
{{Notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
* L.W. Demery, R. Forty, R. DeGroote and J.W. Higgins, ''Electric Railways of Japan (Interurbans- Tramways-Metros) Vol.1: Tokyo and Northern Japan''. Light Rail Transit Association, 1983.
* {{cite magazine |last=Kusamachi |first=Yoshikazu |script-title=ja:再発見!! モノレールの魅力 |trans-title=Rediscovering the fascination of monorails |language=ja |magazine=[[Japan Railfan Magazine]] |volume=49 |issue=578 |pages=114–118 |publisher=Koyusha Co., Ltd. |date=June 2009}}

==External links==
{{commons category}}
* [http://www.tokyo-monorail.co.jp/english/ Official site]

{{Tokyo transit}}
{{Rapid transit in Asia}}
{{Airport rail links in Japan}}

{{authority control}}

[[Category:Tokyo Monorail]]
[[Category:1964 establishments in Japan]]
[[Category:Airport rail links in Japan]]
[[Category:Alweg people movers]]
[[Category:Haneda Airport]]
[[Category:Rail transport in Tokyo]]
[[Category:Railway lines opened in 1964]]
[[Category:Monorails in Japan]]

Stranahan Theater

2025-06-18T15:04:00Z

128.228.164.236:

{{more references|date=June 2022}}
{{Infobox venue
| name = Stranahan Theater & Great Hall
| image = File:Stranahan Theater & Great Hall, October 2019.jpg
| image_caption = Theater's sign with theater hall in background
| nickname =
| location = 4645 Heatherdowns Boulevard [[Toledo, Ohio|Toledo]], [[Ohio]] 43614
| coordinates = {{coord|41|35|33|N|83|39|6|W|region:US-OH_type:landmark|display=inline,title}}
| type = Indoor [[theatre]]
| broke_ground =
| built = 1969
| opened =
| expanded =
| closed =
| demolished =
| owner =
| former_names = Masonic Auditorium {{small|(1969-94)}}
| seating_type =
| seating_capacity = 2,368
| website = {{url|https://stranahantheater.com/}}
}}
The '''Stranahan Theater & Great Hall''', commonly known as the '''Stranahan Theater''', is a concert hall located in [[Toledo, Ohio]]. The facility was constructed in 1969 and until the mid-1990s was called Masonic Auditorium because attached to the west side of the theater is a structure owned and occupied by several Masonic organizations.<ref>{{cite news| title=Time Out: Places to Go| url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/103727686/the-news-messenger/| page=C3| date=March 11, 1993| newspaper=The News-Messenger| location=Fremont, Ohio| access-date=June 13, 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite news| title=Time Out: Places to Go| url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/103727912/the-news-messenger/| page=A9| date=July 6, 1995| newspaper=The News-Messenger| location=Fremont, Ohio| access-date=June 13, 2022}}</ref> Part of the construction and maintenance costs have been funded by the Stranahan Foundation. Around the time of the name change, theater management began seeking more broad-based community funding.<ref>{{cite news| title= Donations for Theater Sought| url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/103727435/the-news-messenger/| page=A4| first=Claude E.| last=Young| newspaper=The News-Messenger| location=Fremont, Ohio| access-date=June 13, 2022}}</ref>

The theater foyer is {{convert|3,000|sqft|m2}} and the adjacent Great Hall features {{convert|10,000|sqft|m2}} of meeting space.<ref>{{cite web| title=Great Hall and Events| url=https://stranahantheater.com/great-hall/| website=Stranahan Theater & Great Hall| access-date=June 13, 2022}}</ref> The property contains parking for 1,200 cars.

Fulfilling its primary usage as a concert venue, the Stranahan Theater presents approximately 170 theater events a year. Broadway shows sponsored by Theater League have included ''[[The Phantom of the Opera (1986 musical)|The Phantom of the Opera]]'', ''[[Chicago (musical)|Chicago]]'', ''[[The Lion King (musical)|The Lion King]]'' and ''[[Wicked (musical)|Wicked]]''. It is also the site of Pops concerts by the [[Toledo Symphony Orchestra]], ''[[The Nutcracker]]'' by the Toledo Ballet, and ''[[A Christmas Carol]]'' by the Toledo Rep. In addition, the Great Hall hosts over 140 banquets, receptions, and trade shows each year.

The Stranahan Theater is the largest [[proscenium stage]] in [[Northwest Ohio]].{{citation needed|date=June 2022}} It operates primarily as a rental house and is owned and operated by a 501c3 non-profit trust. Former executive directors include Penny Marks and Ward Whiting. Steve Hyman was named Executive Director in May 2014.

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://stranahantheater.com/ Stranahan Theater]

{{toledo}}
{{Music venues of Ohio}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Theatres in Ohio]]
[[Category:Performing arts centers in Ohio]]
[[Category:Concert halls in Ohio]]
[[Category:Convention centers in Ohio]]
[[Category:Tourist attractions in Toledo, Ohio]]
[[Category:Theatres completed in 1969]]
[[Category:1969 establishments in Ohio]]

{{US-theat-struct-stub}}

Cleveland Orchestra

2025-06-18T14:56:20Z

128.228.164.236:

{{Short description|American symphony orchestra in Cleveland, Ohio}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=November 2020}}
{{Infobox orchestra
| name = The Cleveland Orchestra
| type = [[Orchestra]]
| native_name =
| native_name_lang =
| short_name =
| image = The Cleveland Orchestra being conducted by Daniel Reith at Severance Hall January 15th 2023.jpg
| caption = The Cleveland Orchestra performs at Severance Hall in 2023
| alt = The Cleveland Orchestra and the Martin Luther King, Jr. Celebration Chorus on stage at Severance Hall
| former_name =
| founded = {{Start date and age|1918}}
| later_name =
| location = [[Cleveland]], Ohio, United States
| concert_hall = [[Severance Hall]]
| principal_conductor =
| music_director = [[Franz Welser-Möst]]
| website = {{URL|www.clevelandorchestra.com}}
| logo = The-Cleveland-Orchestra-new-logo-black.png
}}

'''The Cleveland Orchestra''' is an American [[orchestra]] based in [[Cleveland]], Ohio.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Allen |first1=David |date=October 9, 2020 |title=The Cleveland Orchestra, America's Finest, Restarts Recording |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/10/09/arts/music/cleveland-orchestra-classical-music.html |access-date=October 13, 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Barone |first1=Joshua |title=Review: The Unaffected Excellence of the Cleveland Orchestra |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2023/01/19/arts/music/cleveland-orchestra-carnegie-hall.html |work=The New York Times |date=19 January 2023}}</ref> Founded in 1918 by the pianist and impresario [[Adella Prentiss Hughes]], the orchestra is one of the five American orchestras informally referred to as the "[[Big Five (orchestras)|Big Five]]".<ref>{{cite magazine |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,923579,00.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080131191106/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,923579,00.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=January 31, 2008 | title=Which U.S. Orchestras are Best? | author=Michael Walsh | magazine=Time | date=April 25, 1983 | access-date=March 26, 2008}}</ref> The orchestra plays most of its concerts at [[Severance Hall|Severance Music Center]]. Its current music director is [[Franz Welser-Möst]].

==History==
===Founding and early history (1918–1945)===
The Cleveland Orchestra was founded in 1918 by music-aficionado Adella Prentiss Hughes, businessman [[John L. Severance]], Father John Powers, music critic Archie Bell, and Russian-American violinist and conductor [[Nikolai Sokoloff]],<ref>{{Cite book|last=Rosenberg|first=Donald|title=The Cleveland Orchestra Story: Second to None|publisher=Gray & Company|year=2000|location=Cleveland|page=43|isbn=978-1-886228-24-5}}</ref> who became the orchestra’s first music director. A former pianist, Hughes served as a local music promoter and sponsored a series of “Symphony Orchestra Concerts” designed to bring top-notch orchestral music to Cleveland.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Rosenberg|first=Donald|title=The Cleveland Orchestra Story: Second to None|pages=36}}</ref> In 1915, she helped found the Musical Arts Association,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Rosenberg|title=The Cleveland Orchestra Story: Second to None|pages=40}}</ref> which presented Cleveland performances of the [[Ballets Russes]] in 1916 and [[Richard Wagner]]’s ''[[Siegfried (opera)|Siegfried]]'' at the [[Cleveland Indians]]’ [[League Park]] a few months later<ref>{{Cite book|last=Rosenberg|title=The Cleveland Orchestra Story: Second to None|pages=40–41}}</ref> After a great deal of planning and fundraising, The Cleveland Orchestra’s inaugural concert was performed on December 11, 1918, at [[Grays Armory]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Rosenberg|title=The Cleveland Orchestra Story: Second to None|pages=55}}</ref>

Three events occurred in 1921 that proved significant in the orchestra's early development:
* The ensemble presented its inaugural children’s concert, which began a long-standing tradition of performing for young people from local schools.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Rosenberg|title=The Cleveland Orchestra Story: Second to None|pages=77–78}}</ref>
* The Women's Committee of The Cleveland Orchestra was founded, a group which focused largely on internal affairs,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Rosenberg|title=The Cleveland Orchestra Story: Second to None|pages=77}}</ref> including organization and branding; the Women's Committee was also the driving force behind the creation of the orchestra’s education-oriented Key Concerts series decades later.
* The orchestra performed its first concert in [[New York City]] that year, at the [[New York Hippodrome|Hippodrome Theatre]], a demonstration that the orchestra was committed to embarking on major activities from early in its existence.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Rosenberg|title=The Cleveland Orchestra Story: Second to None|pages=71}}</ref>
In 1922, the orchestra again traveled to New York for its first concert at Carnegie Hall.<ref name="The Cleveland Orchestra">{{Cite web|title=A Century of Excellence|url=https://www.clevelandorchestra.com/from-the-archives/soundwave/|website=The Cleveland Orchestra}}</ref> Later that year, the orchestra performed its first radio broadcast<ref>{{Cite book|last=Rosenberg|title=The Cleveland Orchestra Story: Second to None|pages=82}}</ref> and, in 1924, issued its first recording — a shortened version of [[Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky|Tchaikovsky]]’s ''[[1812 Overture]]'' for the [[Brunswick Records|Brunswick label]] under Sokoloff’s direction.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Rosenberg|title=The Cleveland Orchestra Story: Second to None|pages=84}}</ref>
[[Image:Severance Hall.jpg|right|thumb|[[Severance Hall]], the orchestra's home since 1931.]]
By the end of the 1920s, the Musical Arts Association began planning for a permanent concert hall for the orchestra. Board president John L. Severance and his wife, Elisabeth, pledged $1 million({{Inflation|US|1000000|1928|fmt=eq|r=-3}}) toward the construction of a new hall,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Rosenberg|title=The Cleveland Orchestra Story: Second to None|pages=99}}</ref> and the groundbreaking ceremony took place in November 1929, a few months after Mrs. Severance’s death.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Rosenberg|title=The Cleveland Orchestra Story: Second to None|pages=104; 110}}</ref> On February 5, 1931, the orchestra performed its inaugural concert at [[Severance Hall]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Rosenberg|title=The Cleveland Orchestra Story: Second to None|pages=115}}</ref> Also that year, Lillian Baldwin created what became known as the “Cleveland Plan,” an initiative designed to build upon the orchestra’s earlier children's concerts and create a program that taught classical music to young people before experiencing live performances.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Rosenberg|title=The Cleveland Orchestra Story: Second to None|pages=119–120}}</ref>

In 1933, Sokoloff stood down as the orchestra’s music director, succeeded by [[Artur Rodziński]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Rosenberg|title=The Cleveland Orchestra Story: Second to None|pages=128; 134–135}}</ref> During his decade-long Cleveland tenure, Rodzinski advocated for the inclusion of staged opera at Severance Hall.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Rosenberg|title=The Cleveland Orchestra Story: Second to None|pages=135}}</ref> The first of these productions was featured during the 1933–34 season, when the orchestra performed Wagner’s ''[[Tristan und Isolde]]''.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Rosenberg|title=The Cleveland Orchestra Story: Second to None|pages=135; 138}}</ref> In 1935, the orchestra presented the United States’ premiere of [[Dmitri Shostakovich]]'s ''[[Lady Macbeth of the Mtsensk District (opera)|Lady Macbeth of the Mtsensk District]]'' at Severance Hall<ref>{{Cite book|last=Rosenberg|title=The Cleveland Orchestra Story: Second to None|pages=149–152}}</ref> and, later in the season, took the production to New York’s [[Metropolitan Opera]]. Four years later, in 1939, the orchestra established the Cleveland Summer Orchestra and began to perform 'pops' concerts at Cleveland’s [[Public Auditorium|Public Hall]]. On December 11, 1939, The Cleveland Orchestra celebrated the anniversary of its founding by releasing its first recording on the Columbia label.<ref name="The Cleveland Orchestra" />

Rodzinski departed Cleveland in 1943, succeeded by [[Erich Leinsdorf]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Rosenberg|title=The Cleveland Orchestra Story: Second to None|pages=201}}</ref> However, Leinsdorf's Cleveland tenure was brief, as he was drafted into the United States Armed Forces shortly after his appointment, which diminished his artistic control.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Rosenberg|title=The Cleveland Orchestra Story: Second to None|pages=205; 207; 209}}</ref> Although Leinsdorf was honorably discharged from the military in September 1944, his time away from the podium had required the Musical Arts Association to employ a number of guest conductors from 1943 until 1945,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Rosenberg|title=The Cleveland Orchestra Story: Second to None|pages=213}}</ref> including [[George Szell]], who had impressed audiences at Severance Hall during two weeks of performances.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Rosenberg|title=The Cleveland Orchestra Story: Second to None|pages=214}}</ref> Leinsdorf lost much of his public support and, though still under contract, submitted his resignation in December 1945.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Rosenberg|title=The Cleveland Orchestra Story: Second to None|pages=226}}</ref>

===George Szell (1946–1970)===
In 1946, Szell was appointed as the orchestra’s fourth music director.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Rosenberg|title=The Cleveland Orchestra Story: Second to None|pages=227–229}}</ref> From the start of his tenure, Szell's intention was to transform the orchestra into “America’s finest” symphonic ensemble and developing an orchestra that was “second to none.”<ref>{{Cite book|last=Rosenberg|title=The Cleveland Orchestra Story: Second to None|pages=229}}</ref> He spent much of his early time in Cleveland changing personnel in an effort to find musicians who were capable of creating his ideal orchestral sound.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Rosenberg|title=The Cleveland Orchestra Story: Second to None|pages=229–230}}</ref><ref name="time2">{{cite magazine|date=February 22, 1963|title=The Glorious Instrument|magazine=Time|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,828034,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930035047/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,828034,00.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=September 30, 2007|access-date=July 15, 2007}}</ref> Szell’s stringent standards and expectations for musical precision were reflected in his contract with the Musical Arts Association, which gave him complete artistic control over programming, scheduling, personnel, and recording.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Rosenberg|title=The Cleveland Orchestra Story: Second to None|pages=227}}</ref>

In the 1950s and 1960s, Szell was instrumental in the achievement of several orchestra milestones:
* He led the orchestra on its first European tour, in 1957, across Europe and behind the Iron Curtain.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Rosenberg|title=The Cleveland Orchestra Story: Second to None|pages=291–294}}</ref>
* Szell pushed to change Severance Hall's acoustic properties, which he considered to be too “dry.” Major renovations were made during the 1958–59 season, including the construction of the “Szell Shell”, which was designed to project the orchestra's sound in a manner that created better balance among musicians and a clearer string section.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Rosenberg|title=The Cleveland Orchestra Story: Second to None|pages=299–302}}</ref>
A second European tour took place in 1965, and included a significant tour of the [[Soviet Union]], with performances in [[Moscow]], [[Kiev]], [[Tbilisi]], [[Yerevan]], [[Sochi]], and [[Leningrad]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|last=Shakarian|first=Pietro A.|title=Cleveland Orchestra Tour of the USSR|encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History|publisher=[[Case Western Reserve University]]|url=https://case.edu/ech/articles/c/cleveland-orchestra-tour-ussr|date=August 8, 2022|access-date=May 7, 2023}}</ref> Two years later, the orchestra became the first American orchestra to be invited to three premiere festivals, in [[Salzburg Festival|Salzburg]], [[Lucerne Festival|Lucerne]], and [[Edinburgh Festival Fringe|Edinburgh]], in the same summer.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Rosenberg|title=The Cleveland Orchestra Story: Second to None|pages=372–375}}</ref> Szell also oversaw the opening of the orchestra's summer home, [[Blossom Music Center]], in 1968, which provided the ensemble’s musicians with year-round employment.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Rosenberg|title=The Cleveland Orchestra Story: Second to None|pages=347–360}}</ref> In 1970, after a tenure of 24 years, shortly after a tour of the Far East during the spring of 1970, which included stops in [[Japan]], [[Korea]], and Alaska,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Rosenberg|title=The Cleveland Orchestra Story: Second to None|pages=392–393}}</ref> Szell died.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Rosenberg|title=The Cleveland Orchestra Story: Second to None|pages=397–398}}</ref>

Two days after Szell’s death, the orchestra played its scheduled program at Blossom Music Center with [[Aaron Copland]] taking the podium as guest conductor.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Rosenberg|title=The Cleveland Orchestra Story: Second to None|pages=402–403}}</ref> [[Louis Lane]], one of Szell’s assistant conductors, was appointed resident conductor. [[Pierre Boulez]], who had been named the orchestra's principal guest conductor in 1969, was appointed musical advisor.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Rosenberg|title=The Cleveland Orchestra Story: Second to None|pages=377; 402}}</ref>

===Lorin Maazel (1972–1982)===
The board selected [[Lorin Maazel]] as the orchestra’s fifth music director. His tenure began in 1972.<ref name="Rosenberg">{{Cite book|last=Rosenberg|title=The Cleveland Orchestra Story: Second to None|pages=415–419}}</ref> Maazel had first conducted the orchestra at age 13 in 1943, in a concert at Public Hall.<ref name="Rosenberg" /> During Maazel's tenure, many critics were initially unimpressed with his musical interpretations, which they believed were too emotionally charged to follow Szell’s razor-crisp style.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Rosenberg|title=The Cleveland Orchestra Story: Second to None|pages=428–431}}</ref> But soon Maazel was lifted by an endorsement from [[Philadelphia Orchestra]] conductor [[Eugene Ormandy]]<ref>{{Cite book|last=Rosenberg|title=The Cleveland Orchestra Story: Second to None|pages=432}}</ref> and the promise of a new collaboration with [[Decca Records]] on [[Sergei Prokofiev|Prokofiev]]’s ''[[Romeo and Juliet (Prokofiev)|Romeo and Juliet]]'', which proved to be the spark Maazel needed to jumpstart his Cleveland Orchestra career.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Rosenberg|title=The Cleveland Orchestra Story: Second to None|pages=435–437}}</ref> During the 1973–74 season, Maazel led the orchestra on a tour of Australia and New Zealand,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Rosenberg|title=The Cleveland Orchestra Story: Second to None|pages=439–441}}</ref> joined by guest conductors [[Stanisław Skrowaczewski|Stanislaw Skrowaczewski]] and Erich Leinsdorf.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Rosenberg|title=The Cleveland Orchestra Story: Second to None|pages=439}}</ref> The orchestra also played a series of concerts in Japan.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Rosenberg|title=The Cleveland Orchestra Story: Second to None|pages=445–446}}</ref> During the following season, the orchestra released its first commercial recording of an opera, [[George Gershwin]]’s ''[[Porgy and Bess]]'', which was also Decca’s first opera recording in the United States.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Rosenberg|title=The Cleveland Orchestra Story: Second to None|pages=451}}</ref> Maazel left the orchestra after the 1981–82 season, to take over the directorship of the [[Vienna State Opera]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Rosenberg|title=The Cleveland Orchestra Story: Second to None|pages=473–475}}</ref> Before his departure, however, Maazel helped to introduce the orchestra’s landmark Martin Luther King Jr. Celebration Concerts in January 1980, which remain an annual tradition to this day.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Rosenberg|title=The Cleveland Orchestra Story: Second to None|pages=476–477}}</ref> On May 15, 1982, Maazel conducted his final performance at Severance Hall followed by a short tour of New York and [[New Haven, Connecticut|New Haven]], where he led concerts featuring [[Giuseppe Verdi|Giuseppe Verdi’s]] ''[[Requiem (Verdi)|Requiem]]'', which had been his debut piece with the orchestra in 1972.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Rosenberg|title=The Cleveland Orchestra Story: Second to None|pages=489}}</ref>

===Christoph von Dohnányi (1984–2002)===
[[Christoph von Dohnányi]] first guest-conducted the orchestra in December 1981.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Rosenberg|title=The Cleveland Orchestra Story: Second to None|pages=483–484}}</ref> In 1982, the orchestra named Dohnányi its music director-designate in 1982. He officially became music director in 1984.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Rosenberg|title=The Cleveland Orchestra Story: Second to None|pages=484; Pl. 83}}</ref> During the pair of seasons between Maazel and Dohnányi, various guest conductors conducted the orchestra, including Erich Leinsdorf, who labeled himself the “bridge between the regimes.”<ref>{{Cite book|last=Rosenberg|title=The Cleveland Orchestra Story: Second to None|pages=491–493}}</ref>

Because of Dohnányi’s connections with [[Teldec]], Decca/London, and [[Telarc International Corporation|Telarc]], his Cleveland Orchestra tenure began with the promise of more recording projects.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Rosenberg|title=The Cleveland Orchestra Story: Second to None|pages=497; 507–508}}</ref> He also staged a large production of [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart|Mozart]]’s ''[[The Magic Flute]]'' at Blossom Music Center in 1985, which was lauded as “the Ohio musical event of the summer” by ''[[The Columbus Dispatch]]''.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Rosenberg|title=The Cleveland Orchestra Story: Second to None|pages=499}}</ref> In addition, Dohnányi oversaw the hiring of [[Jahja Ling]], who would lead the newly established Cleveland Orchestra Youth Orchestra.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Rosenberg|title=The Cleveland Orchestra Story: Second to None|pages=505}}</ref> International touring continued under Dohnányi with visits to Asia and Europe, including the development of a long-standing relationship with the [[Salzburg Festival]] beginning in 1990.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Rosenberg|title=The Cleveland Orchestra Story: Second to None|pages=518; 523}}</ref>

To celebrate The Cleveland Orchestra’s 75th anniversary, Dohnányi led performances of Wagner’s ''[[Der Ring des Nibelungen]]'' at Severance Hall across the 1992–93 and 1993–94 seasons,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Rosenberg|title=The Cleveland Orchestra Story: Second to None|pages=524–525}}</ref> and a subsequent recording project of Wagner’s ''[[Das Rheingold]]'' and ''[[Die Walküre]]''.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Rosenberg|title=The Cleveland Orchestra Story: Second to None|pages=534–535}}</ref> The orchestra also began a fundraising campaign for the renovation of Severance Hall, which included the removal of the “Szell Shell,” a return of the ensemble's [[Ernest M. Skinner|E.M. Skinner]] organ to the stage, and a facilities expansion designed to enhance the experience of concertgoers.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Rosenberg|title=The Cleveland Orchestra Story: Second to None|pages=537–538}}</ref> During these renovations, the orchestra performed concerts for its hometown audiences at the [[Allen Theatre]] in Cleveland’s [[Playhouse Square]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Rosenberg|title=The Cleveland Orchestra Story: Second to None|pages=544}}</ref> On January 8, 2000, Dohnányi led a gala concert celebrating the re-opening of Severance Hall that was broadcast live on local television by Cleveland’s [[WVIZ]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Rosenberg|title=The Cleveland Orchestra Story: Second to None|pages=545}}</ref>

It was during Dohnányi's tenure that ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'' magazine called the orchestra the best in the United States.<ref>{{cite magazine|first=Michael|last=Walsh|title=The Finest Orchestra? (Surprise!) Cleveland|url=https://time.com/archive/6724562/the-finest-orchestra-surprise-cleveland/|work=[[Time (magazine)]]|volume=143|issue=2|date=January 10, 1994|access-date=June 7, 2025|page=61|quote=Under Dohnanyi, the Cleveland has become the best band in the land. No other American orchestra can rival its combination of virtuosic technique, consummate ensemble playing and rich, burnished tone, especially in the Central European repertory of Haydn, Beethoven and Brahms.}}</ref>

At the conclusion of Dohnányi’s contract, in 2002, he took the title of music director laureate.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Rosenberg|title=The Cleveland Orchestra Story: Second to None|pages=548}}</ref>

===Franz Welser-Möst (2002–present)===
[[Franz Welser-Möst]] became the orchestra's seventh music director in 2002. Welser-Möst and the Musical Arts Association have extended his contract several times, with his most recent contract keeping him on the podium until 2027, which will make him the orchestra's longest-serving music director.<ref>{{cite press release|url=https://www.clevelandorchestra.com/News-and-Updates/News-Releases/2019-releases/2019-09-21-fwm-2027/r|title=The Cleveland Orchestra and Music Director Franz Welser-Möst extend acclaimed partnership to 2027|publisher=The Cleveland Orchestra|date=September 21, 2019|access-date=September 29, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Franz Welser-Most To Stay With Cleveland Orchestra Until 2027 |url=https://www.ideastream.org/arts-culture/2019-09-22/franz-welser-most-to-stay-with-cleveland-orchestra-until-2027 |website=Ideastream Public Media |language=en |date=22 September 2019}}</ref> During his tenure, Welser-Möst has overseen many of the orchestra's residencies, outreach programs, and expansion activities. He leads the orchestra's ongoing residencies at the [[Musikverein]] in Vienna and at the Lucerne Festival, both of which began with Welser-Möst's first European tour in 2003. In addition, Welser-Möst and the orchestra began an annual residency at Miami's Carnival Center for the Performing Arts (later renamed the [[Adrienne Arsht Center for the Performing Arts]]) in 2007.<ref name="The Cleveland Orchestra" /> The orchestra has continued to present operas and a selection of film screenings with live musical accompaniment.<ref name="The Cleveland Orchestra" /> On September 29, 2018, Welser-Möst led the ensemble in a gala concert at Severance Hall celebrating the orchestra’s 100th anniversary, a concert later featured on the American arts television series ''Great Performances'' during an exclusive U.S. broadcast on PBS.<ref name="The Cleveland Orchestra" />

In early 2020, the orchestra suspended a planned tour of Europe and Abu Dhabi, and live concerts at Severance Hall and Blossom Music Center due to the [[COVID-19 pandemic]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cleveland.com/news/2020/03/cleveland-orchestra-cancels-severance-hall-concerts-march-12-14.html|title = Cleveland Orchestra cancels Severance Hall concerts March 12-14|date = March 12, 2020}}</ref> That October, the orchestra launched the Adella App, a streaming service including historical and newly created content. Access to the service was free to season subscribers and $35 per month for non-subscribers. <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cleveland.com/arts/2020/09/cleveland-orchestra-plans-return-to-music-making-in-october-announces-concert-streaming-app.html|title=Cleveland Orchestra plans return to music-making in October, announces new streaming app|date=September 3, 2020}}</ref> In 2020, The Cleveland Orchestra announced they had started their own recording label, self-titled as The Cleveland Orchestra.<ref>{{Cite web |title=2020-03-13 A New Century |url=https://www.clevelandorchestra.com/press-resources/press-releases/2020-releases/2020-03-13-A-New-Century/ |access-date=2024-01-11 |website=www.clevelandorchestra.com}}</ref> A limited in-person return to concerts was announced for Blossom Music Center for the Summer of 2021, with a return to Severance Hall planned for October.<ref>v</ref> In September 2021, the orchestra announced the planned donation of USD $50M by the Jack, Joseph and Morton Mandel Foundation, as a result of which Severance Hall was renamed the Jack, Joseph and Morton Mandel Concert Hall, and the overall performance space was renamed Severance Music Center.<ref>{{cite press release | url=https://www.clevelandorchestra.com/press-resources/press-releases/2021-releases/2021-09-30-mandel-foundation-historic-grant/ | title=Jack, Joseph and Morton Mandel Foundation Gives Historic $50 Million Grant to The Cleveland Orchestra | publisher=The Cleveland Orchestra | date=30 September 2021 | access-date=2025-03-06}}</ref>

In October 2023, Welser-Möst underwent surgery for the removal of a cancerous tumor, and announced curtailment of his performances during the remainder of 2023.<ref>{{cite web |title=Cleveland Orchestra's Franz Welser-Möst to miss concerts for medical treatment |url=https://www.wvxu.org/2023-09-08/cleveland-orchestras-franz-welser-most-to-miss-concerts-for-medical-treatment |website=WVXU |language=en |date=8 September 2023}}</ref> In January 2024, the orchestra announced that Welser-Möst is to conclude his tenure as its music director at the close of the 2026-2027 season.<ref>{{cite press release | url=https://www.clevelandorchestra.com/globalassets/editorial/press-releases/2024/2024fwmannouncement.pdf | title=Franz Welser-Möst announces the conclusion of his tenure as Music Director of The Cleveland Orchestra in 2027 after 25 years of artistic innovation, deep-rooted community engagement, and international acclaim | publisher=The Cleveland Orchestra | date=11 January 2024 | access-date=2024-01-13}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | title='Everything Has a Time': Cleveland's Longest-Serving Conductor Plans His Departure | url=https://www.nytimes.com/2024/01/11/arts/music/franz-welser-most-cleveland-orchestra.html | work=The New York Times | author=Joshua Barone | date=2024-01-11 | access-date=2024-01-12}}</ref>

===Additional history===
In addition to a vast catalog of recordings created with the ensemble's music directors, the orchestra has made many recordings with guest conductors [[Vladimir Ashkenazy]], [[Oliver Knussen]], [[Kurt Sanderling]], [[Yoel Levi]], [[Riccardo Chailly]], [[George Benjamin (composer)|George Benjamin]], [[Roberto Carnevale]], [[Riccardo Muti]], [[Michael Tilson Thomas]], and [[Louis Lane]] (the orchestra's longtime Associate Conductor). Past assistant conductors of the Cleveland Orchestra include [[Matthias Bamert]], [[James Levine]], [[Alan Gilbert (conductor)|Alan Gilbert]], [[James Judd]] and [[Michael Stern (conductor)|Michael Stern]].

==Music directors==
* [[Nikolai Sokoloff]] (1918–1933)
* [[Artur Rodziński]] (1933–1943)
* [[Erich Leinsdorf]] (1943–1946)
* [[George Szell]] (1946–1970)
* [[Lorin Maazel]] (1972–1982)
* [[Christoph von Dohnányi]] (1984–2002)
* [[Franz Welser-Möst]] (2002–present)

==Daniel R. Lewis Composer Fellows==
* [[Marc-André Dalbavie]] (1999–2000)
* [[Matthias Pintscher]] (2001–2003)
* [[Susan Botti]] (2003–2005)
* [[Julian Anderson]] (2005–2007)
* [[Johannes Maria Staud]] (2007–2009)
* [[Jörg Widmann]] (2009–2011)
* [[Sean Shepherd]] (2011–2013)
* [[Ryan Wigglesworth]] (2013–2015)
* [[Anthony Cheung (composer)|Anthony Cheung]]<ref>{{cite web|title=The Cleveland Orchestra to give world premiere performances of ''Topos'' by Anthony Cheung at May 18 and 20 concerts|url=https://www.clevelandorchestra.com/News-and-Updates/News-Releases/2017-releases/2017-05-09-Cheung-World-Premiere/|access-date=February 8, 2018}}</ref> (2015–2017)
* {{ill|Bernd Richard Deutsch|de}}<ref>{{cite web|title=The Cleveland Orchestra announces 101st Season for 2018–2019|url=https://www.clevelandorchestra.com/News-and-Updates/News-Releases/2018-releases/2018-03-11-season-announcement/|access-date=April 16, 2018}}</ref> (2018–2020)
* [[Allison Loggins-Hull]]<ref>{{Cite web |date=March 19, 2023 |title=The Cleveland Orchestra Announces 106th season |url=https://www.clevelandorchestra.com/globalassets/editorial/press-releases/2023/news-release-2023-24-severance-classical-season-and-recital-series_final-9ebcc18d.pdf |access-date=April 21, 2023}}</ref> (2021–present)

==Honors and awards==
[[Grammy Award for Best Orchestral Performance]]:
* [[Grammy Awards of 1970|1970]] [[Pierre Boulez|Boulez]]: ''Debussy: Images Pour Orchestre''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Grammy Award Ceremony 1970 - Grammy Award Winners 1970 |url=https://www.awardsandshows.com/features/grammy-awards-1970-219.html |access-date=2024-01-11 |website=www.awardsandshows.com}}</ref>
* [[Grammy Awards of 1971|1971]] [[Pierre Boulez|Boulez]]: ''Stravinsky: [[Le Sacre Du Printemps]]''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Grammy Award Nominees 1971 - Grammy Award Winners 1971 |url=https://www.awardsandshows.com/features/grammy-awards-1971-220.html |access-date=2024-01-11 |website=www.awardsandshows.com}}</ref>
* [[Grammy Awards of 1996|1996]] [[Pierre Boulez|Boulez]]: ''Debussy: [[La Mer (Debussy)]]''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Nominees for 38th annual Grammy Awards - UPI Archives |url=https://www.upi.com/Archives/1996/01/04/Nominees-for-38th-annual-Grammy-Awards/5749820731600/ |access-date=2024-01-11 |website=UPI |language=en}}</ref>
* [[Grammy Awards of 1998|1998]] [[Pierre Boulez|Boulez]]: ''[[Berlioz: Symphonie Fantastique]]; [[Tristia]]''<ref>{{Cite web |title=40th Annual Grammy Award Nominations Coverage (1998) {{!}} DigitalHit.com |url=https://www.digitalhit.com/grammy/40/nominees.shtml |access-date=2024-01-11 |website=www.digitalhit.com}}</ref>

[[Grammy Award for Best Classical Album]] :
* [[Grammy Awards of 1996|1996]] [[Pierre Boulez|Boulez]]: ''Debussy: [[La mer (Debussy)|La Mer]]; [[Nocturnes]]; [[Jeux]] Etc.''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Nominees for 38th annual Grammy Awards - UPI Archives |url=https://www.upi.com/Archives/1996/01/04/Nominees-for-38th-annual-Grammy-Awards/5749820731600/ |access-date=2024-01-11 |website=UPI |language=en}}</ref>

[[Grammy Award for Best Instrumental Soloist(s) Performance (with orchestra)]]:
* [[Grammy Awards of 2011|2011]] [[Mitsuko Uchida|Uchida]]: ''Mozart: [[Piano Concerto No. 23 (Mozart)]] & [[Piano Concerto No. 24 (Mozart)]]''<ref>{{Cite web |title=53rd Annual Grammy® Award Nominees (2011 Grammys) Coverage {{!}} DigitalHit.com |url=https://www.digitalhit.com/grammy/53/nominees.shtml |access-date=2024-01-11 |website=www.digitalhit.com}}</ref>

[[Grammy Award for Best Engineered Album, Classical]]:
* [[Grammy Awards of 1971|1971]] [[Pierre Boulez|Boulez]]: ''Stravinsky: [[Le Sacre du Printemps]]''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Grammy Award Nominees 1971 - Grammy Award Winners 1971 |url=https://www.awardsandshows.com/features/grammy-awards-1971-220.html |access-date=2024-01-11 |website=www.awardsandshows.com}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[Cleveland Orchestra discography]]
*[[Cleveland Orchestra Youth Orchestra]]
*[[Cleveland Philharmonic Orchestra]]
*[[Cleveland Women's Orchestra]]
*[[Cleveland Chamber Symphony]]
*[[CityMusic Cleveland]]
*[[Red (an orchestra)]]
*[[The Contemporary Youth Orchestra]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{commons category}}
*[http://www.clevelandorchestra.com/ The Cleveland Orchestra Official website]
*{{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080317181747/http://www.telarc.com/biography/bios.asp?aid=18 |date=March 17, 2008 |title=Cleveland Orchestra history }} from the [[Telarc]] website
* "[https://case.edu/ech/articles/c/cleveland-orchestra Cleveland Orchestra]" from the ''Encyclopedia of Cleveland History''

{{Big Five (orchestras)}}
{{Cleveland Orchestra conductors}}
{{Cleveland}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Cleveland Orchestra| ]]
[[Category:American symphony orchestras]]
[[Category:Musical groups from Cleveland]]
[[Category:Musical groups established in 1918]]
[[Category:Tourist attractions in Cleveland]]
[[Category:Music of Cleveland]]
[[Category:1918 establishments in Ohio]]
[[Category:Orchestras based in Ohio]]

Jurong

2025-06-18T14:54:52Z

128.228.164.236: /* Infrastructure */

{{other uses}}
{{EngvarB|date=June 2017}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2017}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Jurong
| settlement_type = [[Commercial district]] and [[Regional centre (Singapore)|Regional centre]]
| translit_lang1 = Other
| translit_lang1_type1 = [[Chinese language|Chinese]]
| translit_lang1_info1 = {{lang|zh-hant|裕廊}} ''Yùláng'' {{font|size=70%|([[Pinyin]])}} ''Jū-lông'' {{font|size=70%|([[Singapore Hokkien|Hokkien]] [[Pe̍h-ōe-jī|POJ]])}}
| translit_lang1_type2 = [[Malay language|Malay]]
| translit_lang1_info2 = {{lang|ms|Jurong}} {{font|size=70%|([[Malay alphabet|Rumi]])}} {{lang|ms-arab|{{Script|Arab|جوروڠ}}}} {{font|size=70%|([[Jawi alphabet|Jawi]])}}
| translit_lang1_type3 = [[Tamil language|Tamil]]
| translit_lang1_info3 = {{lang|ta|ஜூரோங்}} ''Jūrōṅ'' {{font|size=70%|([[ISO 15919|Transliteration]])}}
| image_skyline = {{Photomontage
| photo1a = Southern to middle part of Jurong Lake, Singapore.jpg
| photo2a = Jurong Town Hall, Singapore - 20150611-03.jpg
| photo2b = NS1 EW24 Jurong East MRT exterior 20200918 140928.jpg
| photo3a = Jem Mall.jpg
| photo3b = Jurong Port panorama, Singapore - 20100311 (version 2).jpg
| size = 280
| spacing = 2
| color = transparent
| border = 0
}}
| image_caption = From top, left to right: [[Jurong Lake]], Jurong Town Hall, [[Jurong East MRT station]], [[Jem, Singapore|Jem]], [[Jurong Port]].
| image_map = {{maplink|frame=yes|plain=yes|type=shape|stroke-width=2|stroke-color=#000000|zoom=12|frame-latitude=1.348956|frame-longitude=103.719364}}
| map_caption = Location of Jurong in Singapore
| pushpin_map = Singapore
| pushpin_map_caption = Location of Jurong within Singapore
| coordinates = {{coord|1|20|56.24|N|103|43|9.71|E|display=inline}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|Singapore}}
| subdivision_type1 = Region
| subdivision_name1 = [[West Region, Singapore|West Region]]
| subdivision_type2 = Mainland composition
| subdivision_name2 = {{Collapsible list
| title = Corresponding [[Planning Areas of Singapore|PA]]s
| bullets = true
| 1 = [[Jurong East]]
| 2 = [[Jurong West]]
| 3 = [[Boon Lay]]
| 4 = [[Pioneer, Singapore|Pioneer]]
| 5 = [[Western Islands, Singapore|Western Islands]] ([[Jurong Island]] only)
| 6 = [[Western Water Catchment]] (southernmost portions)
| 7 = [[Bukit Batok]] (greatest historical extent)
| 8 = [[Tuas]] (greatest historical extent)
}}
| subdivision_type3 = Offshore islands
| subdivision_name3 = {{Collapsible list
| title = 3
| bullets = true
| 1 = [[Jurong Island]]
| 2 = Pulau Damar Laut
| 3 = [[Pulau Samulun]]
}}
----
| subdivision_type4 = [[Community Development Council|CDC]]
| subdivision_name4 = * [[South West Community Development Council|South West CDC]]
| subdivision_type5 = Town councils
| subdivision_name5 = {{Bulleted list|list_style=line-height: inherit; | Chua Chu Kang Town Council | Jurong-Clementi Town Council | West Coast Town Council}}
| subdivision_type6 = [[Constituencies of Singapore|Constituencies]]
| subdivision_name6 = {{Bulleted list|list_style=line-height: inherit; | [[Chua Chu Kang Group Representation Constituency|Chua Chu Kang GRC]] | [[Bukit Gombak Single Member Constituency |Bukit Gombak SMC]] | [[Jurong East-Bukit Batok Group Representation Constituency|Jurong East - Bukit Batok GRC]] | [[Pioneer Single Member Constituency|Pioneer SMC]] | [[West Coast-Jurong West Group Representation Constituency|West Coast-Jurong West GRC]] | [[Jurong Central Single Member Constituency |Jurong Central SMC]]}}
| population_demonym = * Jurong resident
'''Colloquial'''
* Juronger
* Jurongian
* Jurongster
| postal_code_type = Postal district
| postal_code = 22
}}
'''Jurong''' ({{IPAc-en|dʒ|uː|r|ɒ|ŋ}}) is a major [[Region|geographical region]] located at the south-westernmost point of the [[West Region, Singapore|West Region]] of [[Singapore]]. Although mostly vaguely defined, the region's extent roughly covers the [[Planning Areas of Singapore|planning areas]] of [[Jurong East]], [[Jurong West]], [[Boon Lay Planning Area|Boon Lay]], and [[Pioneer, Singapore|Pioneer]], along with [[Jurong Island]] in the [[Western Islands, Singapore|Western Islands]] cluster and the southernmost portions of the [[Western Water Catchment]].<ref name=TwoBoonLays group=note/> The Jurong region can also include present-day [[Bukit Batok]] and [[Tuas]].<ref name=NHBJurong/>

Jurong also covers several offshore islands as well, including Pulau Damar Laut and [[Pulau Samulun]], both of which are located within the planning areas of Jurong East and Boon Lay respectively; along with the aforementioned Jurong Island. The coastline of the region on [[Pulau Ujong|mainland Singapore]], faces the strait of Selat Jurong, while the southernmost island of the region, Jurong Island, faces the strait of [[Selat Pandan]].<ref name=singstats/>

Jurong was first developed and heavily industrialised in the late 1960s in response to the general economic situation of post-independence Singapore, and remains vital to the country's economic growth, either [[Commercial area|commercial]], [[Industrial city|industrial]] and [[residential]]. The heavy redevelopment of the region paved the way for the opening of a large-scale industrial sector in the country, something which was unprecedented at that time. Today, Jurong has become one of the most densely populated industrial areas in the country. Since the turn of the century, Jurong is envisioned to be the country's second [[central business district]] (CBD) as part of the [[Jurong Lake District]] project.

==Etymology==
"Jurong" took its name from [[Sungei Jurong]], a river that still channels into [[Jurong Lake]], the latter of which was created by damming the river itself.

Although its origins are disputed, the core definition of "Jurong", is probably derived from several meanings in [[Malay Language|Malay]]. The term could probably refer to the word for [[shark]], "''Jerung''". It can also be derived from the word "''Jurang''" or a [[Canyon|gorge]]. Jurong could also take its name from the word, "''Penjuru''", which roughly translates to, corner. Penjuru may most likely refer to the peninsula that sits between Sungei Jurong and Sungei Pandan. The [[Ethnic Malays|native Malays]] named this peninsula, Tanjong Penjuru, which can be translated as Cape Corner in English. The present-day site of Tanjong Penjuru is now the subzone of [[Penjuru Crescent]].<ref name=NHBJurong/>

==Geography==

===Pre-industrial Jurong===

====Landscape====
[[File:Plan of the British settlement of Singapore published 1828.jpg|thumb|Philip Jackson's Plan of the British Settlement of Singapore. The region that is now Jurong can be seen on the south-western end of the map of [[Pulau Ujong|mainland Singapore]] (top).]]
Although Jurong's geography was documented on a few maps and records following [[Founding years of modern Singapore|Singapore's founding in 1819]], the area only became clearer to the British in an 1828 geographical survey of the island by [[Philip Jackson (surveyor)|Lieutenant Philip Jackson]]. In a map that was drawn after the survey, the lieutenant clearly describes most of Jurong's natural geography with the two rivers of Jurong, Sungei Jurong and Sungei Pandan, marked on the map. He also noted down several islands which have since ceased to exist. Such islands include, Pulau Ayer Chawan, Pulau Butun, Pulau Pese (Pulau Pesek), Pulau Sakra and Pulau Saraya (Pulau Seraya), all of which have since merged to form [[Jurong Island]]. Current geographical landmarks such as Pulau Damar Laut and the strait of Selat Sembilan (now Selat Jurong) have also been included on the map.<ref name=NHBJurong/>

The two rivers of Jurong were mentioned again in 1848, when a second survey conducted by [[John Turnbull Thomson]], described the original shape and settlements of Sungei Jurong and Sungei Pandan. Turnbull describes both rivers as, "large creeks" with settlements around them both.

However, in the case of Sungei Jurong, Thomson gives his description as such:

{{Blockquote|text=a large creek which divides at the top into two branches, the east one being called by the Chinese the Jurong, and the west Peng Kang|author=John Turnbull Johnson}}

Before the damming of Sungei Jurong, the present-day site of [[Jurong Lake]] was once occupied by two streams that split at the junction of the river. These two streams have since ceased to exist. However, like what Thomson said, these bodies of water roughly marked the present day locations of Jurong East and West, at that time identified as Jurong and Peng Kang on colonial era maps respectively.<ref name=NHBJurong/>

Before its development in the 1960s, Jurong was left close to its pristine state after Singapore's founding in 1819. Although there were a few settlements around Jurong, most of the land was mainly uncharted territory. Swamps dominated the coastline of Jurong, yielding large amounts of wildlife such as [[mudskipper]]s and [[horseshoe crab]]s. A forest reserve of [[Dipterocarpaceae|dipterocarp]] trees would have once stood inland behind the grove of [[Rhizophora apiculata|rhizophora]] trees along the coast. Low hills were mainly the highest elevated points around Jurong, although most of them were later levelled over the years.

This was evident, given the description made by [[Matthew C. Perry|Commodore Perry]] in his accounts of Jurong made during the [[Perry Expedition]]:

{{Blockquote|text=Inland, the surface of the country is diversified with low hills and shallow valleys.|author=Matthew Calbraith Perry|source=[[Narrative of the Expedition of an American Squadron to the China Seas and Japan]]<ref name=PerryJournal/>}}

====Territorial extent====
In maps made by the British administration before Singapore's self-governance in 1959, the colonial era district (mukim) of Jurong was rather small, occupying what is today the present-day town of [[Bukit Batok]] and Tengah. Jurong Mukim was earlier known as West Bukit Timak Mukim, the renaming to Juong Mukim is probably with reference the Jurong settlement located at the head of Jurong River and also located at the south-west corner of this Mukim. Other than that, most part of Jurong Mukim has very little historical basis for calling herself 'Jurong'.

Furthermore, many residents have often regarded the areas along the stretch of [[Jurong Road]], especially the southern areas, as part of the extant of Jurong. Such areas include the colonial era districts (mukims) of Peng Kang (now Jurong West and Boon Lay), the southern portions of Choa Chu Kang (now Jurong West extension and NTU), Pandan (now split into Jurong East to the west and Clementi to the east) and Tuas (now Pioneer and the newly reclaimed Tuas peninsula).<ref name=NHBJurong/><ref name=Colonialeradistricts group=note/>

===Modern Jurong===

====Ecology====
[[File:Sungei Ulu Pandan.JPG|thumb|A stretch of Sungei Ulu Pandan in [[Clementi, Singapore|Clementi]], the western branch of Sungei Pandan]]
Today, most of what is left of the original pristine Jurong is restricted to the areas around the [[Pandan Reservoir]] and Sungei Pandan. Little traces of the dipterocarp forest still remain. The mangrove swamps today are now just a fraction of its former self, located at the mouth of Sungei Pandan. The untouched mangrove fringes still hold the last remnants of wildlife in Jurong. It is because of this that area remains a hotspot for nature enthusiasts and bird watchers to this day.<ref name=NHBJurong/>

====Water bodies====
{{Blockquote|the sea shore is low and overgrown with mangroves, and occasionally broken by the entrances of salty creeks, which, penetrating sometimes to the extent of six or seven miles, overflow their banks, and convert their neighbouring soil into marsh.|author=Matthew Calbraith Perry|source=[[Narrative of the Expedition of an American Squadron to the China Seas and Japan]]<ref name=PerryJournal/>}}

Jurong is home to two prominent rivers, Sungei Jurong and Sungei Pandan, both of which flow into two larger water bodies, Jurong Lake and [[Pandan Reservoir]] respectively. The two rivers also source from Selat Jurong, a strait that faces south of mainland Singapore and north of Jurong Island.

[[File:Sunset view of Pandan Reservoir from Teban Gardens, Singapore.jpg|thumb|Pandan Reservoir at sunset]]

The two rivers also have extensions that flow into the mainland portion of the region. Sungei Pandan has a western branch, Sungei Ulu Pandan, which flows from Jurong East into the town of Clementi before cutting off at [[Queenstown, Singapore|Queenstown]] located east of Clementi. Sungei Jurong channels out of Jurong Lake via a stream located west of the lake and Jurong Canal located directly north of the lake. The canal also serves as the boundary line between the towns of Jurong East and West.<ref name=URA2014MasterPlan/>

====Elevation points====
The highest elevation point in the region is [[Jurong Hill]], which is located close to the centre of the industrial estate at Jurong (positioned north of [[Jurong Island]]) just adjacent to [[Jurong Bird Park]].<ref name=NHBJurong/>

====Geology====
Jurong's unique locale lends to itself a special rock formation unlike any other in Singapore. Named the [[Jurong Formation]], the [[sedimentary rock]] deposits can trace its roots back to the [[late Triassic]] and [[Early Jurassic|early]] to [[middle Jurassic]] periods.

====Territorial extent====
The name "Jurong" is often used to collectively describe the region's five main planning areas. However, the URA does not officially recognise all of these places as a single territorial entity. Since the gazetting of the 1998 Master Plan, the Authority has officially classified Jurong as five individual separate planning areas.<ref name=DGP/> When Jurong is split into these five contiguous parts, it forms Jurong East and West in the north and north-west, Boon Lay and Pioneer to the south and south-west and Tuas to the extreme west of the region. Each of these individual areas can yet be further divided into subzones, smaller [[subdistrict]]s that are a part of the larger planning area itself. If all five planning areas are combined, there would be a grand total of 34 subzones in Jurong.<ref name=Juronghousing/><ref name=URA2014MasterPlan/>

The boundaries of modern-day Jurong were first demarcated in the 1960 proposal of the new town. The planned town was to be located entirely south of Jurong Road, combining land that was once the colonial era districts (mukims) of Peng Kang, Pandan and the southernmost portion of Choa Chu Kang.<ref name=NHBJurong/><ref name=STJurongplan/><ref name=Colonialeradistricts group=note/> As a result of this proposal, the government gazetted portions of land from these areas to increase the overall size of Jurong.<ref name=STJuronggazetted/> These boundaries were later further defined with the introduction of the URA 1991 Concept Plan in September 1991.<ref name=URA1991ConceptPlan/><ref name=CPunveiled/>

==History==

===Before Raffles (c. 1600 – 1819)===
The earliest known significance of Jurong can be traced back to 1595 on a maritime documentation of oriental trading routes. Titled "''Reys-gheschrift van de Navigation der Portugaloysers in Orienten''", the journal written by Dutch author [[Jan Huyghen van Linschoten]], names a certain "Selat Sembilan" that one must cross eastwards after reaching the southernmost end of the [[Strait of Malacca]].<ref name=Dutchdocument/> This suggests that the straits near Jurong witnessed a significant role in the ancient maritime [[Silk Road]]. Although not mapped by Linschoten, the location of Selat Sembilan was later identified in [[Philip Jackson (surveyor)|Philip Jackson]]'s 1828 survey of Singapore. Despite much land-reclamation works along most coastal parts of Jurong and Tuas, Selat Sembilan still exists today as Selat Jurong, stretching along the entire coastline of the region.<ref name=NHBJurong/>

Even before the [[Founding years of modern Singapore|arrival]] of [[Stamford Raffles|Sir Stamford Raffles]] in 1819, small settlements had already been built along Jurong's coastal areas as well as the present-day site of Jurong Island, Pulau Damar Laut and Pulau Sembulan. Such squatters were inhabited by the native [[Orang laut]], and there also immigrants from the nearby [[Dutch East Indies]] and [[Malay Peninsula|Malaya]].

===Colonial era (1819 to 1942)===

====Earliest developments====
Post-colonization, Jurong had a small population of inhabitants scattered along the banks of the area's two main rivers, Sungei Jurong and Sungei Pandan. It consisted mainly of a large [[Han Chinese|Chinese]] and [[Ethnic Malay|Malay]] migrant population.

The majority of the Chinese population was [[Hokkien]]-speaking, immigrating from [[Anxi County]] in the province of [[Fujian]], [[Qing dynasty|China]]. A [[Teochew people|Teochew]] demographic was also prevalent in Jurong. Originating from the City of [[Jieyang]], the Teochew-speaking population mainly settled along the westernmost portions of Jurong.<ref name=NHBJurong/>

Most of the Malays and Orang Laut in the area were natives of the land, settling in squatters and villages located along the coast of Jurong long before the founding of Singapore as a British colony in 1819. There were also other ethnic Malay groups that came down from the rest of the [[Malay Archipelago]] who migrated from various parts of present-day [[Malaysia]] and [[Indonesia]]. However, the exact statistics concerning foreign Malays settling in Jurong after 1819 is not clear.

In a visit to the area in 1848, the then-Chief Surveyor of Singapore, [[John Turnbull Thomson]], made one of the earliest accounts regarding human settlements in Jurong.

He described the demographics along Sungei Jurong as such:

{{Blockquote|text=The Chinese here are numerous and there are also several Malay villages.|author=John Turnbull Thomson|source=<ref name=NHBJurong/>}}

Thomson also gave his description on the population along Sungei Pandan:

{{Blockquote|text=a large creek with Chinese and Malays at the head...|author=John Turnbull Thomson|source=<ref name=NHBJurong/>}}

With the increase in population size over the years, the need for a mode of travel to and from the Town of Singapore, was necessary. Between 1852 and 1853, the first few portions of [[Jurong Road]] were paved to connect villages around Jurong to the metropolitan areas of Singapore Town and the rest of the island. This first portion of Jurong Road started from the seventh milestone of Bukit Timah Road ending along the head of Sungei Jurong. Although it isn't known when the rest of the road was paved, by 1936, the road stretched up to the district of Tuas.<ref name=NHBJurong/>

=====An American expedition=====
[[File:River Jurong, Singapore (c 1856) by Peter Berhard Wilhelm Heine and Eliphalet M Brown.jpg|280px|thumb|The lithograph of Sungei Jurong made during the [[Perry Expedition]] of 1853 to 1854]]

In 1853, US Navy [[Commodore (United States)|Commodore]] [[Matthew C. Perry]] led a maritime expedition to Japan in an attempt to open up the country (then under self-imposed isolation) to the world for trade and the possible building of political and economic ties.

The fleet of the [[Perry Expedition]] stopped over at a few countries before reaching the [[Japanese archipelago]]. One of the few docking locations during the trip was Singapore. This made it the second time that the United States had made a diplomatic presence on the island since the [[United States Exploring Expedition|Exploring Expedition]].

Perry's crew anchored their fleet of two [[frigates]] and two [[Sloop-of-war|sloops-of-war]] along Selat Sembilan and Sungei Jurong, where they surveyed the surroundings of the strait and the river.

[[Wilhelm Heine]] and Eliphalet Brown, two of the official expedition's artists, were tasked at producing a lithograph depicting the villages along Sungei Jurong. The resulting image was one of the earliest illustrations of colonial-era Jurong.

The interesting point of the image is the scene of a forest fire shown in the background. This was common at the time as such raging wildfires were often rampant and common throughout most of Jurong in the mid-19th century.<ref name=NHBJurong/> Another point worthy of note in the image is the [[Flag of the United States|United States flag]] seen affixed on the [[stern]] of the [[sampan]] in the foreground.<ref name=PerryJournal/>

====Earliest industries====

=====Agriculture and aquaculture=====
Before the early 1960s, the area was dominated by small and large plantations, cultivating crops such as [[pineapple]], [[Black pepper|pepper]], [[Uncaria gambir|gambier]] and [[nutmeg]]. These crops provided key sources of income for the district's population. Among them, gambier was the primary export of Jurong's plantations during the early period. Valued for its practical uses and medicinal properties, gambier became a highly profitable crop for Chinese [[Kangchu system|kangchu]]-owners, local communities and other plantation owners, both local and foreign. In 1855, the Municipal Committee of the British colonial government reported the existence of 20 legally recognised gambier plantations existing within Jurong. However, this figure is likely an underestimation, as numerous illegal plantations were also set up in the area.<ref name=NHBJurong/>

[[Natural rubber|Rubber]] was also a popular agricultural industry in Jurong during this period and was regarded as a strong competitor to the thriving gambier plantation businesses. By the first half of the 20th century, rubber tapping and plantation practices had largely replaced the planting and harvesting of gambier, which had previously dominated Jurong's agricultural scene. A notable example of a business that transitioned from gambier to rubber cultivation was the plantation firm owned by Chinese business magnate Chew Boon Lay. The extensive land his plantation stood on became associated with his name. Today, this area is known as [[Boon Lay| Boon Lay Place]], a subzone within the new town of Jurong West.

Aside from the reliance on cash crops and large plantations, fishing was also another prominent source of income for the locals in Jurong. This livelihood was predominantly undertaken by the local Malay and Orang Laut community, most of whom chose to live along the coastlines of Jurong or had already settled there for many generations. Fishing was also conducted along two prominent rivers in the area, Sungei Jurong and Sungei Pandan.

Numerous prawn farms were also set up along these two rivers where crustacean species thrived naturally. By the 1950s, 500 acres of land in Jurong were specifically designated for prawn farming. This was roughly half of the total land used for prawn farms across Singapore at that time.<ref name=NHBJurong/>

=====Manufacturing and processing=====
For some time before the period of rapid industrialisation occurring in Jurong throughout the 1960s, Jurong was already a host to several businesses in the heavy industry (primarily dealing with construction and manufacturing), most notably, the brickwork industrial sector. Local businesses involved in brick manufacturing and earthenware production were largely set up around [[Yunnan, Jurong West|Yunnan]] in Jurong West, where the soil conditions there could yield much [[clay]] and [[terracotta]]. Although almost all of these factories and industries closed down over the years (most were shut down by the late 1990s and early 2000s), the brickwork industry remains significant in Jurong, primarily through its historical legacy and enduring influence.

The earliest brick factories in Jurong emerged in the 1920s, exporting large quantities of building materials to construction sites around Singapore and Malaya (now Malaysia). Among the notable factories was Jurong Brickworks, established in the 1930s.<ref name=JBW/> It became one of Singapore's largest privately owned brick manufacturers and suppliers. At its peak in the 1970s, the company manufactured more than three million bricks per month. Jurong Brickworks was eventually shut down in 2005, with the entire manufacturing plant demolished later that year.<ref name=NHBJurong/>

Another notable earthenware-production business located in Jurong is the [[Thow Kwang Pottery Jungle|Thow Kwang Dragon Kiln]]. Set up by Chinese immigrants in the 1940s, this pottery manufacturer, along with its neighbouring counterpart, the Jalan Bahar Clay Studios, continues to exist to this day and remains the only possessor of a pair of [[Kiln|dragon kilns]] in Singapore. Although located in an area that is traditionally a part of Jurong, the kilns are technically located next to [[Nanyang Technological University]], which is situated in the [[Western Water Catchment]].<ref name=NHBJurong/>

=====Similar business ventures=====
Aside from his plantation, Chew Boon Lay also owned one of the earliest factories (a manufacturing plant) that was located in Jurong. During its time in business operation from 1950 to 1958, the manufacturing plant produced a wide range of [[Canning|canned goods]] (foodstuff) that ranged from [[Kaya (jam)|kaya]] to [[curry]] and even [[peanut butter]]. It was located along [[Jalan Ahmad Ibrahim]] and was opposite the location of the former [[Jurong Bird Park]]. This same building was also a temporary location for the management offices of the [[JTC Corporation|Jurong Town Corporation]] in 1968.<ref name=NHBJurong/>

===Second World War (1941–45)===

====101 Special Training School====
[[File:Pulau Damar Laut, panorama, Nov 06.jpg|350px|thumb|Jurong Port with Pulau Damar Laur in the background. The location of Tanjong Balai would have been relative to the southern portion of the present-day port.]]

Following the [[Japanese invasion of Thailand|invasion of Thailand]] in the beginning of December 1941, the [[Imperial Japanese Army]] was rapidly heading southwards down the [[Malay Peninsula]] towards Singapore. It was rather obvious, by then, to many that a Japanese military assault on the island was nearly imminent. In light of the oncoming threat, the Oriental Mission of the UK's [[Special Operations Executive]] chose to set up a training institution/school in Singapore to assist and train members of possible anti-Japanese resistance movements throughout Japanese-occupied British Malaya and, later, Singapore.

One proposed site for the training base was at [[Pulau Ubin]]. However, the suggestion was dropped due to several reasons. Issues such as the difficulty of clearing thick jungle foliage, the cost of building and developing the training base's site, the lack of access to freshwater and the risk of contagious [[malaria]] and other diseases made Pulau Ubin unsuitable for a possible location. Later on, during the formation of the Singapore Armed Forces, the proposed site for the training bases were located at [[Pasir Laba]] and [[Pulau Tekong]] respectively. [[Pasir Laba]] was the first to be built during the formation of SAF, and set up the live firing zone in the west. Pulau Tekong was the second to be built.

[[File:Singapore map 1942.jpg|280px|thumb|A 1942 map of Singapore from the book, [[Australia in the War of 1939–1945]], highlighting the Jurong-Kranji defence line in red along the stretch between Sungei Jurong and the [[Kranji Reservoir|Kranji River]]]]

The SOE eventually settled on a small, isolated island known as Tanjong Balai. Located at the mouth of Sungei Jurong, the island featured a single man-made structure consisting of a lone bungalow formerly owned by Jewish businessman Joseph Brook David. In addition to the bungalow, the island was concealed within a canopy of secondary-type rainforest. Its location offered the advantage of accessibility either by boat or via a discreet jungle path.

With the SOE's settling down at Tanjong Balai, the Number 101 Special Training School was created and mainly trained its personnel in the various fields of sabotage, reconnaissance and espionage to prepare them for resistance efforts against Japanese occupation forces.

With the invading Japanese military pushing into Singapore by February in 1942, the training base was quickly closed down with the destruction of related documents and the abandonment of the training base Tanjong Balai. A new SOE training base was later established in [[Myanmar|Burma]] in the former capital city of Myanmar at [[Yangon|Rangoon]].

Today, the island of Tanjong Balai and the training base located there are largely unheard of by many modern-day Singaporeans. The island has since been subsumed by [[Jurong Port]] after further land-reclamation works were carried out in the 1980s to expand the harbour.<ref name=NHBJurong/>

===Modern history (1960–present)===

====The need to industrialise====
Post-war Singapore was plagued with significant economic and financial challenges. A largely uneducated population and a chronic lack of job opportunities contributed to a scarcity of skilled manpower. By the end of the decade of the 1950s, the unemployment rate in post-war Singapore stood at about 14%, encompassing an estimated 200,000 people across the population. Compounding the issues of widespread unemployment and resulting poverty was the government's need to address the country's high birth rate, which was increasing annually by about 4%.<ref name=NHBJurong/>

With the [[Cold War]] and the then-constant threat of [[Malayan Communist Party|communism]] spreading from Malaya, the country's [[Legislative Assembly of Singapore|Legislative Assembly]] was being pressured to keep the British-ruled [[Colony of Singapore|crown colony]] financially stable and economically strong.

In 1959, the [[People's Action Party]] won the [[1959 Singaporean general election|first general election held in a self-governing Singapore]]. A crucial element of the party's agenda upon coming to power was the promise of creating more and better employment opportunities for the people and the need to build and strengthen the weak economy of a newly developing self-governing nation.<ref name=uslcRoadToIndependence/> To address this urgent need, the new PAP-led government tasked [[Goh Keng Swee|Dr. Goh Keng Swee]], the then-[[Ministry of Finance (Singapore)|finance minister]] was quickly put in charge of tackling Singapore's economic challenges.

Dr. Goh determined that industrialisation was the only way to improve and strengthen Singapore's weak economy. He envisioned the development of a major industrial town featuring modern industries mainly based in the manufacturing sector, such as shipyards, steelworks, chemical plants and other factories. While the idea of industrialisation in Singapore was not new, Dr. Goh's plans for an industrial estate in Jurong were far more ambitious and comprehensive than previous proposals.<ref name=NHBJurong/>

====Jurong Industrial Estate====
[[File:Jurong Industrial Estate and Jurong West New Town, panorama, Nov 06.jpg|centre|thumb|700px|Jurong Industrial Estate with Jurong West in the background]]
On the 4th of July in 1960, the [[Legislative Assembly of Singapore]] announced a proposal to construct a new industrial town in Jurong.<ref name=STJurongproposal/> The entire project, which totalled $45.7 million in cost, begun almost immediately after the proposal's announcement, with the immediate processes of planning and designing taking place in August in that same year.<ref name=UNexpert/>

For Jurong's industrialisation, Singapore sought international assistance for its economic development. The United Nations Industrial Survey Mission assigned Dutch economic/financial advisor [[Albert Winsemius|Dr Albert Winsemius]] to lead the nation's economic development efforts. The same UN mission also deployed Frenchman Mr P. Schereschewsky to survey Jurong's suitability as an industrial town.<ref name=UNexpert/>
[[File:Signs pointing to Jurong Industrial Estate in Singapore June 1964.jpg|alt=A road corner with a dozen individual signs each pointing in the same direction|thumb|Signs pointing to Jurong Industrial Estate in 1964]]
In 1961, the [[Economic Development Board|Economic and Development Board]] (the EDB) was formed to spearhead Singapore's industrialisation. That same year, [[Earthworks (engineering)|earthworks]] commenced for the development of Jurong's industrial estate. In 1962, the then-[[Ministry of Finance (Singapore)|finance minister]] of Singapore, Dr. [[Goh Keng Swee]], laid the [[foundation stone]] for the newly established National Iron and Steel Mills, the first factory in the new industrial estate. This factory, now known as NatSteel, is currently a subsidiary of Tata Steel of India.<ref name=NatSteelheritage/> At that time, many Singaporeans were skeptical of Dr. Goh's ambitious plan to industralise Jurong, giving it the nickname "Goh's Folly". They were quickly dispelled when 24 factories of various types were established in 1963. In May 1965, [[Jurong Port]] became operational.

In 1968, the [[Jurong Town Corporation]] was established to direct and manage Jurong's development. By this time, a total of 14.78 square kilometres of industrial land had been prepared, with 153 factories fully operational and 46 more under construction. As [[Economy of Singapore|Singapore's economy]] continued to grow rapidly, addressing the challenge of accommodating new businesses and industries became increasingly pressing. To meet these demands, seven [[islet]]s off the southern coast of Jurong were merged to create the 30 square-kilometre [[Jurong Island]], which became the hub for [[Petroleum|oil]], [[chemical]] and [[petrochemical]] factories, manufacturing industries and plants in Singapore. The construction and development of Jurong Island began in the early 1990s and was scheduled to be completed by 2010. By 2016, much of the development works have been completed, with some newer developments continuing to emerge. A number of heavy-type industrial companies and firms, such as DuPont and Teijin Polycarbonate, began operations on the island in the late 1990s. The Jurong Island Causeway provides the only land-based link to Jurong Island from mainland Singapore. Following the [[September 11 attacks]] in 2001, access to Jurong Island became heavily restricted. An entry/exit security pass is now required for all employees working at Jurong Island, and cameras and all other recording equipment are banned from being transported into the island.

====Townships of Jurong====
{{Main|Jurong East|Jurong West}}

[[File:HDB flats at Boon Lay Place.jpg|thumb|Boon Lay, located in Jurong West, is one of the oldest housing estates that still currently exist in the area]]

The first few low-rise flats in Jurong Town emerged in the precinct of [[Taman Jurong]] between 1963 and 1964, developed by the [[Housing and Development Board]]. Around this time, other notable housing estates, such as [[Boon Lay]], began breaking ground. Despite the new residential developments, Jurong lacked a growing population, largely due to its location and the lack of infrastructure around the region at the time.

The development of Jurong East and West started in 1979 when estates such as [[Taman Jurong]], [[Boon Lay Place]], [[Bukit Batok]], [[Bukit Gombak]], [[Hong Kah]], [[Teban Gardens]] and [[Yuhua, Singapore|Yuhua]] were built, mostly due to the resettlement of Hong Kah and surrounding villages. Boon Lay Place, Taman Jurong and Hong Kah formed Jurong West New Town. Yuhua, Teban Gardens, Bukit Batok and Bukit Gombak formed Jurong East New Town.

[[File:Je-town.JPG|right|thumb|240px|Jurong Regional Centre]]

In 1982, Jurong West New Town started expanding as Jurong West Extension, which saw the realignment of the [[Pan Island Expressway|PIE]], rerouting it to pass the southern boundary of present-day [[Nanyang Technological University|NTU]]. The former section of the [[Pan Island Expressway|PIE]] was converted into Jurong West Avenue 2, and Upper Jurong Road was renamed to Jurong West Avenue 4. Pioneer Road was extended northward from present-day Upper Jurong Road, becoming Pioneer Road North, to connect to the new [[Pan Island Expressway|PIE]] exit. This signalled the start of the development of Jurong West Extension ([[Yunnan, Singapore|Yunnan]], [[Pioneer, Singapore|Pioneer]] and [[Gek Poh Ville|Gek Poh]]).<ref name=JurongWestExpansion/> The N9 estate was the first to be built, while the N6 estate was the last, constructed only in the early 2000s. The MRT Line was extended from Lakeside to Boon Lay in 1990 and again to Pioneer in 2009.

====Spyros disaster====
{{Main|Spyros disaster}}
On 12 October 1978, a Greek oil [[Tanker (ship)|tanker]], ''Spyros'', exploded at [[Samulun|Jurong Shipyard]], killing more than 70 people in the immediate vicinity. The result was one of the worst man-made disasters/calamities since the [[Japanese occupation of Singapore|Second World War]] in Singapore and the worst industrial accident since the country gained full independence in 1965.

==Transportation==
[[File:NS1EW24 Jurong East MRT Station 202410.jpg|thumb|Jurong East Station]]
===Private===
Jurong is well connected to the rest of Singapore by road, with [[Kranji Expressway]] linking them to the northern part of Singapore, [[Pan Island Expressway]] linking them to the Eastern part of Singapore and the [[Ayer Rajah Expressway]] linking them to the south-eastern part of Singapore. Clementi Avenue 6 and Jurong Town Hall Road complement the 3 expressways, topping off the well-built road connection from Jurong to all parts of the island.

===Mass Rapid Transit (MRT)===
{{Main|Jurong Region MRT line}}
[[File:Jurong Point.jpg|right|thumb|200px|[[Jurong Point Shopping Mall]] with [[Boon Lay MRT station]] in the foreground]]
The region is well-connected to the [[Mass Rapid Transit (Singapore)|MRT]] system, served by two MRT lines, the [[East-West MRT line|East West Line]] and the [[North-South MRT line|North South Line]].

Two MRT stations serve the [[Jurong East]] region:
*{{SMRT code|EW|24|NS|1}} [[Jurong East MRT station|Jurong East]]
*{{SMRT code|EW|25|}} [[Chinese Garden MRT station|Chinese Garden]]

Three MRT stations serve the [[Jurong West]] region:
*{{SMRT code|EW|26|}} [[Lakeside MRT station|Lakeside]]
*{{SMRT code|EW|27|}} [[Boon Lay MRT station|Boon Lay]]
*{{SMRT code|EW|28|}} [[Pioneer MRT station|Pioneer]]

Four MRT stations serve the [[Pioneer, Singapore|Pioneer]] & [[Tuas]] industrial areas:
*{{SMRT code|EW|29|}} [[Joo Koon MRT station|Joo Koon]]
*{{SMRT code|EW|30|}} [[Gul Circle MRT station|Gul Circle]]
*{{SMRT code|EW|31|}} [[Tuas Crescent MRT station|Tuas Crescent]]
*{{SMRT code|EW|32|}} [[Tuas West Road MRT station|Tuas West Road]]
*{{SMRT code|EW|33|}} [[Tuas Link MRT station|Tuas Link]]

Scheduled to be completed in 2029<ref name="LTA">{{cite web | title=Jurong Region Line | website=LTA | url=https://www.lta.gov.sg/content/ltagov/en/upcoming_projects/rail_expansion/jurong_region_line.html | access-date=19 January 2025| archive-date=14 December 2024 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241214081159/https://www.lta.gov.sg/content/ltagov/en/upcoming_projects/rail_expansion/jurong_region_line.html | url-status=live }}</ref> and 2032<ref name="LTA 2022">{{cite web | title=Cross Island Line Phase 2 | website=LTA | date=20 September 2022 | url=https://www.lta.gov.sg/content/ltagov/en/newsroom/2022/9/news-releases/cross-island-line-phase-2.html | access-date=20 September 2022 | archive-date=20 September 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220920082251/https://www.lta.gov.sg/content/ltagov/en/newsroom/2022/9/news-releases/cross-island-line-phase-2.html | url-status=live }}</ref> respectively, the [[Jurong Region MRT line]] and [[Cross Island MRT line]] will help to further connect commuters to places in Jurong and the rest of Singapore.

===Bus===
Jurong is served by public bus services originating from 5 interchanges and 1 bus depot, namely the [[Jurong East Bus Interchange|Jurong East]], [[Jurong Town Hall Bus Interchange|Jurong Town Hall]], [[Boon Lay Bus Interchange|Boon Lay]], [[Joo Koon Bus Interchange|Joo Koon]] & [[Tuas Bus Terminal|Tuas]] bus interchanges and [[Soon Lee Bus Depot]].

==Economy==

===Commercial===
[[File:JP2entrance2.jpg|thumb|The main entrance to [[Jurong Point Shopping Mall]]]]

The more notable shopping malls in Jurong are [[Jurong Point Shopping Mall]] in [[Pioneer, Singapore|Pioneer]] and the cluster of malls in [[Jurong East]], as part of the Jurong Gateway commercial hub. These include [[IMM (Singapore)|IMM]], [[Jem, Singapore|Jem]] and [[Westgate, Singapore|Westgate]].

The largest suburban mall in Singapore, Jurong Point Shopping Mall is well-accessible by bus services from all the residential precincts of Jurong except [[Yuhua, Singapore|Yuhua]] and [[Teban Gardens]]. This mall targets young adults and families with stalls selling fashion, food and beverages, sports, entertainment and lifestyle products. It also serves the elderly population with body-wellness stores and healthcare centres located at levels 4 and 5 of the mall. It is well linked to the [[Boon Lay MRT station]] and [[Boon Lay Bus Interchange]].

[[File:IMM building in Jurong.jpg|thumb|[[IMM (Singapore)|IMM]]]]

The largest [[Outlet store|outlet mall]] in Singapore, IMM is located within walking distance from [[Jurong East MRT station]]. The mall contains a [[Kopitiam (company)|Kopitiam]] food court on Level 3, as well as many furniture stores and other retail stores. These include a [[Daiso]] department store and a [[Giant Hypermarket]].

[[J-Walk (pedestrian network)|J-Walk]], a pedestrian network made up of [[skyway|elevated walkways]] and at-grade sheltered walkways, connects the shopping malls and hospitals in Jurong East to [[Jurong East MRT station]].<ref>{{cite web |title=J-Walk |url=https://www.lta.gov.sg/content/dam/ltagov/industry_innovations/industry_matters/development_construction_resources/pdf/TransportInfrastructure/Jwalk/20150209%20j%20walk%20signage%20guidelines.pdf |publisher=Land Transport Authority |access-date=28 January 2025}}</ref>

There are other shopping malls in Jurong, but are only well known within the precinct they are located in. Such malls include Hong Kah Point in [[Hong Kah]] and Taman Jurong Shopping Centre in [[Taman Jurong]].

==Tourism==
[[File:Singapore Science Centre - 20051007.jpg|right|thumb|[[Singapore Science Centre]]]]
*[[Singapore Science Centre]]
*[[Snow City]]
*[[Singapore Discovery Centre]]
*Singapore Army Museum
*[[Jurong Bird Park]] (ceased and relocated to Mandai in 2023)<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.todayonline.com/singapore/mandai-area-set-major-redevelopment|title=Mandai Area Set for Major Redevelopment|date=5 Sep 2014|newspaper=Today|access-date=18 November 2019|archive-date=2 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160602214920/http://www.todayonline.com/singapore/mandai-area-set-major-redevelopment|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.channelnewsasia.com/news/singapore/mandai-nature-precinct/2835168.html|title=Mandai nature precinct will house two new wildlife parks|date=1 Jun 2016|newspaper=Channel NewsAsia|access-date=18 November 2019|archive-date=3 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160603214305/http://www.channelnewsasia.com/news/singapore/mandai-nature-precinct/2835168.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>
*Jurong Lake Gardens
*ABC Waters @ Jurong Lake (largest man-made floating wetlands with a total area of 3,850 sqm) <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bykido.com/blogs/playgrounds-and-more/spore-largest-man-made-floating-wetlands-opens-at-jurong-lake-garden|title=S'pore Largest Man-made Floating Wetlands Opens at Jurong Lake Garden!|access-date=22 July 2021|archive-date=22 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210722052951/https://www.bykido.com/blogs/playgrounds-and-more/spore-largest-man-made-floating-wetlands-opens-at-jurong-lake-garden|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Education==
There are multiple primary and secondary schools in each precinct of Jurong. Examples include the Shuqun Primary School established in 1925 in Jurong West, as well as [[River Valley High School (Singapore)|River Valley High School]] established in 1956 in Boon Lay.

Prior to 2019, Jurong had one junior college, [[Jurong Junior College]], located between [[Hong Kah]] and [[Boon Lay]]. The school has since merged with Pioneer Junior College to form [[Jurong Pioneer Junior College]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Chia |first1=Lianne |title=Anderson, Serangoon JCs among 8 junior colleges to merge |url=http://www.channelnewsasia.com/news/singapore/anderson-serangoon-jcs-among-8-junior-colleges-to-merge/3690100.html |website=CNA |access-date=28 January 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170420070704/http://www.channelnewsasia.com/news/singapore/anderson-serangoon-jcs-among-8-junior-colleges-to-merge/3690100.html |archive-date=20 April 2017 |date=20 April 2017 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

==Politics==
Jurong used to be an independent political constituency in the 1959 general elections. [[Chia Thye Poh]] represented the constituency in parliament between 1963 and 1966. Then, Boon Lay Constituency was carved out in 1976 and Hong Kah Constituency in 1984, forming four separate constituencies. Hong Kah Constituency eventually became a [[Group Representation Constituency|GRC]] that consisted of [[Nanyang, Singapore|Nanyang]], [[Hong Kah]], [[Gek Poh Ville|Gek Poh]] and [[Bukit Batok]] in 1988. [[Teban Gardens]], [[Pioneer, Singapore|Pioneer]], [[Yuhua, Singapore|Yuhua]] and [[Taman Jurong]] were under Bukit Timah Constituency and the N9 region of [[Nanyang, Singapore|Nanyang]] was under Jurong Constituency all that while.

In 2001, there were major changes in the political constituencies of Jurong. Boon Lay Constituency, together with [[Teban Gardens]] and [[Pioneer, Singapore|Pioneer]], were absorbed into the expanded [[West Coast Group Representation Constituency|West Coast GRC]]. Hong Kah Constituency was re-designed to include towns of [[Chua Chu Kang]] (Limbang and Yew Tee) and [[Bukit Gombak]] and only [[Nanyang, Singapore|Nanyang]] and [[Gek Poh Ville|Gek Poh]] remained in the constituency, this time including the N9 region of [[Nanyang, Singapore|Nanyang]]. Jurong Constituency was abolished. [[Hong Kah]] and [[Bukit Batok]] were regrouped into the newly created [[Jurong Group Representation Constituency|Jurong GRC]], along with [[Yuhua, Singapore|Yuhua]] and [[Taman Jurong]]. As such, the entire political system of Jurong was changed with 3 [[Group Representation Constituency|GRC]]s as a result.

10 years later, in 2011, [[Gek Poh Ville|Gek Poh]], [[Yuhua, Singapore|Yuhua]] and [[Pioneer, Singapore|Pioneer]] were crafted out from each of the three [[Group Representation Constituency|GRC]]s to become [[Single Member Constituency|SMC]]s. In total, there are now six constituencies in Jurong.

Nonetheless, though divided into six separate constituencies, all the precincts are collectively managed by the [[People's Action Party|PAP]] and known as Jurong.

==References==
{{Reflist|30em|refs=

<ref name=DGP>{{cite web|title=Singapore Infopedia – Development guide plan|url=http://eresources.nlb.gov.sg/infopedia/articles/SIP_1371_2009-01-05.html|publisher=[[National Library Board]]|access-date=14 February 2016|archive-date=26 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181226060630/http://eresources.nlb.gov.sg/infopedia/articles/SIP_1371_2009-01-05.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name=CPunveiled>{{cite web|title=HistorySG – 1991 Concept Plan is unveiled|url=http://eresources.nlb.gov.sg/history/events/8a9c774e-3e4a-46c8-8862-0ff9f4ae257e|publisher=[[National Library Board]]|access-date=12 February 2016|archive-date=3 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303014028/http://eresources.nlb.gov.sg/history/events/8a9c774e-3e4a-46c8-8862-0ff9f4ae257e|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name=NatSteelheritage>{{cite web|title=NatSteel – Our Heritage|url=http://www.natsteel.com.sg/about_heritage|access-date=6 December 2015|archive-date=8 December 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208063947/http://www.natsteel.com.sg/about_heritage|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name=singstats>[https://www.singstat.gov.sg/docs/default-source/default-document-library/publications/publications_and_papers/population_and_population_structure/population2014-map1.pdf Planning Areas/Subzones in Singapore (Year 2015)], [[Ministry of Trade and Industry (Singapore)#Departments & Statutory boards|Singapore Department of Statistics]] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150408052357/https://www.singstat.gov.sg/docs/default-source/default-document-library/publications/publications_and_papers/population_and_population_structure/population2014-map1.pdf |date=8 April 2015 }}</ref>

<ref name=NHBJurong>{{Cite web |url=http://www.nhb.gov.sg/~/media/nhb/files/places/trails/jurong/jurong%20heritage_24042015_preview.pdf?la=en |title=[[National Heritage Board (Singapore){{!}}National Heritage Board]]. Jurong Heritage Trail. Retrieved 12 November 2015 |access-date=12 November 2015 |archive-date=4 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304092429/http://www.nhb.gov.sg/~/media/nhb/files/places/trails/jurong/jurong%20heritage_24042015_preview.pdf?la=en |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name=Juronghousing>{{cite news|title=Jurong flats: HDB takes over from JTC|url=http://eresources.nlb.gov.sg/newspapers/digitised/article/straitstimes19790602-1.2.85.aspx|date=2 June 1979|work=[[The Straits Times]]|access-date=14 December 2015|archive-date=22 December 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151222152117/http://eresources.nlb.gov.sg/newspapers/digitised/article/straitstimes19790602-1.2.85.aspx|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name=URA1991ConceptPlan>{{cite web|title=URA 1991 Concept Plan|url=https://www.ura.gov.sg/uol/~/media/User%20Defined/URA%20Online/publications/research-resources/plans-reports/ltnl.ashx|access-date=7 December 2015|publisher=[[Urban Redevelopment Authority]]|archive-date=22 December 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151222124636/https://www.ura.gov.sg/uol/~/media/User%20Defined/URA%20Online/publications/research-resources/plans-reports/ltnl.ashx|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name=URA2014MasterPlan>{{cite web|title=URA 2014 Master Plan|url=https://www.ura.gov.sg/maps/?service=MP2014_DL|access-date=24 November 2015|publisher=[[Urban Redevelopment Authority]]|archive-date=24 November 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151124215038/https://www.ura.gov.sg/maps/?service=MP2014_DL|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name=Dutchdocument>{{cite book|author=Jan Huyghen van Linschoten|author-link=Jan Huyghen van Linschoten|date=1595|title=Reys-gheschrift van de Navigation der Portugaloysers in Orienten|url=https://download.digitale-sammlungen.de/BOOKS/download.pl?vers=e&id=10805640&ersteseite=1&letzteseite=170&nr=&x=7&y=9|access-date=22 November 2015|archive-date=15 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230415161003/https://download.digitale-sammlungen.de/BOOKS/download.pl?vers=e&id=10805640&ersteseite=1&letzteseite=170&nr=&x=7&y=9|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name=JBW>{{cite news|title=NOTICE – JURONG BRICK WORKS|url=http://eresources.nlb.gov.sg/newspapers/Digitised/Article/straitstimes19300401-1.2.31.2.aspx|work=[[The Straits Times]]|access-date=14 December 2015|archive-date=22 December 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151222143716/http://eresources.nlb.gov.sg/newspapers/Digitised/Article/straitstimes19300401-1.2.31.2.aspx|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name=STJurongproposal>{{cite news|title=$4.5m. INDUSTRIAL TOWN PLAN for S'PORE|url=http://eresources.nlb.gov.sg/newspapers/Digitised/Article/straitstimes19600704-1.2.83.aspx|date=4 July 1960|work=[[The Straits Times]]|access-date=21 November 2015|archive-date=22 December 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151222172509/http://eresources.nlb.gov.sg/newspapers/Digitised/Article/straitstimes19600704-1.2.83.aspx|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name=uslcRoadToIndependence>{{cite web|title=Singapore – Road to Independence|url=http://countrystudies.us/singapore/10.htm|publisher=[[Library of Congress]]|access-date=27 June 2006|archive-date=4 July 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140704220519/http://countrystudies.us/singapore/10.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name=UNexpert>{{cite news|title=UN EXPERT FOR S'PORE|url=http://eresources.nlb.gov.sg/newspapers/Digitised/Article/straitstimes19600726-1.2.49.aspx|work=[[The Straits Times]]|date=26 July 1960|access-date=18 December 2015|archive-date=22 December 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151222163628/http://eresources.nlb.gov.sg/newspapers/Digitised/Article/straitstimes19600726-1.2.49.aspx|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name=JurongWestExpansion>{{cite news|title=New Jurong West to be twice as big |url=http://newspapers.nl.sg/Digitised/Article/straitstimes19860402.2.24.9.aspx|work=[[The Straits Times]]}}</ref>

<ref name=PerryJournal>{{cite book|author=Matthew Calbraith Perry|author-link=Matthew C. Perry|title=Narrative of the Expedition of an American Squadron to the China Seas and Japan|url=https://archive.org/details/narrativeofexped0156perr|date=1856}}</ref>

<ref name=STJurongplan>{{cite news|title=Singapore's undeveloped west coast will get a $45.7 m. industrial town|url=http://eresources.nlb.gov.sg/newspapers/digitised/article/straitstimes19600706-1.2.44.aspx|date=6 July 1960|work=[[The Straits Times]]|access-date=23 November 2015|archive-date=24 November 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151124124720/http://eresources.nlb.gov.sg/newspapers/digitised/article/straitstimes19600706-1.2.44.aspx|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name=STJuronggazetted>{{cite news|title=2.440 ACRES FOR JURONG NEW TOWN GAZETTED|url=http://eresources.nlb.gov.sg/newspapers/Digitised/Article/straitstimes19600709-1.2.149.aspx|date=9 July 1960|work=[[The Straits Times]]|access-date=23 November 2015|archive-date=22 December 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151222094531/http://eresources.nlb.gov.sg/newspapers/Digitised/Article/straitstimes19600709-1.2.149.aspx|url-status=live}}</ref>

}}

==Notes==
{{Reflist|group=note|30em|refs=

<ref name=Colonialeradistricts group=note>Colonial era districts pre-1960, do not reflect present-day boundaries that are demarcated by the [[Urban Redevelopment Authority|URA]].</ref>

<ref name=TwoBoonLays group=note>The [[Boon Lay Planning Area|planning area of Boon Lay]] (located in southern Jurong) is not to be confused with the neighbourhood of [[Boon Lay]] in the town of [[Jurong West]].</ref>
}}

==Sources==
*{{cite book |author1=Victor R Savage |author2=Brenda S A Yeoh |year=2003 |title=Toponymics – A Study of Singapore Street Names |publisher=Eastern Universities Press |isbn=981-210-205-1}}
*{{cite book |author=National Heritage Board |year=2002 |title=Singapore's 100 Historic Places |publisher=Archipelago Press |isbn=981-4068-23-3}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Jurong}}
*[http://www.southwestcdc.org.sg/ Southwest CDC Website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130818102313/http://www.southwestcdc.org.sg/ |date=18 August 2013 }}

{{Residential Precincts of Jurong}}
{{Public housing in Singapore}}
{{Places in Singapore}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Jurong| ]]
[[Category:West Region, Singapore]]
[[Category:Planned communities in Singapore]]
[[Category:Industrial parks in Singapore]]
[[Category:Places in Singapore]]

Big Five (orchestras)

2025-06-18T14:52:11Z

128.228.164.236:

{{Short description|Ranking of American symphony orchestras}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=December 2020}}

The '''Big Five''' are five American [[symphony orchestra]]s that historically led the field in "musical excellence, calibre of musicianship, total contract weeks, weekly basic wages, recording guarantees, and paid vacations".<ref>Robert R. Faulkiner, "Career Concerns and Mobility Motivations of Orchestra Musicians", ''The Sociological Quarterly'', vol. 14, no. 3 (Summer 1973), p. 336.</ref> In order of foundation, they are the [[New York Philharmonic]], [[Boston Symphony Orchestra]], [[Chicago Symphony Orchestra]], [[Philadelphia Orchestra]], and [[Cleveland Orchestra]].<ref name = "Time 1983">Michael Walsh, Lee Griggs, James Shepherd, [https://web.archive.org/web/20080131191106/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,923579,00.html "Music: Which U.S. Orchestras Are Best?"] ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'', April 25, 1983. Retrieved July 18, 2010.</ref>

The term gained currency in the late 1950s and for some years afterwards.<ref>Fred Kirshnit, [http://www.nysun.com/arts/new-york-drops-off-the-list-of-big-five-orchestras/44570/ "New York Drops Off the List of 'Big Five' Orchestras"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612141134/https://www.nysun.com/arts/new-york-drops-off-the-list-of-big-five-orchestras/44570/ |date=June 12, 2018 }}, ''[[The New York Sun]]'', December 5, 2006. Retrieved July 18, 2010.</ref> Although it is still occasionally used, many commentators consider it outdated, particularly with its limited [[East Coast of the United States|East Coast]] scope.

==Origins==
The term "Big Five" was coined around the time when [[long-playing]] recordings became available, regular orchestral radio broadcasts were expanding, and the five orchestras that make up the group had annual concert series in New York City. By the mid-20th century, with recordings and radio broadcasts dominated by [[East Coast of the United States|East Coast]] ensembles, the most prominent orchestras were known as the "Big Three": New York, Boston, and Philadelphia. While this label was still being used in the late 1950s (e.g. ''[[Newsweek]]'', February 17, 1958), the growing prestige of the Cleveland Orchestra under [[George Szell]] and the Chicago Symphony Orchestra under [[Fritz Reiner]] at this time saw the "Big Three" become the "Big Five".<ref>Wayne Lee Gay, [https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/sandiego/access/340173001.html?dids=340173001:340173001&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT&type=current&date=May+24%2C+2003&author=Wayne+Lee+Gay&pub=The+San+Diego+Union+-+Tribune&desc=Classical's+%60Big+Five'+are+on+top+again&pqatl=google "Classical's `Big Five' are on top again"]{{dead link|date=July 2024|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}, ''[[The San Diego Union-Tribune]]'', May 24, 2003, p. E6.</ref>

== Modern use ==
People still refer to the "Big Five", but many deem the classification outdated.<ref name=AddUp>{{cite news|title=The Big Five Orchestras No Longer Add Up|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/06/16/arts/music/the-big-five-orchestras-no-longer-add-up.html|date=June 14, 2013|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|last=Oestreich|first=James R.|author-link=James R. Oestreich|access-date=February 26, 2017|archive-date=June 4, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210604103902/https://www.nytimes.com/2013/06/16/arts/music/the-big-five-orchestras-no-longer-add-up.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Several critics have suggested that the top echelon be expanded, including Michael Walsh in ''Time'' magazine in 1983;<ref name = "Time 1983"/><ref>{{cite news|author=Page, Tim|author-link=Tim Page (music critic)|work=[[Newsday]]|url=https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/newsday/access/77356034.html?dids=77356034:77356034&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT&type=current&date=Apr+15%2C+1990&author=TIM+PAGE.+Tim+Page+is+a+Newsday+music+critic.&pub=Newsday+(Combined+editions)&desc=Now+Hear+This+Why+do+the+so-called+Big+Five+stand+out+from+all+other+U.S.+orchestras%3F+A+professional+listener+has+some+answers.+See+end+of+text+for+sidebar+-+A+Variety+of+Riches&pqatl=google|title=Now Hear This. Why do the so-called Big Five stand out from all other U.S. orchestras?|date=April 15, 1990|page=10|accessdate=July 18, 2010|archive-date=November 3, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121103000456/http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/newsday/access/77356034.html?dids=77356034:77356034&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT&type=current&date=Apr+15,+1990&author=TIM+PAGE.+Tim+Page+is+a+Newsday+music+critic.&pub=Newsday+(Combined+editions)&desc=Now+Hear+This+Why+do+the+so-called+Big+Five+stand+out+from+all+other+U.S.+orchestras%3F+A+professional+listener+has+some+answers.+See+end+of+text+for+sidebar+-+A+Variety+of+Riches&pqatl=google|url-status=dead}}</ref> and [[Mark Swed]] in the ''[[Los Angeles Times]]'', 2005.<ref name="Swed05">{{cite news|last=Swed|first=Mark|author-link=Mark Swed|url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2005-aug-14-ca-orchestras14-story.html|title=Time to get on the stick|work=[[Los Angeles Times]]|date=August 14, 2005|access-date=July 18, 2010|archive-date=October 25, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121025100825/http://articles.latimes.com/2005/aug/14/entertainment/ca-orchestras14|url-status=live}}</ref> Among the orchestras proposed for inclusion are the [[Los Angeles Philharmonic]],<ref name="Swed05" /> the [[San Francisco Symphony]],<ref name="Swed05" /> the [[Atlanta Symphony Orchestra]],<ref>[[Mary Ann Glynn]], [https://books.google.com/books?id=SlJPJWzv-qkC&pg=PA65 "Maestro or Manager?"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230824050026/https://books.google.com/books?id=SlJPJWzv-qkC&pg=PA65 |date=August 24, 2023 }} in Joseph Lampel, Jamal Shamsie, Theresa K. Lant (eds.), ''The Business of Culture'' (Routledge, 2006), p. 65. {{ISBN|0-8058-5582-3}}.</ref> the [[Pittsburgh Symphony Orchestra]],<ref name="Time 2">[https://web.archive.org/web/20080220191205/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,835298,00.html "Orchestras: The Elite Eleven"], ''Time'', April 8, 1966. Retrieved April 16, 2010. Subscription required.</ref> the [[Houston Symphony]],<ref name="Time 2"/> the [[Baltimore Symphony Orchestra]],<ref name="Kosman">[[Joshua Kosman]], [https://books.google.com/books?id=m-2GjJ0BjpMC&pg=PA24 "New Music for a New Century"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230824050044/https://books.google.com/books?id=m-2GjJ0BjpMC&pg=PA24 |date=August 24, 2023 }}, ''The Arts Today'', USIA, vol. 3, no. 1 (June 2008), p. 25. {{ISBN|1-4289-6734-6}}.</ref> the [[National Symphony Orchestra]] ([[Washington, D.C.]]),<ref name="Kosman"/> the [[Minnesota Orchestra]] ([[Minneapolis]]),<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080127005032/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,837547,00.html "Orchestras: Big Five Plus One?"] ''Time'', November 10, 1967. Retrieved July 18, 2010. Subscription required.</ref> and the [[St. Louis Symphony Orchestra]].<ref>Richard Dyer, [https://web.archive.org/web/20121106060055/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P2-8242788.html "The Big 5 orchestras: Do they still reign supreme?"] ''[[The Boston Globe]]'', August 29, 1993. Retrieved July 18, 2010. {{Subscription required}}</ref>

Seven American orchestras were numbered among the world's top 20 in a 2008 critics' poll by ''[[Gramophone (magazine)|Gramophone]]''. They were, in rank order, the Chicago Symphony Orchestra (5th), the Cleveland Orchestra (7th), the Los Angeles Philharmonic (8th), the Boston Symphony Orchestra (11th), the New York Philharmonic (12th), the San Francisco Symphony (13th), and the [[Metropolitan Opera|Metropolitan Opera Orchestra]] (New York City) (18th).<ref>[https://www.ocregister.com/2008/11/27/the-worlds-greatest-orchestras-according-to-gramophone/ "The World's Greatest Orchestras by Gramophone"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210921054808/https://www.ocregister.com/2008/11/27/the-worlds-greatest-orchestras-according-to-gramophone/ |date=September 21, 2021 }}, ocregister.com, November 2008. Retrieved January 16, 2020.</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.gramophone.co.uk/features/article/the-world-s-greatest-orchestras | title=The World's Greatest Orchestras }}</ref>

In the 21st century, some observers of American orchestras suggest that the "Big Five" designation is no longer meaningful. Gary Hanson, former executive director of the Cleveland Orchestra, commented in 2013 that an orchestra's reputation was once an important factor in its "ability to compete for talent", meaning "there was a direct relationship between reputation and quality."<ref name=AddUp/> Greater [[geographic mobility]] of musicians, the rarity of major orchestral [[recording contract]]s, and the existence of major year-round orchestras in more American cities have reduced the importance of the prestige that was once associated with the Big Five. ''[[The New York Times]]'' suggested that "climate and cost of living are as likely to figure in a musician's choice of employer as an orchestra's historic renown."<ref name=AddUp/> Additionally, the availability of a large number of talented young musicians is described as a "leveling factor" that enhances the quality of all American orchestras.<ref name=AddUp/>

==See also==
* [[List of symphony orchestras in the United States]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

== Further reading ==
*[[Norman Lebrecht|Lebrecht, Norman]], [http://www.scena.org/columns/lebrecht/000705-NL-big.html "Bucks Stop Here: The Biggest Need Not Be the Best"], ''La Scena Musicale'', July 5, 2000.

{{Big Five (orchestras)}}

[[Category:American symphony orchestras| ]]
[[Category:New York Philharmonic]]
[[Category:Boston Symphony Orchestra]]
[[Category:Philadelphia Orchestra]]
[[Category:Cleveland Orchestra]]
[[Category:Chicago Symphony Orchestra]]

Playhouse Square

2025-06-18T14:51:48Z

128.228.164.236: /* Recent */

{{Use American English|date=January 2025}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=March 2013}}
{{Infobox NRHP
| name = Playhouse Square
| nrhp_type =
| image = Cleveland Playhouse Square (13917560487).jpg
| caption = The [[Ohio Theatre (Cleveland, Ohio)|Ohio]] and [[State Theatre (Cleveland, Ohio)|State]] Theatres and [[Connor Palace]] are on the north side of [[Euclid Avenue (Cleveland, Ohio)|Euclid Avenue]].
| location = 2067 E. 14th St.; 1422, 1501, 1515, 1621 Euclid Ave., [[Cleveland]], [[Ohio]]
| coordinates = {{coord|41|30|3|N|81|40|51|W|display=inline,title}}
| locmapin = United States Cleveland#Ohio#USA
| area =
| built = 1921
| architecture = Late 19th and 20th Century Revivals, Classical Revival, Other
| architect = [[Rapp and Rapp]]
| added = October 5, 1978
| refnum = 78002041<ref name="nris">{{NRISref|2006a}}</ref>
}}

'''Playhouse Square''' is a theater district in [[downtown Cleveland]], Ohio, United States.<ref name="playhouse">{{cite encyclopedia |title=Playhouse Square |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History |publisher=[[Case Western Reserve University]] |url=https://case.edu/ech/articles/p/playhouse-square |access-date=July 15, 2019 |date=May 31, 2019}}</ref> It is the largest performing arts center in the US outside of [[New York City]] (only [[Lincoln Center]] is larger).<ref>{{cite web |title=Playhouse Square |website=Cleveland Historical |publisher=[[Cleveland State University]] |url=https://clevelandhistorical.org/items/show/61 |access-date=July 1, 2023 |quote=By the turn of the twenty-first century, all of the original theaters were again hosting performances, constituting the nation's second largest performing arts complex after New York's Lincoln Center.}}</ref> Constructed in a span of 19 months in the early 1920s, the theaters became a major entertainment hub for the city for much of the 20th century. However, by the late 1960s, the district had fallen into decline and its theaters had closed down. In the 1970s, the district was revived through a grassroots effort that helped usher in a new era of downtown revitalization. For this reason, the revival of Playhouse Square is often locally referred to as being "one of the top ten successes in [[History of Cleveland|Cleveland history]]."<ref name="playhousesquare.org">[http://www.playhousesquare.org/about-playhousesquare-main/history] About PlayhouseSquare - History.</ref>

==History==

===Construction===
Following [[World War I]], local developer Joseph Laronge, who had previously opened the Stillman movie house on East 12th street, envisioned a row of theaters on [[Euclid Avenue (Cleveland, Ohio)|Euclid Avenue]] between East 14th and East 17th streets. Laronge and New York City business magnate [[Marcus Loew]], among others, founded a partnership called [[Loews Cineplex Entertainment|Loew's]] Ohio Theatres to develop the area.<ref name=BE>[http://www.bxmagazine.com/article.asp?ID=210 "Playhouse Square Center"] Builders Exchange Magazine. February 2004. Accessed December 2, 2006.</ref>

The organization's first two theaters, the [[Ohio Theatre (Cleveland, Ohio)|Ohio]] and [[State Theatre (Cleveland, Ohio)|State]] (now known as the KeyBank State),<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.cleveland.com/entertainment/index.ssf/2017/06/playhouse_square_receives_10_m.html|title = KeyBank donates $10 million to Playhouse Square|date = June 18, 2017}}</ref> were designed by eminent architect [[Thomas W. Lamb]] in the [[Italianate architecture|Italianate]] style. It was considered essential for the theaters' marquees to face Euclid Avenue, but because of space constraints the State Theatre was built at the back of the lot, although its lobby shares the Euclid frontage with the Ohio Theatre.<ref name=BE/> Construction began in 1920, and the pair opened in early February 1921.<ref name="playhouse"/>

Across Euclid Avenue, [[Charles A. Platt]]'s [[Hanna Theatre]], part of the [[Hanna Building]] complex, opened in late March 1921. Although the theater faces East 14th Street, it is still part of Playhouse Square. It was named for the prominent Cleveland Senator [[Mark Hanna]].<ref name=BE/>

Meanwhile, the Bulkley Building housing the [[C. Howard Crane]]-designed [[Allen Theatre]] was being built next door. Completed in early April 1921, Jules and Jay Allen's [[Pompeii]]an-style theater was sold to Loew's in 1922.<ref name=BE/>

The last theater to be constructed was the Palace Theatre,<ref name="cleveland.com">{{Cite web|url=https://www.cleveland.com/arts/2014/06/playhousesquares_100_million_c.html|title=PlayhouseSquare's new $100 million capital campaign gets a $9 million boost from Sherwin-Williams chief Chris Connor and family|first=Steven|last=Litt|date=June 21, 2014|website=cleveland.com|access-date=September 2, 2019}}</ref> now known as the Connor Palace, opening in November 1922 in the [[Keith Building]], which at the time was the tallest in Cleveland.<ref name=BE/> There was a great promotion for the theater's opening: the
largest electric sign in the world<ref>{{Cite web|last=Cleveland Historical|title=Palace Theater|url=https://clevelandhistorical.org/items/show/246|access-date=2022-01-01|website=Cleveland Historical|language=en}}</ref> was turned on to show that the Palace was open for business. Built by Edward F. [[Edward Franklin Albee II|Albee]] in honor of his friend and business partner, B.F.Keith, the Palace was billed as the “Showplace of the World.” Headlining the opener was America's favorite mimic, Elsie Janis, who shared billing with Eduardo Cansino, Rita Hayworth's father. Albee invested over $2 million in the vaudeville venue, which became known as the “…swankiest theater in the country.”<ref>{{Cite book|title = Cleveland's Playhouse Square|last = Mote|first = Patricia|publisher = Arcadia Publishing|year = 2006|isbn = 0-7385-4013-7|location = Charleston SC|pages = 24–25}}</ref>

Designed by the [[Chicago]] architectural firm of [[Rapp and Rapp]], the Palace was a regional flagship of the Keith-Albee chain of vaudeville theaters.<ref>[http://ech.case.edu/ech-cgi/article.pl?id=PT "The Palace Theater"] Encyclopedia of Cleveland history. May 13, 1998. Accessed December 2, 2006.</ref>

The area surrounding the theaters soon became known unofficially as “Playhouse Square.” The Euclid Square Association, a civic group, tried to rename the district “Euclid Square,” although these efforts were ultimately unsuccessful.<ref name="playhousesquare.org"/> The area is now officially designated as "Playhouse Square."

[[File:Playhouse Square (23230830004).jpg|thumb|250px|right|Lobby of the [[Allen Theatre]] at [[Christmas]] time.]]

===Closing and rebirth===
The theaters successfully showed a variety of serious theater, vaudeville shows, and movies for more than forty years. However, during the years following [[World War II]], [[suburbanization]] and the rise of [[television in the United States|television]] led to the decline of the theaters.<ref name="playhousesquare.org"/> Fire broke out in the Ohio in 1964, and the other Playhouse Square theaters were struck by vandalism.<ref name= BE/> Between May 1968 and July 1969, all the theaters closed except the Hanna.<ref name="playhousesquare.org"/>

Plans to reopen and restore the theaters began almost immediately. In 1970, Raymond K. Shepardson, a [[Cleveland Public Schools]] employee, formed a non-profit group named the “Playhouse Square Association” with the [[Junior League|Junior League of Cleveland, Inc]].<ref name="playhouse"/> The cover of the February 27, 1970 issue of ''[[Life (magazine)|Life]]'' was a two-page pull-out of James H. Daugherty's ''The Spirit of Cinema America'', a mural in the State Theatre's lobby.<ref name=BE/><ref>[http://www.life.com/Life/cover_search/view?coverkeyword=&startMonth=1&startYear=1970&endMonth=12&endYear=1972&pageNumber=1&indexNumber=5 "Feb 27, 1970"] Life Magazine Cover. February 27, 1970. Accessed December 2, 2006.</ref>

Plans to raze the Ohio and the State Theatres in 1972 and 1977 caused a public outcry, and in 1973 the newly formed Playhouse Square Foundation obtained long-term leases for the Palace, Ohio and State Theatres, while [[Cuyahoga County, Ohio|Cuyahoga County]] commissioners purchased the Loews Building.<ref name="playhouse"/> Also in 1973, the musical revue ''[[Jacques Brel is Alive and Well and Living in Paris]]'' opened in the State Theatre lobby. Expected to run two weeks, the show instead played for two and a half years.<ref name="playhousesquare.org"/> In 1978, Playhouse Square was added to the [[National Register of Historic Places]].<ref name=BE/>

[[File:Spirit of Drama Europe.jpg|thumb|200px|Part of James Daugherty's ''The Spirit of Drama – Europe'', one of four murals in the lobby of the State Theater.]]

===Renovation===
Emboldened by the unprecedented success of ''Jacques Brel,'' restoration of the theaters began in earnest. Various [[public-private partnership]]s collected some [[United States dollar|$]]40 million for the project.<ref name="playhousesquare.org"/>

Because of extensive fire damage, the Ohio Theatre was originally intended to be the last of the theaters to undergo renovation, but those plans were accelerated so that the theater could become the home of the Great Lakes Shakespeare Festival, now [[Great Lakes Theater]]. The $4 million project was begun at the end of 1981 and completed in less than nine months. Work began on the State Theatre in May 1979, and was completed in the summer of 1984, after the addition of a new $7 million stagehouse. Renovation of the theater's three lobbies was completed in 1987. Restoration of the Palace Theatre began in 1987, and was finished the following year. As part of the project, expanded parking facilities were added to the complex.

Reconstruction of the Allen Theatre lagged behind the rest, partly because some felt that three theaters were enough for the district. However, in 1993 the Playhouse Square Foundation agreed to rent the theater with the intention of purchasing it, which it did in 1997. This acquisition made Playhouse Square the largest performing arts complex outside of New York in the United States, with more than 10,000 seats.<ref name=BE/> The Allen re-opened in 1998.<ref name="playhousesquare.org"/>

Although the Hanna Theatre was the only one of the group not to close in 1968 or 1969, it was overshadowed by the revitalization of the Euclid Avenue theaters during the 1980s, and closed in 1989. However, the Hanna reopened in March 1996 – the 75th anniversary of its original opening.<ref>[http://ech.case.edu/ech-cgi/article.pl?id=HT "The Hanna Theater"] The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History. July 17, 1997. Accessed December 2, 2006.</ref> In 1999, the Playhouse Square Foundation acquired the Hanna, making it the fifth and last of the original theaters to be purchased by the foundation.<ref name="playhousesquare.org"/>

The Cleveland Theater District Development Corporation (CTDDC), now the Playhouse Square District Development Corporation (PDDC), was established in 1998 as a [[business improvement district]] to foster development in the theater district.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6e8xXbhvKMgC&pg=PA192 |title=Major League Winners: Using Sports and Cultural Centers as Tools for ... |author=Mark S. Rosentraub |date=July 28, 2009 |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=9781439801628 |access-date=March 8, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CkggVWtVl1wC&pg=PA220 |title=New Ways of Doing Business |author=Mark A. Abramson, Ann M. Kieffaber |year=2003 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=9780742533592 |access-date=March 8, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.remarkableohio.org/HistoricalMarker.aspx?historicalMarkerId=641&fileId=120165 |title=Remarkable Ohio |publisher=Remarkable Ohio |access-date=March 8, 2013}}</ref>

===Recent years===
[[Image:Winterfest Cleveland (15732145309).jpg|thumb|right|250px|Winterfest at Playhouse Square.]]
The reopening of the State, Ohio and Palace Theatres encouraged further development at Playhouse Square, including the $40 million Renaissance Office Building and a [[Wyndham Hotel at Playhouse Square]].

In an unprecedented move for a not-for-profit performing arts center, Playhouse Square established a Real Estate Services Division in 1999 to support the organization's arts operations. Playhouse Square is active in area development in order to give visitors a lively, welcoming and entertaining destination, while also creating a neighborhood with a robust business environment.

In 2002, Playhouse Square opened the [[14th Street Theatre]] as a home for Second City Cleveland and a venue for improvisational comedy, musical comedy and avant-garde fare, often for extended runs. The venue was closed in 2013 and transformed into the private dining space Cibreo Privato, part of the Italian restaurant Cibreo operated by Driftwood Restaurant Group.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.crainscleveland.com/article/20130717/FREE/130719816/driftwood-restaurant-group-to-add-another-downtown-cleveland-eatery|title=Driftwood Restaurant Group to add another downtown Cleveland eatery|date=July 17, 2013|website=Crain's Cleveland Business|access-date=September 2, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cleveland.com/dining/2013/07/playhousesquare_to_get_new_res.html|title=PlayhouseSquare to get new restaurant called Rothschild Farms|first=Joe|last=Crea|date=July 17, 2013|website=cleveland.com|access-date=September 2, 2019}}</ref>

In 2003, the area of East 14th Street near Playhouse Square was renamed Memory Lane-[[Bob Hope]] Way in honor of the longtime Cleveland resident to commemorate the entertainer's 100th birthday.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cleveland19.com/story/1299197/ohio-remembers-bob-hopes-roots-on-his-100th-birthday|title=Ohio remembers Bob Hope's roots on his 100th birthday|website=www.cleveland19.com|date=May 29, 2003 |access-date=September 2, 2019}}</ref>

Playhouse Square and Cleveland's public broadcasting stations conducted a joint capital campaign to transform the One Playhouse Square Building into the Idea Center at Playhouse Square. Opened in 2005, it is now the home for Playhouse Square's community engagement and education programs and the downtown headquarters for radio stations [[WKSU]] (simulcast over a regional network including [[WCPN]]) and [[WCLV]], as well as TV station [[WVIZ]], incorporated together as [[ideastream|Ideastream Public Media]].<ref>[http://ideacenter.wviz.org/partnership.aspx "WVIZ/PBS and 90.3 WCPN ideastream and PLAYHOUSE SQUARE FOUNDATION Announce Bold, New Partnership"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070216230439/http://ideacenter.wviz.org/partnership.aspx |date=February 16, 2007 }} Idea Center. Accessed December 2, 2006.</ref>

In 2008, the [[HealthLine]] opened with a station at Playhouse Square. The line connects [[Public Square, Cleveland|Public Square]] to [[University Circle]] via the [[Cleveland Clinic]].

Also in 2008, the Hanna Theatre underwent a thorough renovation with improvements to its stage including a new hydraulic lift system. The Hanna is now home to Great Lakes Theater, Cleveland's classic theater company which previously performed at the Ohio Theatre.

Through a collaboration called “The Power of Three,” [[Cleveland Play House]], Cleveland State University and Playhouse Square partnered to create the Allen Theatre Complex, featuring a reconfigured Allen Theatre (re-opened 2011) and two new theaters that opened in 2012. Cleveland Play House and Cleveland State University's Department of Theatre and Dance are now resident companies at Playhouse Square. The Cleveland Play House administrative offices and all of Cleveland State University's arts programs are now located in the Middough Building on Playhouse Square's campus, adding to the vibrancy of the neighborhood.

Playhouse Square welcomes more than 1 million guests to 1,000+ performances and events each year. Its KeyBank Broadway Series season ticket holder base (more than 45,000) is the largest in the country, making Cleveland one of fewer than 10 markets that can support a three-week run of a touring Broadway show.<ref>{{cite news |first=Andrea |last=Simakis |title=KeyBank Broadway Series expanding run of shows from two to three weeks in 2016-17 season at Playhouse Square |url=http://www.cleveland.com/onstage/index.ssf/2015/08/keybank_broadway_series_expand.html |work=[[The Plain Dealer]] |date=August 4, 2015 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |first=Andrea |last=Simakis |title=2019-20 KeyBank Broadway Series to bring Tony champ 'The Band's Visit' and Tina Fey's 'Mean Girls' to Playhouse Square |url=https://www.cleveland.com/news/2019/02/2019-20-keybank-broadway-series-announced-live-at-playhouse-square-live-coverage.html |work=[[The Plain Dealer]] |date=February 27, 2019 }}</ref>

Improvements to the Playhouse Square neighborhood - including a digital signage network, upgrades to U.S. Bank Plaza, a retro signage feature and the [[General Electric|GE]] Chandelier, the world's largest outdoor [[chandelier]], located above the intersection of Euclid Avenue and East 14th Street - were completed between April 2013 and April 2014, culminating in a ceremony on May 2, 2014, entitled "Dazzle the District."<ref>[http://dazzle.playhousesquare.org/about/ Dazzle the District: About]. PlayhouseSquare. Retrieved May 3, 2014.</ref><ref>{{cite press release |title=PlayhouseSquare Announces GE Lighting as Major Supporter of Neighborhood Transformation and Exclusive Chandelier Sponsor |date=January 14, 2014 |publisher=PlayhouseSquare |url=http://dazzle.playhousesquare.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/04/GEAnnouncementNewsReleaseJan14.pdf |access-date=May 3, 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140503190243/http://dazzle.playhousesquare.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/04/GEAnnouncementNewsReleaseJan14.pdf |archive-date=May 3, 2014 |df=mdy-all }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |first=Andrea |last=Simakis |title=Chandelierious! Dazzle the District Lights the Way to New Era for Playhouse Square |url=http://www.cleveland.com/onstage/index.ssf/2014/05/chandelierious_dazzle_the_dist.html |work=[[The Plain Dealer]] |date=May 2, 2014 |access-date=May 3, 2014 }}</ref> In 2014 a $100 million capital fund campaign was initiated with a $9 million gift from the Chris Connor family of Cleveland. In honor of their gift the Palace Theatre was renamed Connor Palace.<ref name="cleveland.com"/> In honor of a $10 million gift from KeyBank in 2017, the State Theatre was renamed KeyBank State Theatre.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cleveland.com/entertainment/2017/06/playhouse_square_receives_10_m.html|title=Playhouse Square receives $10 million gift from KeyBank, adds name to State Theatre|first=Laura|last=DeMarco|date=June 18, 2017|website=cleveland.com|access-date=September 2, 2019}}</ref>

In April 2018 Playhouse Square began construction on [[The Lumen (Cleveland)|The Lumen]], a 34-story apartment tower. The tower adds 318 apartments to downtown Cleveland and contains a 550 space parking garage. The Tower opened in 2020.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Urycki |first1=Mark |title=Playhouse Square Lumen Apartments On Schedule For 2020 Opening |url=https://www.ideastream.org/news/playhouse-square-lumen-apartments-on-schedule-for-2020-opening |website=Ideastream.org |publisher=Ideastream |location=Cleveland OH |date=24 April 2019}}</ref>

==List of theaters==
[[File:Playhouse Square sign at night.png|thumb|250px|right|Playhouse square illuminated sign]]
*[[Allen Theatre]]
*[[Connor Palace]]
*[[Hanna Theatre]]
*[[The Helen Lab Theatre|The Helen Rosenfeld Lewis Bialosky Lab Theatre]]
*[[Kennedy's Theatre|Kennedy's]] Cabaret
*[[State Theatre (Cleveland, Ohio)|KeyBank State Theatre]]
*[[Ohio Theatre (Cleveland, Ohio)|Mimi Ohio Theatre]]
*Outcalt Theatre
*Upper Allen
*Westfield Studio Theatre

==List of resident companies==
*[[Cleveland Ballet]]
*[[Cleveland Play House]] (Allen Theatre)
*[[Cleveland State University]] Department of Theatre and Dance (Allen Theatre)
*DANCECleveland
*[[Great Lakes Theater Festival|Great Lakes Theater]] (Hanna Theatre)
*Tri-C Jazz Fest

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{commons category|Playhouse Square theaters}}

*[https://www.playhousesquare.org/ Official site]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20090121173031/http://www.nps.gov/history/nr/travel/ohioeriecanal/pla.htm National Park Service page on Playhouse Square]

{{Cleveland}}

[[Category:Theatres in Cleveland]]
[[Category:Performing arts centers in Ohio]]
[[Category:National Register of Historic Places in Cleveland, Ohio]]
[[Category:Loew's Theatres buildings and structures]]
[[Category:Downtown Cleveland]]
[[Category:Theater districts in the United States|Cleveland]]
[[Category:Cinemas and movie theaters in Cuyahoga County, Ohio]]

Cleveland

2025-06-18T14:51:35Z

128.228.164.236: /* Theater and performing arts */

{{About|the city in Ohio|the metropolitan area|Greater Cleveland|other uses}}
{{Featured article}}
{{Use American English|date=July 2018}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=July 2023}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Cleveland
| settlement_type = [[Administrative divisions of Ohio#Municipalities|City]]
| image_skyline = {{multiple image
| border = infobox
| perrow = 1/1/3/2/2
| total_width = 280
| caption_align = center
| image1 = CLE script sign.png
| caption1 = Cleveland script sign at [[Edgewater Park (Cleveland)|Edgewater Park]]
| image2 = Cleveland skyline from Edgewater Park, May 2025.jpg
| caption2 = [[Downtown Cleveland]] skyline
| image3 = Cleveland Playhouse Square (13917560487).jpg
| caption3 = [[Playhouse Square]]
| image4 = Art museum and lagoon.jpg
| caption4 = [[Cleveland Museum of Art]]
| image5 = Garfield Monument and flag - Lake View Cemetery - 2015-04-04 (22387453266).jpg
| caption5 = [[James A. Garfield Memorial|Garfield Memorial]]
| image6 = Severance Hall (30706862372).jpg
| caption6 = [[Severance Hall]]
| image7 = Rock-and-roll-hall-of-fame-sunset.jpg
| caption7 = [[Rock and Roll Hall of Fame]]
| image8 = West Side Market 2023.jpg
| caption8 = [[West Side Market]]
| image9 = Cleveland OH Arcade (NRHP-60859).jpg
| caption9 = [[Cleveland Arcade]] }}
| image_flag = Flag of Cleveland, Ohio.svg
| flag_size = 110px
| image_seal = Seal of Cleveland, Ohio.svg
| seal_size = 90px
| nicknames = [[The Forest City]]<ref name="forest-city">{{cite encyclopedia |title=Forest City |encyclopedia=[[The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History]] |date=June 5, 2020 |publisher=[[Case Western Reserve University]] |url=https://case.edu/ech/articles/f/forest-city |access-date=May 19, 2023 }}</ref> (for more, see [[Nicknames of Cleveland|full list]])
| motto = Progress & Prosperity<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Municipal Symbols |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History |publisher=Case Western Reserve University |url=https://case.edu/ech/articles/m/municipal-symbols |date=October 3, 2022 |access-date=May 19, 2023 }}</ref>
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| map_caption = Interactive map of Cleveland
| pushpin_map = Ohio#USA
| pushpin_relief = yes
| coordinates = {{Wikidatacoord|Q37320|region:US-OH_type:city(373,000)|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = United States
| subdivision_type1 = State
| subdivision_type2 = [[List of counties in Ohio|County]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Ohio]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Cuyahoga County, Ohio|Cuyahoga]]
| established_title = Founded
| established_date = {{start date|1796|07|22}}
| established_title2 = Incorporated ([[Village (United States)|village]])
| established_date2 = {{start date|1814|12|23}}
| established_title3 = Incorporated (city)
| established_date3 = {{start date|1836|03|05}}{{sfn|Rose|1990|p=145}}
| named_for = [[Moses Cleaveland]]
| government_type = [[Mayor–council government|Strong mayor / Council]]
| governing_body = [[Cleveland City Council]]
| leader_title = [[Mayor of Cleveland|Mayor]]
| leader_name = [[Justin Bibb]]
| leader_party = [[Democratic Party (United States)|D]]

| unit_pref = Imperial
| area_footnotes = <ref name="TigerWebMapServer">{{cite web |title=ArcGIS REST Services Directory |url=https://tigerweb.geo.census.gov/arcgis/rest/services/TIGERweb/Places_CouSub_ConCity_SubMCD/MapServer |publisher=[[United States Census Bureau]] |access-date=September 20, 2022 }}</ref>
| area_total_sq_mi = 82.48
| area_total_km2 = 213.62
| area_land_sq_mi = 77.73
| area_land_km2 = 201.33
| area_water_sq_mi = 4.75
| area_water_km2 = 12.29
| elevation_footnotes = <ref name=gnis>{{GNIS|1066654 }}</ref>
| elevation_ft = 653

| population_total = 372624
| population_as_of = [[2020 United States census|2020]]
| population_est = 365379
| pop_est_as_of = 2024
| pop_est_footnotes = <ref name="USCensusQuickFacts" />
| population_rank = [[List of United States cities by population|53rd]] in the United States [[List of cities in Ohio|2nd]] in Ohio
| population_density_sq_mi = 4793.52
| population_density_km2 = 1850.78
| population_urban = 1,712,178 (US: [[List of United States urban areas|31st]])
| population_density_urban_km2 = 926.1
| population_density_urban_sq_mi = 2,398.7
| population_metro_footnotes = <ref name="2020Pop">{{cite web |title=2020 Population and Housing State Data |url=https://www.census.gov/library/visualizations/interactive/2020-population-and-housing-state-data.html |publisher=United States Census Bureau |access-date=December 14, 2021 }}</ref>
| population_metro = 2185825 (US: [[Metropolitan statistical area|33rd]])
| population_demonym = Clevelander
| demographics_type2 = GDP
| demographics2_footnotes = <ref name="cleveland-MSA-GDP">{{Cite web |title=Total Real Gross Domestic Product for Cleveland-Elyria, OH (MSA) |url=https://fred.stlouisfed.org/series/RGMP17460 |publisher=[[Bureau of Economic Analysis|U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis (BEA)]] |access-date=January 5, 2024 }}</ref>
|demographics2_title1 = Metro
|demographics2_info1 = $139.935 billion (2023)
| postal_code_type = [[ZIP Code]]s
| postal_code = {{collapsible list
|title = ZIP Codes<ref>{{cite web |title=ZIP Code Lookup |url=http://zip4.usps.com/zip4/citytown.jsp |url-status=dead |publisher=USPS |access-date=November 14, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070903025217/http://zip4.usps.com/zip4/citytown.jsp |archive-date=September 3, 2007 }}</ref>
|frame_style = border:none; padding: 0;
|list_style = text-align:center;display:none
|44101–44147, 44181, 44188, 44190–44195, 44197–44199
}}
| area_code = [[Area code 216|216]]
| area_code_type = [[North American Numbering Plan|Area code]]
| timezone = [[Eastern Standard Time Zone|EST]]
| utc_offset = −5
| timezone_DST = [[Eastern Daylight Time|EDT]]
| utc_offset_DST = −4
| website = {{URL|https://www.clevelandohio.gov/|clevelandohio.gov}}
}}

'''Cleveland'''{{efn|Pronounced {{IPAc-en|ˈ|k|l|iː|v|l|ə|n|d}} {{respell|KLEEV|lənd}}}} is a city in the U.S. state of [[Ohio]] and the [[county seat]] of [[Cuyahoga County, Ohio|Cuyahoga County]]. Located along the southern shore of [[Lake Erie]], it is situated across the [[Canada–United States border|Canada–U.S. maritime border]] and approximately {{cvt|60|mi|km}} west of the Ohio-[[Pennsylvania]] state border. Cleveland is the most populous city on Lake Erie, the [[list of cities in Ohio|second-most populous city]] in Ohio, and the [[List of United States cities by population|53rd-most populous city]] in the U.S. with a population of 372,624 in 2020.<ref name="USCensusQuickFacts">{{cite web |title=Cleveland city, Ohio |work=QuickFacts |publisher=[[United States Census Bureau]] |url=https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/fact/table/clevelandcityohio |access-date=May 15, 2025 }}</ref> The city anchors the [[Greater Cleveland|Cleveland metropolitan area]], the [[Metropolitan statistical area|33rd-largest]] in the U.S. at 2.18 million residents, as well as the larger Cleveland–[[Akron, Ohio|Akron]]–[[Canton, Ohio|Canton]] [[combined statistical area]] with 3.63 million residents.<ref name="PopEstCSA">{{cite web |title=Metropolitan and Micropolitan Statistical Areas Population Totals and Components of Change: 2010–2019 |publisher=United States Census Bureau, Population Division |url=https://www.census.gov/content/census/en/data/datasets/time-series/demo/popest/2010s-total-metro-and-micro-statistical-areas.html |date=March 26, 2020 |access-date=April 26, 2020 }}</ref>

Cleveland was founded in 1796 near the mouth of the [[Cuyahoga River]] as part of the [[Connecticut Western Reserve]] in modern-day [[Northeast Ohio]] by General [[Moses Cleaveland]], after whom the city was named. The city's location on the river and the lake shore allowed it to grow into a major commercial and industrial [[metropolis]] by the late 19th century, attracting large numbers of [[Immigration to the United States|immigrants]] and [[Great Migration (African American)|migrants]].<ref name="immigration-migration">{{cite encyclopedia |title=Immigration and Migration |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History |publisher=[[Case Western Reserve University]] |url=https://case.edu/ech/articles/i/immigration-and-migration |date=February 25, 2019 |access-date=August 1, 2022 }}</ref> It was among the [[Largest cities in the United States by population by decade|top 10 largest U.S. cities by population]] for much of the 20th century, a period that saw the development of the city's cultural institutions.<ref name="largest-US-cities">{{cite web |last=Gibson |first=Campbell |title=Population of the 100 Largest Cities and Other Urban Places in the United States: 1790 to 1990 |publisher=United States Census Bureau |url=https://www.census.gov/population/www/documentation/twps0027/twps0027.html |date=June 1998 |access-date=November 15, 2023 }}</ref> By the 1960s, Cleveland's economy began to slow down as [[Manufacturing in the United States|manufacturing]] declined and [[suburb]]anization occurred.

Cleveland is a [[Port of Cleveland|port city]], connected to the Atlantic Ocean via the [[Saint Lawrence Seaway]]. [[Economy of Greater Cleveland|Its economy]] relies on diverse sectors that include higher education, manufacturing, financial services, healthcare, and biomedicals.<ref name="economy">{{cite encyclopedia |last=Hammack |first=David C. |title=Economy |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History |date=May 28, 2018 |publisher=Case Western Reserve University |url=https://case.edu/ech/articles/e/economy |access-date=September 15, 2020 }}</ref> The city serves as the headquarters of the [[Federal Reserve Bank of Cleveland]], as well as several major companies. The GDP for the Greater Cleveland MSA was US$138.3 billion in 2022.<ref name="cleveland-MSA-GDP" /> Combined with the [[Akron metropolitan area|Akron MSA]], the eight-county Cleveland–Akron metropolitan economy was $176 billion in 2022, the largest in Ohio.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Total Real Gross Domestic Product for Akron, OH (MSA) |website=stlouisfed.org |url=https://fred.stlouisfed.org/series/RGMP10420 |publisher=US Bureau of Economic Analysis (BEA) |access-date=January 5, 2024 }}</ref>

Designated as a [[global city]] by the [[Globalization and World Cities Research Network]],<ref>{{cite web |title=The World According to GaWC 2020 |website=lboro.ac.uk |department=Research Network |publisher=Globalization and World Cities |url=https://www.lboro.ac.uk/gawc/world2020t.html |access-date=August 31, 2020 }}</ref> Cleveland is home to several major cultural institutions, including the [[Cleveland Museum of Art]], the [[Cleveland Museum of Natural History]], the [[Cleveland Orchestra]], the [[Cleveland Public Library]], [[Playhouse Square]], and the [[Rock and Roll Hall of Fame]], as well as [[Case Western Reserve University]]. Known as "[[The Forest City]]" among many other [[Nicknames of Cleveland|nicknames]], Cleveland serves as the center of the [[Cleveland Metroparks]] nature reserve system.<ref name="forest-city" /> The city's major league [[Sports in Cleveland|professional sports teams]] include the [[Cleveland Browns]] ([[American football|football]]; [[NFL]]), the [[Cleveland Cavaliers]] (basketball; [[NBA]]), and the [[Cleveland Guardians]] (baseball; [[MLB]]).

== History ==
{{main|History of Cleveland}}
{{For timeline}}

=== Establishment ===
[[File:Moses Cleaveland statue in 2021.jpg|thumb|upright|left|[[James G. C. Hamilton]]'s 1888 statue of city founder General [[Moses Cleaveland]]]]
Cleveland was established on July 22, 1796, by surveyors of the [[Connecticut Land Company]] when they laid out [[Connecticut]]'s [[Connecticut Western Reserve|Western Reserve]] into townships and a capital city. They named the settlement "Cleaveland" after their leader, General [[Moses Cleaveland]], a veteran of the [[American Revolutionary War]].<ref name="moses">{{cite encyclopedia |title=Cleaveland, Moses |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History |publisher=Case Western Reserve University |url=https://case.edu/ech/articles/c/cleaveland-moses |access-date=August 21, 2019 |date=January 20, 2019 }}</ref> Cleaveland oversaw the [[New England]]–style design of the plan for what would become the modern downtown area, centered on [[Public Square, Cleveland|Public Square]], before returning to Connecticut, never again to visit Ohio.<ref name="moses" /> The town's name was often shortened to "Cleveland", even by Cleaveland's original surveyors. A common myth emerged that the spelling was altered by ''The Cleveland Advertiser'' in order to fit the name on the newspaper's [[Nameplate (publishing)|masthead]].<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Burton |first=Abby |title=CLE Myths: The "A" In Cleaveland |magazine=[[Cleveland Magazine]] |url=https://clevelandmagazine.com/in-the-cle/articles/cle-myths-the-a-in-cleaveland |date=November 25, 2019 |access-date=May 20, 2023 }}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |last=Bourne |first=Henry E. |year=1896 |title=The Story of Cleveland |magazine=New England Magazine |volume=14 |issue=6 |page=744 |quote=It was agreeable to the wishes of many of our oldest and most intelligent citizens, who are of the opinion that the 'a' is superfluous. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-Og7AQAAMAAJ&q=%22Cleveland%20Advertiser%22%201831%20spelling&pg=PA744 }}</ref>

The first permanent European settler in Cleveland was [[Lorenzo Carter (settler)|Lorenzo Carter]], who built a cabin on the banks of the Cuyahoga River.{{sfn|Miller|Wheeler|1997|p=[https://archive.org/details/clevelandconcise0000mill/page/14 14]}} The emerging community served as an important supply post for the U.S. during the [[Battle of Lake Erie]] in the [[War of 1812]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=War of 1812 |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History |date=January 20, 2019 |publisher=Case Western Reserve University |url=https://case.edu/ech/articles/w/war-1812 |access-date=May 29, 2020 }}</ref> Locals adopted Commodore [[Oliver Hazard Perry]] as a civic hero and erected a [[Perry Monument (Cleveland)|monument in his honor]] decades later.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Perry Monument |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History |date=June 18, 2018 |publisher=Case Western Reserve University |url=https://case.edu/ech/articles/p/perry-monument |access-date=May 29, 2020 }}</ref> Largely through the efforts of the settlement's first lawyer [[Alfred Kelley]], the village of Cleveland was incorporated on December 23, 1814.{{sfn|Rose|1990|p=74}}

Despite the nearby swampy lowlands and harsh winters, the town's waterfront location proved advantageous, giving it access to Great Lakes trade. It grew rapidly after the 1832 completion of the [[Ohio and Erie Canal]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Ohio and Erie Canal |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History |publisher=Case Western Reserve University |url=https://case.edu/ech/articles/o/ohio-and-erie-canal |access-date=August 5, 2019 |date=February 7, 2019 }}</ref> This key link between the [[Ohio River]] and the [[Great Lakes]] connected Cleveland to the Atlantic Ocean via the [[Erie Canal]] and Hudson River, and later via the [[Saint Lawrence Seaway]].<ref name="economy" /> The town's growth continued with added [[Rail transportation in the United States|railroad links]].{{sfn|Miller|Wheeler|1997|p=[https://archive.org/details/clevelandconcise0000mill/page/51 51]}} In 1836, Cleveland, then only on the eastern banks of the Cuyahoga, was officially incorporated as a city, and [[John W. Willey]] was elected its first mayor.<ref name="timeline">{{cite encyclopedia |title=Timeline |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History |publisher=Case Western Reserve University |url=http://ech.case.edu/timeline.html |access-date=August 1, 2022 |date=April 5, 2022 }}</ref> That same year, it nearly erupted into open warfare with neighboring [[Ohio City, Cleveland|Ohio City]] over a bridge connecting the two communities.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Columbus Street Bridge |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History |publisher=Case Western Reserve University |url=https://case.edu/ech/articles/c/columbus-street-bridge |date=November 18, 2019 |access-date=June 7, 2023 }}</ref> Ohio City remained an independent municipality until its [[Municipal annexation in the United States|annexation]] by Cleveland in 1854.<ref name="timeline" />

A center of [[Abolitionism in the United States|abolitionist]] activity,{{sfn|Keating|2022|pp=13–15}}<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Wyatt-Brown |first=Bertram |title=Abolitionism |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History |date=May 31, 2019 |publisher=Case Western Reserve University |url=https://case.edu/ech/articles/a/abolitionism |access-date=June 7, 2020 }}</ref> Cleveland (code-named "Station Hope") was a major stop on the [[Underground Railroad]] for escaped African American [[Slavery in the United States|slaves]] en route to Canada.<ref>{{cite web |title=In Search of the Underground Railroad |website=Cleveland Historical |publisher=Cleveland State University |url=https://clevelandhistorical.org/tours/show/44 |access-date=June 7, 2020 }}</ref> The city also served as an [[Cleveland in the American Civil War|important center]] for the [[Union (American Civil War)|Union]] during the [[American Civil War]].{{sfn|Keating|2022|p=38}}<ref>{{cite web |title=Abraham Lincoln in Cleveland: Remembering a Slain President |website=Cleveland Historical |publisher=Cleveland State University |url=https://clevelandhistorical.org/items/show/70 |access-date=August 8, 2023 }}</ref> Decades later, in July 1894, the wartime contributions of those serving the Union from Cleveland and Cuyahoga County would be honored with the [[Soldiers' and Sailors' Monument (Cleveland)|Soldiers' and Sailors' Monument]] on Public Square.<ref name="soldiers-sailors">{{cite encyclopedia |title=Soldiers' and Sailors' Monument |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History |publisher=Case Western Reserve University |url=https://case.edu/ech/articles/s/soldiers-and-sailors-monument |access-date=August 3, 2019 |date=May 22, 2018 }}</ref>

=== Growth and expansion ===
The Civil War vaulted Cleveland into the first rank of American manufacturing cities and fueled unprecedented growth.{{sfn|Miller|Wheeler|1997|p=[https://archive.org/details/clevelandconcise0000mill/page/69 69]}} Its prime geographic location as a transportation hub on the Great Lakes played an important role in its development as an industrial and commercial center. In 1870, [[John D. Rockefeller]] founded [[Standard Oil]] in Cleveland,{{sfn|Rose|1990|p=937}} and in 1885, he moved its headquarters to New York City, which had become a center of finance and business.<ref>{{cite web |title=American Experience: Rockefellers Timeline |publisher=PBS |quote=1885: Standard Oil moves into new headquarters at 26 Broadway in New York. |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/rockefellers-timeline/ |access-date=May 19, 2023 }}</ref>

[[File:Cleveland 1877.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|left|[[Bird's-eye view]] of Cleveland in 1877]]
Cleveland's economic growth and industrial jobs attracted large waves of immigrants from [[Southern Europe|Southern]] and Eastern Europe as well as [[History of Ireland (1801–1923)|Ireland]].<ref name="immigration-migration" /> Urban growth was accompanied by significant strikes and labor unrest, as workers demanded [[Labor rights|better wages and working conditions]].{{sfn|Miller|Wheeler|1997|pp=[https://archive.org/details/clevelandconcise0000mill/page/87 87–89]}} Between 1881 and 1886, 70 to 80% of strikes were successful in improving labor conditions in Cleveland.<ref name="labor">{{cite encyclopedia |last=Harrison |first=Dennis I. |title=Labor |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History |publisher=Case Western Reserve University |url=https://case.edu/ech/articles/l/labor |access-date=January 29, 2021 |date=January 29, 2021 }}</ref> The [[Streetcar strikes in the United States|Cleveland Streetcar Strike of 1899]] was one of the more violent instances of labor strife in the city during this period.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Streetcar Strike of 1899 |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History |publisher=Case Western Reserve University |url=https://case.edu/ech/articles/s/streetcar-strike-1899 |access-date=July 3, 2021 |date=May 22, 2018 }}</ref>

By 1910, Cleveland had become known as the "Sixth City" due to its status at the time as the sixth-largest U.S. city.<ref name="nicknames">{{cite encyclopedia |title=Cleveland Nicknames and Slogans |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History |date=February 27, 2023 |publisher=Case Western Reserve University |url=https://case.edu/ech/articles/c/cleveland-nicknames-and-slogans |access-date=May 19, 2023 }}</ref> Its automotive companies included [[Peerless Motor Company|Peerless]], [[Chandler Motor Car|Chandler]], and [[Winton Motor Carriage Company|Winton]], maker of the first car driven across the U.S. Other manufacturing industries in Cleveland included [[steam car]]s produced by [[White Motor Company|White]] and [[electric car]]s produced by [[Baker Motor Vehicle|Baker]].{{sfn|Miller|Wheeler|1997|p=[https://archive.org/details/clevelandconcise0000mill/page/116 116]}} The city counted major [[Progressive Era]] politicians among its leaders, most prominently the [[Populism|populist]] Mayor [[Tom L. Johnson]], who was responsible for the development of the [[The Mall (Cleveland)|Cleveland Mall Plan]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Johnson, Tom L |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History |publisher=Case Western Reserve University |url=https://case.edu/ech/articles/j/johnson-tom-l |date=September 19, 2021 |access-date=June 7, 2023 }}</ref> The era of the [[City Beautiful movement]] in Cleveland architecture saw wealthy patrons support the establishment of the city's major cultural institutions. The most prominent among them were the [[Cleveland Museum of Art]], which opened in 1916,{{sfn|Turner|1991|p=[https://archive.org/details/object-lessons/page/9 9]}} and the [[Cleveland Orchestra]], established in 1918.{{sfn|Rosenberg|2000|pp=43–44}}

[[File:Inviting Immigrants to Cleveland Poster (6279784636).jpg|thumb|upright|1917 multilingual poster in English, Italian, [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]], [[Slovene language|Slovene]], [[Polish language|Polish]], and [[Yiddish]], advertising English classes for immigrants in Cleveland]]
In addition to the large immigrant population, African American migrants from the rural [[Southern United States|South]] arrived in Cleveland (among other Northeastern and Midwestern cities) as part of the [[Great Migration (African American)|Great Migration]] for jobs, constitutional rights, and relief from [[Jim Crow laws|racial discrimination]].<ref name="african-americans">{{cite encyclopedia |title=African Americans |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History |publisher=Case Western Reserve University |url=https://case.edu/ech/articles/a/african-americans |access-date=July 15, 2019 |date=July 15, 2019 }}</ref> By 1920, the year in which the [[Cleveland Guardians|Cleveland Indians]] won their [[1920 World Series|first World Series championship]], Cleveland had grown into a densely populated metropolis of 796,841, making it the fifth-largest city in the nation,<ref name="largest-US-cities" /> with a foreign-born population of 30%.<ref>{{cite report |last1=Salling |first1=Mark |last2=Cyran |first2=Ellen |title=Foreign-Born Population in Selected Ohio Cities, 1870 to 2000: A Brief Descriptive Report |publisher=Cleveland State University |url=https://engagedscholarship.csuohio.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1357&context=urban_facpub |page=9 |date=January 1, 2006 |access-date=July 2, 2019 }}</ref>

At this time, Cleveland saw the rise of radical labor movements, most prominently the [[Industrial Workers of the World]] (IWW), in response to the conditions of the largely immigrant and migrant workers. In 1919, the city attracted national attention amid the [[First Red Scare]] for the [[May Day riots of 1919|Cleveland May Day Riots]], in which local [[socialism|socialist]] and IWW demonstrators clashed with anti-socialists.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=May Day Riots |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History |publisher=Case Western Reserve University |url=https://case.edu/ech/articles/m/may-day-riots |access-date=July 15, 2019 |date=May 19, 2019 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=May Day Riot |website=Cleveland Historical |publisher=Cleveland State University |url=https://clevelandhistorical.org/items/show/28 |access-date=July 22, 2019 }}</ref> The riots occurred during the broader [[US Strike wave of 1919|strike wave]] that swept the U.S. that year.{{sfn|Brecher|2020|p=[https://archive.org/details/strike0000brec_t8h1/page/110 110]}}

Cleveland's population continued to grow throughout the [[Roaring Twenties]].{{sfn|Condon|1979|p=[https://archive.org/details/clevelandprodigy0000cond/page/99 99]}} The decade saw the establishment of the city's [[Playhouse Square]],<ref name="playhouse">{{cite encyclopedia |title=Playhouse Square |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History |publisher=Case Western Reserve University |url=https://case.edu/ech/articles/p/playhouse-square |access-date=July 15, 2019 |date=May 31, 2019 }}</ref> and the rise of the risqué [[Downtown Cleveland#Short Vincent|Short Vincent]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Short Vincent |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History |publisher=Case Western Reserve University |url=https://case.edu/ech/articles/s/short-vincent |access-date=July 15, 2019 |date=May 22, 2018 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Miller |first=Marilyn |title=Short Vincent: A Walk on Cleveland's Historic Wild Side |website=Cleveland Historical |publisher=Cleveland State University |url=https://clevelandhistorical.org/items/show/64 |access-date=June 5, 2023 }}</ref> The Bal-Masque balls of the avant-garde [[Kokoon Arts Club]] scandalized the city.{{sfn|Adams|Waldman|2011|pp=85–87}}<ref>{{cite web |title=The Kokoon Arts Klub |website=Cleveland Historical |publisher=Cleveland State University |url=https://clevelandhistorical.org/items/show/851 |access-date=August 9, 2019 }}</ref> [[Jazz]] came to prominence in Cleveland during this period.<ref>{{cite news |last=Theiss |first=Evelyn |title=In Cleveland's 'second downtown,' jazz once filled the air: Elegant Cleveland |newspaper=[[The Plain Dealer]] |url=https://www.cleveland.com/arts/2012/02/in_clevelands_second_downtown.html |date=February 5, 2012 |access-date=June 19, 2023 }}</ref>{{sfn|Mosbrook|2013|p=10}} [[Prohibition in the United States|Prohibition]] first took effect in Ohio in May 1919 (although it was not well-enforced in Cleveland), became law with the [[Volstead Act]] in 1920, and was eventually [[Twenty-first Amendment to the United States Constitution|repealed]] nationally by [[United States Congress|Congress]] in 1933.<ref name="prohibition">{{cite encyclopedia |title=Prohibition Amendment |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History |publisher=Case Western Reserve University |url=https://case.edu/ech/articles/p/prohibition-amendment |access-date=July 15, 2019 |date=June 18, 2018 }}</ref> The ban on alcohol led to the rise of [[Speakeasy|speakeasies]] throughout the city and organized crime gangs, such as the [[Mayfield Road Mob]], who smuggled bootleg liquor across [[Lake Erie]] from Canada into Cleveland.<ref name="prohibition" /><ref>{{cite news |last=Kelly |first=Ralph |title=Murder in Cleveland: The Prohibition Toll. Chapter 3—Rise of the Rum Kings; the 'Bloody Corner |newspaper=The Plain Dealer |pages=1, 5 |date=December 28, 1933 }}</ref>

[[File:Euclid Avenue 1918 CP06293 - DPLA - c71a7b0702bca63a585bd2365a66f7c6.jpg|thumb|left|[[Euclid Avenue (Cleveland)|Euclid Avenue]] and East 9th Street with the Hickox Building in 1918]]
The era of the [[flapper]] marked the beginning of the golden age in Downtown Cleveland retail, centered on major department stores [[Higbee's]], Bailey's, the [[May Company Ohio|May Company]], [[William Taylor & Son|Taylor's]], [[Halle Brothers Co.|Halle's]], and [[Sterling-Lindner Co.|Sterling Lindner Davis]], which collectively represented one of the largest and most fashionable shopping districts in the country, often compared to New York's [[Fifth Avenue]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Downtown Department Stores: Cleveland's Fifth Avenue |website=Cleveland Historical |publisher=Cleveland State University |url=http://clevelandhistorical.org/items/show/23#.Vd5BjZed6jg |access-date=June 5, 2023 }}</ref> In 1929, Cleveland hosted the first of many [[National Air Races]], and [[Amelia Earhart]] flew to the city from [[Santa Monica, California]] in the [[Women's Air Derby]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Cleveland National Air Races |website=Cleveland Historical |publisher=Cleveland State University |url=https://clevelandhistorical.org/items/show/151 |access-date=July 15, 2019 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Guerrieri |first=Vince |title=The Rise and Fall of the Cleveland Air Races |publisher=Ohio Magazine |url=https://www.ohiomagazine.com/ohio-life/article/the-rise-and-fall-of-the-cleveland-air-races |date=July 2021 |access-date=January 4, 2024 }}</ref> The [[Van Sweringen brothers]] commenced construction of the [[Terminal Tower]] skyscraper in 1926 and oversaw it to completion in 1927.{{sfn|Harwood|2003|pp=134–135}} By the time the building was dedicated as part of [[Cleveland Union Terminal]] in 1930, the city had a population of over 900,000.<ref name="timeline" />

Cleveland was hit hard by the [[Wall Street Crash of 1929]] and the subsequent [[Great Depression]].{{sfn|Miller|Wheeler|1997|p=[https://archive.org/details/clevelandconcise0000mill/page/146 146]|loc="Industrialist [[Cyrus S. Eaton|Cyrus Eaton]] would later say that Cleveland was hurt more by the Depression than any other city in the United States"}} A center of [[Labor unions in the United States|union activity]], the city saw significant [[Labor history of the United States|labor struggles]] in this period, including strikes by workers against [[Fisher Body]] in 1936 and against [[Republic Steel]] in 1937.<ref name="labor" /> The city was also aided by major federal works projects sponsored by President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]]'s [[New Deal]].{{sfn|Miller|Wheeler|1997|pp=[https://archive.org/details/clevelandconcise0000mill/page/136 136–139]}} In commemoration of the centennial of Cleveland's incorporation as a city, the [[Great Lakes Exposition]] debuted in June 1936 at the city's [[North Coast Harbor]], along the Lake Erie shore north of downtown.{{sfn|Porter|1976|pp=106–107}} Conceived by Cleveland's business leaders as a way to revitalize the city during the Depression, it drew four million visitors in its first season, and seven million by the end of its second and final season in September 1937.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Great Lakes Exposition |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History |publisher=Case Western Reserve University |url=https://case.edu/ech/articles/g/great-lakes-exposition |access-date=July 15, 2019 |date=March 21, 2019 }}</ref>

[[File:Aeroplane View of Union Terminal Group and Public Square (NBY 1512).jpg|thumb|upright|Postcard of [[Public Square (Cleveland)|Public Square]] and the then-new [[Cleveland Union Terminal]] in 1930]]
On December 7, 1941, Imperial Japan [[Attack on Pearl Harbor|attacked Pearl Harbor]] and [[Japanese declaration of war on the United States and the British Empire|declared war]] on the U.S. Two of the victims of the attack were Cleveland natives – Rear Admiral [[Isaac C. Kidd]] and ensign William Halloran.{{sfn|Albrecht|Banks|2015|p=8}} The attack signaled America's entry into [[World War II]]. A major hub of the "[[Arsenal of Democracy]]", Cleveland under Mayor [[Frank Lausche]] contributed massively to the [[United States home front during World War II|U.S. war effort]] as the fifth largest manufacturing center in the nation.{{sfn|Albrecht|Banks|2015|p=54}} During his tenure, Lausche also oversaw the establishment of the Cleveland Transit System, the predecessor to the [[Greater Cleveland Regional Transit Authority]].<ref name="RTA-history">{{cite encyclopedia |title=Greater Cleveland Regional Transit Authority |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History |publisher=Case Western Reserve University |url=https://case.edu/ech/articles/g/greater-cleveland-regional-transit-authority |access-date=July 22, 2019 |date=May 11, 2018 }}</ref>

=== Late 20th and early 21st centuries ===
After the war, Cleveland initially experienced an [[Business cycle|economic boom]], and businesses declared the city to be the "best location in the nation".<ref name="nicknames" /><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Cleveland Electric Illuminating Co |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History |publisher=Case Western Reserve University |url=https://case.edu/ech/articles/c/cleveland-electric-illuminating-co |access-date=July 22, 2019 |date=April 4, 2019 }}</ref> In 1949, the city was named an [[All-America City Award|All-America City]] for the first time, and in 1950, its population reached 914,808.<ref name="timeline" /> In sports, the Indians won the [[1948 World Series]], the hockey team, the [[Cleveland Barons (1937–1973)|Barons]], became champions of the American Hockey League, and the [[Cleveland Browns|Browns]] dominated professional [[National Football League|football]] in the 1950s. As a result, along with track and boxing champions produced, Cleveland was declared the "City of Champions" in sports at this time.<ref>{{cite news |last=Schneider |first=Russell |title=Those Championship Seasons: Cleveland's Rich Sports History |newspaper=The Plain Dealer |page=206 |quote=Once upon a time, Cleveland was known as the 'City of Champions.' |date=November 3, 1991 }}</ref> Additionally, the 1950s saw the rising popularity of a new music genre that local [[WKNR|WJW (AM)]] disc jockey [[Alan Freed]] dubbed "[[rock and roll]]".<ref name="freed">{{cite encyclopedia |title=Freed, Alan |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History |date=May 11, 2018 |publisher=Case Western Reserve University |url=https://case.edu/ech/articles/f/freed-alan |access-date=May 19, 2023 }}</ref>

[[Image:Fountain of Eternal Life (34552871444).jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[Key Tower]] and the ''[[Fountain of Eternal Life]]'' by [[Marshall Fredericks]]]]
However, by the 1960s, Cleveland's economy began to slow down, and residents increasingly sought new housing in the suburbs, reflecting the national trends of suburban growth following federally subsidized highways.<ref name="suburbs">{{cite encyclopedia |title=Suburbs |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History |date=June 14, 2018 |publisher=Case Western Reserve University |url=https://case.edu/ech/articles/s/suburbs |access-date=May 19, 2023 }}</ref> [[Deindustrialization|Industrial restructuring]], particularly in the steel and automotive industries, resulted in the loss of numerous jobs in Cleveland and the region, and the city suffered economically.{{sfn|Miller|Wheeler|1997|p=[https://archive.org/details/clevelandconcise0000mill/page/183 183]}} The [[burning of the Cuyahoga River]] in June 1969 brought national attention to the issue of [[Pollution|industrial pollution]] in Cleveland and served as a catalyst for the [[Environmental movement in the United States|American environmental movement]].<ref name="NYT-cuyahoga">{{cite news |last=Maag |first=Christopher |title=From the Ashes of '69, Cleveland's Cuyahoga River Is Reborn |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/06/21/us/21river.html |date=June 20, 2009 |access-date=July 25, 2019 }}</ref>

[[Housing discrimination in the United States|Housing discrimination]] and [[redlining]] against African Americans led to racial unrest in Cleveland and numerous other Northern U.S. cities.{{sfn|Rothstein|2017|p=14}}<ref>{{cite news |last=Eddings |first=Amy |title=Divided by Design: Tracking Neighborhood Racial Segregation in Cleveland |publisher=[[Ideastream]] |url=https://www.ideastream.org/news/divided-by-design-tracking-neighborhood-racial-segregation-in-cleveland |date=November 14, 2017 |access-date=July 3, 2019 }}</ref> In Cleveland, the [[Hough riots]] erupted from July 18 to 24, 1966,<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Hough Riots |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History |publisher=Case Western Reserve University |url=https://case.edu/ech/articles/h/hough-riots |access-date=January 4, 2024 |date=November 11, 2020 }}</ref> and the [[Glenville Shootout]] took place on July 23, 1968.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Glenville Shootout |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History |publisher=Case Western Reserve University |url=https://case.edu/ech/articles/g/glenville-shootout |access-date=January 4, 2024 |date=July 1, 2020 }}</ref> In November 1967, Cleveland became the first major American city to elect an African American mayor, [[Carl Stokes|Carl B. Stokes]], who served from 1968 to 1971 and played an instrumental role in restoring the Cuyahoga River.{{sfn|Stokes|1973|p=[https://archive.org/details/promisesofpowerp00stok/page/42 42]}}<ref name="stokes-cuyahoga">{{cite web |title=Carl B. Stokes and the 1969 River Fire |publisher=[[National Park Service]] |url=https://www.nps.gov/articles/carl-stokes-and-the-river-fire.htm |access-date=May 30, 2020 }}</ref>

During the 1970s, Cleveland became known as "Bomb City U.S.A." due to several bombings that shook the city, mostly due to organized crime rivalries.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Polansky |first1=Rachel |last2=Trexler |first2=Phil |title=Bomb City U.S.A.: The untold story of Cleveland's mobster dynasty |publisher=[[WKYC]] |url=https://www.wkyc.com/article/news/investigations/bomb-city-usa-cleveland-mobster-dynasty/95-ff184a7c-f95e-478b-986b-c4469c69ad9a |date=May 6, 2021 |access-date=May 23, 2024 }}</ref> In December 1978, during the turbulent tenure of [[Dennis Kucinich]] as mayor, Cleveland became the first major American city since the Great Depression to enter into a [[Default (finance)|financial default]] on federal loans.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Mayoral Administration of Dennis J. Kucinich |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History |publisher=Case Western Reserve University |url=https://case.edu/ech/articles/m/mayoral-administration-dennis-j-kucinich |access-date=July 15, 2019 |date=May 12, 2018 }}</ref> The [[Early 1980s recession in the United States|national recession]] of the early 1980s "further eroded the city's traditional economic base."{{sfn|Miller|Wheeler|1997|p=[https://archive.org/details/clevelandconcise0000mill/page/183 183]}} While unemployment during the period peaked in 1983, Cleveland's rate of 13.8% was higher than the national average due to the closure of several steel production centers.<ref>{{cite news |last=Fobes |first=Jon |title=Unemployment hits nearly every area in Ohio, analysis of new claims finds |newspaper=The Plain Dealer |url=http://blog.cleveland.com/openers/2009/02/unemployment_hits_nearly_every.html |date=February 8, 2009 |access-date=May 19, 2023 }}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Fisher Body Division of General Motors Corp |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History |date=February 10, 2020 |publisher=Case Western Reserve University |url=https://case.edu/ech/articles/f/fisher-body-division-general-motors-corp |access-date=May 22, 2023 }}</ref>

The city began a gradual economic recovery under Mayor [[George Voinovich|George V. Voinovich]] in the 1980s. Downtown saw the construction of the [[Key Tower]] and [[200 Public Square]] skyscrapers, as well as the development of the [[Gateway Sports and Entertainment Complex]] – consisting of [[Progressive Field]] and [[Rocket Arena]] – and North Coast Harbor, including the [[Rock and Roll Hall of Fame]], [[Cleveland Browns Stadium]], and the [[Great Lakes Science Center]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Mayoral Administration of George V. Voinovich |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History |publisher=Case Western Reserve University |url=https://case.edu/ech/articles/m/mayoral-administration-george-v-voinovich |access-date=August 3, 2019 |date=February 21, 2019 }}</ref> Although the city emerged from default in 1987,<ref name="timeline" /> it later suffered from the impact of the [[subprime mortgage crisis]] and the [[Great Recession in the United States|Great Recession]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Kotlowitz |first=Alex |title=All Boarded Up: How Cleveland is Dealing With Mass Foreclosure |newspaper=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/03/08/magazine/08Foreclosure-t.html |date=March 4, 2009 |access-date=December 1, 2023 }}</ref>

Nevertheless, by the turn of the 21st century, Cleveland succeeded in developing a more diversified economy and gained a national reputation as a center for healthcare and the arts.<ref name="smithsonian">{{cite magazine |last=Michener |first=Charles |title=Cleveland's Signs of Renewal |magazine=[[Smithsonian (magazine)|Smithsonian]] |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/travel/clevelands-signs-of-renewal-817906/ |date=April 2011 |access-date=May 19, 2023 }}</ref> The city's downtown and several neighborhoods have experienced significant population growth since 2010, while overall population decline has slowed.<ref name="2020census">{{cite web |title=Census 2020 in Cleveland |url=https://planning.clevelandohio.gov/census2020/index.html |publisher=Cleveland City Planning Commission |access-date=July 11, 2022 }}</ref> Challenges remain for the city, with improvement of city schools,<ref>{{cite news |last=Morris |first=Conor |title=Cleveland Mayor Justin Bibb announces five picks for CMSD Board of Education |publisher=Ideastream |url=https://www.ideastream.org/education/2023-06-27/cleveland-mayor-justin-bibb-announces-five-picks-for-cmsd-board-of-education |date=June 27, 2023 |access-date=August 8, 2023 }}</ref> economic development of neighborhoods, and continued efforts to tackle poverty, [[Homelessness in Ohio|homelessness]], and urban blight being top municipal priorities.<ref>{{cite news |last=Buckley |first=Bri |title=Cleveland homeless shelters near capacity |publisher=[[WKYC]] |url=https://www.wkyc.com/article/news/local/cleveland/cleveland-shelters-near-capacity-as-homeless-encampments-remain-in-bitter-cold-snow/95-4340bb8a-bf18-49ce-a3ef-94892bbf83ae |date=November 28, 2023 |access-date=December 20, 2023 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Daprile |first=Lucas |title=Cleveland poised to move forward with plans to demolish blighted buildings, but will $15 million be enough? |newspaper=The Plain Dealer |url=https://www.cleveland.com/news/2022/06/cleveland-poised-to-move-forward-with-plans-to-demolish-blighted-buildings-but-will-15-million-be-enough-stimulus-watch.html |date=June 4, 2022 |access-date=August 8, 2023 }}</ref>

== Geography ==
[[File:ISS-34 Night view of Cleveland, Ohio.jpg|thumb|[[NASA]] satellite photograph of Cleveland at night]]

According to the [[U.S. Census Bureau]], the city has a total area of {{convert|82.47|sqmi|km2|2}}, of which {{convert|77.70|sqmi|km2|2}} is land and {{convert|4.77|sqmi|km2|2}} is water.<ref name="Gazetteer files">{{cite web |title=US Gazetteer files 2010 |publisher=United States Census Bureau |url=http://www2.census.gov/geo/docs/maps-data/data/gazetteer/2010_place_list_39.txt |access-date=June 6, 2016 }}</ref> The shore of Lake Erie is {{convert|569|ft|m}} above [[Above mean sea level|sea level]]; however, the city lies on a series of irregular bluffs lying roughly parallel to the lake. In Cleveland these bluffs are cut principally by the [[Cuyahoga River]], Big Creek, and [[Euclid Creek]].

The land rises quickly from the lake shore elevation of 569 feet. Public Square, less than {{Convert|1|mi|km|spell=in}} inland, sits at an elevation of {{convert|650|ft|m|0}}, and Hopkins Airport, {{convert|5|mi|km|0}} inland from the lake, is at an elevation of {{convert|791|ft|m|0}}.<ref>{{cite web |title=Cleveland-Hopkins International Airport |publisher=AirNav |url=http://www.airnav.com/airport/KCLE |access-date=May 19, 2023 }}</ref>

Cleveland borders several [[Inner suburb|inner-ring]] and [[streetcar suburb]]s.<ref name="suburbs" /> To the west, it borders [[Lakewood, Ohio|Lakewood]], [[Rocky River, Ohio|Rocky River]], and [[Fairview Park, Ohio|Fairview Park]], and to the east, it borders [[Shaker Heights, Ohio|Shaker Heights]], [[Cleveland Heights, Ohio|Cleveland Heights]], [[South Euclid, Ohio|South Euclid]], and [[East Cleveland, Ohio|East Cleveland]]. To the southwest, it borders [[Linndale, Ohio|Linndale]], [[Brooklyn, Ohio|Brooklyn]], [[Parma, Ohio|Parma]], and [[Brook Park, Ohio|Brook Park]]. To the south, the city borders [[Newburgh Heights, Ohio|Newburgh Heights]], [[Cuyahoga Heights, Ohio|Cuyahoga Heights]], and [[Brooklyn Heights, Ohio|Brooklyn Heights]] and to the southeast, it borders [[Warrensville Heights, Ohio|Warrensville Heights]], [[Maple Heights, Ohio|Maple Heights]], and [[Garfield Heights, Ohio|Garfield Heights]]. To the northeast, along the shore of Lake Erie, Cleveland borders [[Bratenahl, Ohio|Bratenahl]] and [[Euclid, Ohio|Euclid]].

=== Cityscape ===
{{Wide image|Cleveland Skyline 2015.png|1000px|align-cap=center|Skyline of Cleveland from [[University Circle]] at daylight (2015).|alt=Skyline of Cleveland from University Circle at daylight (2015).}}
{{Wide image|Cle Skyline December 2020.jpg|1000px|align-cap=center|Skyline of Cleveland at night, with [[Key Tower]], [[200 Public Square]], and the [[Terminal Tower]] at the center}}
{{Wide image|Clewinter.jpg|1000px|align-cap=center|Downtown Cleveland from [[Lake Erie]], January 2022}}

=== Architecture ===
{{See also|List of tallest buildings in Cleveland|National Register of Historic Places listings in Cleveland}}
[[File:Euclid facades.jpg|thumb|upright|Facades of buildings along Euclid Avenue]]
Cleveland's downtown architecture is diverse. Many of the city's government and civic buildings, including [[Cleveland City Hall|City Hall]], the [[Cuyahoga County Courthouse]], the [[Cleveland Public Library]], and [[Public Auditorium]], are clustered around the open Cleveland Mall and share a common [[neoclassical architecture]]. They were built in the early 20th century as the result of the 1903 Group Plan. They constitute one of the most complete examples of City Beautiful design in the U.S.{{sfn|Lawrence|1980|pp=20–25}}<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Mall |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History |publisher=Case Western Reserve University |url=https://case.edu/ech/articles/m/mall |access-date=August 21, 2019 |date=May 22, 2018 }}</ref>

Completed in 1927 and dedicated in 1930 as part of the [[Tower City Center|Cleveland Union Terminal]] complex, the Terminal Tower was the tallest building in North America outside New York City until 1964 and the tallest in the city until 1991.{{sfn|Toman|Cook|2005|p=76}} It is a prototypical [[Beaux-Arts architecture|Beaux-Arts]] skyscraper. The two other major skyscrapers on Public Square, Key Tower (the tallest building in Ohio) and 200 Public Square, combine elements of [[Art Deco]] architecture with [[postmodern architecture|postmodern]] designs.<ref>{{cite web |last=Raponi |first=Richard |title=Key Tower: Cesar Pelli's Nod to Art Deco-Era Manhattan |website=Cleveland Historical |publisher=Cleveland State University |url=https://clevelandhistorical.org/items/show/961 |access-date=February 1, 2024 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Raponi |first=Richard |title=200 Public Square |website=Cleveland Historical |publisher=Cleveland State University |url=https://clevelandhistorical.org/items/show/306 |access-date=February 1, 2024 }}</ref>

Running east from Public Square through University Circle is [[Euclid Avenue (Cleveland)|Euclid Avenue]], which was known as "Millionaires' Row" for its prestige and elegance as a residential street.{{sfn|Cigliano|1991|pp=1–2}}<ref>{{cite web |last=Rose |first=Danielle |title=Millionaires' Row: Cleveland's Famous Euclid Avenue |website=Cleveland Historical |publisher=Cleveland State University |url=https://clevelandhistorical.org/items/show/10 |access-date=June 5, 2023 }}</ref> In the late 1880s, writer [[Bayard Taylor]] described it as "the most beautiful street in the world".{{sfn|Upton|1910|p=507}}

Nicknamed Cleveland's "Crystal Palace", the five-story [[Cleveland Arcade]] (also known as the Old Arcade) was built in 1890 and renovated in 2001 as a [[Hyatt]] Regency Hotel.<ref>{{cite web |last=Florence |first=Cheyenne |title=The Arcade: Cleveland's Crystal Palace |website=Cleveland Historical |publisher=Cleveland State University |url=https://clevelandhistorical.org/items/show/24 |access-date=June 5, 2023 }}</ref> Another major architectural landmark, the [[Cleveland Trust Company Building]], was completed in 1907 and renovated in 2015 as a downtown [[Heinen's Fine Foods|Heinen's]] supermarket.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Toledo |first1=Charlotte Nicole |last2=Roy |first2=Chris |title=Cleveland Trust Company Building |website=Cleveland Historical |publisher=Cleveland State University |url=https://clevelandhistorical.org/items/show/761 |access-date=August 21, 2019 }}</ref> Cleveland's historic [[ecclesiastical architecture]] includes the Presbyterian [[Old Stone Church (Cleveland)|Old Stone Church]],<ref>{{cite web |last=Raponi |first=Richard |title=Old Stone Church |website=Cleveland Historical |publisher=Cleveland State University |url=https://clevelandhistorical.org/items/show/165 |access-date=August 8, 2019 }}</ref> the [[onion dome]]d [[St. Theodosius Russian Orthodox Cathedral]],<ref>{{cite web |last1=Rotman |first1=Michael |last2=Dubelko |first2=Jim |title=St. Theodosius Cathedral |website=Cleveland Historical |publisher=Cleveland State University |url=https://clevelandhistorical.org/items/show/92 |access-date=August 8, 2019 }}</ref> and the Roman Catholic [[Cathedral of St. John the Evangelist (Cleveland, Ohio)|Cathedral of St. John the Evangelist]] along with several other ethnically inspired Catholic churches.<ref>{{cite web |title=Cleveland Sacred Landmarks |publisher=Cleveland State University |url=http://www.clevelandmemory.org/sacredlandmarks/index-old.shtml |access-date=May 19, 2023 }}</ref>

<gallery mode="packed" heights="100">
File:Arcade (48249762776).jpg|[[Cleveland Arcade]], 1890
File:Cleveland Trust Company Building, Euclid Avenue and East 9th Street, Cleveland, OH.jpg|[[Cleveland Trust Company Building]], 1907
File:Palace lobby.jpg|[[Connor Palace|Connor Palace Theatre]], 1922
File:Cleveland Skyline (26381354620).jpg|[[Terminal Tower]] from Euclid Avenue
File:Grand Foyer, Severance Hall, University Circle, Cleveland, OH - 52992001701.jpg|Grand foyer of [[Severance Hall]], 1931
</gallery>

=== Neighborhoods ===
{{main|Neighborhoods in Cleveland}}
[[File:Illuminated West Side Market.jpg|left|thumb|The [[Ohio City, Cleveland|Ohio City]] neighborhood at night]]
The Cleveland City Planning Commission has officially designated 34 neighborhoods in Cleveland.<ref>{{cite web |title=Urban Tree Canopy Assessment Update: Cleveland Neighborhoods |publisher=Cuyahoga County Planning Commission |url=https://www.countyplanning.us/projects/urban-tree-canopy-assessment-update/urban-tree-canopy-assessment-update-cleveland-neighborhoods/ |access-date=July 20, 2021 }}</ref> Centered on Public Square, [[Downtown Cleveland]] is the city's central business district, encompassing a wide range of subdistricts, such as the [[Nine-Twelve District]], the [[Campus District]], the [[Civic Center (Cleveland)|Civic Center]], [[East 4th Street (Cleveland)|East 4th Street]], and [[Playhouse Square]]. It also historically included the lively [[Downtown Cleveland#Short Vincent|Short Vincent]] entertainment district.<ref>{{cite web |last=Roy |first=Chris |title=The Theatrical Grill |work=Cleveland Historical |publisher=Cleveland State University |url=https://clevelandhistorical.org/items/show/906 |access-date=June 22, 2022 }}</ref>{{sfn|Dutka|2012|p=37}} Mixed-use areas, such as the [[Warehouse District, Cleveland|Warehouse District]] and the [[Downtown Cleveland#Superior Arts District|Superior Arts District]], are occupied by industrial and office buildings as well as restaurants, cafes, and bars.<ref name="smithsonian" /> The number of [[Condominium (living space)|condominium]]s, [[loft apartment|lofts]], and apartments has been on the increase since 2000 and especially 2010, reflecting downtown's growing population.<ref>{{cite news |last=Exner |first=Rich |title=How downtown Cleveland is changing: by the numbers |newspaper=The Plain Dealer |url=https://www.cleveland.com/datacentral/2016/05/how_downtown_cleveland_is_chan.html |date=May 13, 2016 |access-date=July 10, 2019 }}</ref>

[[File:Cleveland City Neighborhoods with Names.png|thumb|upright=1|Neighborhoods of Cleveland]]
Clevelanders geographically define themselves in terms of whether they live on the east or west side of the Cuyahoga River.{{sfn|Condon|1967|p=[https://archive.org/details/cleveland0000geor/page/9/mode/2up 9]|loc="For all practical purposes, though – and hang the technicalities – everything east of the [Cuyahoga] river constitutes the East Side. Everything west of the river can be considered the West Side. That is the realistic view taken by Clevelanders. When two Clevelanders meet for the first time, they fence conversationally until the vital question of East or West is answered. Knowing which side of town a new acquaintance comes from makes a subtle difference"}} The East Side includes the neighborhoods of [[Buckeye–Shaker]], [[Buckeye–Woodhill]], [[Central, Cleveland|Central]], [[Collinwood]] (including [[Nottingham, Ohio|Nottingham]]), [[Euclid–Green]], [[Fairfax, Cleveland|Fairfax]], [[Glenville, Cleveland|Glenville]], [[Goodrich–Kirtland Park]] (including [[Asiatown, Cleveland|Asiatown]]), [[Hough, Cleveland|Hough]], [[Kinsman, Cleveland|Kinsman]], [[Lee–Miles]] (including Lee–Harvard and Lee–Seville), [[Mount Pleasant, Cleveland|Mount Pleasant]], [[St. Clair–Superior]], [[Union–Miles Park]], and [[University Circle]] (including [[Little Italy, Cleveland|Little Italy]]).<ref>{{cite news |last=Exner |first=Rich |title=Get to know Cleveland's East Side |newspaper=The Plain Dealer |url=https://www.cleveland.com/news/2023/11/get-to-know-clevelands-east-side-12-neighborhood-profiles.html |date=November 7, 2023 |access-date=November 15, 2023 }}</ref> The West Side includes the neighborhoods of [[Brooklyn Centre]], [[Clark–Fulton]], [[Cudell, Cleveland|Cudell]], [[Detroit–Shoreway]], [[Edgewater, Cleveland|Edgewater]], [[Ohio City, Cleveland|Ohio City]], [[Old Brooklyn]], [[Stockyards, Cleveland|Stockyards]], [[Tremont, Cleveland|Tremont]] (including [[Tremont, Cleveland#Duck Island|Duck Island]]), [[West Boulevard]], and the four neighborhoods colloquially known as [[West Park, Cleveland|West Park]]: [[Kamm's Corners]], [[Jefferson, Cleveland|Jefferson]], [[Bellaire–Puritas, Cleveland|Bellaire–Puritas]], and [[Hopkins, Cleveland|Hopkins]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Exner |first=Rich |title=Get to know Cleveland's West Side |newspaper=The Plain Dealer |url=https://www.cleveland.com/news/2023/11/get-to-know-clevelands-west-side-8-neighborhood-profiles.html |date=November 1, 2023 |access-date=November 15, 2023 }}</ref> The [[Cuyahoga Valley, Cleveland|Cuyahoga Valley]] neighborhood (including [[Whiskey Island (Cleveland)|Whiskey Island]] and [[the Flats]]) is situated between the East and West Sides, while [[Broadway–Slavic Village]] is sometimes referred to as the South Side.<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Nalewicki |first=Jennifer |title=Vibrant Art Installations Infuse New Life into Abandoned Houses in This Cleveland Neighborhood |magazine=Smithsonian |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/travel/one-weekend-art-infuses-new-life-cleveland-neighborhood-180969771/ |date=July 27, 2018 |access-date=June 5, 2023 |quote=A symphony of hammers, saws and chisels pierce the early-morning silence that had blanketed Slavic Village, a neighborhood tucked away on Cleveland's south side. }}</ref>

Several neighborhoods have begun to attract the return of the middle class that left the city for the suburbs in the 1960s and 1970s. These neighborhoods are on both the West Side (Ohio City, Tremont, Detroit–Shoreway, and Edgewater) and the East Side (Collinwood, Hough, Fairfax, and Little Italy). Much of the growth has been spurred on by attracting [[creative class]] members, which has facilitated new residential development and the transformation of old industrial buildings into loft spaces for artists.<ref name="smithsonian" /><ref name="CLE-hustles">{{cite news |last=Glusac |first=Elaine |title=A Cleveland Arts District Hustles and Rebounds |newspaper=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/11/15/travel/cleveland-gordon-square-arts-district.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220101/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/11/15/travel/cleveland-gordon-square-arts-district.html |archive-date=January 1, 2022 |url-access=limited |date=November 15, 2017 |access-date=August 1, 2019}}{{cbignore }}</ref>

=== Climate ===
{{climate chart
| Cleveland
| 22.3|35.8|2.99
| 23.5|38.5|2.49
| 30.7|47.1|3.06
| 40.8|60.1|3.75
| 51.4|71.1|3.79
| 61.1|79.8|3.83
| 65.8|83.7|3.67
| 63.9|82.0|3.56
| 57.1|75.6|3.93
| 46.5|63.7|3.60
| 36.7|51.3|3.37
| 28.2|40.4|2.99
| units = imperial
| float = right
| clear = both
}}
Typical of the [[Great Lakes region]], Cleveland exhibits a [[continental climate]] with four distinct seasons, which lies in the [[humid continental]] ([[Köppen climate classification|Köppen]] ''Dfa'')<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kottek |first1=Marcus |last2=Greiser |first2=Jürgen |last3=Beck |first3=Christoph |last4=Rudolf |first4=Bruno |last5=Rubel |first5=Franz |display-authors=2 |title=World Map of Köppen – Geiger Climate Classification |url=https://opus.bibliothek.uni-augsburg.de/opus4/files/40083/metz_Vol_15_No_3_p259-263_World_Map_of_the_Koppen_Geiger_climate_classification_updated_55034.pdf |journal=Meteorologische Zeitschrift |volume=15 |issue=3 |page=261 |date=June 2006 |doi=10.1127/0941-2948/2006/0130 |bibcode=2006MetZe..15..259K |issn=0941-2948 }}</ref> zone. The climate is transitional with the ''Cfa'' [[humid subtropical climate]]. Summers are hot and humid, while winters are cold and snowy. East of the mouth of the Cuyahoga, the land elevation rises rapidly in the south. Together with the prevailing winds off Lake Erie, this feature is the principal contributor to the [[lake-effect snow]] that is typical in Cleveland (especially on the city's East Side) from mid-November until the surface of the lake freezes, usually in late January or early February. The lake effect causes a relative differential in geographical snowfall totals across the city. On the city's far West Side, the Hopkins neighborhood only reached {{convert|100|in|cm|0}} of snowfall in a season three times since record-keeping for snow began in 1893.<ref>{{cite web |title=Cleveland Snowfall Statistics |publisher=[[National Weather Service]] |url=http://www.erh.noaa.gov/cle/climate/cle/records/cletop10snow.html |access-date=May 19, 2023 }}</ref> By contrast, seasonal totals approaching or exceeding {{convert|100|in|cm|0}} are not uncommon as the city ascends into the Heights on the east, where the region known as the "[[Snowbelt|Snow Belt]]" begins. Extending from the city's East Side and its suburbs, the Snow Belt reaches up the Lake Erie shore as far as [[Buffalo, New York|Buffalo]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Johnson |first=Mark |title=Where is Northern Ohio's Snow Belt? |website=[[WEWS-TV]] |url=http://www.newsnet5.com/dpp/weather/weather_news/where-is-northern-ohio's-snow-belt |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130922040750/http://www.newsnet5.com/dpp/weather/weather_news/where-is-northern-ohio%27s-snow-belt |access-date=January 20, 2013 |archive-date=September 22, 2013 }}</ref>

The all-time record high in Cleveland of {{convert|104|°F|0}} was established on June 25, 1988,<ref>{{cite news |last=Smith |first=Susan |title=Akron, State Blanketed in 3-Digit Heat |newspaper=[[Akron Beacon Journal]] |quote=The high of 104 degrees at Cleveland-Hopkins International Airport was the highest recorded in Cleveland since official weather record -keeping began in 1871, weather service officials said. |page=A1 |date=June 26, 1988 }}</ref> and the all-time record low of {{convert|-20|°F|0}} was set on January 19, 1994.<ref>{{cite news |last=Mio |first=Lou |title=Stopped Cold: All-Time Lows Shiver Ohio, But Forecast's for 'Warming' |newspaper=The Plain Dealer |quote=It was 20 below Tuesday night, breaking Cleveland's all-time record of 19 below set Jan. 24, 1963, a few weeks after Browns owner Art Modell fired head coach Paul Brown during a newspaper strike. |page=1A |date=January 20, 1994 }}</ref> On average, July is the warmest month with a mean temperature of {{convert|74.5|°F|1}}, and January, with a mean temperature of {{convert|29.1|°F|1}}, is the coldest. Normal yearly [[precipitation (meteorology)|precipitation]] based on the 30-year average from 1991 to 2020 is {{convert|41.03|in}}.<ref>{{cite web |title=NOWData – NOAA Online Weather Data |publisher=National Weather Service |url=http://www.weather.gov/climate/xmacis.php?wfo=cle |access-date=May 19, 2023 }}</ref> The least precipitation occurs on the western side and directly along the lake, and the most occurs in the eastern suburbs. Parts of [[Geauga County, Ohio|Geauga County]] to the east receive over {{convert|44|in}} of liquid precipitation annually.<ref>{{cite web |title=Precipitation: Annual Climatology (1971–2000) |publisher=PRISM Climate Group, [[Oregon State University]] |url=http://www.prism.oregonstate.edu/products/viewer.phtml?file=/pub/prism/us_30s/graphics/ppt/Normals/us_ppt_1971_2000.14.png&year=1971_2000&vartype=ppt&month=14&status=final |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130922033447/http://www.prism.oregonstate.edu/products/viewer.phtml?file=/pub/prism/us_30s/graphics/ppt/Normals/us_ppt_1971_2000.14.png&year=1971_2000&vartype=ppt&month=14&status=final |url-status=dead |archive-date=September 22, 2013 |access-date=May 19, 2023 }}</ref>

{{Weather box
| location = Cleveland ([[Cleveland Hopkins International Airport|Hopkins Airport]]), 1991–2020 normals,{{efn|Mean monthly maxima and minima (i.e. the expected highest and lowest temperature readings at any point during the year or given month) calculated based on data at said location from 1991 to 2020.}} extremes 1871–present{{efn|Official records for Cleveland kept at downtown from January 1871 to May 1941, and at Hopkins Airport since June 1941. For more information, see [http://threadex.rcc-acis.org ThreadEx].}}
| single line = Y
| Jan record high F = 73
| Feb record high F = 77
| Mar record high F = 83
| Apr record high F = 88
| May record high F = 93
| Jun record high F = 104
| Jul record high F = 103
| Aug record high F = 102
| Sep record high F = 101
| Oct record high F = 93
| Nov record high F = 82
| Dec record high F = 77
| year record high F = 104
| Jan avg record high F = 58.9
| Feb avg record high F = 60.8
| Mar avg record high F = 70.8
| Apr avg record high F = 80.3
| May avg record high F = 86.7
| Jun avg record high F = 91.8
| Jul avg record high F = 92.7
| Aug avg record high F = 91.3
| Sep avg record high F = 88.8
| Oct avg record high F = 80.5
| Nov avg record high F = 68.9
| Dec avg record high F = 60.0
| year avg record high F = 93.9
| Jan high F = 35.8
| Feb high F = 38.5
| Mar high F = 47.1
| Apr high F = 60.1
| May high F = 71.1
| Jun high F = 79.8
| Jul high F = 83.7
| Aug high F = 82.0
| Sep high F = 75.6
| Oct high F = 63.7
| Nov high F = 51.3
| Dec high F = 40.4
| year high F = 60.8
| Jan mean F = 29.1
| Feb mean F = 31.1
| Mar mean F = 38.9
| Apr mean F = 50.4
| May mean F = 61.2
| Jun mean F = 70.4
| Jul mean F = 74.5
| Aug mean F = 73.0
| Sep mean F = 66.4
| Oct mean F = 55.1
| Nov mean F = 44.0
| Dec mean F = 34.3
| year mean F = 52.4
| Jan low F = 22.3
| Feb low F = 23.7
| Mar low F = 30.7
| Apr low F = 40.8
| May low F = 51.4
| Jun low F = 61.1
| Jul low F = 65.3
| Aug low F = 63.9
| Sep low F = 57.1
| Oct low F = 46.5
| Nov low F = 36.7
| Dec low F = 28.2
| year low F = 44.0
| Jan avg record low F = 1.3
| Feb avg record low F = 4.0
| Mar avg record low F = 12.2
| Apr avg record low F = 25.9
| May avg record low F = 36.2
| Jun avg record low F = 45.9
| Jul avg record low F = 53.3
| Aug avg record low F = 51.6
| Sep avg record low F = 43.0
| Oct avg record low F = 32.1
| Nov avg record low F = 20.8
| Dec avg record low F = 9.8
| year avg record low F = −2.2
| Jan record low F = −20
| Feb record low F = −17
| Mar record low F = −5
| Apr record low F = 10
| May record low F = 25
| Jun record low F = 31
| Jul record low F = 41
| Aug record low F = 38
| Sep record low F = 32
| Oct record low F = 19
| Nov record low F = 0
| Dec record low F = −15
| year record low F = -20
| precipitation colour = green
| Jan precipitation inch = 2.99
| Feb precipitation inch = 2.49
| Mar precipitation inch = 3.06
| Apr precipitation inch = 3.75
| May precipitation inch = 3.79
| Jun precipitation inch = 3.83
| Jul precipitation inch = 3.67
| Aug precipitation inch = 3.56
| Sep precipitation inch = 3.93
| Oct precipitation inch = 3.60
| Nov precipitation inch = 3.37
| Dec precipitation inch = 2.99
| year precipitation inch = 41.03
| Jan snow inch = 18.4
| Feb snow inch = 15.1
| Mar snow inch = 10.8
| Apr snow inch = 2.7
| May snow inch = 0.0
| Jun snow inch = 0.0
| Jul snow inch = 0.0
| Aug snow inch = 0.0
| Sep snow inch = 0.0
| Oct snow inch = 0.1
| Nov snow inch = 4.5
| Dec snow inch = 12.2
| year snow inch = 63.8
| unit precipitation days = 0.01 in
| Jan precipitation days = 17.7
| Feb precipitation days = 14.6
| Mar precipitation days = 14.6
| Apr precipitation days = 14.8
| May precipitation days = 13.4
| Jun precipitation days = 11.5
| Jul precipitation days = 10.7
| Aug precipitation days = 10.3
| Sep precipitation days = 10.1
| Oct precipitation days = 12.1
| Nov precipitation days = 13.1
| Dec precipitation days = 15.6
| year precipitation days = 158.5
| unit snow days = 0.1 in
| Jan snow days = 13.5
| Feb snow days = 10.5
| Mar snow days = 7.2
| Apr snow days = 2.1
| May snow days = 0.1
| Jun snow days = 0.0
| Jul snow days = 0.0
| Aug snow days = 0.0
| Sep snow days = 0.0
| Oct snow days = 0.2
| Nov snow days = 3.8
| Dec snow days = 8.4
| year snow days = 45.8
| Jan snow depth inch = 7.5
| Feb snow depth inch = 7.5
| Mar snow depth inch = 5.3
| Apr snow depth inch = 1.1
| May snow depth inch = 0.0
| Jun snow depth inch = 0.0
| Jul snow depth inch = 0.0
| Aug snow depth inch = 0.0
| Sep snow depth inch = 0.0
| Oct snow depth inch = 0.0
| Nov snow depth inch = 1.5
| Dec snow depth inch = 4.5
| year snow depth inch = 10.8
| Jan humidity = 73.3
| Feb humidity = 73.0
| Mar humidity = 70.4
| Apr humidity = 66.1
| May humidity = 67.3
| Jun humidity = 69.0
| Jul humidity = 69.8
| Aug humidity = 73.1
| Sep humidity = 73.7
| Oct humidity = 70.8
| Nov humidity = 71.9
| Dec humidity = 74.1
| year humidity = 71.0
| Jan sun = 101.0
| Feb sun = 122.3
| Mar sun = 167.0
| Apr sun = 216.0
| May sun = 263.6
| Jun sun = 294.6
| Jul sun = 307.2
| Aug sun = 262.2
| Sep sun = 219.0
| Oct sun = 169.5
| Nov sun = 89.8
| Dec sun = 67.8
| year sun =
| Jan percentsun = 34
| Feb percentsun = 41
| Mar percentsun = 45
| Apr percentsun = 54
| May percentsun = 59
| Jun percentsun = 65
| Jul percentsun = 67
| Aug percentsun = 61
| Sep percentsun = 59
| Oct percentsun = 49
| Nov percentsun = 30
| Dec percentsun = 24
| year percentsun = 51
| Jan uv = 2
| Feb uv = 2
| Mar uv = 4
| Apr uv = 6
| May uv = 7
| Jun uv = 9
| Jul uv = 9
| Aug uv = 8
| Sep uv = 6
| Oct uv = 4
| Nov uv = 2
| Dec uv = 1
| source 1 = [[NOAA]] (relative humidity and sun 1961–1990)<ref name="NOAA">{{cite web |title=NOWData – NOAA Online Weather Data |publisher=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration |url=http://w2.weather.gov/climate/xmacis.php?wfo=cle |access-date=May 10, 2021 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Station: Cleveland, OH |work=U.S. Climate Normals 2020: U.S. Monthly Climate Normals (1991–2020) |publisher=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration |url=https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/access/services/data/v1?dataset=normals-monthly-1991-2020&startDate=0001-01-01&endDate=9996-12-31&stations=USW00014820&format=pdf |access-date=May 9, 2021 }}</ref><ref name=NOAAsun>{{cite web |title=WMO Climate Normals for CLEVELAND/HOPKINS INTL AP, OH 1961–1990 |publisher=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration |url=ftp://ftp.atdd.noaa.gov/pub/GCOS/WMO-Normals/TABLES/REG_IV/US/GROUP3/72524.TXT |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210726031644/ftp://ftp.atdd.noaa.gov/pub/GCOS/WMO-Normals/TABLES/REG_IV/US/GROUP3/72524.TXT |archive-date=2021-07-26 |url-status=dead |access-date=March 10, 2014 }}</ref>
| source 2 = Weather Atlas<ref name="Weather Atlas">{{cite web |title=Cleveland, Ohio, USA – Monthly weather forecast and Climate data |publisher=Weather Atlas |url=https://www.weather-us.com/en/ohio-usa/cleveland-climate |access-date=July 4, 2019 }}</ref> (sunshine data)
}}

{| class="wikitable mw-collapsible" style="width:100%;text-align:center;line-height:1.2em;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto"
|-
! colspan="14" |Climate data for Cleveland
|-
!Month
!Jan
!Feb
!Mar
!Apr
!May
!Jun
!Jul
!Aug
!Sep
!Oct
!Nov
!Dec
! style="border-left-width:medium" |Year
|-
!Average sea temperature °F (°C)
| style="background:#1010FF;color:#FFFFFF;" |34.0 (1.1)
| style="background:#0909FF;color:#FFFFFF;" |33.2 (0.6)
| style="background:#0C0CFF;color:#FFFFFF;" |33.5 (0.8)
| style="background:#4848FF;color:#FFFFFF;" |40.6 (4.8)
| style="background:#9A9AFF;color:#000000;" |50.5 (10.3)
| style="background:#FFD344;color:#000000;" |66.5 (19.2)
| style="background:#FF6B00;color:#000000;" |76.2 (24.5)
| style="background:#FF6900;color:#000000;" |76.3 (24.6)
| style="background:#FFA000;color:#000000;" |71.2 (21.8)
| style="background:#FAFAFF;color:#000000;" |62.0 (16.7)
| style="background:#9A9AFF;color:#000000;" |50.5 (10.3)
| style="background:#3D3DFF;color:#FFFFFF;" |39.3 (4.1)
| style="background:#ADADFF;color:#000000;border-left-width:medium" |52.8 (11.6)
|-
!Mean daily daylight hours
| style="background:#F0F011;color:#000000;" |10.0
| style="background:#F7F722;color:#000000;" |11.0
| style="background:#FFFF33;color:#000000;" |12.0
| style="background:#FFFF44;color:#000000;" |13.0
| style="background:#FFFF66;color:#000000;" |15.0
| style="background:#FFFF66;color:#000000;" |15.0
| style="background:#FFFF66;color:#000000;" |15.0
| style="background:#FFFF55;color:#000000;" |14.0
| style="background:#FFFF33;color:#000000;" |12.0
| style="background:#F7F722;color:#000000;" |11.0
| style="background:#F0F011;color:#000000;" |10.0
| style="background:#E9E900;color:#000000;" |9.0
| style="background:#FFFF37;color:#000000;border-left-width:medium" |12.3
|-
! colspan="14" style="background:#f8f9fa;font-weight:normal;font-size:95%;" |Source: Weather Atlas<ref name="Weather Atlas" />
|}

=== Environment ===
{{See also|Sustainable Cleveland}}
[[File:Bridge in Cleveland, Ohio.jpg|thumb|The west bank of [[the Flats]] and the [[Cuyahoga River]] in Downtown Cleveland, with [[Jacobs Pavilion]], Cleveland's [[amphitheater]]]]
With its extensive cleanup of its Lake Erie shore and the Cuyahoga River, Cleveland has been recognized by national media as an environmental success story and a national leader in environmental protection.<ref name="NYT-cuyahoga" /> Since the city's industrialization, the Cuyahoga River had become so affected by industrial pollution that it "caught fire" a total of 13 times beginning in 1868.<ref name="burning-river">{{Cite web |last=Grant |first=Julie |date=April 21, 2017 |title=How a Burning River Helped Create the Clean Water Act |url=https://www.alleghenyfront.org/how-a-burning-river-helped-create-the-clean-water-act/ |access-date=February 22, 2020 |website=The Allegheny Front }}</ref> It was the river fire of June 1969 that spurred the city to action under Mayor Carl B. Stokes, and played a key role in the passage of the [[Clean Water Act]] in 1972 and the [[National Environmental Policy Act]] later that year.<ref name="stokes-cuyahoga" /><ref name="burning-river" /> Since that time, the Cuyahoga has been extensively cleaned up through the efforts of the city and the [[Ohio Environmental Protection Agency]] (OEPA).<ref name="NYT-cuyahoga" /><ref>{{cite web |last=Piepenburg |first=Erik |date=June 7, 2019 |title=A Cleveland River Once Oozed and Burned. It's Now a Hot Spot. |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/06/07/travel/cleveland-cuyahoga-river-pollution.html |access-date=August 8, 2023 |work=The New York Times }}</ref>

In addition to continued efforts to improve freshwater and air quality, Cleveland is now exploring renewable energy. The city's two main electrical utilities are [[FirstEnergy]] and [[Cleveland Public Power]]. Its [[List of climate change initiatives|climate action plan]], updated in December 2018, has a 2050 target of 100% [[Renewable energy|renewable power]], along with reduction of [[Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States|greenhouse gases]] to 80% below the 2010 level.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Gearino |first=Dan |date=September 22, 2018 |title=100% Renewable Energy: Cleveland Sets a Big Goal as It Sheds Its Fossil Fuel Past |url=https://insideclimatenews.org/news/21092018/cleveland-100-percent-renewable-energy-cities-map-climate-change-plan-industrial-history |access-date=January 26, 2019 |website=InsideClimate News }}</ref> In recent decades, Cleveland has been working to address the issue of [[harmful algal bloom]]s on Lake Erie, fed primarily by agricultural runoff, which have presented new environmental challenges for the city and for northern Ohio.<ref>{{cite news |last=Vandenberge |first=Jordan |date=August 10, 2020 |title=Local company developing antidote to Lake Erie algal blooms |url=https://www.news5cleveland.com/news/local-news/local-company-developing-antidote-to-lake-erie-algal-blooms |access-date=December 30, 2020 |publisher=WEWS-TV }}</ref>

== Demographics ==
{{main|Demographics of Cleveland}}
{{US Census population
|1820= 606
|1830= 1075
|1840= 6071
|1850= 17034
|1860= 43417
|1870= 92829
|1880= 160146
|1890= 261353
|1900= 381768
|1910= 560663
|1920= 796841
|1930= 900429
|1940= 878336
|1950= 914808
|1960= 876050
|1970= 750903
|1980= 573822
|1990= 505616
|2000= 478403
|2010= 396815
|2020= 372624
|estyear=2024
|estimate=365379
|estref=<ref name="USCensusQuickFacts" />
|align-fn=center
|footnote=U.S. Decennial Census<ref name="largest-US-cities" /><ref name="2010census">{{cite web |title=Cleveland |work=QuickFacts (2010) |publisher=United States Census Bureau |url=http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/39/3916000.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140218233419/http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/39/3916000.html |archive-date=February 18, 2014 }}</ref>
}}

{|class="wikitable"
|+ Historical racial/ethnic composition
! Race/ethnicity !! 2020<ref name="2020census" />!! 2010<ref name="2010census" /> !! 1990<ref name="pop">{{cite web |title=Race and Hispanic Origin for Selected Cities and Other Places: Earliest Census to 1990 |publisher=United States Census Bureau |url=https://www.census.gov/population/www/documentation/twps0076/twps0076.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120812191959/http://www.census.gov/population/www/documentation/twps0076/twps0076.html |archive-date=August 12, 2012 }}</ref> !! 1970<ref name="pop" /> !! 1940<ref name="pop" />
|-
|[[Non-Hispanic Whites|White]] (non-Hispanic) ||32.1% ||33.4% ||47.8% ||59.4%{{efn|name=15%|From 15% sample}} ||90.2%
|-
|[[African Americans|Black or African American]] (non-Hispanic) ||47.5% ||52.4% ||46.6% ||38.3% ||9.6%
|-
|[[Hispanic and Latino Americans|Hispanic or Latino]] ||13.1% ||10.0% ||4.6% ||1.9%{{efn|name=15%}} ||0.1%
|-
|[[Asian Americans|Asian]] (non-Hispanic){{Efn|Included [[Pacific Islander Americans|Pacific Islanders]] until the year 2000}} ||2.8% ||1.8% ||1.0%||0.6%||-
|-
|Native American (non-Hispanic) ||0.2% ||0.2% ||0.3% ||0.2% ||–
|-
|[[Multiracial Americans|Two or more races]] (non-Hispanic) ||3.8% ||1.8% ||– ||– ||–
|}

At the 2020 census, there were 372,624 people and 170,549 households in Cleveland. The population density was {{convert|4901.51|PD/sqmi|PD/km2|1}}. The median household income was $30,907 and the per capita income was $21,223. 32.7% of the population was living below the poverty line. Of the city's population over the age of 25, 17.5% held a bachelor's degree or higher, and 80.8% had a high school diploma or equivalent.<ref name="USCensusQuickFacts" /> The median age was 36.6 years.<ref>{{cite news |last=Smith |first=Zachary |title=Every Ohio city ranked for median age, youth, seniors – new census estimates |newspaper=The Plain Dealer |url=https://www.cleveland.com/data/2022/03/every-ohio-city-ranked-for-median-age-youth-seniors-new-census-estimates.html |date=March 31, 2022 |access-date=May 24, 2023 }}</ref>

{{As of|2020}}, the racial and ethnic composition of the city was 47.5% African American, 32.1% [[Non-Hispanic whites|non-Hispanic white]], 13.1% [[Hispanic and Latino Americans|Hispanic or Latino]], 2.8% [[Asian Americans|Asian]], 0% [[Pacific Islander Americans|Pacific Islander]], 0.2% Native American, and 3.8% from [[Multiracial Americans|two or more races]].<ref name="2020census" /> 85.3% of Clevelanders age five and older spoke only English at home, while 14.7% spoke a language other than English, including [[Spanish language in the United States|Spanish]], [[Arabic language in the United States|Arabic]], [[Chinese language in the United States|Chinese]], [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]], [[Albanian language|Albanian]], and various [[Slavic languages]] ([[Russian language in the United States|Russian]], [[Polish language|Polish]], [[Serbian language|Serbian]], [[Croatian language|Croatian]], and [[Slovene language|Slovene]]).<ref name="USCensusQuickFacts" /> The city's [[North American English regional phonology|spoken accent]] is an advanced form of [[Inland Northern American English]], similar to other Great Lakes cities, but distinctive from the rest of Ohio.<ref>{{cite news |last=Polk |first=Mike Jr. |author-link=Mike Polk |title=Mike Polk Jr. investigates the 'Cleveland Accent' |publisher=WKYC |url=https://www.wkyc.com/article/entertainment/television/programs/whats-new/mike-polk-jr-investigates-the-cleveland-accent/95-56345205-fe40-490b-8f7c-8bc05c95edf7 |date=October 22, 2020 |access-date=August 8, 2023 |quote=Cleveland is very distinctive from the rest of Ohio in its accent [with] that backwards 'A' and that that long drawn out 'O.' }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=McIntyre |first=Michael K. |title=Clevelanders probably think they don't have an accent, but we do, and so do others in the Midwest |newspaper=The Plain Dealer |url=https://www.cleveland.com/tipoff/2017/01/clevelanders_probably_think_th.html |date=January 13, 2017 |access-date=August 8, 2023 |quote=[The accent is] nasal and marked by a raised 'a' that makes 'cat' sound like 'cayat,' a fronted 'o' that makes 'box' sound like 'bahx.' }}</ref>

=== Ethnicity ===
{{multiple image
|align = right
|direction = vertical
|image1 = Shiloh Baptist Church Cleveland Ohio.jpg
|caption1 = Originally built in 1905 as the Jewish Temple B'nai Jeshurun, this building on Cleveland's East Side, today known as the [[Shiloh Baptist Church (Cleveland, Ohio)|Shiloh Baptist Church]], now serves an African American congregation.
|image2 = Saint Theodosius Russian Orthodox Cathedral (Cleveland, Ohio) - exterior photographed from A Christmas Story House property.jpg
|caption2 = [[St. Theodosius Russian Orthodox Cathedral]] in [[Tremont, Cleveland|Tremont]]
}}

In the 19th and early 20th centuries, Cleveland saw a massive influx of immigrants from Ireland, [[Kingdom of Italy|Italy]], and the [[Austria-Hungary|Austro-Hungarian]], [[German Empire|German]], [[Russian Empire|Russian]], and [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] empires, most of whom were attracted by manufacturing jobs.<ref name="immigration-migration" /> As a result, Cleveland and Cuyahoga County today have substantial communities of [[Irish Americans|Irish]] (especially in West Park), [[Italian Americans|Italians]] (especially in Little Italy), [[German Americans|Germans]], and several [[Central Europe|Central]]-Eastern European ethnicities, including [[Czech American|Czechs]], [[Hungarian Americans|Hungarians]], [[Lithuanian American|Lithuanians]], [[Polish Americans|Poles]], [[Romanian American|Romanians]], [[Russian Americans|Russians]], [[Rusyn Americans|Rusyns]], [[Slovak American|Slovaks]], [[Ukrainian American|Ukrainians]], and ex-[[Yugoslavia|Yugoslav]] groups, such as [[Slovene Americans|Slovenes]], [[Croatian American|Croats]] and [[Serbian American|Serbs]].<ref name="immigration-migration" /> The presence of [[Hungarian Ohioans#Hungarians in Cleveland|Hungarians within Cleveland proper]] was, at one time, so great that the city boasted the highest concentration of Hungarians in the world outside of [[Budapest]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Hungarians |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History |publisher=Case Western Reserve University |url=https://case.edu/ech/articles/h/hungarians |access-date=July 8, 2019 |date=May 11, 2018 }}</ref> Cleveland has a long-established [[Jews and Judaism in Greater Cleveland|Jewish community]], historically centered on the East Side neighborhoods of Glenville and Kinsman, but now mostly concentrated in East Side suburbs such as Cleveland Heights and [[Beachwood, Ohio|Beachwood]], location of the [[Maltz Museum of Jewish Heritage]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Jews & Judaism |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History |publisher=Case Western Reserve University |url=https://case.edu/ech/articles/j/jews-judaism |access-date=July 2, 2019 |date=May 11, 2018 }}</ref>

The availability of jobs attracted African Americans from the South. Between 1910 and 1970, the black population of Cleveland, largely concentrated on the city's East Side, increased significantly as a result of the First and [[Second Great Migration (African American)|Second Great Migrations]].<ref name="african-americans" /> Cleveland's Latino community consists primarily of [[Puerto Ricans in the United States|Puerto Ricans]], as well as smaller numbers of immigrants from Mexico, [[Cuba]], the [[Dominican Republic]], [[South America|South]] and Central America, and Spain.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Hispanic Community |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History |publisher=Case Western Reserve University |url=https://case.edu/ech/articles/h/hispanic-community |access-date=July 2, 2019 |date=May 11, 2018 }}</ref> The city's Asian community, centered on historical Asiatown, consists of [[Chinese Americans|Chinese]], [[Korean Americans|Koreans]], [[Vietnamese Americans|Vietnamese]], and other groups.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Asiatown |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History |publisher=Case Western Reserve University |url=https://case.edu/ech/articles/a/asiatown |access-date=July 2, 2019 |date=May 11, 2018 }}</ref> Additionally, the city and the county have significant communities of [[Albanian Americans|Albanians]],<ref name="albanians">{{cite encyclopedia |title=Albanians |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History |publisher=Case Western Reserve University |url=https://case.edu/ech/articles/a/albanians |access-date=July 2, 2019 |date=May 11, 2018 }}</ref> [[Arab American|Arabs]] (especially [[Lebanese Americans|Lebanese]], [[Syrian Americans|Syrians]], and [[Palestinian Americans|Palestinians]]),<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Arab Americans |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History |publisher=Case Western Reserve University |url=https://case.edu/ech/articles/a/arab-americans |access-date=August 9, 2019 |date=May 11, 2018 }}</ref> [[Armenian Americans|Armenians]],<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Armenians |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History |publisher=Case Western Reserve University |url=https://case.edu/ech/articles/a/armenians |date=January 10, 2021 |access-date=June 7, 2023 }}</ref> [[French American|French]],<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=French |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History |publisher=Case Western Reserve University |url=https://case.edu/ech/articles/f/french |access-date=August 9, 2019 |date=May 11, 2018 }}</ref> [[Greek American|Greeks]],<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Greeks |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History |publisher=Case Western Reserve University |url=https://case.edu/ech/articles/g/greeks |access-date=August 9, 2019 |date=May 11, 2018 }}</ref> [[Iranian Americans|Iranians]],<ref>{{cite news |last=Vandenberge |first=Jordan |title=Iranian-Americans in Cleveland keeping close eye on rising tensions between US, Iran |publisher=WEWS-TV |url=https://www.news5cleveland.com/news/local-news/iranian-americans-in-cleveland-keeping-close-eye-on-rising-tensions-between-us-iran |date=January 3, 2020 |access-date=June 21, 2020 }}</ref> [[Scottish Americans|Scots]],<ref name="immigration-migration" /> [[Turkish Americans|Turks]],<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Turks in Cleveland |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History |publisher=Case Western Reserve University |url=https://case.edu/ech/articles/t/turks-cleveland |date=October 2, 2019 |access-date=June 7, 2023 }}</ref> and [[West Indian American|West Indians]].<ref name="immigration-migration" /> A 2020 analysis found Cleveland to be the most ethnically and racially diverse major city in Ohio.<ref>{{cite news |last=Mosby |first=Chris |title=3 Ohio Cities Among Nation's Most Diverse: U.S. News |website=[[Patch (website)|Patch]] |url=https://patch.com/ohio/cleveland/3-ohio-cities-among-nation-s-most-diverse-u-s-news |date=January 23, 2020 |access-date=May 24, 2020 }}</ref>

=== Religion ===
The influx of immigrants in the 19th and early 20th centuries drastically transformed Cleveland's religious landscape. From a homogeneous settlement of New England [[Protestants]], it evolved into a city with a diverse religious composition. The predominant faith among Clevelanders today is Christianity ([[Catholic Church|Catholic]], Protestant, and [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern]] and [[Oriental Orthodox Churches|Oriental Orthodox]]), with Jewish, [[Muslim]], [[Hinduism|Hindu]], and [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] minorities.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Religion |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History |publisher=Case Western Reserve University |url=https://case.edu/ech/articles/r/religion |access-date=July 31, 2019 |date=May 12, 2018 }}</ref>

=== Immigration ===
Within Cleveland, the neighborhoods with the highest foreign-born populations are Asiatown/Goodrich–Kirtland Park (32.7%), Clark–Fulton (26.7%), West Boulevard (18.5%), Brooklyn Centre (17.3%), Downtown (17.2%), University Circle (15.9%, with 20% in Little Italy), and Jefferson (14.3%).<ref>{{cite web |title=National Origin in Cleveland, Ohio |publisher=Statistical Atlas |url=https://statisticalatlas.com/place/Ohio/Cleveland/National-Origin |access-date=May 24, 2020 }}</ref> Recent waves of immigration have brought new groups to Cleveland, including [[Ethiopian Americans|Ethiopians]] and [[South Asian Americans|South Asians]],<ref>{{cite web |last=Drown |first=Hannah |title=New Ethiopian Cultural Garden first in Cleveland to represent an African nation |url=https://www.cleveland.com/news/2019/08/ethiopian-cultural-garden-marks-first-cultural-garden-in-cleveland-to-represent-an-african-nation.html |publisher=[[The Plain Dealer]] |date=August 26, 2019 |access-date=June 19, 2023 }}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Indians (Asian) |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History |publisher=Case Western Reserve University |url=https://case.edu/ech/articles/i/indians-asian |access-date=July 2, 2019 |date=February 21, 2019 }}</ref> as well as immigrants from Russia and the [[Post-Soviet states|former USSR]],<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Russians |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History |publisher=Case Western Reserve University |url=https://case.edu/ech/articles/r/russians |date=May 30, 2023 |access-date=June 7, 2023 }}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Soviet and Post-Soviet Immigration |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History |publisher=Case Western Reserve University |url=https://case.edu/ech/articles/s/soviet-and-post-soviet-immigration |date=October 7, 2019 |access-date=June 7, 2023 }}</ref> Southeast Europe (especially [[Albania]]),<ref name="albanians" /> the Middle East, East Asia, and Latin America.<ref name="immigration-migration" /> In the 2010s, the immigrant population of Cleveland and Cuyahoga County began to see significant growth.<ref>{{cite news |last=Exner |first=Rich |title=Among counties, Cuyahoga near top in Midwest for attracting immigrants |newspaper=The Plain Dealer |url=https://www.cleveland.com/datacentral/2018/04/among_counties_cuyahoga_near_t.html |date=April 2, 2018 |access-date=July 8, 2019 }}</ref> A 2019 study found Cleveland to be the city with the shortest average processing time in the nation for immigrants to become [[Citizenship of the United States|U.S. citizens]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Cho |first=Janet H. |title=Cleveland is the No. 1 city for immigrants to become U.S. citizens, study says |newspaper=The Plain Dealer |url=https://www.cleveland.com/news/2019/02/cleveland-is-the-no-1-city-for-immigrants-to-become-us-citizens-study-says.html |date=February 7, 2019 |access-date=July 2, 2019 }}</ref> The city's annual One World Day in Rockefeller Park includes a naturalization ceremony of new immigrants.<ref name="culturalgardens">{{cite encyclopedia |title=Cleveland Cultural Gardens |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History |publisher=Case Western Reserve University |url=https://case.edu/ech/articles/c/cleveland-cultural-gardens |date=January 10, 2022 |access-date=June 7, 2023 }}</ref>

== Economy ==
{{main|Economy of Greater Cleveland}}
[[File:Federal Reserve Bank, Cleveland, Ohio LCCN2010630382.jpg|thumb|left|Entrance of the [[Federal Reserve Bank of Cleveland]] on East 6th Street]]
Cleveland's location on the Cuyahoga River and Lake Erie has been key to its growth as a major commercial center.<ref name="economy" /> Steel and many other manufactured goods emerged as leading industries.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Stapleton |first=Darwin H. |title=Industry |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History |publisher=Case Western Reserve University |url=https://case.edu/ech/articles/i/industry |access-date=August 5, 2019 |date=May 11, 2018 }}</ref><ref name="labor" /> The city has since diversified its economy in addition to its manufacturing sector.<ref name="economy" />

Established in 1914, the [[Federal Reserve Bank of Cleveland]] is one of 12 U.S. [[Federal Reserve Bank]]s.<ref name="fed">{{cite web |title=About Us |date=June 29, 2023 |publisher=Federal Reserve Bank of Cleveland |url=https://www.clevelandfed.org/en/about-us/ |access-date=July 7, 2023 }}</ref> Its downtown building, located on East 6th Street and [[Superior Avenue]], was completed in 1923 by the Cleveland architectural firm [[Walker and Weeks]].{{sfn|Johannesen|1999|p=41}}<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Federal Reserve Bank of Cleveland |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History |publisher=Case Western Reserve University |url=https://case.edu/ech/articles/f/federal-reserve-bank-cleveland |access-date=August 5, 2019 |date=May 31, 2019 }}</ref> The headquarters of the Federal Reserve System's Fourth District, the bank employs 1,000 people and maintains branch offices in [[Cincinnati]] and [[Pittsburgh]].<ref name="fed" />

[[File:Commerce by Daniel Chester French, 1912 - Cleveland, Ohio - DSC07918.JPG|thumb|upright|''Commerce'' by [[Daniel Chester French]] at the [[Howard M. Metzenbaum United States Courthouse|Metzenbaum U.S. Courthouse]] on [[Superior Avenue]]]]
Cleveland and Cuyahoga County are home to ''[[Fortune 500]]'' companies [[Cleveland-Cliffs]], [[Progressive Corporation|Progressive]], [[Sherwin-Williams Company|Sherwin-Williams]], [[Parker-Hannifin]], [[Key Bank|KeyCorp]], and [[Travel Centers of America]]. Other large companies based in the city and the county include [[Aleris]], [[American Greetings]], [[Applied Industrial Technologies]], [[Eaton Corporation|Eaton]], [[Forest City Realty Trust]], Heinen's Fine Foods, [[Hyster-Yale Materials Handling]], [[Lincoln Electric]], [[Medical Mutual of Ohio]], [[Moen Incorporated]], [[NACCO Industries]], [[Nordson Corporation]], [[OM Group]], [[Swagelok]], [[Kirby Company]], [[Things Remembered]], [[Third Federal S&L]], [[TransDigm Group]], and [[Vitamix]]. [[NASA]] maintains the [[Glenn Research Center]] in Cleveland. [[Jones Day]], one of the largest law firms in the U.S., was founded in Cleveland in 1893.<ref>{{cite web |title=Firm History |publisher=Jones Day |url=https://www.jonesday.com/en/firm?tab=history |access-date=August 7, 2022 }}</ref>

=== Healthcare ===
Healthcare plays a major role in Cleveland's economy. The city's "Big Three" hospital systems are the [[Cleveland Clinic]], [[University Hospitals Cleveland Medical Center|University Hospitals]], and [[MetroHealth]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Walsh |first=Jonathan |title=Comparing prices at the big 3 local hospitals: Are you getting the best rates and what do the prices really mean? |publisher=WEWS-TV |url=https://www.news5cleveland.com/news/e-team/comparing-prices-at-the-big-3-local-hospitals-are-you-getting-the-best-rates-and-what-do-the-prices-really-mean |date=February 1, 2019 |access-date=May 19, 2023 }}</ref> The Cleveland Clinic is the largest private employer in the state of Ohio, with a workforce of over 55,000 {{As of|2022|lc=y}}.<ref>{{cite report |title=Ohio Major Employers |publisher=Ohio Department of Development |url=https://devresearch.ohio.gov/files/research/B2001.pdf |page=4 |date=December 2022 |access-date=May 24, 2023 }}</ref> It carries the distinction of being one of the best hospital systems in the world.<ref>{{cite news |last=Washington |first=Julie |title=Cleveland Clinic is No. 2 in world after Mayo Clinic |newspaper=The Plain Dealer |url=https://www.cleveland.com/metro/2024/03/cleveland-clinic-is-no-2-in-world-after-mayo-clinic-in-newsweeks-2024-hospital-rankings.html |date=March 1, 2024 |access-date=May 1, 2024 }}</ref> The clinic is led by Croatian-born president and CEO Tomislav Mihaljevic and it is affiliated with [[Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Segall |first=Grant |title=New Cleveland Clinic chief Dr. Tomislav Mihaljevic perplexed friends by leaving Harvard for the North Coast: My Cleveland |newspaper=The Plain Dealer |url=https://www.cleveland.com/mycleveland/2018/04/new_cleveland_clinic_chief_dr_tomislav_mihaljevic_perplexed_friends_by_leaving_harvard_for_the_north_coast_my_cleveland_photos.html |date=April 26, 2018 |access-date=June 21, 2020 }}</ref>

University Hospitals includes the University Hospitals Cleveland Medical Center and its [[Rainbow Babies & Children's Hospital]]. Cliff Megerian serves as that system's CEO.<ref>{{cite news |last=Jain |first=Mukesh |title=Academic Life & Leadership: A Dialogue with Cliff A. Megerian, MD, FACS |newspaper=[[University Hospitals Cleveland Medical Center|University Hospitals]] |url=https://www.uhhospitals.org/for-clinicians/articles-and-news/articles/2021/03/academic-life-leadership-a-dialogue-with-cliff-a-megerian-md-facs |date=March 29, 2021 |access-date=May 13, 2021 }}</ref> MetroHealth on the city's west side is led by president and CEO Christine Alexander-Rager.<ref>{{cite news |last=Wizner |first=Taylor |title=MetroHealth appoints longtime exec Dr. Christine Alexander-Rager as new CEO |publisher=Ideastream |url=https://www.ideastream.org/health/2024-10-08/metrohealth-appoints-longtime-exec-dr-christine-alexander-rager-as-new-ceo |date=October 8, 2024 |access-date=November 9, 2024 }}</ref> Formerly known as City Hospital, it operates one of two Level I trauma centers in the city, and has various locations throughout Greater Cleveland.<ref>{{cite web |last=Stewart |first=Shannon |title=Metro Health Medical Center |website=Cleveland Historical |publisher=Cleveland State University |url=https://clevelandhistorical.org/items/show/584 |access-date=July 7, 2023 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Ross |first=Casey |title=Level 1 trauma: How University Hospitals' new facility has impacted MetroHealth, delivery of care citywide |newspaper=The Plain Dealer |url=https://www.cleveland.com/healthfit/2016/04/level_1_trauma_how_university_hospitals_new_facility_has_impacted_metrohealth_delivery_of_care_citywide.html |date=April 29, 2016 |access-date=August 8, 2023 }}</ref>

In 2013, Cleveland's [[Global Center for Health Innovation]] opened with {{convert|235000|sqft|m2}} of display space for healthcare companies across the world.<ref>{{cite news |last=Suchetka |first=Diane |title=After years of hurdles, Cleveland's medical mart officially opens with an Oct. 8 ribbon-cutting |newspaper=The Plain Dealer |url=https://www.cleveland.com/business/2013/10/after_years_of_hurdles_clevela.html |date=October 2, 2013 |access-date=May 14, 2021 }}</ref> To take advantage of the proximity of universities and other medical centers in Cleveland, the [[Veterans Administration]] moved the region's VA hospital from suburban [[Brecksville]] to a new facility in University Circle.<ref>{{cite news |title=V.A. and Military Hospitals of Greater Cleveland |website=Cleveland Memory Project |publisher=Cleveland State University |url=http://www.clevelandmemory.org/va/index.html |access-date=May 14, 2021 }}</ref>

{{Multiple image
| align = center
| perrow = 3
| total_width = 750
| image1 = Cleveland Clinic Miller Family Pavilion.jpg
| image2 = University Hospitals Cleveland Medical Center.png
| image3 = MetroHealth Medical Center, Cleveland.jpg
| footer = Cleveland's "Big Three" hospitals – The [[Cleveland Clinic]], [[University Hospitals of Cleveland|University Hospitals]], and [[MetroHealth]]
}}

== Arts and culture ==
{{See also|Category:Culture of Cleveland|Cleveland School (arts community)}}

=== Theater and performing arts ===
[[File:Playhouse Square at dusk.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Playhouse Square]]]]
Cleveland's [[Playhouse Square]] is the second largest performing arts center in the U.S. behind New York City's [[Lincoln Center]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Playhouse Square |website=Cleveland Historical |publisher=Cleveland State University |url=https://clevelandhistorical.org/items/show/61 |access-date=July 1, 2023 |quote=By the turn of the twenty-first century, all of the original theaters were again hosting performances, constituting the nation's second largest performing arts complex after New York's Lincoln Center. }}</ref> It includes the [[State Theatre (Cleveland)|State]], [[Connor Palace|Palace]], [[Allen Theatre|Allen]], [[Hanna Theatre|Hanna]], and [[Ohio Theatre (Cleveland)|Ohio]] theaters.<ref name="playhouse" /> The theaters host [[musical theatre|Broadway musicals]], special concerts, speaking engagements, and other events throughout the year. Playhouse Square's resident performing arts companies include [[Cleveland Ballet (founded 2014)|Cleveland Ballet]], the [[Cleveland International Film Festival]], the [[Cleveland Play House]], Cleveland State University Department of Theatre and Dance, DANCECleveland, the [[Great Lakes Theater Festival]], and the Tri-C Jazz Fest.<ref>{{cite web |title=Resident Companies |publisher=Playhouse Square Center |url=http://www.playhousesquare.org/about-playhousesquare-main/resident-companies |access-date=June 7, 2020 }}</ref> A city with strong traditions in theater and [[vaudeville]], Cleveland has produced many renowned performers, most prominently comedian [[Bob Hope]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Bob Hope and the American Variety: Early Life |publisher=[[Library of Congress]] |url=https://www.loc.gov/exhibits/bobhope/early.html |access-date=August 3, 2012 |date=May 10, 2000 }}</ref>

Outside Playhouse Square is [[Karamu House]], the oldest African American theater in the nation, established in 1915.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Karamu House |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History |publisher=Case Western Reserve University |url=https://case.edu/ech/articles/k/karamu-house |access-date=May 11, 2021 |date=April 5, 2021 }}</ref> On the West Side, the Gordon Square Arts District in the Detroit–Shoreway neighborhood is the location of the Capitol Theatre, the [[Near West Theatre]], and an [[Off-Off-Broadway]] playhouse, the [[Cleveland Public Theatre]].<ref name="CLE-hustles" /> The [[Dobama Theatre]] and the [[Beck Center for the Arts]] are based in Cleveland's streetcar suburbs of Cleveland Heights and Lakewood respectively.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Mansfield |first=Herbert |title=Theater |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History |publisher=Case Western Reserve University |url=https://case.edu/ech/articles/t/theater |access-date=August 1, 2019 |date=May 12, 2018 }}</ref>

=== Music ===
[[File:Franz Welser-Möst 2.jpg|thumb|Conductor [[Franz Welser-Möst]] leading the [[Cleveland Orchestra]]]]
The Cleveland Orchestra is widely considered one of the world's finest orchestras, and often referred to as the finest in the nation.<ref>{{cite news |last=Allen |first=David |title=The Cleveland Orchestra, America's Finest, Restarts Recording |newspaper=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/10/09/arts/music/cleveland-orchestra-classical-music.html |access-date=June 19, 2023 |date=October 9, 2020 |quote=The Cleveland Orchestra is America's finest, still. }}</ref> It is one of the "[[Big Five (orchestras)|Big Five]]" major orchestras in the U.S.{{sfn|Rosenberg|2000|p=522}} The orchestra plays at [[Severance Hall]] in University Circle during the winter and at [[Blossom Music Center]] in [[Cuyahoga Falls, Ohio|Cuyahoga Falls]] during the summer.<ref>{{cite web |title=Mission & History |publisher=The Cleveland Orchestra |url=https://www.clevelandorchestra.com/about/mission-and-history/ |access-date=August 9, 2019 }}</ref> The city is also home to the [[Cleveland Pops Orchestra]], [[Apollo's Fire]] Baroque Orchestra, the [[Cleveland Orchestra Youth Orchestra|Cleveland Youth Orchestra]], the [[Contemporary Youth Orchestra]], the [[Cleveland Youth Wind Symphony]], and the biennial [[Cleveland International Piano Competition]] which has, in the past, often featured the Cleveland Orchestra.<ref>{{cite web |title=About |publisher=Piano Cleveland |url=https://www.pianocleveland.org/about/ |access-date=June 4, 2023 }}</ref>

One Playhouse Square, now the headquarters for Cleveland's [[public broadcasting|public broadcasters]], was initially used as the broadcast studios of WJW (AM), where disc jockey Alan Freed first popularized the term "rock and roll".<ref name="freed" /> Beginning in the 1950s, Cleveland gained a strong reputation as a key breakout market for rock music.<ref name="rock-n-roll">{{cite encyclopedia |title=Rock 'n' Roll |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History |date=May 13, 2023 |publisher=Case Western Reserve University |url=https://case.edu/ech/articles/r/rock-n-roll |access-date=May 19, 2023 }}</ref> Its popularity in the city was so great that Billy Bass, the program director at the [[WMMS]] radio station, referred to Cleveland as "The Rock and Roll Capital of the World".<ref name="rock-n-roll" /> The [[Agora Theatre and Ballroom|Cleveland Agora Theatre and Ballroom]] has served as a major venue for rock concerts in the city since the 1960s.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Agora/Agora Ballroom |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History |date=February 19, 2020 |publisher=Case Western Reserve University |url=https://case.edu/ech/articles/a/agoraagora-ballroom |access-date=June 1, 2021 }}</ref> From 1974 through 1980, the city hosted the [[World Series of Rock]] at [[Cleveland Stadium|Cleveland Municipal Stadium]].{{sfn|Toman|1997|pp=64–65}}

Jazz and R&B have a long history in Cleveland. Many major figures in jazz performed in the city, including [[Louis Armstrong]], [[Cab Calloway]], [[Duke Ellington]], [[Ella Fitzgerald]], [[Dizzy Gillespie]], and [[Billie Holiday]].<ref name="CLEjazz">{{cite encyclopedia |title=Jazz |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History |publisher=Case Western Reserve University |url=https://case.edu/ech/articles/j/jazz |access-date=June 14, 2019 |date=June 29, 2018 }}</ref>{{sfn|Mosbrook|2013|pp=32–33, 59, 126}} Legendary pianist [[Art Tatum]] regularly played in Cleveland clubs in the 1930s,<ref name="CLEjazz" /> and [[gypsy jazz]] guitarist [[Django Reinhardt]] gave his U.S. debut performance in Cleveland in 1946.<ref>{{cite web |last=Meiksins |first=Robin |title=Django Reinhardt at the Music Hall |website=Cleveland Historical |publisher=Cleveland State University |url=http://clevelandhistorical.org/items/show/525 |access-date=August 5, 2019 }}</ref> Prominent jazz artist [[Noble Sissle]] was a graduate of [[Central High School (Cleveland, Ohio)|Cleveland Central High School]], and [[Artie Shaw]] worked and performed in Cleveland early in his career.<ref name="CLEjazz" /> The Tri-C Jazz Fest has been held annually in Cleveland at Playhouse Square since 1980, and the Cleveland Jazz Orchestra was established in 1984.{{sfn|Mosbrook|2013|p=193}}

The city has a history of [[polka]] music being popular both past and present and is the location of the [[Polka Hall of Fame]]. There is even a subgenre called [[Slovenian-style polka|Cleveland-style polka]], named after the city. The music's popularity is due in part to the success of [[Frankie Yankovic]], a Cleveland native who was considered "America's Polka King".<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Valencic |first=Joseph |title=Polkas |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History |date=June 18, 2018 |publisher=Case Western Reserve University |url=https://case.edu/ech/articles/p/polkas |access-date=July 1, 2023 }}</ref>

There is a significant [[hip hop music]] scene in Cleveland. In 1997, the Cleveland hip hop group [[Bone Thugs-n-Harmony]] won a [[Grammy Award for Best Rap Performance by a Duo or Group|Grammy]] for their song "[[Tha Crossroads]]".<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bone Thugs-N-Harmony {{!}} Biography & History |website=AllMusic |url=http://www.allmusic.com/artist/bone-thugs-n-harmony-mn0000081316/biography |access-date=October 20, 2015 }}</ref>

=== Film and television ===
{{See also|Category:Films set in Cleveland|Category:Films shot in Cleveland}}
[[File:Cleveland Fire Department, 1900.ogg|thumb|''Cleveland Fire Department'' (1900) by the [[Edison Manufacturing Company|Edison Company]], one of the first films made in Cleveland]]
The first film shot in Cleveland was in 1897 by the [[Edison Manufacturing Company|company]] of Ohioan [[Thomas Edison]].<ref name="Cle-Enc-Film">{{cite encyclopedia |title=Cleveland on Film |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History |publisher=Case Western Reserve University |url=https://case.edu/ech/articles/c/cleveland-film |date=May 30, 2023 |access-date=June 7, 2023 }}</ref> Before [[Hollywood, Los Angeles|Hollywood]] became the center for [[Cinema of the United States|American cinema]], filmmaker Samuel Brodsky and playwright Robert McLaughlin operated a film studio at the [[Samuel Andrews (chemist)|Andrews]] mansion on Euclid Avenue (now the [[WEWS-TV]] studio).<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Andrews's Folly |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History |publisher=Case Western Reserve University |url=https://case.edu/ech/articles/a/andrewss-folly |date=July 2, 2021 |access-date=June 7, 2023 }}</ref> There they produced major [[silent film|silent-era]] features, such as ''[[Dangerous Toys (film)|Dangerous Toys]]'' (1921), which are now considered [[lost film|lost]]. Brodsky also directed the weekly ''Plain Dealer Screen Magazine'' that ran in theaters in Cleveland and Ohio from 1917 to 1924.<ref name="Cle-Enc-Film" /> In addition, Cleveland hosted over a dozen [[sponsored film]] studios, including [[Cinécraft Productions]], which still operates in Ohio City.<ref name="Cle-Enc-Film" /><ref>{{cite web |title=Cinecraft Productions: The Historic Film Company produced by a Love Story |last=Dubelko |first=Jim |website=Cleveland Historical |publisher=Cleveland State University |url=https://clevelandhistorical.org/items/show/999 |access-date=May 22, 2023 }}</ref>

In the "[[sound film|talkie]]" era, Cleveland featured in several [[Major film studio|major studio]] films, such as [[Michael Curtiz]]'s [[Pre-Code Hollywood|pre-Code]] classic ''[[Goodbye Again (1933 film)|Goodbye Again]]'' (1933) with [[Warren William]] and [[Joan Blondell]]. Players from the [[1948 Cleveland Indians season|1948 Cleveland Indians]] appeared in ''[[The Kid from Cleveland]]'' (1949). [[Billy Wilder]]'s ''[[The Fortune Cookie]]'' (1966) was set and filmed in the city and marked the first onscreen pairing of [[Walter Matthau]] and [[Jack Lemmon]]. Labor struggles in Cleveland were depicted in ''[[Native Land]]'' (1942), narrated by [[Paul Robeson]], and in [[Norman Jewison]]'s ''[[F.I.S.T. (film)|F.I.S.T.]]'' (1978) with [[Sylvester Stallone]]. Clevelander [[Jim Jarmusch]]'s ''[[Stranger Than Paradise]]'' (1984) – a [[deadpan]] comedy about two New Yorkers who travel to Florida by way of Cleveland – was a favorite of the [[Cannes Film Festival]]. ''[[Major League (film)|Major League]]'' (1989) reflected the [[Cleveland Guardians#1960–1993: The 33-year slump|perennial struggles]] of the Cleveland Indians, while ''[[American Splendor (film)|American Splendor]]'' (2003) reflected the life of Cleveland graphic novelist [[Harvey Pekar]]. ''[[Kill the Irishman]]'' (2011) depicted the 1970s turf war between [[Danny Greene]] and the Cleveland crime family.<ref name="Cle-Enc-Film" />

Cleveland has doubled for other locations in films. The wedding and reception scenes in ''[[The Deer Hunter]]'' (1978), while set in suburban Pittsburgh, were shot in Cleveland's Tremont neighborhood. ''[[A Christmas Story]]'' (1983) was set in [[Indiana]], but drew many external shots from Cleveland. The opening shots of ''[[Air Force One (film)|Air Force One]]'' (1997) were filmed in and above Severance Hall, and ''[[Judas and the Black Messiah]]'' (2021) was filmed in Cleveland, although set in Chicago. Downtown Cleveland doubled for [[Manhattan]] in ''[[Spider-Man 3]]'' (2007), ''[[The Avengers (2012 film)|The Avengers]]'' (2012), and ''[[The Fate of the Furious]]'' (2017), and for [[Metropolis (comics)|Metropolis]] in [[James Gunn]]'s ''[[Superman (2025 film)|Superman]]'' (2025). Future productions are handled by the [[Greater Cleveland Film Commission]] at the [[Leader Building]] on Superior Avenue.<ref name="Cle-Enc-Film" /><ref>{{Cite news |last=Morona |first=Joey |date=June 24, 2024 |title=It's a bird! It's a plane! No, it's Superman strolling the streets of Cleveland |url=https://www.cleveland.com/entertainment/2024/06/its-a-bird-its-a-plane-no-its-superman-strolling-the-streets-of-cleveland.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240624204118/https://www.cleveland.com/entertainment/2024/06/its-a-bird-its-a-plane-no-its-superman-strolling-the-streets-of-cleveland.html |archive-date=June 24, 2024 |access-date=June 24, 2024 |newspaper=The Plain Dealer }}</ref>

In television, the city is the setting for the popular network sitcom ''[[The Drew Carey Show]]'', starring Cleveland native [[Drew Carey]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Stanley |first=Alessandra |title=Stay. Eat. Make Yourself at Home. Maybe Find a Man |newspaper=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/06/16/arts/television/16hot.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220101/https://www.nytimes.com/2010/06/16/arts/television/16hot.html |archive-date=January 1, 2022 |url-access=limited |date=June 15, 2010 |access-date=July 7, 2010}}{{cbignore }}</ref> ''[[Hot in Cleveland]]'', a comedy that aired on [[TV Land]], premiered on June 16, 2010, and ran for six seasons until its finale on June 3, 2015.<ref>{{cite news |last=Rice |first=Lynette |title='Hot in Cleveland' attracts record ratings for TV Land |newspaper=Hollywood Insider |url=http://hollywoodinsider.ew.com/2010/06/17/hot-in-cleveland-attracts-record-ratings-for-tv-land/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100619005240/http://hollywoodinsider.ew.com/2010/06/17/hot-in-cleveland-attracts-record-ratings-for-tv-land/ |date=June 17, 2010 |access-date=July 7, 2010 |archive-date=June 19, 2010 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Andreeva |first=Nellie |title='Hot In Cleveland' To End Run After Six Seasons On TV Land |newspaper=Deadline Hollywood |url=https://deadline.com/2014/11/hot-in-cleveland-cancelled-six-seasons-tv-land-1201287034/ |date=November 17, 2014 |access-date=June 7, 2023 }}</ref> ''[[Cleveland Hustles]]'', the [[CNBC]] reality show co-created by [[LeBron James]], was filmed in the city.<ref name="CLE-hustles" />

=== Literature ===
[[File:Langston Hughes cph.3a43849.jpg|upright|thumb|[[Jazz poetry|Jazz poet]] and resident Clevelander [[Langston Hughes]]]]
Cleveland has a thriving literary and poetry community, with regular poetry readings at bookstores, coffee shops, and various other venues.<ref>A calendar of Cleveland area poetry events can be found at {{cite web |title=Cleveland Poetics |url=http://clevelandpoetics.blogspot.com/ |access-date=May 20, 2023 }}</ref> In 1925, [[Russian Futurism|Russian Futurist]] poet [[Vladimir Mayakovsky]] came to Cleveland and gave a poetry [[recitation]] to the city's ethnic working class, as part of his trip to America.<ref>{{cite web |title=Mayakovsky in Cleveland: A Fiery Futurist's Discovery of the Forest City |last=Shakarian |first=Pietro A. |website=Cleveland Historical |publisher=Cleveland State University |url=https://clevelandhistorical.org/items/show/1001 |access-date=April 27, 2023 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Through the Brooklyn Bridge. Here Stood Mayakovsky |publisher=[[Harriman Institute]] ([[Columbia University]]) |url=https://harriman.columbia.edu/event/through-the-brooklyn-bridge-here-stood-mayakovsky/ |date=January 18, 2019 |access-date=August 1, 2022 }}</ref> The [[Cleveland State University Poetry Center]] serves as an academic center for poetry in the city.<ref>{{cite web |title=Mission |publisher=[[Cleveland State University Poetry Center]] |url=http://www.csupoetrycenter.com/mission |access-date=May 28, 2023 }}</ref>

[[Langston Hughes]], preeminent poet of the [[Harlem Renaissance]] and child of an itinerant couple, lived in Cleveland as a teenager and attended Central High School in Cleveland in the 1910s.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Hughes, (James) Langston |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History |publisher=Case Western Reserve University |url=https://case.edu/ech/articles/h/hughes-james-langston |date=February 14, 2022 |access-date=June 7, 2023 }}</ref> At Central High, the young writer was taught by [[Helen Maria Chesnutt]], daughter of Cleveland-born African American novelist [[Charles W. Chesnutt]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Ronnick |first=Michele Valerie |title=Within CAMWS Territory: Helen M. Chesnutt (1880–1969), Black Latinist |publisher=[[Classical Association of the Middle West and South|CAMWS]] |url=https://camws.org/meeting/2005/abstracts2005/ronnick.html |access-date=February 1, 2019 }}</ref> Hughes authored some of his earliest poems, plays, and short stories in Cleveland and contributed to the school newspaper.<ref>{{cite news |last=Perkovic |first=John |title=Cleveland home of literary great Langston Hughes on the market for $85,000 |newspaper=The Plain Dealer |url=http://www.cleveland.com/entertainment/index.ssf/2013/10/cleveland_home_of_literary_gre.html |date=October 24, 2013 |access-date=May 20, 2023 }}</ref> The African American avant-garde poet [[Russell Atkins]] lived in the city as well.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last1=Gibans |first1=Nina |last2=Shelley |first2=James |title=Literature |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History |publisher=Case Western Reserve University |url=https://case.edu/ech/articles/l/literature |date=May 11, 2018 |access-date=June 7, 2023 }}</ref>

The American modernist poet [[Hart Crane]] was born in nearby [[Garrettsville, Ohio]] in 1899. His adolescence was divided between Cleveland and Akron before he moved to New York City in 1916. Aside from factory work during [[World War I]], he served as a reporter to ''[[The Plain Dealer]]'' for a short period, before achieving recognition in the [[Modernist]] literary scene.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Crane, Hart |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History |publisher=Case Western Reserve University |url=https://case.edu/ech/articles/c/crane-hart |date=March 3, 2023 |access-date=June 7, 2023 }}</ref> On the Case Western Reserve University campus, a statue of Crane, designed by sculptor [[William McVey (sculptor)|William McVey]], stands behind the Kelvin Smith Library.<ref>{{cite web |title=Hart Crane Memorial |work=Ohio Outdoor Sculpture |url=http://www.sculpturecenter.org/oosi/items/show/130 |access-date=June 7, 2020 }}</ref>

Cleveland was the home of [[Joe Shuster]] and [[Jerry Siegel]], who created the comic book character [[Superman]] in 1932.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Superman |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History |publisher=Case Western Reserve University |url=https://case.edu/ech/articles/s/superman |access-date=August 5, 2019 |date=May 12, 2018 }}</ref> Both attended [[Glenville High School]], and their early collaborations resulted in the creation of "The Man of Steel".{{sfn|Ricca|2013|p=[https://archive.org/details/superboysamazing0000ricc/page/100 100]}} [[Harlan Ellison]], noted author of [[speculative fiction]], was born in Cleveland in 1934; his family subsequently moved to nearby [[Painesville, Ohio|Painesville]], though Ellison moved back to Cleveland in 1949. As a young man, he published a series of short stories appearing in the ''[[Cleveland News]]'', and performed in a number of productions for the Cleveland Play House.<ref>{{cite news |last=Dawidziak |first=Mark |author-link=Mark Dawidziak |title=Harlan Ellison, fiery and brilliant writer from Cleveland, dead at 84 |newspaper=The Plain Dealer |url=https://www.cleveland.com/tv-blog/2018/06/harlan_ellison_fiery_and_brilliant_writer_from_cleveland_dead_at_84.html |date=June 28, 2018 |access-date=May 22, 2023 }}</ref>

Cleveland is the site of the [[Anisfield-Wolf Book Award]], established by poet and philanthropist [[Edith Anisfield Wolf]] in 1935, which recognizes books that have made important contributions to the understanding of racism and human diversity.<ref>{{cite web |title=About |publisher=[[Anisfield-Wolf Book Award]] |url=https://www.anisfield-wolf.org/about/ |access-date=May 19, 2023 }}</ref> Presented by the [[The Cleveland Foundation|Cleveland Foundation]], it remains the only American book prize focusing on works that address racism and diversity.<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Marino |first=Jacqueline |title=The Biggest Little-Known Book Award |magazine=[[Belt Magazine]] |url=http://beltmag.com/the-biggest-little-known-book-award/ |date=September 9, 2013 |access-date=May 20, 2023 }}</ref>

=== Museums and galleries ===
{{See also|List of museums in Cleveland}}
{{multiple image
|align = right
|direction = vertical
|image1 = Cleveland Museum of Art (8687300870).jpg
|caption1 = The [[Cleveland Museum of Art]] lies at the edge of Wade Lagoon in [[University Circle]].
|image2 = Cleveland August 2015 47 (Rock and Roll Hall of Fame and Museum).jpg
|caption2 = The [[Rock and Roll Hall of Fame]] on the shores of Lake Erie
}}
Cleveland has two main [[art museum]]s. The [[Cleveland Museum of Art]] is a major American art museum, with a collection that includes more than 60,000 works of art ranging from [[ancient art|ancient masterpieces]] to [[contemporary art|contemporary pieces]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Collection Online Guide and FAQs |publisher=Cleveland Museum of Art |url=https://www.clevelandart.org/educators/collection-online-guide-and-faqs |date=July 13, 2021 |access-date=June 19, 2023 }}</ref> The [[Museum of Contemporary Art Cleveland]] showcases established and emerging artists, particularly from the Cleveland area, through hosting and producing temporary exhibitions.<ref name="MOCA-Cle">{{cite web |title=About MOCA Cleveland: The Art + Ideas of Our Time |publisher=Museum of Contemporary Art Cleveland |url=https://www.mocacleveland.org/about |access-date=July 22, 2019 }}</ref> Both museums offer free admission to visitors, with the Cleveland Museum of Art declaring their museum free and open "for the benefit of all the people forever."<ref>{{cite web |title=Museum History |publisher=Cleveland Museum of Art |url=http://www.clevelandart.org/about/about-the-museum/history-and-mission |access-date=July 15, 2019 |date=October 5, 2012 }}</ref><ref name="MOCA-Cle" />

The two museums are part of Cleveland's [[University Circle]], a {{convert|550|acre|km2|adj=on}} concentration of cultural, educational, and medical institutions located {{Convert|5|mi}} east of downtown. In addition to the art museums, the neighborhood includes the [[Cleveland Botanical Garden]], Case Western Reserve University, University Hospitals, [[Severance Hall]], the [[Maltz Performing Arts Center]], the [[Cleveland Museum of Natural History]], and the [[Western Reserve Historical Society]]. Also located at University Circle is the [[Cleveland Cinematheque]] at the Cleveland Institute of Art.<ref>{{cite web |title=About the Cinematheque |publisher=[[Cleveland Institute of Art]] |url=https://www.cia.edu/cinematheque |access-date=August 9, 2019 }}</ref>

The [[I. M. Pei]]-designed [[Rock and Roll Hall of Fame]] is located on Cleveland's Lake Erie waterfront at North Coast Harbor downtown. Neighboring attractions include [[Cleveland Browns Stadium]], the [[Great Lakes Science Center]], the [[SS William G. Mather (1925)|Steamship Mather Museum]], the [[International Women's Air & Space Museum]], and the {{USS|Cod|SS-224|6}}, a World War II [[Gato-class submarine|submarine]]. Designed by architect [[Levi Scofield|Levi T. Scofield]], the [[Soldiers' and Sailors' Monument (Cleveland)|Soldiers' and Sailors' Monument]] at Public Square is Cleveland's major Civil War memorial and a major attraction in the city.<ref name="soldiers-sailors" /> Other city attractions include [[Grays Armory]],<ref>{{cite web |last=Fearing |first=Heidi K. |title=Grays Armory |website=Cleveland Historical |publisher=Cleveland State University |url=https://clevelandhistorical.org/items/show/298 |access-date=July 16, 2023 }}</ref> the [[Cleveland Masonic Temple]],<ref>{{cite web |title=Masonic Temple |website=Cleveland Historical |publisher=Cleveland State University |url=https://clevelandhistorical.org/items/show/9 |access-date=November 11, 2024 }}</ref> and the [[Children's Museum of Cleveland]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Museum History, Vision & Mission |website=Children's Museum of Cleveland |url=https://cmcleveland.org/history/ |access-date=August 8, 2023 }}</ref> A Cleveland holiday attraction, especially for fans of [[Jean Shepherd]]'s ''A Christmas Story'', is the [[A Christmas Story House|Christmas Story House and Museum]] in Tremont.<ref>{{cite web |title=About |publisher=A Christmas Story House and Museum |url=https://www.achristmasstoryhouse.com/ |access-date=August 5, 2019 }}</ref>

=== Annual events ===
[[File:Feast of the Assumption in Little Italy Cleveland (36388057482).jpg|thumb|The [[Cleveland Feast of the Assumption Festival|Feast of the Assumption]] in Cleveland's [[University Circle#Little Italy|Little Italy]]]]
Cleveland hosts the WinterLand holiday display lighting festival annually at Public Square.<ref>{{cite web |title=About |publisher=WinterLand CLE |url=https://winterlandcle.com/ |access-date=May 19, 2023 }}</ref> The [[Cleveland International Film Festival]] has been held in the city since 1977,<ref>{{cite web |title=History |publisher=[[Cleveland International Film Festival]] |url=https://www.clevelandfilm.org/about/history |access-date=August 3, 2019 }}</ref> and the Cleveland Silent Film Festival has been held since 2022.<ref>{{cite news |last=McLaughlin |first=Kevin |title=Cleveland Silent Film Festival partners with Cleveland Public Library |newspaper=The Land |url=https://thelandcle.org/stories/cleveland-silent-film-festival-partners-with-cleveland-public-library/ |date=March 11, 2025 |access-date=March 31, 2025 }}</ref> The [[Cleveland National Air Show]], an indirect successor to the National Air Races, has been held at the city's [[Burke Lakefront Airport]] since 1964.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Cleveland Air Show |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History |publisher=Case Western Reserve University |url=https://case.edu/ech/articles/c/cleveland-air-show |access-date=August 9, 2019 |date=March 21, 2019 }}</ref> The Great Lakes Burning River Fest, a two-night music and beer festival at Whiskey Island, has been sponsored by the Great Lakes Brewing Company since 2001.<ref>{{cite web |title=Our History |publisher=[[Great Lakes Brewing Company]] |url=https://www.greatlakesbrewing.com/our-history |access-date=August 10, 2019 }}</ref>

Many ethnic festivals are held in Cleveland throughout the year. These include the annual [[Cleveland Feast of the Assumption Festival|Feast of the Assumption]] in Little Italy,<ref>{{cite news |first=Steven |last=Litt |title=Is Cleveland's Little Italy in danger of being loved to death? |url=https://www.cleveland.com/news/2024/07/is-clevelands-little-italy-in-danger-of-being-loved-to-death.html |work=The Plain Dealer |date=July 30, 2024 |access-date=August 21, 2024 }}</ref> Russian [[Maslenitsa]] in Rockefeller Park,<ref>{{cite news |last=DeMarco |first=Laura |title=Russian Maslenitsa Festival in Rockefeller Park celebrates end of winter |newspaper=The Plain Dealer |url=https://www.cleveland.com/entertainment/2018/02/russian_maslenitsa_festival_in.html |date=February 14, 2018 |access-date=January 17, 2024 }}</ref> the Puerto Rican Parade and Cultural Festival in Clark–Fulton,<ref>{{cite web |title=Puerto Rican Parade & Cultural Festival |publisher=Destination Cleveland |url=https://www.thisiscleveland.com/events/event-calendar/puerto-rican-parade-cultural-festival |access-date=June 4, 2023 }}</ref> the Cleveland Asian Festival in Asiatown,<ref>{{cite web |title=Cleveland Asian Festival |publisher=Destination Cleveland |url=https://www.thisiscleveland.com/events/annual-events/cleveland-asian-festival |access-date=June 4, 2023 }}</ref> the Tremont Greek Fest,<ref>{{cite news |last=Abusada |first=Abusada |title=Tremont's Greek Fest is officially back |publisher=WEWS-TV |url=https://www.news5cleveland.com/news/local-news/cleveland-metro/tremonts-greek-fest-is-officially-back |date=May 28, 2022 |access-date=June 4, 2023 }}</ref> and the St. Mary Romanian Festival in West Park.<ref>{{cite news |last=Valentic |first=Stefanie |title=West Park Romanian festival celebrates 14 years of tradition |newspaper=The Plain Dealer |url=https://www.cleveland.com/community/2019/08/west-park-romanian-festival-celebrates-14-years-of-tradition.html |date=August 19, 2019 |access-date=June 4, 2023 }}</ref> Cleveland also hosts annual Polish [[Śmigus-dyngus|Dyngus Day]] and Slovene [[Kurentovanje]] celebrations.<ref>{{cite web |title=History |publisher=Cleveland Dyngus Day |url=https://clevelanddyngus.com/history/ |access-date=February 18, 2021 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Our History |publisher=Cleveland Kurentovanje |url=https://www.clevelandkurentovanje.com/about |access-date=August 1, 2022 }}</ref> The city's annual [[Saint Patrick's Day]] parade brings hundreds of thousands to the streets of Downtown.<ref>{{cite web |title=About Us |publisher=Cleveland St. Patrick's Day Parade |url=http://www.stpatricksdaycleveland.com/p/about-us.html |access-date=July 22, 2021 }}</ref> The [[Cleveland Thyagaraja Festival]] held each spring at Cleveland State University is the largest Indian classical music and dance festival in the world outside of India.<ref>{{cite news |last=DeJong |first=Lisa |title=Cleveland Thyagaraja Festival |newspaper=The Plain Dealer |url=https://www.cleveland.com/entertainment/2016/03/cleveland_thyagaraja_festival.html |date=March 30, 2016 |access-date=June 19, 2023 }}</ref> Since 1946, the city has annually marked One World Day in the [[Cleveland Cultural Gardens]] in Rockefeller Park, celebrating all of its ethnic communities.<ref name="culturalgardens" />

=== Cuisine ===
[[File:West Side Market Cleveland.jpg|thumb|The historic [[West Side Market]] in Cleveland's [[Ohio City, Cleveland|Ohio City]] neighborhood]]
Cleveland's mosaic of ethnic communities and their various culinary traditions have long played an important role in defining the city's cuisine. Local mainstays include an abundance of Slavic, Hungarian, and Central-Eastern European contributions, such as [[kielbasa]], [[stuffed cabbage]], [[pierogi]]es, [[goulash]], and [[chicken paprikash]].{{sfn|Taxel|2009|pp=133-135}} [[Italian-American cuisine|Italian]], [[German cuisine|German]], [[Irish cuisine|Irish]], and [[American Jewish cuisine|Jewish]] cuisines are also prominent in Cleveland, as are [[Lebanese cuisine|Lebanese]], [[Greek-American cuisine|Greek]], [[American Chinese cuisine|Chinese]], [[Puerto Rican cuisine|Puerto Rican]], [[Mexican cuisine|Mexican]], and numerous other ethnic cuisines. Vendors at the [[West Side Market]] in Ohio City offer many ethnic foods for sale.<ref>{{cite news |last=Snook |first=Debbi |title=Cleveland's West Side Market feeds bellies and our souls with its rich ethnic heritage |newspaper=The Plain Dealer |url=https://www.cleveland.com/west-side-market/2012/05/clevelands_west_side_market_fe.html |date=May 27, 2012 |access-date=August 1, 2022 }}</ref> In addition, the city boasts a vibrant [[Barbecue in the United States|barbecue]] and [[soul food]] scene.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Cain |first1=Brenda |last2=Rodriguez |first2=Yadi |title=Top 20 Soul Food Restaurants in Greater Cleveland according to Yelp |newspaper=The Plain Dealer |url=https://www.cleveland.com/entertainment/2020/02/top-21-soul-food-restaurants-in-greater-cleveland-according-to-yelp.html |date=February 3, 2020 |access-date=May 1, 2023 }}</ref>

Slyman's Deli on Cleveland's near East Side is notable for its [[corned beef]] sandwich, with patrons including former US Presidents [[George W. Bush]] and [[Joe Biden]].<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Goodrich |first=Barry |title=Classic Cleveland Restaurants: Slyman's Restaurants |magazine=Cleveland Magazine |url=https://clevelandmagazine.com/food-drink/articles/classic-cleveland-restaurants-slyman's-restaurants |date=January 22, 2020 |access-date=May 19, 2023 }}</ref> Another celebrated sandwich, the [[Polish Boy]], is a popular [[street food]] and Cleveland original frequently sold at downtown [[hot dog cart]]s and stadium concession stands.<ref>{{cite news |last=Axelrod |first=Ben |title=Cleveland's Polish Boy named one of world's 10 best hot dogs |publisher=WKYC |url=https://www.wkyc.com/article/news/local/cleveland/cleveland-polish-boy-named-10-best-hot-dogs-in-the-world/95-a1d44b3c-9a02-4441-a741-472193621d97 |date=April 11, 2023 |access-date=August 8, 2023 }}</ref> Brown [[Stadium Mustard|stadium mustard]] is synonymous with Cleveland, especially [[Bertman Original Ballpark Mustard]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Chakerian |first=Peter |title=No hot-doggin' it, we definitely 'cut the mustard' in The Land |newspaper=The Plain Dealer |url=https://www.cleveland.com/entertainment/2024/03/no-hot-doggin-it-we-definitely-cut-the-mustard-in-the-land-classic-cle-eats-drinks.html |date=March 22, 2024 |access-date=January 4, 2025 }}</ref> Another notable local food item with Depression-era roots is [[city chicken]].<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Frederick |first=Missy |title=What Is City Chicken, Really?: How a Depression-era dish conquered Cleveland |magazine=[[Eater (website)|Eater]] |url=https://www.eater.com/2017/5/5/15551870/city-chicken-cleveland-pittsburgh |date=May 5, 2017 |access-date=January 1, 2025 }}</ref>

With its [[Blue-collar worker|blue-collar]] roots well intact, and plenty of Lake Erie [[Yellow perch|perch]] and [[walleye]] available, the tradition of Friday night [[fish fry|fish fries]] remains alive and thriving in Cleveland, particularly in ethnic parish-based settings, especially during the season of [[Lent]].<ref>{{cite magazine |title=2023 Cleveland Fish Fry Guide |magazine=Cleveland Magazine |url=https://clevelandmagazine.com/food-drink/fish-fries |access-date=May 19, 2023 }}</ref> [[Clambake]]s are likewise embedded into the city's culinary culture.<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Trattner |first=Douglas |title=How Cleveland Became a Clambake Capital of America |magazine=[[Cleveland Scene]] |url=https://www.clevescene.com/food-drink/how-cleveland-became-a-clambake-capital-of-america-45236210 |date=October 3, 2024 |access-date=January 1, 2025 }}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |last=Zaleski |first=Annie |title=How Did the Cleveland Clambake Even Become a Thing? |magazine=[[Thrillist]] |url=https://www.thrillist.com/eat/cleveland/cleveland-ohio-clambake-history |date=September 28, 2016 |access-date=January 1, 2025 }}</ref> For dessert, the Cleveland [[Cassata#United States|Cassata Cake]] is a unique treat invented in the local Italian community and served in Italian establishments throughout the city.<ref>{{cite news |last=Wolfe |first=Paris |title=Cleveland Cassata Cake is a local invention |newspaper=The Plain Dealer |url=https://www.cleveland.com/entertainment/2023/03/cleveland-cassata-cake-is-a-local-invention.html |date=March 10, 2023 |access-date=May 1, 2023 }}</ref> Another popular dessert, the locally crafted Russian Tea Biscuit, is common in many Jewish bakeries in Cleveland.<ref>{{cite news |last=Bania-Dobyns |first=Sarah |title=If you want this delectable Jewish pastry, you'll have to go to Cleveland |newspaper=[[The Jerusalem Post]] |url=https://www.jpost.com/food-recipes/if-you-want-this-delectable-jewish-pastry-youll-have-to-go-to-cleveland-670162 |date=September 22, 2021 |access-date=May 1, 2023 }}</ref>

Cleveland is noted in the world of celebrity food culture. Famous local figures include chef [[Michael Symon]] and food writer [[Michael Ruhlman]], both of whom achieved local and national attention for their contributions to the culinary world. In 2007, Symon helped gain the spotlight when he was named "[[The Next Iron Chef]]" on the [[Food Network]]. That same year, Ruhlman collaborated with [[Anthony Bourdain]], to do an episode of his ''[[Anthony Bourdain: No Reservations]]'' focusing on Cleveland's restaurant scene.<ref>{{cite news |last=Eng |first=Monica |title=Hot new dining city: Cleveland?! |newspaper=[[Chicago Tribune]] |quote=By the time I hit Cleveland for the grand culinary tour, Ruhlman had the routine down. Earlier in the year, his chef/writer pal Anthony Bourdain had filmed a whole episode of his Travel Channel show "No Reservations" in Cleveland. |url=https://www.chicagotribune.com/la-trw-trvmain3-wk3-story.html |date=January 29, 2008 |access-date=July 7, 2023 }}</ref>

=== Breweries ===
Ohio produces the fifth most beer in the U.S., with its largest brewery being Cleveland's [[Great Lakes Brewing Company]].<ref>{{Cite news |title=Ohio craft-beer production ranks 5th in U.S.; 3 breweries in top 50 |newspaper=The Plain Dealer |url=https://www.cleveland.com/entertainment/2021/04/ohio-craft-beer-production-ranks-5th-in-us-3-breweries-in-top-50.html |date=April 14, 2021 |access-date=May 20, 2021 }}</ref> Cleveland has had a long history of brewing, tied to many of its ethnic immigrants, and has reemerged as a regional leader in production.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Vintage pictures of Cleveland's historic breweries |newspaper=The Plain Dealer |url=https://www.cleveland.com/entertainment/2017/08/vintage_pictures_of_clevelands.html |date=August 17, 2017 |access-date=May 20, 2021 }}</ref> Dozens of breweries exist in the city limits, including large producers such as [[Market Garden Brewery]] and [[Platform Beer Company]].

Breweries can be found throughout the city, but the highest concentration is in the Ohio City neighborhood.<ref>{{Cite news |title=10 Breweries with outdoor seating in and around Ohio City |newspaper=The Plain Dealer |url=https://www.cleveland.com/entertainment/2021/04/10-breweries-with-outdoor-seating-in-and-around-ohio-city.html |date=April 6, 2021 |access-date=May 20, 2021 }}</ref> Cleveland hosts expansions from other countries as well, including the Scottish [[BrewDog]] and German [[Staatliches Hofbräuhaus in München#Franchises|Hofbrauhaus]].<ref>{{Cite news |title=Hofbrauhaus Cleveland set to reopen next week |newspaper=The Plain Dealer |url=https://www.cleveland.com/entertainment/2021/02/hofbrauhaus-cleveland-set-to-reopen-next-week.html |date=February 26, 2021 |access-date=May 20, 2021 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=BrewDog confirms Cleveland expansion |newspaper=The Plain Dealer |url=https://www.cleveland.com/entertainment/2021/04/brewdog-confirms-cleveland-expansion.html |date=April 13, 2021 |access-date=May 20, 2021 }}</ref>

== Sports ==
{{main|Sports in Cleveland}}
{{multiple image
|align = right
|direction = vertical
|image1 = Progressive Field, June 2019 (5).jpg
|caption1 = [[Progressive Field]] has served as home to the [[Cleveland Guardians]] since 1994.
|image2 = FirstEnergy Stadium 2014.jpg
|caption2 = [[Cleveland Browns]] games attract large crowds to [[Huntington Bank Field]].
|image3 = Cavs Opener 6512.jpg
|caption3 = [[Cleveland Cavaliers]] pregame festivities at [[Rocket Arena]]
}}
Cleveland's major professional sports teams are the [[Cleveland Guardians]] ([[Major League Baseball]]), the [[Cleveland Browns]] ([[National Football League]]), and the [[Cleveland Cavaliers]] ([[National Basketball Association]]). Other professional teams include the [[Cleveland Monsters]] ([[American Hockey League]]), the [[Cleveland Charge]] ([[NBA G League]]), the [[Cleveland Crunch]] ([[Major League Indoor Soccer (2022-present)|Major League Indoor Soccer]]), [[Cleveland SC]] ([[National Premier Soccer League]]), and the [[Cleveland Fusion]] ([[Women's Football Alliance]]). Local sporting venues include [[Progressive Field]], [[Huntington Bank Field]], [[Rocket Arena]], the [[Wolstein Center]], and the [[Public Auditorium]].

=== Professional ===
'''Major League'''
{| class="wikitable"
!Club
!Sport
!League
!Venue
!Est. in CLE
!Championships {{small|(in Cleveland)}}
|-
| [[Cleveland Browns]]
| [[American football|Football]]
| [[National Football League]]
| [[Huntington Bank Field]]
| 1946
| 8 {{small|(4 [[All-America Football Conference|AAFC]], 4 [[NFL]])}}
|-
| [[Cleveland Cavaliers]]
| Basketball
| [[National Basketball Association]]
| [[Rocket Arena]]
| 1970
| 1
|-
| [[Cleveland Guardians]]
| Baseball
| [[Major League Baseball]]
| [[Progressive Field]]
| 1901
| 2
|}

'''Minor League'''
{| class="wikitable"
!Club
!Sport
!League
!Venue
!Est. in CLE
!Championships {{small|(in Cleveland)}}
|-
| [[Cleveland Charge]]
| Basketball
| [[NBA G League]]
| [[Public Auditorium]]
| 2021
| 0
|-
| [[Cleveland Monsters]]
| [[Ice hockey]]
| [[American Hockey League]]
| Rocket Arena
| 2007
| 1
|-
|[[Cleveland Crunch]]
|[[Indoor Soccer]]
|[[Major League Indoor Soccer (2022-present)|Major League Indoor Soccer]]
|Soccer Sportsplex ([[North Olmsted, Ohio]])
|1989
|5 {{small|(3 [[National Professional Soccer League (1984–2001)|NPSL]], 1 [[Major Arena Soccer League 2|M2]], 1 [[Major League Indoor Soccer (2022-present)|MLIS]])}}
|-
|[[Cleveland Pro Soccer]]
|Soccer
|[[MLS Next Pro]]
|TBA
|2022
|0
|}
The Cleveland Guardians – known as the Indians from 1915 to 2021 – won the [[World Series]] in [[1920 World Series|1920]] and [[1948 World Series|1948]]. They also won the [[American League]] pennant, making the World Series in the [[1954 World Series|1954]], [[1995 World Series|1995]], [[1997 World Series|1997]], and [[2016 World Series|2016 season]]s. Between [[1995 MLB season|1995]] and [[2001 MLB season|2001]], Jacobs Field (now known as Progressive Field) sold out 455 consecutive games, a Major League Baseball record until it was broken in 2008.<ref>{{cite news |last=Burt |first=Bill |title=Sellouts! Record 456 and counting for Sox |newspaper=Eagle Tribune |url=http://www.eagletribune.com/pusports/local_story_253023720.html?keyword=topstory |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120903230045/http://www.eagletribune.com/pusports/local_story_253023720.html?keyword=topstory |date=September 9, 2008 |access-date=September 10, 2008 |archive-date=September 3, 2012 }}</ref>

Historically, the Browns have been among the most successful franchises in [[American football]] history, winning eight titles during a short period of time – [[1946 Cleveland Browns season|1946]], [[1947 Cleveland Browns season|1947]], [[1948 Cleveland Browns season|1948]], [[1949 Cleveland Browns season|1949]], [[1950 NFL Championship Game|1950]], [[1954 NFL Championship Game|1954]], [[1955 NFL Championship Game|1955]], and [[1964 NFL Championship Game|1964]]. The Browns have never played in a [[Super Bowl]], getting close five times by making it to the [[History of the National Football League championship#AFL Championship Game and NFL Championship Game (1966–1969)|NFL]]/[[AFC Championship Game]] in [[1968 NFL Championship Game|1968]], [[1969 NFL Championship Game|1969]], [[1986–87 NFL playoffs#Conference championships|1986]], [[1987–88 NFL playoffs#AFC Championship: Denver Broncos 38, Cleveland Browns 33|1987]], and [[1989–90 NFL playoffs#AFC Championship: Denver Broncos 37, Cleveland Browns 21|1989]]. Former owner [[Art Modell]]'s [[Cleveland Browns relocation controversy|relocation of the Browns]] after the [[1995 NFL season|1995 season]] (to [[Baltimore]] creating the [[Baltimore Ravens|Ravens]]), caused tremendous heartbreak and resentment among local fans.<ref>{{cite web |last=Walker |first=James |title=Take your pick recap: LeBron vs. Modell |publisher=[[ESPN]] |url=https://www.espn.com/blog/afcnorth/post/_/id/14793/take-your-pick-recap-lebron-vs-modell |date=July 13, 2010 |access-date=July 27, 2010 }}</ref> Cleveland mayor [[Michael R. White (politician)|Michael R. White]] worked with the NFL and Commissioner [[Paul Tagliabue]] to bring back the Browns beginning in the [[1999 NFL season|1999 season]], retaining all team history.<ref>{{cite news |last=Kroll |first=John |title=When Art Modell moved his Cleveland Browns team to Baltimore: How The Plain Dealer reported it |newspaper=The Plain Dealer |url=http://www.cleveland.com/browns/index.ssf/2012/09/when_art_modell_moved_his_clev.html |date=September 6, 2012 |access-date=June 26, 2016 }}</ref> In Cleveland's earlier football history, the [[Cleveland Bulldogs]] won the [[NFL Championship]] in [[1924 NFL season|1924]],<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Cleveland Bulldogs |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History |publisher=Case Western Reserve University |url=https://case.edu/ech/articles/c/cleveland-bulldogs |date=May 11, 2018 |access-date=May 24, 2023 }}</ref> and the [[History of the Cleveland Rams|Cleveland Rams]] won the NFL Championship in [[1945 NFL season|1945]] before relocating to Los Angeles.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Cleveland Rams |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History |publisher=Case Western Reserve University |url=https://case.edu/ech/articles/c/cleveland-rams |date=March 10, 2021 |access-date=May 24, 2023 }}</ref>

The Cavaliers won the [[Eastern Conference (NBA)|Eastern Conference]] in [[2006–07 NBA season|2007]], [[2014–15 NBA season|2015]], [[2015–16 NBA season|2016]], [[2016–17 NBA season|2017]] and [[2017–18 NBA season|2018]] but were defeated in the [[2007 NBA Finals|NBA Finals]] by the [[San Antonio Spurs]] and [[2015 NBA Finals|then by]] the Golden State Warriors, respectively. The Cavs won the Conference again in 2016 and won their first NBA Championship coming back from a 3–1 deficit, finally defeating the [[Golden State Warriors]]. Afterwards, over 1.3 million people attended a parade held in the Cavs' honor on June 22, 2016, in downtown Cleveland.<ref>{{cite news |last=Hoppert |first=Melissa |title=Cavaliers Parade Caps Off Cleveland Victory Party |newspaper=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/06/23/sports/basketball/cleveland-cavaliers-parade-nba-champions.html |date=June 22, 2016 |access-date=July 21, 2023 }}</ref> Previously, the [[Cleveland Rosenblums]] dominated the original [[American Basketball League (1925–55)|American Basketball League]],{{sfn|Condon|1979|p=[https://archive.org/details/clevelandprodigy0000cond/page/145 145]}} and the [[Cleveland Pipers]], owned by [[George Steinbrenner]], won the [[American Basketball League (1961–63)|American Basketball League]] championship in 1962.{{sfn|Livingston|2015|pp=176–178}}

The [[Cleveland Monsters]] of the [[American Hockey League]] won the [[2016 Calder Cup playoffs|2016 Calder Cup]]. They were the first Cleveland AHL team to do so since the [[1963–64 AHL season|1964]] Barons.<ref>{{cite news |last=Wright |first=Branson |title=Lake Erie Monsters win Calder Cup title with 1–0 OT victory over Hershey |newspaper=The Plain Dealer |url=http://www.cleveland.com/monsters/index.ssf/2016/06/lake_erie_monsters_and_hershey.html |date=June 11, 2016 |access-date=June 26, 2016 }}</ref>

=== College ===
{| class="wikitable"
!Club
!Sport
!League
!Venue
|-
|[[Cleveland State Vikings]]
|19 Varsity (8 men's, 10 women's, 1 co-ed)
||[[NCAA Division I]] ([[Horizon League]])
|various – including: [[Krenzler Field]] (soccer) [[Wolstein Center]] ([[Cleveland State Vikings men's basketball|men's]] and [[Cleveland State Vikings women's basketball|women's]] basketball) [[Woodling Gym]] (wrestling and volleyball)
|-
|[[Case Western Reserve Spartans]]
|17 Varsity (9 men's, 8 women's)
||[[NCAA Division III]] ([[University Athletic Association]])
|various – including: [[DiSanto Field]] ([[Case Western Reserve Spartans football|football]], soccer) Veale Athletic Center (men's and women's basketball)
|-
|}

Collegiately, NCAA Division I [[Cleveland State Vikings]] have 19 varsity sports, nationally known for their [[Cleveland State Vikings men's basketball]] team.<ref>{{cite web |title=Athletics |publisher=Cleveland State University |url=https://www.csuvikings.com/landing/index |date=August 2, 2023 |access-date=August 8, 2023 }}</ref> NCAA Division III [[Case Western Reserve Spartans]] have 17 varsity sports, most known for their [[Case Western Reserve Spartans football]] team.<ref>{{cite web |title=CWRU Athletics |publisher=Case Western Reserve University |url=https://athletics.case.edu/ |date=May 20, 2023 |access-date=August 8, 2023 }}</ref> The headquarters of the [[Mid-American Conference]] (MAC) are in Cleveland. The conference stages both its [[Mid-American Conference men's basketball tournament|men's]] and [[Mid-American Conference women's basketball tournament|women's]] basketball tournaments at Rocket Arena.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://getsomemaction.com/sports/2014/5/29/MACHistory.aspx?path=general |title=History of the MAC |website=[[Mid-American Conference]] |access-date=May 24, 2023 }}</ref>

=== Annual and special events ===
The [[Cleveland Marathon]] has been hosted annually since 1978,<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Rite Aid Cleveland Marathon and 10K |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History |date=May 22, 2018 |publisher=Case Western Reserve University |url=https://case.edu/ech/articles/r/rite-aid-cleveland-marathon-and-10k |access-date=June 7, 2020 }}</ref> and a monument commemorating one of Cleveland's most prominent track and field athletes, [[Jesse Owens]], stands at the city's Fort Huntington Park.<ref>{{cite web |title=Jesse Owens: The Cleveland Years |last=Dubelko |first=Jim |website=Cleveland Historical |publisher=Cleveland State University |url=https://clevelandhistorical.org/items/show/1003 |access-date=January 4, 2024 }}</ref> The second [[American Chess Congress]], a predecessor to the [[US Chess Championship|U.S. Championship]], was held in Cleveland in 1871, and won by [[George Henry Mackenzie]].<ref>{{cite web |title=George Henry Mackenzie |publisher=[[World Chess Hall of Fame]] |url=https://worldchesshof.org/hof-inductee/george-henry-mackenzie |date=April 7, 2018 |access-date=August 8, 2023 }}</ref> The 1921 and 1957 [[U.S. Open Chess Championship]]s took place in the city, and were won by [[Edward Lasker]] and [[Bobby Fischer]], respectively. The [[Cleveland Open (chess)|Cleveland Open]] is held annually.<ref>{{cite web |last=Hanken |first=Jerry |title=Big Time chess returns to Cleveland |publisher=The United States Chess Federation |url=https://www.uschess.org/content/view/8498/463/ |date=June 13, 2008 |access-date=June 7, 2020 }}</ref> In 2014, Cleveland hosted the ninth official [[2014 Gay Games|Gay Games]] ceremony.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Federation of Gay Games – Gay Games IX – Cleveland |url=https://gaygames.org/Gay-Games-IX |access-date=May 13, 2022 |website=gaygames.org }}</ref> In July 2024, the city hosted the [[Pan American Masters Games]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Bona |first=Marc |title=Pan-American Masters Games choose Cleveland as 1st U.S. competition site |newspaper=The Plain Dealer |url=https://www.cleveland.com/sports/2022/08/pan-american-masters-games-choose-cleveland-as-1st-us-competition-site.html |date=August 30, 2022 |access-date=August 1, 2024 }}</ref>

== Parks and recreation ==
{{See also|Cleveland Metroparks|Cleveland Public Parks District}}
[[File:Downtown Cleveland - Cleveland Sunrise (47288342872).jpg|thumb|right|Cleveland and [[Lake Erie]] in winter from Edgewater Park]]
Known locally as the "Emerald Necklace", the [[Frederick Law Olmsted|Olmsted]]-inspired [[Cleveland Metroparks]] encircle Cleveland and Cuyahoga County. The city proper encompasses the Metroparks' Brookside and Lakefront Reservations, as well as significant parts of the Rocky River, Washington, and Euclid Creek Reservations. The Lakefront Reservation, which provides public access to Lake Erie, consists of four parks: Edgewater Park, Whiskey Island–Wendy Park, East 55th Street Marina, and [[Gordon Park, Cleveland|Gordon Park]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Lakefront Reservation |publisher=Cleveland Metroparks |url=https://www.clevelandmetroparks.com/parks/visit/parks/lakefront-reservation |access-date=August 3, 2019 }}</ref>

Three more parks fall under the jurisdiction of the Euclid Creek Reservation: Euclid Beach, Villa Angela, and Wildwood Marina.<ref>{{cite web |title=Euclid Creek Reservation |publisher=Cleveland Metroparks |url=https://www.clevelandmetroparks.com/parks/visit/parks/euclid-creek-reservation |access-date=August 3, 2019 }}</ref> Further south, bike and hiking trails in the [[Brecksville Reservation|Brecksville]] and Bedford Reservations, along with Garfield Park, provide access to trails in the [[Cuyahoga Valley National Park]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Mountain Biking |publisher=Cleveland Metroparks |url=https://www.clevelandmetroparks.com/parks/visit/activities/activity-types/mountain-biking |access-date=May 19, 2023 }}</ref> Also included in the Metroparks system is the [[Cleveland Metroparks Zoo]], established in 1882. Located in Big Creek Valley, the zoo has one of the largest collections of [[primate]]s in North America.<ref>{{cite web |title=Cleveland Metroparks Zoo |publisher=[[Destination Cleveland]] |url=https://www.thisiscleveland.com/things-to-do/major-attractions/cleveland-metroparks-zoo |access-date=August 3, 2019 }}</ref>

In addition to the Metroparks, the [[Cleveland Public Parks District]] oversees the city's neighborhood parks, the largest of which is the historic [[Rockefeller Park]]. The latter is notable for its late 19th century landmark bridges, the Rockefeller Park Greenhouse, and the [[Cleveland Cultural Gardens]], which celebrate the city's ethnic diversity.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Rockefeller Park |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History |publisher=Case Western Reserve University |url=https://case.edu/ech/articles/r/rockefeller-park |date=November 11, 2020 |access-date=June 7, 2023 }}</ref><ref name="culturalgardens" /> Just outside of Rockefeller Park, the [[Cleveland Botanical Garden]] in University Circle, established in 1930, is the oldest civic garden center in the nation.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Cleveland Botanical Garden |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History |publisher=Case Western Reserve University |url=https://case.edu/ech/articles/c/cleveland-botanical-garden |date=May 26, 2022 |access-date=June 7, 2023 }}</ref> In addition, the [[Greater Cleveland Aquarium]], located in the historic FirstEnergy Powerhouse in the Flats, is the only independent, free-standing aquarium in the state of Ohio.<ref>{{cite news |last=Ondrey |first=Thomas |title=Underwater wonders among the newcomers in Northeast Ohio |newspaper=The Plain Dealer |url=https://www.cleveland.com/travel/2012/05/underwater_wonders_among_the_n.html |date=May 19, 2012 |access-date=June 19, 2023 }}</ref>

== Government and politics ==
{{See also|Mayor of Cleveland|Cleveland City Council}}
[[File:Cleveland City Hall rotunda.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Cleveland City Hall]]]]

=== Government and courts ===
Cleveland operates on a [[Strong-mayor|mayor–council (strong mayor)]] form of government, in which the mayor is the [[executive (government)|chief executive]] and the city council serves as the legislative branch. City council members are elected from 17 [[ward (politics)|ward]]s to four-year terms. From 1924 to 1931, the city briefly experimented with a [[council–manager government]] under [[William R. Hopkins]] and [[Daniel E. Morgan]] before returning to the mayor–council system.<ref name="politics">{{cite encyclopedia |last=Richardson |first=James F. |title=Politics |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History |publisher=Case Western Reserve University |url=https://case.edu/ech/articles/p/politics |access-date=August 5, 2019 |date=June 18, 2018 }}</ref>

Cleveland is served by Cleveland Municipal Court, the first municipal court in the state.<ref>{{cite web |title=Court History |publisher=Cleveland Municipal Court |url=https://clevelandmunicipalcourt.org/court-history |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220303072100/https://clevelandmunicipalcourt.org/court-history |url-status=usurped |archive-date=March 3, 2022 |access-date=August 8, 2023 }}</ref> The city also anchors the [[United States District Court for the Northern District of Ohio|U.S. District Court for the Northern District of Ohio]], based at the [[Carl B. Stokes United States Courthouse|Carl B. Stokes U.S. Courthouse]] and the historic [[Howard M. Metzenbaum United States Courthouse|Howard M. Metzenbaum U.S. Courthouse]]. The Chief Judge for the Northern District is [[Sara Elizabeth Lioi]] and the Clerk of Court is Sandy Opacich.<ref>{{Cite press release |title=U.S. District Judge Sara Lioi Sworn In as Chief Judge |date=June 7, 2023 |publisher=United States District Court for the Northern District of Ohio |url=https://www.ohnd.uscourts.gov/news/us-district-judge-sara-lioi-sworn-chief-judge |access-date=June 9, 2023 }}</ref> The U.S. Attorney is Carol Skutnik and the U.S. Marshal is Peter Elliott.<ref>{{cite news |last=Ferrise |first=Adam |title=New interim federal prosecutor in northern Ohio takes over |newspaper=The Plain Dealer |url=https://www.cleveland.com/court-justice/2025/01/new-interim-federal-prosecutor-in-northern-ohio-takes-over.html |date=January 6, 2025 |access-date=January 15, 2025 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Northern District of Ohio United States Marshal – Peter J. Elliott |date=October 2020 |publisher=U.S. Marshals Service |url=https://www.usmarshals.gov/who-we-are/about-us/marshals-biography/peter-j-elliott |access-date=August 7, 2022 }}</ref>

=== Politics ===
The office of the mayor has been held by [[Justin Bibb]] since 2022.<ref>{{cite news |last=Castele |first=Nick |title=Justin Bibb sworn in as Cleveland's new mayor |publisher=Ideastream |url=https://www.ideastream.org/news/government-politics/2022-01-03/justin-bibb-sworn-in-as-clevelands-new-mayor |date=January 3, 2022 |access-date=August 8, 2023 }}</ref> Previous mayors include progressive Democrat Tom L. Johnson, [[World War I]]-era [[United States Secretary of War|War Secretary]] and [[BakerHostetler]] founder [[Newton D. Baker]], [[Supreme Court of the United States|U.S. Supreme Court]] Justice [[Harold Hitz Burton]], two-term Ohio Governor and Senator [[Frank J. Lausche]], former U.S. Health, Education, and Welfare Secretary [[Anthony J. Celebrezze]], two-term Ohio Governor and Senator George V. Voinovich, former U.S. Congressman Dennis Kucinich, and [[Carl B. Stokes]], the first African American mayor of a major U.S. city. [[Frank G. Jackson]] was the city's longest-serving mayor.<ref>{{cite news |last=Vosburgh |first=Mark |title=Frank Jackson: Man, mayor and mystery |newspaper=The Plain Dealer |url=https://www.cleveland.com/news/2021/12/cleveland-mayor-frank-jackson-will-soon-leave-office-after-16-years-but-how-well-do-we-know-clevelands-longest-serving-leader.html |date=December 13, 2021 |access-date=July 16, 2023 }}</ref>

The President of Cleveland City Council is Blaine Griffin, the council [[Majority leader|Majority Leader]] is Kerry McCormack, and the [[Whip (politics)|Majority Whip]] is [[Jasmin Santana]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Leadership |publisher=Cleveland City Council |url=https://www.clevelandcitycouncil.org/council/leadership |access-date=June 17, 2022 }}</ref> Patricia Britt serves as the Clerk of Council.<ref>{{cite web |title=Clerk of Council |publisher=Cleveland City Council |url=https://www.clevelandcitycouncil.org/council/clerk-council |access-date=June 17, 2022 }}</ref>

Historically, from the Civil War era to the 1940s, Cleveland had been dominated by the [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]], with the notable exceptions of the Johnson and Baker mayoral administrations.<ref name="politics" /> Businessman and Senator [[Mark Hanna]] was among Cleveland's most influential Republican figures, both locally and nationally.{{sfn|Horner|2010|p=33}} Another nationally prominent Ohio Republican, former U.S. President [[James A. Garfield]], was born in Cuyahoga County's [[Defunct townships of Cuyahoga County, Ohio|Orange Township]] (today the Cleveland suburb of [[Moreland Hills, Ohio|Moreland Hills]]). His resting place is the [[James A. Garfield Memorial]] in Cleveland's [[Lake View Cemetery]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Hardison |first=Ashley |title=James A. Garfield Memorial |website=Cleveland Historical |publisher=Cleveland State University |url=https://clevelandhistorical.org/items/show/400 |access-date=August 10, 2019 }}</ref>

Today Cleveland is a major stronghold for the [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party]] in Ohio. Although local elections are nonpartisan, Democrats still dominate every level of government.<ref name="politics" /> Politically, Cleveland and several of its neighboring suburbs comprise [[Ohio's congressional districts|Ohio]]'s [[Ohio's 11th congressional district|11th congressional district]]. The district is represented by [[Shontel Brown]], one of five Democrats representing the state of Ohio in the [[United States House of Representatives|U.S. House of Representatives]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Eaton |first=Sabrina |title=U.S. Rep. Shontel Brown wins reelection in 11th congressional district |newspaper=The Plain Dealer |url=https://www.cleveland.com/news/2022/11/us-rep-shontel-brown-wins-reelection-in-11th-congressional-district.html |date=November 8, 2022 |access-date=May 24, 2023 }}</ref>

Cleveland has hosted three Republican [[United States presidential nominating convention|national conventions]], in [[1924 Republican National Convention|1924]], [[1936 Republican National Convention|1936]], and [[2016 Republican National Convention|2016]].<ref>{{cite news |title=2016 Republican Convention in Cleveland: 5 Things to Know |magazine=Time |url=https://time.com/2966830/2016-republican-convention-cleveland/ |date=July 8, 2014 |access-date=August 7, 2019 }}</ref> Additionally, the city hosted the [[Radical Democratic Party (United States)#Cleveland convention|1864 Radical Democratic National Convention]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Cleveland Convention |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History |publisher=Case Western Reserve University |url=https://case.edu/ech/articles/c/cleveland-convention |access-date=August 7, 2019 |date=May 11, 2018 }}</ref> Although Cleveland has not hosted a national convention for the Democrats, it has hosted several national election debates, including the [[1980 United States presidential debates#Second presidential debate (Music Hall)|second 1980 U.S. presidential debate]], the [[2004 United States presidential debates#October 5: Vice presidential debate (Case Western Reserve University)|2004 U.S. vice presidential debate]], one [[2008 Democratic Party presidential debates and forums#February 26, 2008 - MSNBC 9:00pm EST - Cleveland, Ohio, Cleveland State University|2008 Democratic primary debate]], and the [[2020 United States presidential debates#September 29 presidential debate (Case Western Reserve University)|first 2020 U.S. presidential debate]].<ref name="debates">{{cite news |last=Bamforth |first=Emily |title=First 2020 presidential debate will be in Cleveland |newspaper=The Plain Dealer |url=https://www.cleveland.com/news/2020/07/first-2020-presidential-debate-will-be-in-cleveland-cleveland-clinic-and-case-western-reserve-university-to-host.html |date=July 27, 2020 |access-date=July 28, 2020 }}</ref> Founded in 1912, the [[City Club of Cleveland]] provides a platform for national and local debates and discussions. Known as Cleveland's "Citadel of Free Speech", it is one of the oldest continuous independent free speech and debate forums in the country.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=City Club of Cleveland |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History |publisher=Case Western Reserve University |url=https://case.edu/ech/articles/c/city-club-cleveland |date=August 6, 2020 |access-date=June 7, 2023 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Mission & Vision |publisher=[[City Club of Cleveland]] |url=https://www.cityclub.org/about |access-date=August 8, 2019 }}</ref>

== Public safety ==
{{multiple image
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|image1 = Cleveland Division of Police Ford PIU No. 254.jpg
|caption1 = Cleveland Police utility vehicle
|image2 = Cleveland Fire Department Rosenbauer Ladder 7 (17695818112).jpg
|caption2 = [[Cleveland Division of Fire]] ladder truck
|image3 = Clevelandmedic4atnight.jpg
|caption3 = Cleveland EMS ambulance
}}

=== Police and law enforcement{{anchor|Crime}} ===
{{main|Cleveland Division of Police}}
Like in other major American cities, crime in Cleveland is concentrated in areas with higher rates of poverty and lower access to jobs.<ref name="HUD">{{cite web |title=Neighborhoods and Violent Crime |publisher=[[United States Department of Housing and Urban Development]] |url=https://www.huduser.gov/portal/periodicals/em/summer16/highlight2.html |access-date=August 7, 2019 }}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Wells |first=Michael V. |title=Crime |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History |publisher=Case Western Reserve University |url=https://case.edu/ech/articles/c/crime |access-date=August 7, 2019 |date=May 11, 2018 }}</ref> In recent decades, the rate of crime in the city, although higher than the national average, experienced a significant decline, following a nationwide trend in falling crime rates.<ref name="HUD" /><ref>{{cite news |last=Higgs |first=Robert |title=Cleveland's rates for nearly all violent crimes, property crimes dropped again in 2018 |newspaper=The Plain Dealer |url=https://www.cleveland.com/cityhall/2019/01/clevelands-rates-for-nearly-all-violent-crimes-property-crimes-dropped-again-in-2018.html |date=January 30, 2019 |access-date=July 10, 2019 }}</ref> However, as in other major U.S. cities, crime in Cleveland saw an abrupt rise in 2020–21.<ref>{{cite news |last=Smith |first=Shannon |title=Cleveland's rise in violent crime makes national headlines, city leaders react |newspaper=[[WOIO]] |url=https://www.cleveland19.com/2021/01/04/clevelands-rise-violent-crime-makes-national-headlines-city-leaders-react/ |date=January 4, 2021 |access-date=June 17, 2022 }}</ref>

Cleveland's law enforcement agency is the Cleveland Division of Police, established in 1866.<ref name="CLEpolice">{{cite encyclopedia |title=Cleveland Police Department |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History |publisher=Case Western Reserve University |url=https://case.edu/ech/articles/c/cleveland-police-department |access-date=August 7, 2019 |date=May 31, 2019 }}</ref> The division had roughly 1,100 sworn officers as of 2024, covering five police districts.<ref>{{cite web |title=Cleveland Police Districts |publisher=City of Cleveland |url=https://www.clevelandohio.gov/CityofCleveland/Home/Government/CityAgencies/PublicSafety/Police/Police_Districts |date=2019 |access-date=August 7, 2019 }}</ref> The district system was introduced in the 1930s by Cleveland Public Safety Director [[Eliot Ness]] (of the [[Untouchables (law enforcement)|Untouchables]]), who later [[1947 Cleveland mayoral election|ran for mayor of Cleveland]] in 1947.<ref name="CLEpolice" /><ref>{{cite web |title=Eliot Ness and his role in Cleveland history |publisher=Cleveland Police Museum |url=https://www.clevelandpolicemuseum.org/collections/eliot-ness/ |access-date=August 7, 2019 }}</ref> The [[chief of police|Chief of Police]] is Dorothy A. Todd.<ref>{{cite web |title=Division of Police |publisher=City of Cleveland |url=https://www.clevelandohio.gov/city-hall/departments/public-safety/divisions/police |access-date=March 17, 2024 }}</ref> In addition, the [[Cuyahoga County Sheriff's Office]] is based in Downtown Cleveland at the [[Justice Center Complex]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://sheriff.cuyahogacounty.us/en-US/About-Us.aspx |title=About Us |website=[[Cuyahoga County Sheriff's Office]] |access-date=May 24, 2023 }}</ref>

=== Fire department ===
{{main|Cleveland Division of Fire}}
Cleveland is served by the [[firefighter]]s of the Cleveland Division of Fire, established in 1863.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Cleveland Fire Department |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History |publisher=Case Western Reserve University |url=https://case.edu/ech/articles/c/cleveland-fire-department |access-date=August 21, 2019 |date=May 22, 2018 }}</ref> The fire department operates out of 22 active fire stations throughout the city in five battalions. Each Battalion is commanded by a Battalion Chief, who reports to an on-duty Assistant Chief.<ref>{{cite web |title=Division of Fire |publisher=City of Cleveland |url=https://www.clevelandohio.gov/CityofCleveland/Home/Government/CityAgencies/PublicSafety/Fire |access-date=August 21, 2019 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Cleveland Fire Stations |publisher=City of Cleveland |url=https://www.clevelandohio.gov/CityofCleveland/Home/Government/CityAgencies/PublicSafety/Fire/Fire_Stations |access-date=August 21, 2019 }}</ref>

The Division of Fire operates a [[fire apparatus]] fleet of twenty-two engine companies, eight ladder companies, three tower companies, two task force [[rescue squad]] companies, hazardous materials ("haz-mat") unit, and numerous other special, support, and reserve units. The [[fire chief|Chief of Department]] is Anthony Luke.<ref>{{cite news |title=Anthony P. Luke sworn in as Cleveland's new fire chief |publisher=WKYC |url=https://www.wkyc.com/article/news/local/cleveland/anthony-p-luke-sworn-in-cleveland-new-fire-chief/95-bc4fe544-7772-44ba-8854-5bb6240d4ae1 |date=November 1, 2022 |access-date=May 19, 2023 }}</ref>

=== Emergency medical services ===
{{main|Cleveland EMS}}
Cleveland EMS is operated by the city as its own municipal third-service EMS division. Cleveland EMS is the primary provider of [[Advanced Life Support]] and ambulance transport within the city of Cleveland, while Cleveland Fire assists by providing fire response medical care.<ref>{{cite web |title=Cleveland EMS History |publisher=Cleveland Association of Rescue Employees |url=https://www.care1975.com/history/ |access-date=January 22, 2019 }}</ref> Although a merger between the fire and EMS departments was proposed in the past, the idea was subsequently abandoned.<ref>{{cite news |last=Atassi |first=Leila |title=Cuyahoga Prosecutor says former Cleveland Fire Chief Paul Stubbs ignored payroll abuses; Mayor has remained steadfast in defense |newspaper=The Plain Dealer |url=https://www.cleveland.com/cityhall/index.ssf/2014/04/cuyahoga_prosecutor_says_forme.html |access-date=January 22, 2019 |date=April 13, 2014 }}</ref>

=== Military ===
Cleveland serves as headquarters to [[Coast Guard District 9]] and is responsible for all [[U.S. Coast Guard]] operations on the five Great Lakes, the Saint Lawrence Seaway, and surrounding states accumulating 6,700 miles of shoreline and 1,500 miles of international shoreline with Canada. It reports up through the [[U.S. Department of Homeland Security]]. Station Cleveland Harbor, located in North Coast Harbor, has a responsibility covering about 550 square miles of the federally navigable waters of Lake Erie, including the Cuyahoga and [[Rocky River (Ohio)|Rocky]] rivers, as well as a number of their tributaries.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.atlanticarea.uscg.mil/Our-Organization/District-9/Ninth-District-Units/Sector-Buffalo/Units/Cleveland-Harbor/ |title=Station Cleveland Harbor |website=USCG District 9 |access-date=January 31, 2023 }}</ref>

== Education ==
{{See also|Education in Ohio}}
{{multiple image
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|image1 = Adelbert Hall.jpg
|caption1 = [[Adelbert Hall]] on the campus of [[Case Western Reserve University]]
|image2 = Cleveland Public Library (16287504700).jpg
|caption2 = Interior of the 1925 main building of the [[Cleveland Public Library]]
}}

=== Primary and secondary ===
Cleveland is served by the [[Cleveland Metropolitan School District]]. It is the only [[K–12 education|K–12]] district in Ohio under the direct control of the mayor, who appoints a [[board of education|school board]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Cleveland Public Schools |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History |publisher=Case Western Reserve University |url=https://case.edu/ech/articles/c/cleveland-public-schools |access-date=May 19, 2023 |date=November 11, 2020 }}</ref> Approximately {{convert|1|sqmi|km2}} of Cleveland's Buckeye–Shaker neighborhood is part of the [[Shaker Heights City School District]]. The area, which has been a part of the Shaker school district since the 1920s, permits these Cleveland residents to pay the same school taxes as the Shaker residents, as well as vote in the Shaker school board elections.<ref>{{cite news |title=Shaker Heights City School District |newspaper=The Plain Dealer |url=http://www.cleveland.com/opinion/index.ssf/2010/04/shaker_heights_city_school_dis.html |date=April 25, 2010 |access-date=August 7, 2022 }}</ref>

There are several private and parochial schools in Cleveland.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Education |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History |publisher=Case Western Reserve University |url=https://case.edu/ech/articles/e/education |access-date=August 7, 2022 |date=May 11, 2018 }}</ref> These include [[Benedictine High School (Cleveland, Ohio)|Benedictine High School]], [[Cleveland Central Catholic High School]], [[Eleanor Gerson School]], [[Saint Ignatius High School (Cleveland)|St. Ignatius High School]], [[Saint Joseph Academy (Cleveland, Ohio)|St. Joseph Academy]], [[Villa Angela-St. Joseph High School]], and [[St. Martin de Porres High School (Cleveland)|St. Martin de Porres]].

=== Colleges and universities ===
Cleveland is home to a number of colleges and universities. Most prominent among them is [[Case Western Reserve University]] (CWRU), a widely recognized research and teaching institution based in [[University Circle]] with several major graduate programs.<ref name="higher-ed">{{cite encyclopedia |title=Higher Education |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History |publisher=Case Western Reserve University |url=https://case.edu/ech/articles/h/higher-education |access-date=May 16, 2024 |date=May 11, 2018 }}</ref>

University Circle also contains the [[Cleveland Institute of Art]] and the [[Cleveland Institute of Music]]. Downtown Cleveland is home to [[Cleveland State University]], a public research university with eight constituent colleges, and the metropolitan campus of [[Cuyahoga Community College]].<ref name="higher-ed" /> [[Ohio Technical College]] is also based in Cleveland.<ref>{{cite web |title=Ohio Technical College School History |publisher=[[Ohio Technical College]] |url=https://ohiotech.edu/about |date=June 26, 2023 |access-date=July 31, 2023 }}</ref> Cleveland's suburban universities and colleges include [[Baldwin Wallace University]] in [[Berea, Ohio|Berea]], [[John Carroll University]] in [[University Heights, Ohio|University Heights]], and [[Ursuline College]] in [[Pepper Pike, Ohio|Pepper Pike]].<ref name="higher-ed" />

=== Public library system ===
{{main|Cleveland Public Library}}
Established in 1869,{{sfn|Cramer|1972|pp=[https://archive.org/details/openshelvesopenm0000cram/page/14 14–15]}} the Cleveland Public Library is one of the [[List of the largest libraries in the United States|largest public libraries]] in the nation with a collection of over 13 million materials in 2023.<ref>{{cite report |title=2023 CPL Annual Report |publisher=[[Cleveland Public Library]] |url=https://cpl.org/wp-content/uploads/2023-annual_report.pdf |page=46 |date=2024 |access-date=February 9, 2025 }}</ref> It holds the Northeast Ohio Broadcast Archives,<ref>{{cite web |title=Northeast Ohio Broadcast Archives: Library Seeks a Sustainable Path Forward |publisher=Cleveland Public Library |url=https://cpl.org/northeast-ohio-broadcast-archives-library-seeks-a-sustainable-path-forward/ |access-date=February 9, 2025 |date=December 19, 2024 }}</ref> and the [[John Griswold White|John G. White]] Special Collection, with the largest [[chess libraries|chess library]] in the world and a rare collection of [[folklore]] and books on the Middle East and [[Eurasia]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Bash |first=Homa |title=Did you know? Cleveland is home to the world's largest chess collection |website=WEWS-TV |url=https://www.news5cleveland.com/news/local-news/cleveland-metro/did-you-know-cleveland-is-home-to-the-worlds-largest-chess-collection |date=June 12, 2019 |access-date=August 8, 2019 }}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=White, John Griswold |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History |publisher=Case Western Reserve University |url=https://case.edu/ech/articles/w/white-john-griswold |access-date=August 8, 2019 |date=May 12, 2018 }}</ref> The library's main building was designed by [[Walker and Weeks]] and dedicated in 1925,{{sfn|Johannesen|1999|pp=68–69}} under head librarian [[Linda Eastman]], the first woman to lead a major library system in the U.S.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Eastman, Linda Anne |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History |publisher=Case Western Reserve University |url=https://case.edu/ech/articles/e/eastman-linda-anne |access-date=January 5, 2024 |date=April 3, 2020 }}</ref> Between 1904 and 1920, 15 [[Carnegie library|libraries]] built with funds from [[Andrew Carnegie]] were opened in the city.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Bamforth |first1=Emily |last2=Petkiewicz |first2=David |title=Cleveland had 15 Carnegie libraries: See them then and now |newspaper=The Plain Dealer |url=https://www.cleveland.com/news/g66l-2019/07/b1757ad91c2440/cleveland-had-15-carnegie-libraries-see-them-then-and-now-.html |date=July 8, 2019 |access-date=May 30, 2020 }}</ref> Known as the "People's University", the library presently maintains 27 branches.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Cleveland Public Library |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History |publisher=Case Western Reserve University |url=https://case.edu/ech/articles/c/cleveland-public-library |date=November 18, 2019 |access-date=January 5, 2024 }}</ref> It serves as the headquarters for the [[CLEVNET]] library consortium, which includes 47 public library systems in Northeast Ohio.<ref>{{cite web |title=What is CLEVNET? |publisher=[[CLEVNET]] |url=https://www.clevnet.org/what-is-clevnet/ |date=March 28, 2023 |access-date=July 31, 2023 }}</ref>

== Media ==
{{See also|List of mass media in Cleveland}}

=== Print ===
Cleveland's primary daily newspaper is ''[[The Plain Dealer]]'' and its associated online publication, ''Cleveland.com''.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Plain Dealer |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History |date=November 18, 2019 |publisher=Case Western Reserve University |url=https://case.edu/ech/articles/p/plain-dealer |access-date=June 26, 2020 }}</ref> Defunct major newspapers include the ''[[Cleveland Press]]'' and the ''[[Cleveland News]]''.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Cleveland Press |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History |publisher=Case Western Reserve University |url=https://case.edu/ech/articles/c/cleveland-press |date=November 11, 2020 |access-date=June 7, 2023 }}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Cleveland News |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History |publisher=Case Western Reserve University |url=https://case.edu/ech/articles/c/cleveland-news |date=March 9, 2021 |access-date=June 7, 2023 }}</ref> Additional publications include ''[[Cleveland Magazine]]'', a regional culture magazine published monthly;<ref>{{cite magazine |title=About Us |magazine=Cleveland Magazine |url=https://clevelandmagazine.com/home/about-us |access-date=June 26, 2020 }}</ref> ''[[Crain Communications|Crain's Cleveland Business]]'', a weekly business newspaper;<ref>{{cite web |title=Crain's Cleveland Business |publisher=Crain's Cleveland Business |url=https://www.crainscleveland.com/ |access-date=June 26, 2020 }}</ref> and ''[[Cleveland Scene]]'', a free [[Alternative newspaper|alternative weekly]] paper which absorbed its competitor, the ''[[Cleveland Free Times]]'', in 2008.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Scene |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History |publisher=Case Western Reserve University |url=https://case.edu/ech/articles/s/scene |access-date=August 7, 2019 |date=May 12, 2018 }}</ref> The digital ''[[Belt Magazine]]'' was founded in Cleveland in 2013.<ref>{{cite magazine |title=About Us |magazine=Belt Magazine |url=https://beltmag.com/about-us/ |access-date=August 5, 2019 }}</ref> ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'' magazine was published in Cleveland from 1925 to 1927.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Time |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History |publisher=Case Western Reserve University |url=https://case.edu/ech/articles/t/time |access-date=August 5, 2019 |date=May 12, 2018 }}</ref>

{{multiple image
|align = right
|direction = vertical
|image1 = WOIO WUAB (3422960432).jpg
|caption1 = The [[Reserve Square]] building in Downtown Cleveland, home to the studios of Cleveland [[CBS]] affiliate [[WOIO]] and [[The CW|CW]] affiliate [[WUAB]]
|image2 = RNC Cleveland 2016 (28219246801).jpg
|caption2 = The [[William Taylor & Son|Six Six Eight Building]] on Euclid Avenue – home base of [[iHeart Media]]'s Cleveland radio stations, including [[WTAM]], [[WARF]], [[WAKS]], [[WGAR-FM|WGAR]], [[WMMS]], [[WMJI]], and [[WHLK]]
}}
Several ethnic publications are based in Cleveland. These include the ''[[Call and Post]]'', a weekly newspaper that primarily serves the city's African American community;<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Cleveland Call & Post |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History |date=May 22, 2018 |publisher=Case Western Reserve University |url=https://case.edu/ech/articles/c/cleveland-call-post |access-date=June 26, 2020 }}</ref> the ''[[Cleveland Jewish News]]'', a weekly [[Jewish newspaper]];<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Cleveland Jewish News |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History |publisher=Case Western Reserve University |url=https://case.edu/ech/articles/c/cleveland-jewish-news |access-date=August 5, 2019 |date=May 11, 2018 }}</ref> the bi-weekly [[Russian-language]] ''Cleveland Russian Magazine'';<ref>{{cite web |title=Cleveland Russian Magazine |magazine=Cleveland Russian Magazine |url=https://www.clevelandrussianmagazine.com/ |access-date=June 26, 2020 }}</ref> the [[Chinese language|Mandarin]] ''Erie Chinese Journal'';<ref>{{cite magazine |title=About |magazine=Erie Chinese Journal |url=https://www.ecjnews.com/ABOUT_PAGE.htm |lang=zh |access-date=May 22, 2023 }}</ref> ''La Gazzetta Italiana'' in English and Italian;<ref>{{cite news |title=About Us |newspaper=La Gazzetta Italiana |url=https://www.lagazzettaitaliana.com/about-us |access-date=June 26, 2020 }}</ref> the ''Ohio Irish American News'';<ref>{{cite news |title=Ohio Irish American News |newspaper=Ohio Irish American News |url=https://ohioirishamericannews.com/ |access-date=June 26, 2020 }}</ref> and the Spanish language ''Vocero Latino News''.<ref>{{cite news |title=Vocero Latino News |newspaper=Vocero Latino News |url=http://vocerolatinonews.com/ |access-date=June 26, 2020 }}</ref>

=== TV ===
The Cleveland-area [[television market]] is served by 11 full power stations, including [[WKYC]] ([[NBC]]), [[WEWS-TV]] ([[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]]), [[WJW (TV)|WJW]] ([[Fox Broadcasting Company|Fox]]), [[WDLI-TV]] ([[Bounce TV|Bounce]]), [[WOIO]] ([[CBS]]), [[WVPX-TV]] ([[Ion Television|Ion]]), [[WVIZ]] ([[PBS]]), [[WUAB]] ([[The CW|CW]]/[[Rock Entertainment Sports Network|RESN]]), [[WRLM (TV)|WRLM]] ([[Tri-State Christian Television|TCT]]), [[WBNX-TV]] (independent), and [[WQHS-DT]] ([[Univision]]). {{As of|2021|post=,}} the market, which includes the [[Akron]] and [[Canton, Ohio|Canton]] areas, was the 19th-largest in the country, as measured by [[Nielsen Media Research]].<ref>{{cite report |author1=Out of Home Advertising Association of America |author1-link=Out of Home Advertising Association of America |title=2021 Neilsen DMA Ratings |url=https://oaaa.org/Portals/0/Public%20PDFs/OAAA%202021%20NIELSEN%20DMA%20Rankings%20Report.pdf |website=OAAA |publisher=Out-of-Home Advertising Association of America |access-date=May 11, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221023142631/https://oaaa.org/Portals/0/Public%20PDFs/OAAA%202021%20NIELSEN%20DMA%20Rankings%20Report.pdf |archive-date=October 23, 2022 |page=1 |date=2021 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

''[[The Mike Douglas Show]]'', a nationally [[Broadcast syndication|syndicated]] daytime talk show, began in Cleveland in 1961 on KYW-TV (now WKYC),<ref>{{cite news |last=Weiner |first=Tim |title=Mike Douglas, TV Host and Pop Singer, Dies at 81 |newspaper=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/08/12/arts/television/12douglas.html |date=August 12, 2006 |access-date=August 8, 2023 }}</ref> while ''[[The Morning Exchange]]'' on WEWS-TV served as the model for ''[[Good Morning America]]''.<ref>{{cite news |last=Livingston |first=Tommy |title=Fred Griffith, former host of The Morning Exchange, dies at 90 |publisher=WEWS-TV |url=https://www.news5cleveland.com/news/local-news/cleveland-metro/fred-griffith-former-host-of-the-morning-exchange-dies-at-90 |date=July 19, 2019 |access-date=August 8, 2023 }}</ref> [[Tim Conway]] and [[Ernie Anderson]] first established themselves in Cleveland while working together at KYW-TV and later WJW-TV (now WJW). Anderson both created and performed as the immensely popular Cleveland horror host [[Ghoulardi]] on WJW-TV's ''Shock Theater'', and was later succeeded by the long-running [[Late night television|late night]] duo [[Big Chuck and Lil' John]].{{sfn|Feran|Heldenfels|1997|pp=135–136}} Another Anderson protégé – [[Ron Sweed]] – would become a popular Cleveland late night movie host in his own right as "The Ghoul".<ref>{{cite news |last=DeNatale |first=Dave "Dino" |title=Legendary Cleveland television personality Ron 'The Ghoul' Sweed passes away |publisher=WKYC |url=https://www.wkyc.com/article/news/legendary-cleveland-television-personality-ron-the-ghoul-sweed-passes-away/95-11d2ab9d-6553-4772-a44c-40ca1ddbcfb0 |date=April 2, 2019 |access-date=August 1, 2022 }}</ref>

=== Radio ===
Cleveland is directly served by 29 full power [[AM broadcasting|AM]] and [[FM broadcasting|FM]] radio stations, 21 of which are licensed to the city. Music [[radio broadcasting|stations]] – which are frequently the highest-rated in the market – include [[WQAL]] ([[hot adult contemporary]]), [[WDOK]] ([[Adult contemporary music|adult contemporary]]), [[WKLV-FM]] ([[Christian contemporary]] - [[K-Love]]), [[WAKS]] ([[contemporary hit radio|contemporary hits]]), [[WHLK]] ([[adult hits]]), [[WMJI]] ([[classic hits]]), [[WMMS]] ([[active rock]]/[[hot talk]]), [[WNCX]] ([[classic rock]]), [[WNWV]] ([[alternative rock]]), [[WGAR-FM]] ([[Country music|country]]), [[WZAK]] ([[urban adult contemporary]]), [[WENZ]] ([[mainstream urban]]), [[WCLV]] (classical), and [[WJMO]] ([[Latin music|Spanish]]/[[Tropical music|Tropical]]).<ref>{{cite magazine |title=Classical Pick: Radio Days |magazine=[[The New Yorker]] |url=https://www.newyorker.com/online/blogs/goingson/2010/07/quick-pick-15.html |date=July 1, 2010 |access-date=March 14, 2011 }}</ref><ref name="radio">{{cite web |title=Cleveland Radio Stations |publisher=Radio Station World |url=http://radiostationworld.com/locations/united_states_of_america/ohio/cleveland/radio_stations/ |access-date=May 19, 2023 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Ratings: #34 Cleveland |publisher=Radio Online |year=2019 |url=https://ratings.radio-online.com/cgi-bin/rol.exe/arb019 |access-date=August 7, 2019 }}</ref> WMMS also serves as the FM flagship for the [[Cleveland Cavaliers]] and the [[Cleveland Guardians]], while WNCX is an FM flagship for the [[Cleveland Browns]].

[[All-news radio|News]]/[[Talk radio|talk]] stations include [[WHK (AM)|WHK]], [[WTAM]], and [[WERE]]. During the [[Golden Age of Radio]], WHK was the first radio station to broadcast in Ohio, and one of the first in the country.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=WHK |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History |date=June 22, 2021 |publisher=Case Western Reserve University |url=https://case.edu/ech/articles/w/whk |access-date=May 22, 2023 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=List of the Pioneer Broadcast Service Stations |publisher=United States Early Radio History |url=https://earlyradiohistory.us/pion622.htm#list |access-date=May 22, 2023 }}</ref> WTAM is the AM [[Flagship (broadcasting)|flagship]] for both the Cleveland Cavaliers and the Cleveland Guardians.<ref>{{cite web |title=Broadcast |work=Cleveland Cavaliers |publisher=NBA Media Ventures, LLC |year=2023 |url=https://www.nba.com/cavaliers/broadcast |access-date=August 8, 2023 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Guardians Radio Affiliates |work=Cleveland Guardians |publisher=MLB Advanced Media, LP |year=2023 |url=https://www.mlb.com/guardians/fans/radio-affiliates |access-date=August 8, 2023 }}</ref> Sports stations include [[WKNR]] ([[ESPN Radio|ESPN]]), [[WARF]] ([[Fox Sports Radio|Fox]]) and [[WKRK-FM]] ([[Infinity Sports Network|Infinity]]), with WKNR and WKRK-FM serving as co-flagship stations for the Cleveland Browns, and WARF airing the Cleveland Monsters and – though primarily an English language station – Spanish broadcasts of Cleveland Guardians home games.<ref>{{cite news |last=Yarborough |first=Chuck |title=WKRK FM/92.3 The Fan replaces rock with sports talk |newspaper=The Plain Dealer |url=https://www.cleveland.com/entertainment/2011/09/wkrk_fm923_the_fan_replaces_ro.html |date=September 2, 2011 |access-date=September 17, 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Grossi |first=Tony |title=ESPN 850 WKNR is the new radio home of the Cleveland Browns |work=ESPNCleveland.com |publisher=ESPN |url=http://espncleveland.com/common/more.php?m=49&action=blog&r=17&post_id=15161 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130510235931/http://espncleveland.com/common/more.php?m=49&action=blog&r=17&post_id=15161 |date=March 28, 2013 |access-date=March 28, 2013 |archive-date=May 10, 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=Press Release |title=Browns Enter into Groundbreaking Radio Partnership With ESPN 850 WKNR And CBS Radio's 92.3 The Fan And 98.5 WNCX |work=Cleveland.CBSLocal.com |publisher=[[CBS Radio]] |url=http://cleveland.cbslocal.com/2013/03/28/browns-enter-into-groundbreaking-radio-partnership-with-espn-850-wknr-and-cbs-radios-92-3-the-fan-and-98-5-wncx/ |date=March 28, 2013 |access-date=March 28, 2013 }}</ref> [[Religious broadcasting|Religious]] stations include [[WCCD]], [[WHKW]], [[WCCR (AM)|WCCR]], and [[WCRF-FM|WCRF]].

As the regional [[NPR]] affiliate, [[WKSU]] serves all of Northeast Ohio (including both the Cleveland and Akron markets).<ref>{{cite news |title=Northeast Ohio NPR programming shifts from WCPN to WKSU, classical music now on 90.3 FM |newspaper=Akron Beacon Journal |url=https://www.beaconjournal.com/story/news/2022/03/28/monday-northeast-ohio-npr-programming-shifts-wcpn-wksu/7195070001/ |date=March 28, 2022 |access-date=May 19, 2023 }}</ref> [[Campus radio|College]] stations include [[WBWC]] ([[Baldwin Wallace]]), [[WCSB (FM)|WCSB]] (Cleveland State), [[WJCU]] ([[John Carroll University|John Carroll]]), and [[WRUW-FM]] (Case Western Reserve).<ref name="radio" />

== Transportation ==
{{main|Transportation in Cleveland}}

=== Transit ===
{{See also|Greater Cleveland Regional Transit Authority|Streetcars in Cleveland}}
[[File:RTA Green Line train.png|thumb|An [[RTA Rapid Transit|RTA]] train approaches [[Settlers Landing station]] on the [[Waterfront Line]]]]
Cleveland has a bus and rail [[public transport|mass transit]] system operated by the Greater Cleveland Regional Transit Authority (RTA). The [[urban rail transit|rail]] portion is officially called the [[RTA Rapid Transit]], but local residents refer to it as ''The Rapid''. It consists of three [[rapid transit|light rail]] lines, known as the [[Blue Line (Cleveland)|Blue]], [[Green Line (Cleveland)|Green]], and [[Waterfront Line]]s, and a [[heavy rail]] line, the [[Red Line (Cleveland)|Red Line]]. In 2008, RTA completed the [[HealthLine]], a [[bus rapid transit]] line, for which naming rights were purchased by the Cleveland Clinic and University Hospitals. It runs along Euclid Avenue from downtown through University Circle, ending at the [[Louis Stokes Station at Windermere]] in East Cleveland.<ref>{{cite web |title=RTA HealthLine: About |publisher=[[Greater Cleveland Regional Transit Authority]] |url=http://www.riderta.com/healthline/about |access-date=June 1, 2023 }}</ref> In 1968, Cleveland became the first city in the nation to have a direct rail transit connection linking the city's downtown to its major airport.<ref name="RTA-history" />

=== Walkability ===
In 2021, [[Walk Score]] ranked Cleveland the 17th most walkable of the 50 largest cities in the U.S., with a Walk Score of 57, a Transit Score of 45, and a Bike Score of 55 (out of a maximum of 100). Cleveland's most walkable areas can be found in the Downtown, Ohio City, Detroit–Shoreway, University Circle, and Buckeye–Shaker neighborhoods.<ref>{{cite web |title=Living in Cleveland |publisher=Walk Score |url=http://www.walkscore.com/OH/Cleveland |access-date=April 26, 2021 }}</ref> Like other major cities, the urban density of Cleveland reduces the need for private vehicle ownership. In 2016, 23.7% of Cleveland households lacked a car, while the national average was 8.7%. Cleveland averaged 1.19 cars per household in 2016, compared to a national average of 1.8.<ref>{{cite web |title=Car Ownership in U.S. Cities Data and Map |date=December 9, 2014 |publisher=Governing |url=http://www.governing.com/gov-data/car-ownership-numbers-of-vehicles-by-city-map.html |access-date=May 4, 2018 }}</ref>

=== Roads ===
[[File:Guardians of Traffic (30137077771).jpg|thumb|One of the "Guardians of Traffic" at the [[Hope Memorial Bridge]]]]
Cleveland's road system consists of numbered streets running roughly north–south, and named avenues, which run roughly east–west. The numbered streets are designated "east" or "west", depending on where they lie in relation to Ontario Street, which bisects Public Square.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Street Names |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History |date=June 29, 2018 |publisher=Case Western Reserve University |url=https://case.edu/ech/articles/s/street-names |access-date=May 22, 2023 }}</ref> The two downtown avenues which span the Cuyahoga change names on the west side of the river. Superior Avenue becomes Detroit Avenue on the West Side, and Carnegie Avenue becomes Lorain Avenue. The bridges that make these connections are the [[Hope Memorial Bridge|Hope Memorial (Lorain–Carnegie) Bridge]] and the [[Detroit–Superior Bridge|Veterans Memorial (Detroit–Superior) Bridge]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Rotman |first=Michael |title=Lorain-Carnegie Bridge: Home of the Guardians |website=Cleveland Historical |publisher=Cleveland State University |url=https://clevelandhistorical.org/items/show/73 |access-date=July 21, 2023 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=O'Grady |first1=F. X. |last2=Rotman |first2=Michael |title=Detroit-Superior Bridge: The City's First High-Level Bridge |website=Cleveland Historical |publisher=Cleveland State University |url=https://clevelandhistorical.org/items/show/53 |access-date=July 21, 2023 }}</ref>

=== Freeways ===
Cleveland is served by three two-digit [[Interstate Highway System|interstate highways]] – [[Interstate 71]], [[Interstate 77]], and [[Interstate 90]] – and by two three-digit interstates – [[Interstate 480 (Ohio)|Interstate 480]] and [[Interstate 490 (Ohio)|Interstate 490]].  Running due east–west through the West Side suburbs, I-90 turns northeast at the junction with I-490, and is known as the Cleveland Inner Belt.<ref name="innerbelt">{{cite web |last=Lanese |first=Jim |title=The Cleveland Inner Belt: Future Interstate Highways Merge in the City |website=Cleveland Historical |publisher=Cleveland State University |url=https://clevelandhistorical.org/items/show/939 |access-date=July 7, 2023 }}</ref> The [[Cleveland Memorial Shoreway]] carries [[Ohio State Route 2]] along its length, and at varying points carries [[U.S. Route 6|US 6]], [[U.S. Route 20|US 20]] and I-90.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Memorial Shoreway |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History |date=May 11, 2018 |publisher=Case Western Reserve University |url=https://case.edu/ech/articles/m/memorial-shoreway |access-date=July 21, 2023 }}</ref> At the junction with the Shoreway, I-90 makes a 90-degree turn in the area known as [[Dead Man's Curve]], then continues northeast.<ref>{{cite web |last=Dorwart |first=Laura |title=Why This Cleveland Roadway Is Known as 'Dead Man's Curve' |website=Culture Trip |date=May 29, 2018 |url=https://theculturetrip.com/north-america/usa/ohio/articles/why-this-cleveland-roadway-is-known-as-dead-mans-curve/ |access-date=August 8, 2023 }}</ref> The Jennings Freeway ([[Ohio State Route 176|State Route 176]]) connects I-71 just south of I-90 to I-480.<ref name="innerbelt" /> A third highway, the Berea Freeway ([[Ohio State Route 237|State Route 237]] in part), connects I-71 to the airport and forms part of the boundary between Brook Park and Cleveland's Hopkins neighborhood.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Roy |first=Christopher |title=Hopkins Neighborhood |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History |date=March 12, 2022 |publisher=Case Western Reserve University |url=https://case.edu/ech/articles/h/hopkins-neighborhood |access-date=July 21, 2023 }}</ref>

=== Airports ===
Cleveland is a major North American air market, serving 4.93 million people.<ref>{{cite web |title=Cleveland |publisher=The Center for Cleveland |url=https://www.centerforcleveland.org/cleveland |access-date=May 19, 2023 }}</ref> [[Cleveland Hopkins International Airport]] is the city's primary major airport and an [[international airport]] that serves the broader region. Originally known as Cleveland Municipal Airport, it was the first municipally owned airport in the country.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Culley |first=Jim |title=Cleveland Hopkins International Airport |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History |publisher=[[Case Western Reserve University]] |url=https://case.edu/ech/articles/c/cleveland-hopkins-international-airport |date=May 10, 2022 |access-date=May 28, 2023 }}</ref> Cleveland Hopkins is a significant regional air freight hub hosting [[FedEx Express]], [[UPS Airlines]], [[U.S. Postal Service]], and major commercial freight carriers. In addition to Hopkins, Cleveland is served by [[Burke Lakefront Airport]], on the north shore of downtown between Lake Erie and the Shoreway. Burke is primarily a commuter and business airport.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Burke Lakefront Airport |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History |date=June 25, 2020 |publisher=Case Western Reserve University |url=https://case.edu/ech/articles/b/burke-lakefront-airport |access-date=May 19, 2023 }}</ref>

=== Seaport ===
{{main|Port of Cleveland}}
[[File:2022 Cleveland Air Show (52340170867).jpg|thumb|Shipping containers at the [[Port of Cleveland]] as seen from Lake Erie]]
The [[Port of Cleveland]], at the Cuyahoga River's mouth, is a major bulk freight and container terminal on Lake Erie, receiving much of the raw materials used by the region's manufacturing industries.<ref>{{cite web |title=About |publisher=[[Port of Cleveland]] |url=https://www.portofcleveland.com/about/ |access-date=May 20, 2023 }}</ref> The Port of Cleveland is the only container port on the Great Lakes with bi-weekly container service between Cleveland and the [[Port of Antwerp]] in Belgium on a Dutch service called the Cleveland-Europe Express.<ref>{{cite web |title=Cleveland-Europe Express |publisher=Port of Cleveland |url=http://www.portofcleveland.com/maritime-logistics/cleveland-europe-express/ |access-date=January 5, 2020 }}</ref> In addition to freight, the Port of Cleveland welcomes regional and international tourists who pass through the city on [[Great Lakes passenger steamers|Great Lakes cruises]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Great Lakes Cruising |publisher=Port of Cleveland |url=https://www.portofcleveland.com/great-lakes-cruising/ |access-date=May 20, 2023 }}</ref>

=== Intercity rail and bus ===
Cleveland has a long [[Cleveland railroad history|history]] as a major railroad hub in North America. Today, [[Amtrak]] provides service to Cleveland, via the ''[[Capitol Limited (Amtrak)|Capitol Limited]]'' and ''[[Lake Shore Limited]]'' routes, which stop at [[Cleveland Lakefront Station]]. Additionally, Cleveland hosts several inter-modal freight railroad terminals, for Norfolk Southern, CSX and several smaller companies.<ref>{{cite web |title=CSX Intermodal Terminal Details |publisher=[[CSX]] |url=https://www.intermodal.com/index.cfm/channel-partners/locations-served/terminal-details/?terminal_id=13&Core=true |access-date=August 8, 2023 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Cleveland, OH: Terminals & Schedules |publisher=[[Norfolk Southern]] |url=http://www.nscorp.com/content/nscorp/en/shipping-options/intermodal/terminals-and-schedules/cleveland-ohio.html |access-date=August 8, 2023 }}</ref>

National [[intercity bus]] service is provided by [[Greyhound Lines|Greyhound]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Getting to Cleveland |publisher=Destination Cleveland |url=https://www.thisiscleveland.com/planning-tools/visitor-services/getting-to-cleveland |access-date=June 4, 2023 }}</ref> [[METRO RTA|Akron Metro]], [[Brunswick Transit Alternative]], [[Laketran]], [[Lorain County Transit]], and [[Medina County Transit]] provide connecting bus service to the Greater Cleveland Regional Transit Authority. [[Geauga County Transit]] and [[Portage Area Regional Transportation Authority|Portage Area Regional Transportation Authority (PARTA)]] also offer connecting bus service in their neighboring areas.<ref>{{cite web |title=Out-of-County Transfers |publisher=Greater Cleveland Regional Transit Authority |url=https://www.riderta.com/fact-sheet-out-county-transfers |access-date=June 4, 2023 }}</ref>

== International relations ==
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-73763-0004, Leipzig, Cyrus S. Eaton im Haus der Wissenschaft.jpg|thumb|[[Cyrus S. Eaton]] and his wife Anne in [[Leipzig]], [[East Germany]] in 1960]]
Cleveland maintains cultural, economic, and educational ties with 28 [[sister city|sister cities]] around the world. It concluded its first sister city partnership with [[Lima]], Peru, in 1964.<ref name="CLEsisters">{{cite encyclopedia |title=Cleveland Sister City Partnerships |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History |publisher=Case Western Reserve University |url=https://case.edu/ech/articles/cleveland-sister-city-partnerships |date=December 14, 2023 |access-date=January 4, 2024 }}</ref> In addition, Cleveland hosts the [[List of diplomatic missions of Slovenia|Consulate General]] of the [[Slovenia|Republic of Slovenia]], which, until Slovene independence in 1991, served as an official consulate for [[Josip Broz Tito|Tito]]'s [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Slovenes |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History |date=May 11, 2018 |publisher=Case Western Reserve University |url=https://case.edu/ech/articles/s/slovenes |access-date=May 24, 2020 }}</ref> The Cleveland Clinic operates the [[Cleveland Clinic Abu Dhabi]] hospital, two outpatient clinics in [[Toronto]], and a hospital campus in London.<ref>{{cite news |last=Coutré |first=Lydia |title=Cleveland Clinic London to open second outpatient building this fall |newspaper=Crain's Cleveland Business |url=https://www.crainscleveland.com/health-care/cleveland-clinics-second-outpatient-facility-london-will-open-fall |date=February 15, 2023 |access-date=July 1, 2023 }}</ref> The Cleveland Council on World Affairs was established in 1923.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Cleveland Council on World Affairs |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History |date=May 11, 2018 |publisher=Case Western Reserve University |url=https://case.edu/ech/articles/c/cleveland-council-world-affairs |access-date=June 21, 2020 }}</ref>

Historically, Cleveland industrialist [[Cyrus S. Eaton]], an apprentice of [[John D. Rockefeller]], played a significant role in promoting dialogue between the U.S. and the [[Soviet Union]] during the [[Cold War]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Eaton, Cyrus Stephen |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History |publisher=Case Western Reserve University |url=https://case.edu/ech/articles/e/eaton-cyrus-stephen |access-date=November 10, 2019 |date=July 30, 2019 }}</ref> In October 1915 at Cleveland's [[Bohemian National Hall (Cleveland, Ohio)|Bohemian National Hall]], Czech American and Slovak American representatives signed the [[Cleveland Agreement]], calling for the formation of a [[Czechoslovakia|joint Czech and Slovak state]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Burik |first=Paul |title=Cleveland Agreement of 1915 |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History |publisher=Case Western Reserve University |url=https://case.edu/ech/articles/c/cleveland-agreement-1915 |date=October 3, 2020 |access-date=June 7, 2023 }}</ref>

{| class="wikitable collapsible" width="100%"
!Sister cities of Cleveland<ref name="CLEsisters" />
|-
|{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
* {{flagicon|EGY}} [[Alexandria]] (Egypt) ''1977''
* {{flagicon|ETH}} [[Bahir Dar]] (Ethiopia) ''2004''
* {{flagicon|IND}} [[Bangalore]] (India) ''1975''
* {{flagicon|ISR}} [[Beit She'an]] (Israel) ''2019''
* {{flagicon|ROM}} [[Brașov]] (Romania) ''1973''
* {{flagicon|SVK}} [[Bratislava]] (Slovakia) ''1990''
* {{flagicon|TUR}} [[Bursa]] (Turkey) ''2023''
* {{flagicon|RSA}} [[Cape Town]] (South Africa) ''2023''
* {{flagicon|GBR}} [[Cleveland (county)|Cleveland]] (United Kingdom) ''1977''
* {{flagicon|GIN}} [[Conakry]] (Guinea) ''1991''
* {{flagicon|ALB}} [[Fier]] (Albania) ''2006''
* {{flagicon|POL}} [[Gdańsk]] (Poland) ''1990''
* {{flagicon|GER}} [[Heidenheim an der Brenz]] (Germany) ''1977''
* {{flagicon|ISR}} [[Holon]] (Israel) ''1977''
* {{flagicon|NGR}} [[Ibadan]] (Nigeria) ''1974''
* {{flagicon|RWA}} [[Kigali]] (Rwanda) ''2023''
* {{flagicon|LTU}} [[Klaipėda]] (Lithuania) ''1992''
* {{flagicon|PER}} [[Lima]] (Peru) ''1964''
* {{flagicon|SLO}} [[Ljubljana]] (Slovenia) ''1975''
* {{flagicon|IRL}} [[County Mayo|Mayo]] (Ireland) ''2003''
* {{flagicon|HUN}} [[Miskolc]] (Hungary) ''1995''
* {{flagicon|SRB}} [[Novi Sad]] (Serbia) ''2023''
* {{flagicon|FRA}} [[Rouen]] (France) ''2008''
* {{flagicon|SLV}} [[Segundo Montes, Morazán|Segundo Montes]] (El Salvador) ''1991''
* {{flagicon|TWN}} [[Taipei]] (Taiwan) ''1975''
* {{flagicon|GHA}} [[Tema]] (Ghana) ''2023''
* {{flagicon|ITA}} [[Vicenza]] (Italy) ''2009''
* {{flagicon|RUS}} [[Volgograd]] (Russia) ''1990''
{{div col end}}
|}

== See also ==
* [[List of people from Cleveland]]
* [[List of references to Cleveland in popular culture]]
* [[USS Cleveland|USS ''Cleveland'']], 4 ships

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== Works cited ==
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite book |last1=Adams |first1=Henry |last2=Waldman |first2=Lawrence |year=2011 |title=Out of the Kokoon |location=Cleveland |publisher=Cleveland Public Library and Cleveland Artists Foundation |isbn=978-0615534008}}
* {{cite book |last1=Albrecht |first1=Brian |last2=Banks |first2=James |year=2015 |title=Cleveland in World War II |location=Charleston |publisher=The History Press (Arcadia) |isbn=978-1-62619-882-1}}
* {{cite book |last=Brecher |first=Jeremy |date=2020 |title=Strike! |location=Oakland, CA |publisher=PM Press |url=http://archive.org/details/strike0000brec_t8h1 |via=Internet Archive |isbn=978-1-62963-808-9}}
* {{cite book |last=Cigliano |first=Jan |year=1991 |title=Showplace of America: Cleveland's Euclid Avenue, 1850–1910 |location=Kent, OH |publisher=[[Kent State University Press]] |isbn=978-0873384452}}
* {{cite book |last=Condon |first=George E. |author-link=George E. Condon |year=1967 |title=Cleveland: The Best Kept Secret |publisher=Doubleday |location=New York |isbn=978-1-936323-08-1 |url=https://archive.org/details/cleveland0000geor |via=[[Internet Archive]]}}
* {{cite book |last=Condon |first=George E. |year=1979 |title=Cleveland: Prodigy of the Western Reserve |location=Tulsa |publisher=Continental Heritage Press |isbn=978-0932986061 |url=https://archive.org/details/clevelandprodigy0000cond |via=Internet Archive}}
* {{cite book |last=Cramer |first=C. H. |year=1972 |title=Open Shelves and Open Minds: A History of the Cleveland Public Library |location=Cleveland |publisher=The Press of Case Western Reserve University |isbn=978-0829502190 |url=https://archive.org/details/openshelvesopenm0000cram |via=Internet Archive}}
* {{cite book |last=Dutka |first=Alan F. |year=2012 |title=Cleveland's Short Vincent: The Theatrical Grill and Its Notorious Neighbors |location=Cleveland |publisher=Cleveland Landmarks Press |isbn=978-0936760322}}
* {{cite book |last1=Feran |first1=Tom |last2=Heldenfels |first2=R. D. |year=1997 |title=Ghoulardi: Inside Cleveland TV's Wildest Ride |location=Cleveland |publisher=Gray & Co |isbn=978-1886228184}}
* {{cite book |last=Harwood |first=Herbert H. Jr. |date=2003 |title=Invisible Giants: The Empires of Cleveland's Van Sweringen Brothers |location=Bloomington and Indianapolis |publisher=Indiana University Press |isbn=0-253-34163-9}}
* {{cite book |last=Horner |first=William T. |date=2010 |title=Ohio's Kingmaker: Mark Hanna, Man and Myth |publisher=Ohio University Press |location=Athens, OH |isbn=978-0-8214-1894-9}}
* {{cite book |last=Johannesen |first=Eric |date=1999 |title=A Cleveland Legacy: The Architecture of Walker and Weeks |location=Kent, OH |publisher=Kent State University Press |isbn=0-87338-589-6}}
* {{cite book |last=Keating |first=W. Dennis |year=2022 |title=Cleveland and the Civil War |location=Charleston |publisher=The History Press (Arcadia) |isbn=978-1467147736}}
* {{cite book |last=Lawrence |first=Michael |year=1980 |title=Make No Little Plans |publisher=[[Western Reserve Historical Society]] |location=Cleveland |isbn=0-911704-24-8}}
* {{cite book |last=Livingston |first=Bill |year=2015 |title=George Steinbrenner's Pipe Dream: The ABL Champion Cleveland Pipers |location=Kent, OH |publisher=Black Squirrel Books |isbn=978-1-60635-261-8}}
* {{cite book |last1=Miller |first1=Carol Poh |last2=Wheeler |first2=Robert A. |year=1997 |title=Cleveland: A Concise History, 1796–1996 |edition=2nd |location=Bloomington |publisher=Indiana University Press |isbn=978-0253211477 |url=https://archive.org/details/clevelandconcise0000mill |via=Internet Archive}}
* {{cite book |last=Mosbrook |first=Joe |year=2013 |title=Cleveland Jazz History |edition=2nd |orig-year=Originally published in 2003 by Northeast Ohio Jazz Society |location=Cleveland |publisher=MSL Academic Endeavors (Cleveland State University) |isbn=978-1-936323-41-8 |url=https://engagedscholarship.csuohio.edu/scholbks/135/}}
* {{cite book |last=Porter |first=Philip |year=1976 |title=Cleveland: Confused City on a Seesaw |location=Columbus, OH |publisher=[[Ohio State University Press]] |isbn=978-0814202647 |url=https://engagedscholarship.csuohio.edu/clevmembks/52/}}
* {{cite book |last=Ricca |first=Brad |year=2013 |title=Super Boys: The Amazing Adventures of Jerry Siegel and Joe Shuster – the Creators of Superman |location=New York |publisher=[[St. Martin's Press]] |isbn=978-0312643805 |url=https://archive.org/details/superboysamazing0000ricc |via=Internet Archive}}
* {{cite book |last=Rose |first=William Ganson |date=1990 |title=Cleveland: The Making of a City |location=Kent, OH |publisher=Kent State University Press |isbn=978-0873384285}}
* {{cite book |last=Rosenberg |first=Donald |year=2000 |title=Second to None: The Cleveland Orchestra Story |location=Cleveland |publisher=Gray & Company |isbn=978-1886228245}}
* {{cite book |last=Rothstein |first=Richard |year=2017 |title=[[The Color of Law|The Color of Law: A Forgotten History of How Our Government Segregated America]] |publisher=Liveright (W. W. Norton & Company) |location=New York |isbn=978-1631492853}}
* {{cite book |last=Stokes |first=Carl B. |author-link=Carl Stokes |year=1973 |title=Promises of Power |location=New York |publisher=Simon and Schuster |isbn=978-0671216023 |url=https://archive.org/details/promisesofpowerp00stok |via=Internet Archive}}
* {{cite book|last=Taxel |first=Laura |title=Cleveland Ethnic Eats |location=Cleveland |publisher=Gray & Company |year=2009 |isbn=978-1598510539}}
* {{cite book |last=Toman |first=James |year=1997 |title=Cleveland Stadium: The Last Chapter |location=Cleveland |publisher=Cleveland Landmarks Press |isbn=978-0936760100}}
* {{cite book |last1=Toman |first1=James |last2=Cook |first2=Daniel |year=2005 |title=Cleveland's Towering Treasure |location=Cleveland |publisher=Cleveland Landmarks Press |isbn=978-0936760209}}
* {{cite book |last=Turner |first=Evan H. |date=1991 |title=Object Lessons: Cleveland Creates an Art Museum |location=Cleveland |publisher=Cleveland Museum of Art |isbn=978-0940717107 |url=https://archive.org/details/object-lessons |via=Internet Archive}}
* {{cite book |last=Upton |first=Harriet Taylor |year=1910 |title=History of the Western Reserve |location=Chicago and New York |publisher=The Lewis Publishing Company |url=https://archive.org/details/historywesternr01cutlgoog |via=Internet Archive}}
{{refend}}

== Further reading ==
{{Main list|Bibliography of Cleveland}}
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book |last=Condon |first=George E. |year=2006 |title=West of the Cuyahoga |location=Kent, OH |publisher=Kent State University Press |isbn=978-0873388542}}
* {{cite book |last=Chapman |first=Edmund H. |year=1981 |title=Cleveland: Village to Metropolis |location=Cleveland |publisher=Western Reserve Historical Society |isbn=978-091170429-7}}
* {{cite book |last=Johannesen |first=Eric |year=1979 |title=Cleveland Architecture, 1876–1976 |location=Cleveland |publisher=Western Reserve Historical Society |isbn=978-091170421-1}}
* {{cite book |last=Grabowski |first=John J. |date=2019 |title=Cleveland A to Z: An Essential Compendium for Visitors and Residents Alike |location=Kent, OH |publisher=Kent State University Press |isbn=978-1606353905}}
* {{cite book |last1=Grabowski |first1=John J. |last2=Grabowski |first2=Diane Ewart |date=2000 |title=Cleveland: A History in Motion |location=Carlsbad, CA |publisher=Heritage Media |isbn=978-1886483385}}
{{refend}}

== External links ==
{{Sister project links |collapsible=collapsed |voy=Cleveland|Cleveland}}
* {{Official website|www.clevelandohio.gov/}}{{bots|deny=InternetArchiveBot}}
* [http://www.thisiscleveland.com/ Destination Cleveland, official tourism website]
* [https://www.gcpartnership.com/ Greater Cleveland Partnership]
* [http://ech.cwru.edu/ The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History] at [[Case Western Reserve University]]
* [https://clevelandhistorical.org/ Cleveland Historical] at [[Cleveland State University]]
* [http://www.clevelandmemory.org Cleveland Memory Project] at Cleveland State University

{{Cleveland}}

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Ten-Cent Beer Night

2025-06-18T14:50:57Z

128.228.164.236:

{{Short description|1974 Major League Baseball promotion}}
{{Use American English|date=June 2024}}
{{use mdy dates |date=May 2020}}
{{Infobox news event
| title =
| image =
| image_name = Dossin Great Lakes Museum (3478856847).jpg
| image_size =
| caption = A [[Stroh Brewery Company|Stroh's]] beer promotion was blamed for the riot
| date = June 4, 1974
| time = Evening
| place = [[Cleveland Stadium]], [[Cleveland|Cleveland, Ohio]], U.S.
| coordinates = {{Wikidatacoord|Q2403171|region:US-OH_type:event|display=inline,title}}
| also known as =
| cause = Fan animosity from previous game combined with [[low-point beer]] being sold cheaply and liberally
| first reporter =
| filmed by =
| participants = [[Cleveland Indians]] and [[Texas Rangers (baseball)|Texas Rangers]] baseball clubs, several thousand inebriated attendees
| outcome = Rangers/Indians game forfeited to Texas
| reported death(s) =
| reported injuries = Various players, officials, and fans (exact count unknown)
| reported missing =
| reported property damage = Damage to the field of Cleveland Stadium; bases stolen, never returned
| burial =
| inquiries =
| inquest =
| coroner =
| suspects = 9 fans arrested
| charges = Disorderly conduct
| verdict =
| convictions =
| publication bans =
| litigation =
| website =
}}

'''Ten-Cent Beer Night''' was an ill-fated promotion held by [[Major League Baseball]]'s [[1974 Cleveland Indians season|Cleveland Indians]] during a game against the [[1974 Texas Rangers season|Texas Rangers]] at [[Cleveland Stadium]] in [[Cleveland, Ohio]], U.S., on June 4, 1974. The promotion was meant to improve attendance at the game by offering cups of beer for just 10 cents each ({{Inflation|US|0.1|1974|r=2|fmt=eq|cursign=$}}), a substantial discount on the regular price of 65 cents ({{Inflation|US|0.65|1974|r=2|fmt=eq|cursign=$}}), with a limit of six beers per purchase but no limit on the number of purchases made during the game.

Six days earlier, the Indians and the Rangers had been involved in a widely publicized [[bench-clearing brawl]]; the game therefore drew a rowdy and belligerent crowd. As the game proceeded, on-field incidents and massive alcohol consumption further agitated the crowd, many of whom threw lit [[firecracker]]s, [[Streaking|streaked]] across the playing field, and openly smoked [[marijuana]]. Most sober fans departed early, leaving an increasingly drunk and unruly mob behind. Continued degradation of the game culminated in a riot in the ninth inning when fans [[pitch invasion|rushed the field]]. Players were forced to protect themselves with their [[baseball bat|bats]] while retreating from the field. Chief umpire [[Nestor Chylak]] declared the game to be [[Forfeit (baseball)|forfeited]] in Texas's favor due to the mob's uncontrollable behavior.

==Background==
The Indians had previously held such promotions without incident, beginning with Nickel Beer Day in 1971 ({{Inflation|US|0.05|1971|r=2|fmt=eq|cursign=$}}).<ref>{{cite news |last=Kozloski |first=Hank |date=June 27, 1971 |title=Cleveland Indians Plan Nickel Beer Day in July |url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/news-journal-news-journal-mansfield-oh/27330902/ |access-date=2025-05-28 |newspaper=[[Mansfield News Journal]] |location=Cleveland |page=D1 |via=[[Newspapers.com]] |quote=Dime Beer Day was a king-size success in Houston's [[Astrodome]]. Then the [[Milwaukee Brewers]] held a Dime Beer Day... Now the Indians are going the Astros and Brewers one better. They're planning a combination Nickel Beer and Helmet Day July 5. That's a Monday afternoon (1:30) single game with the [[Texas Rangers (baseball)#Washington Senators (1961–1971)|Washington Senators]].}}</ref> However, a [[bench-clearing brawl]] during the teams' previous meeting on May 29 at [[Arlington Stadium]] in Texas angered many Indians fans, who then harbored a grudge against the Rangers. The trouble at Arlington began in the bottom of the fourth inning with a [[Base on balls|walk]] to the Rangers' [[Tom Grieve]], followed by a [[Lenny Randle]] [[Single (baseball)|single]]. The next batter hit what should have been a double-play ball to Indians third baseman [[John Lowenstein]]; Lowenstein stepped on third base to retire Grieve and threw the ball to second base for the second out, but Randle disrupted the play with a hard slide into second baseman [[Jack Brohamer]].<ref name=schneider>{{cite news |last=Schneider |first=Russell |title=Rangers top Indians, 3–0 |newspaper=[[The Plain Dealer]] |date=May 30, 1974 |page=1-G |url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-plain-dealer-rangers-top-indians-3/148750780/ |via=newspapers.com |accessdate=June 5, 2024}}</ref>

The Indians retaliated in the bottom of the eighth when pitcher [[Milt Wilcox]] threw behind Randle's legs. On the next pitch Randle laid down a drag [[Bunt (baseball)|bunt]]. When Wilcox fielded the ball and approached Randle to tag him out, Randle intentionally veered inside the baseline toward Wilcox and hit him with his forearm before continuing to first base. Indians first baseman [[John Ellis (baseball)|John Ellis]] responded by intercepting and punching Randle before he reached the base, and both benches emptied for a brawl. After the brawl was broken up, as Indians players and coaches returned to the dugout, they were struck by food and beer hurled by Rangers fans; catcher [[Dave Duncan (baseball)|Dave Duncan]] had to be restrained from entering the stands to fight the fans.<ref name=schneider />

The game was not [[Suspended game|suspended]] or [[Forfeit (baseball)|forfeit]]ed, no players from either team were [[Ejection (baseball)|eject]]ed, and the Rangers won, 3–0.<ref>{{Cite web |date=May 29, 1974 |title=Retrosheet Boxscore: Texas Rangers 3, Cleveland Indians 0 |url=https://www.retrosheet.org/boxesetc/1974/B05290TEX1974.htm |url-status=live |access-date= |website=[[Retrosheet]] |archive-date=May 30, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210530004659/https://www.retrosheet.org/boxesetc/1974/B05290TEX1974.htm}}</ref>

After the game, a Cleveland reporter asked Rangers manager [[Billy Martin]], "Are you going to take your armor to Cleveland?" to which Martin replied, "Naw, they won't have enough fans there to worry about."<ref>{{cite news |last=Braham |first=Jim |date=May 30, 1974 |title=Here's beer in your eye? Could be for Texas' Martin |page=E2 |newspaper=[[The Cleveland Press]]}}</ref> During the week leading up to the teams' next meeting in Cleveland, sports radio talk show host [[Pete Franklin]] and Indians radio announcer [[Joe Tait]] made comments that fueled the fans' animosity toward the Rangers. In addition, ''[[The Plain Dealer]]'' printed a cartoon the day of the game showing [[Chief Wahoo]] holding a pair of [[boxing gloves]] with the caption, "Be ready for anything."<ref>{{cite book |last=Coughlin |first=Dan |title=Crazy, with the Papers to Prove It: Stories About the Most Unusual, Eccentric and Outlandish People I've Known in 45 Years as a Sports Journalist |year=2010 |pages=75–83 |publisher=Gray & Company, Publishers |isbn=978-1-59851-068-3}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-plain-dealer-tribe-eyes-500-mark/148750494/ |title=Tribe eyes .500 mark |first=Russell |last=Schneider |newspaper=[[The Plain Dealer]] |page=1-D |date=June 4, 1974 |accessdate=June 5, 2024 |via=newspapers.com}}</ref>

==The game==
[[File:Cleveland Municipal Stadium (NBY 6450).jpg|thumb|249x249px|The game was played at [[Cleveland Stadium]] (''pictured 1955'').]]

===Problems from the beginning===
Six days after the brawl in Texas, Cleveland's Ten Cent Beer Night promotion drew 25,134 fans to Cleveland Stadium for the Tuesday night game, twice the number expected.<ref>{{cite news |last=Lebovitz |first=Hal |title=Where was the warning? |newspaper=The Plain Dealer |date=June 6, 1974 |page=F1}}</ref> 12-fluid-ounce (355 mL) cups of beer were offered for just 10 cents each, a substantial discount on the regular price of 65 cents, with a limit of six beers per purchase but with no limit on the number of purchases made during the game.<ref name="Lebovitz1">{{cite news |last1=Lebovitz |first1=Hal |date=1974-06-09 |title=10,000 six packs? |url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-plain-dealer-10000-six-packs/173301328/ |access-date=2025-05-28 |work=Plain Dealer |page=2C |via=[[Newspapers.com]]}}</ref> Although the beer intended to be served at the discount price was 3.2% alcohol,<ref name="Lebovitz1"/> regular strength (5%–6%) [[Stroh's (beer)|Stroh's]] beer was also served.<ref name="Netzel-q2">{{cite news |author=Netzel |first=Andy |date=June 2007 |title=The Experience: Swiping Jeff Borroughs' cap on 10-cent Beer Night |work=[[Cleveland Magazine]] |url=https://clevelandmagazine.com/in-the-cle/articles/the-experience-swiping-jeff-borroughs'-cap-on-10-cent-beer-night |access-date=June 6, 2024 |archive-date=September 10, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160910190313/https://clevelandmagazine.com/in-the-cle/articles/the-experience-swiping-jeff-borroughs'-cap-on-10-cent-beer-night |url-status=live|quote=Anyone who wanted beer got beer. I was 19, so I could drink 3.2 beer, but I think they were just serving regular beer.}}</ref><ref name="jackson20080604" />

The Rangers quickly took a 5–1 lead. Meanwhile, throughout the game, the increasingly [[inebriated]] crowd grew more and more unruly. Early in the game, Cleveland's [[Leron Lee]] hit a [[line drive]] into the stomach of Rangers pitcher [[Ferguson Jenkins]], after which Jenkins dropped to the ground. Fans in the upper deck of the stadium cheered, then chanted, "Hit 'em again! Hit 'em again! Harder! Harder!" A woman ran out to the Indians' on-deck circle, [[Exhibitionism|flashed her breasts]], and then tried to kiss umpire [[Nestor Chylak]], who "was not in a kissing mood."<ref name="jackson20080604" /> As the Rangers' Grieve hit his second home run of the game, a [[streaking|naked man sprinted]] to second base and slid in, "probably getting dirt in places unsuitable for speculation", in the words of one sportswriter.<ref name="jackson20080604" /> One inning later, a father-and-son pair ran onto the outfield and [[mooning|mooned]] the fans in the bleachers.

Some fans brought firecrackers to the game which they set off in the stands or lit and threw onto the playing field.<ref name="jackson20080604" /> As the game progressed, more fans ran onto the field and disrupted play. Rangers first baseman [[Mike Hargrove]] was pelted with [[hot dog]]s and spat at, and at one point was nearly struck by an empty gallon jug of [[Thunderbird (wine)|Thunderbird]].<ref name="Ingraham">{{cite book |last1=Ingraham |first1=Jim |title=Mike Hargrove and the Cleveland Indians |date=2019 |publisher=Gray & Company |isbn=9781598511109 |url=https://chroniclet.com/news/179792/it-was-nuts-mike-hargrove-remembers-10-cent-beer-night-in-excerpt-of-new-biography-by-jim-ingraham/}}</ref>

The Rangers argued a call in which Lee was called safe in a close play at third base, spiking Jenkins with his cleats in the process and forcing him to leave the game. The Rangers' angry response to this play provoked an enraged outburst from Cleveland fans, who again began throwing objects onto the field. A fan also threw lighted firecrackers into the Rangers' bullpen.{{r|jackson20080604}} The clouds of firecracker and marijuana smoke further contributed to the unsettling mood.<ref name="jackson20080604" />

By the seventh inning, families and those fans who remained sober had mostly left the ballpark, and the remaining crowd became increasingly intoxicated and belligerent.<ref name="jackson20080604" /> As sportswriter Paul Jackson described in a 2008 article on the event:<ref name="jackson20080604" />
{{Blockquote|text=Early on, the demand for beer surpassed the Indians' capacity to ferry it to concession stands, and a luminary, perhaps the same person who suggested the promotion in the first place, decided to allow fans to line up behind the outfield fences and have their cups filled directly from Stroh's company trucks. The promotion achieved critical mass at that moment, as weaving, hooting queues of people refilled via industrial spigot.|author=}}

In the bottom of the ninth, the Indians managed to rally, tying the game 5–5, and had [[Rusty Torres]] on second base representing the potential winning run. However, with a rowdy crowd that had been drinking heavily for nine innings, the situation finally boiled over.

===The riot===
After the Indians had tied the game, a 19-year-old fan named Terry Yerkic ran onto the field and attempted to steal Texas outfielder [[Jeff Burroughs]]' cap.<ref>{{Cite web |date=June 2, 2014 |title=Remember 10-cent beer night? |url=https://www.espn.com/blog/dallas/texas-rangers/post/_/id/4911791 |url-status=live |website=[[ESPN]] |access-date=August 1, 2019 |archive-date=August 1, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190801005842/https://www.espn.com/blog/dallas/texas-rangers/post/_/id/4911791}}</ref><ref name="Netzel">{{cite news |author=Netzel |first=Andy |date=June 2007 |title=The Experience: Swiping Jeff Borroughs' cap on 10-cent Beer Night |work=[[Cleveland Magazine]] |url=https://clevelandmagazine.com/in-the-cle/articles/the-experience-swiping-jeff-borroughs'-cap-on-10-cent-beer-night |access-date=June 6, 2024 |archive-date=September 10, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160910190313/https://clevelandmagazine.com/in-the-cle/articles/the-experience-swiping-jeff-borroughs'-cap-on-10-cent-beer-night |url-status=live}}</ref> According to Yerkic, he dropped the hat, and as he picked it up, "I looked up, and saw (Burroughs) looking at me, and I said 'Oh, hell.'" Burroughs kicked Yerkic and stumbled in the process. Thinking that Burroughs had been attacked, Texas [[Manager (baseball)|manager]] [[Billy Martin]] and his players ran onto the field, some with bats. A large number of intoxicated fans—some armed with knives, chains, and [[Club (weapon)|clubs]] fashioned from portions of stadium seats they had torn apart—[[Pitch invasion|surged onto the field]], and others hurled bottles from the stands. Two hundred fans surrounded the 25 Rangers, with more fans coming.{{r|jackson20080604}}

Realizing that the Rangers' lives might be in danger, Cleveland manager [[Ken Aspromonte]] ordered his players to grab bats and help the Rangers, attacking the team's own fans in the process. Rioters began throwing steel folding chairs, and Cleveland relief pitcher [[Tom Hilgendorf]] was hit in the head by one of them. The Rangers' Hargrove, after subduing one rioter in a fistfight, had to fight another on his way back to the Texas dugout, while Texas catcher and former Indian [[Duke Sims]] also wound up getting into a fight with a fan. The two teams retreated off the field through the dugouts in groups, with players protecting each other.<ref name="jackson20080604">{{cite web |last=Jackson |first=Paul |date=June 4, 2008 |title=The night beer and violence bubbled over in Cleveland |url=https://www.espn.com/espn/page2/story?page=beernight/080604&sportCat=mlb |url-status=live |access-date=June 8, 2008 |website=[[ESPN]] |publisher= |archive-date=October 17, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081017055146/http://sports.espn.go.com/espn/page2/story?page=beernight%2F080604&sportCat=mlb}}</ref>

The teams fled into their clubhouses and closed and locked the doors. The crowd pulled up and stole the bases from the infield. Rioters threw a vast array of objects, including cups, [[Criminal rock throwing|rocks]], bottles, batteries from radios, hot dogs, popcorn containers, and folding chairs. Umpire crew chief Chylak, realizing that order would not be restored in a timely fashion, [[forfeit (baseball)|forfeited]] the game to Texas.<ref name="fctrib">{{cite news |date=June 5, 1974 |title=Fans cost Tribe forfeit to Texas |page=1, part 2 |newspaper=[[Milwaukee Sentinel]] |agency=[[Associated Press]] |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=XMUVAAAAIBAJ&pg=3879%2C815477}}</ref> He, too, was a victim of the rioters, as one struck and cut his head with part of a stadium seat,<ref name="tencentbeernight">{{cite web |title=This Week in Baseball History: Ten Cent Beer Night |url=http://coffeyvillewhirlwind.wordpress.com/2006/06/06/this-week-in-baseball-history-ten-cent-beer-night/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080724122809/http://coffeyvillewhirlwind.wordpress.com/2006/06/06/this-week-in-baseball-history-ten-cent-beer-night/ |archive-date=July 24, 2008 |access-date=July 5, 2011 |website=Coffeyville Whirlwind |date=June 6, 2006 |publisher=}}</ref> and his hand was cut by a thrown rock. He later called the fans "uncontrollable beasts" and stated that he'd never seen anything like what had happened "except in a zoo".<ref>{{cite news |last=O'Connor |first=Ian |date=April 17, 2003 |title=Alcohol puts a damper on fun and games |work=[[USA Today]] |url=https://www.usatoday.com/sports/columnist/oconnor/2003-04-17-ian_x.htm |access-date=May 25, 2010 |archive-date=July 13, 2004 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040713165302/http://www.usatoday.com/sports/columnist/oconnor/2003-04-17-ian_x.htm |url-status=dead}}</ref>

The rioting continued for twenty minutes as [[Joe Tait]] and [[Herb Score]] described the events live on radio. Tait commented, "Aw, this is absolute tragedy." The [[Cleveland Division of Police]] finally arrived to restore order, arresting nine fans. Indians players escorted the Rangers to the team bus.{{r|jackson20080604}} A local sportswriter, Dan Coughlin of the ''Chronicle-Telegram'', attempted to interview fans but was punched in the face twice, though Coughlin later recollected that the drunken punches were so weak, he was barely affected by them.<ref name="jackson20080604" />

Cleveland general manager [[Phil Seghi]] blamed the umpires for losing control of the game. ''[[The Sporting News]]'' wrote that "Seghi's perspective might have been different had he been in Chylak's shoes, in the midst of knife-wielding, bottle-throwing, chair-tossing, fist-swinging drunks".<ref>{{cite book |last=Neyer |first=Rob |url=https://archive.org/details/robneyersbigbook0000neye |title=Rob Neyer's Big Book of Baseball Blunders |publisher=[[Simon & Schuster]] |year=2006 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/robneyersbigbook0000neye/page/175 175–176] |isbn=978-0-7432-8491-2 |url-access=registration}}</ref> American League president [[Lee MacPhail]] commented, "There was no question that beer played a part in the riot."<ref name="tencentbeernight" />

===Box score===
{{Baseballbox
|date = June 4, 1974
|time = 8:05 pm EDT
|team1 = [[Texas Rangers (baseball)|Texas Rangers]]
|score = 5–5
|boxurl = http://www.retrosheet.org/boxesetc/1974/B06040CLE1974.htm
|team2 = [[Cleveland Indians]]
|stadium = [[Cleveland Stadium]]
|attendance = 25,134
|umpire = HP: [[Larry McCoy (umpire)|Larry McCoy]] 1B: [[Joe Brinkman]] 2B: [[Nick Bremigan]] 3B: [[Nestor Chylak]] (cc)
}}

==Notable attendees==
Among the Indians players fleeing was outfielder [[Rusty Torres]], who experienced three major-league baseball riots. In addition to this game, he had been with the [[New York Yankees]] at the [[Texas Rangers (baseball)#Washington Senators (1961–1971)|Senators' final game]] in Washington in 1971, and he was later with the [[Chicago White Sox]] during the infamous [[Disco Demolition Night]] in 1979.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Castle |first=George |date=July 11, 2016 |title=New book takes a new spin on historic Disco Demolition night |url=https://chronicleillinois.com/news/cook-county-news/new-book-takes-new-spin-historic-disco-demolition-night/ |url-status=live |access-date=May 14, 2020 |website=Cook County Chronicle |language=en-US |archive-date=June 25, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200625120420/https://chronicleillinois.com/news/cook-county-news/new-book-takes-new-spin-historic-disco-demolition-night/}}</ref>

[[NBC]] newscaster [[Tim Russert]], then a student at the [[Cleveland–Marshall College of Law]], attended the game and later commented, "I went with $2 in my pocket. You do the math."<ref>{{cite web |last=Eaton |first=Sabrina |date=February 23, 2008 |title=Russert returns to Cleveland State for debate |url=http://blog.cleveland.com/openers/2008/02/russert_returns_to_cleveland_s.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090608135526/http://blog.cleveland.com/openers/2008/02/russert_returns_to_cleveland_s.html |archive-date=June 8, 2009 |access-date=July 5, 2011 |work=[[Cleveland.com]] |publisher=Cleveland Live}}</ref>

==Beer Night II==
Cleveland held a second Beer Night promotion on July 18, which was completed without incident, attracting 41,848 fans with beer again selling for 10 cents per cup. This second promotion had a limit of two cups per person at the reduced price, with 200 police officers at the ballpark.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Campbell |first1=W. Joseph |last2=Daniels |first2=Robert |date=July 19, 1974 |title=Sanity reigns at Beer Night II |page=1–A |newspaper=[[The Plain Dealer]] |url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-plain-dealer-sanity-reigns-at-beer-n/148749544/ |via=newspapers.com}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Baseball|History}}

* [[Bottlegate]], a 2001 [[Cleveland Browns]] game ended early due to unruly fan behavior
* [[Hooliganism]]
* [[List of nicknamed MLB games and plays]]

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Further reading==
* {{Cite news |last=Withers |first=Tom |date=June 4, 2024 |title=50 Years Ago, 10-Cent Beers Helped Turn a Cleveland Baseball Game into a Bloody Riot |url=https://www.bostonglobe.com/2024/06/04/nation/10-cent-beer-night-anniversary-cleveland-chaos-baseball-game/ |url-access=limited |website=[[The Boston Globe]] |agency=[[Associated Press]] |access-date=June 5, 2024}}
* {{Cite book |last=Jarrett |first=Scott |year=2024 |title=Ten Cent Beer Night: The Complete Guide to the Riot That Helped Save Baseball in Cleveland |publisher=BookBaby |isbn=979-8-35095-510-1 |oclc=1436456072}} Self-published.

==External links==

* {{Baseball game links |mlb=166875 |br=CLE/CLE197406040 |retro=B06040CLE1974 |almanac=197406040CLE}}
{{Sporting fiascos}}
{{Cleveland Indians}}
{{Texas Rangers}}

[[Category:1974 in sports in Ohio]]
[[Category:1974 Major League Baseball season]]
[[Category:1970s in Cleveland]]
[[Category:Alcohol abuse in the United States]]
[[Category:Cleveland Guardians]]
[[Category:Drinking culture]]
[[Category:Hooliganism]]
[[Category:June 1974 sports events in the United States]]
[[Category:Major League Baseball controversies]]
[[Category:Major League Baseball games]]
[[Category:Riots and civil disorder in Cleveland]]
[[Category:Sports riots]]
[[Category:Texas Rangers (baseball)]]

Urban Bush Women

2025-06-18T14:24:28Z

128.228.164.236:

{{Multiple issues|{{More citations needed|date=March 2017}}
{{Advert|date=March 2017}}
{{Out of date|date=May 2025}}
}}
'''Urban Bush Women (UBW)''',<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Urban Bush Women (Dance Company) Begins |url=https://aaregistry.org/story/the-urban-bush-women-begin/ |access-date=2023-01-30 |website=African American Registry |language=en}}</ref> founded in 1984 by [[Jawole Willa Jo Zollar]], is a [[Brooklyn]], [[New York (state)|New York]]-based non-profit dance company and professional African-American women's dance company. The ensemble performs [[choreography]] by Zollar and several other choreographers, often with a focus on the experiences of women of [[African descent]].<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://uwpress.wisc.edu/books/4768.htm |title=UW Press - : Urban Bush Women: Twenty Years of African American Dance Theater, Community Engagement, and Working It Out, Nadine George-Graves |isbn=978-0-299-23554-3}}</ref>

== Description ==
'''Urban Bush Women''' aims to engage with artists, activists, audiences, and communities through performances, artist development, education, and community engagement.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Thompson |first=Candice |date=2022-08-10 |title=Founder of Urban Bush Women fuses modern dance and social justice work |url=https://andscape.com/features/urban-bush-women-founder-jawole-willa-jo-zollar-fuses-modern-dance-social-justice/ |access-date=2023-01-30 |website=Andscape |language=en-US}}</ref>

UBW has performed throughout the [[United States]], as well as [[Asia]], [[Australia]], [[Canada]], [[Germany]], [[South America]], [[Europe]] and [[Senegal]] (in collaboration with [[Germaine Acogny]] and her all-male Compagnie JANT-BI).

Performances in the US include [[Jacob's Pillow Dance|Jacob's Pillow]], Spoleto USA, [[National Black Arts Festival]], Dance Umbrella UK, and [[Lincoln Center for the Performing Arts|Lincoln Center]]. The company's repertory consists of 33 works choreographed by Zollar including ambitious collaborations with jazz artist [[David Murray (saxophonist)|David Murray]]; poets [[Laurie Carlos]] and [[Carl Hancock Rux]]; directors Steve Kent and Elizabeth Herron; and the National Song and Dance Company of Mozambique (supported by The Ford Foundation's Africa Exchange Program).

=== Programs ===
Programs run by the centre include the Summer Leadership Institute (SLI), BOLD (Builders, Organizers & Leaders through Dance) and the Choreographic Center Initiative. '''UBW''' affects the overall ecology of the arts by promoting artistic legacies; projecting the voices of the under-heard and people of color; bringing attention to and addressing issues of equity in the dance field and throughout the United States; and by providing platforms and serving as a conduit for experimental art makers.

=== Works ===
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Year
!Name
|-
|2016
|SCAT!
|-
|2015
|Walking With ‘Trane Side A & B
|-
|2014
|
*Hep Hep Sweet Sweet
* Walking With 'Trane, Chapter 2
* Dark Swan
* Chalabati
|-
|2010
|
*Zollar: Uncensored
* Body Talk
|-
|2009
|
*Naked City
|-
|1995
|
*Batty Moves
|}

== Recognition ==
The company has been commissioned by presenters nationwide, and includes among its honors a [[Bessie Awards|New York Dance and Performance Award]] (“Bessie”); the [[Capezio#Capezio Dance Award|Capezio Award]] for Outstanding Achievement in Dance; and two 2004 [[Doris Duke Performing Artist Award|Doris Duke Awards]] for New Work from the American Dance Festival. In March 2010, UBW toured South America as part of DanceMotion USA, a cultural diplomacy initiative spearheaded by the U.S. Department of State's [[Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs]] and the [[Brooklyn Academy of Music]].<ref>{{cite web |date=2010-08-11 |title=DanceMotion USA Blog: Dance Motion USA 2010, a recap |url=http://dmusa.blogspot.com/2010/08/dance-motion-usa-2010-recap.html |access-date=2017-03-09 |website=Dmusa.blogspot.com}}</ref>

In 2016, the company was awarded the Dance/USA Honor Award.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Founder and Legacy Timeline |url=https://www.urbanbushwomen.org/timeline |access-date=2021-04-19 |website=Urban Bush Women |language=en-US}}</ref> The company received the Bessie Lifetime Achievement in Dance Award in 2017.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Founder and Legacy Timeline |url=https://www.urbanbushwomen.org/timeline |access-date=2021-04-19 |website=Urban Bush Women |language=en-US}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}
<references group="" responsive="1"></references>
 {{Dance Companies in the United States}}

{{authority control}}

[[Category:1984 establishments in New York City]]
[[Category:Dance companies in New York City]]
[[Category:Culture of Brooklyn]]
[[Category:African-American dance]]

Shimen District

2025-06-18T14:14:08Z

128.228.164.236:

{{Short description|District of New Taipei, Taiwan}}
{{Infobox settlement


| name = Shimen
| other_name = Sekimon
| native_name = {{nobold|{{lang|zh-hant|石門區}}}}
| official_name = Shimen District
| Capital =
| nickname =
| settlement_type = [[District (Republic of China)|District]]
| motto =

| image_skyline = Fugueijiao_Lighthouse_1.jpg
| imagesize = 250px
| image_caption = The [[Fuguijiao Lighthouse]] at Taiwan's northernmost point
| image_flag =
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| seal_size =
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| image_map = New Taipei-Shimen.svg
| mapsize =
| map_caption = Location of Shimen in New Taipei City
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| pushpin_map_caption = Location of Shimen in Taiwan
| pushpin_mapsize = 220

| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = [[Taiwan|Republic of China (Taiwan)]]
| subdivision_type1 = Region
| subdivision_name1 = Northern Taiwan
| subdivision_type2 = [[Special municipality of Taiwan|Special municipality]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[New Taipei City]]
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| government_footnotes =
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| leader_title = Mayor
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| population_as_of = March 2023
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| population_total = 10902
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| timezone = [[Chungyuan Standard Time|CST]]
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| postal_code = 253
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{{Chinese
|title=Shimen District
|l=Stone Gate
|c=石門區
|p=Shímén Qū
|tp=Shíhmén Cyu
|bpmf=ㄕˊ ㄇㄣˊ ㄑㄩ
|poj=Chio̍h-mn̂g-khu
|h=Sa̍k-mùn Khî
|w= Shih²-mên² Ch'ü¹
}}

'''Shimen District''' ({{zh|t={{linktext|石門|區}}|poj=Chio̍h-mn̂g-khu|p=Shímén Qū}}), also known as '''Sekimon''', is a sparsely populated rural [[District (Taiwan)|district]] in the northern part of [[New Taipei City]] in northern [[Taiwan]]. It is part of the [[North Coast and Guanyinshan National Scenic Area]] and includes the island of Taiwan's northernmost point, [[Cape Fugui]].{{efn|The true northernmost point in control of the [[Taiwan|Republic of China]] is the small [[Beigu Islet]] in [[Lienchiang County]].}}

== History ==
While known to earlier explorers, including the Dutch, the area was first explicitly mentioned in Chinese annals in 1694 as ''Shimenshan'' ({{zh|t=石門山|l=Stone Gate Mountain|labels=no}}).<ref name="history">{{cite web|url=http://www.shimen.ntpc.gov.tw/_file/2982/SG/40511/D.html|publisher=Shimen District Office|language=zh|script-title=zh:歷史沿革|trans-title=Historical Development|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120429132454/http://www.shimen.ntpc.gov.tw/_file/2982/SG/40511/D.html|archive-date=2012-04-29}}</ref> During the [[Taiwan under Japanese rule|period of Imperial Japanese rule]], Shimen was called ''Sekimon'' Village {{nihongo||石門庄}}, and was governed under Tansui District of [[Taihoku Prefecture]]. In 1945 when the [[Kuomintang]] took over administration of Taiwan the area became Shimen [[Township (Taiwan)|Rural Township]], a part of Taipei County. With the reorganization of Taipei County in 2010, Shimen became a [[District (Taiwan)|district]] of the newly created [[New Taipei City]].

==Geography==
[[File:Txu-oclc-6557994-index-457.jpg|thumb|left|Map including Shimen (labeled as Shih-men (Sekimon) {{lang|zh-tw|石門}}) (1950)]]

The interior of Shimen is predominantly mountainous, with small areas of flat land on the coast.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://shihmen.tpcgo.org.tw/web/SG?pageID=27958&FP=49914|script-title=zh:石門簡介|trans-title= Introduction to Shimen|publisher=Shihmen Farmers' Association|access-date=2011-01-04}}</ref> The district is bordered to the north by the [[East China Sea]], to the southwest by [[Sanzhi District]], and to the southeast by [[Jinshan_District,_New_Taipei | Jinshan District]].

==Administration==
Shimen is part of [[New Taipei City]], a [[Special municipality of Taiwan|special municipality]] under the [[Republic of China]] government. The district itself is divided into nine villages: Shanxi ({{linktext|lang=zh-tw|山溪|里}}), Shimen ({{linktext|lang=zh-tw|石門|里}}), Laomei ({{linktext|lang=zh-tw|老梅|里}}), Jianlu ({{linktext|lang=zh-tw|尖鹿|里}}), Maolin ({{linktext|lang=zh-tw|茂林|里}}), Caoli ({{linktext|lang=zh-tw|草里|里}}), Qianhua/Cianhua ({{linktext|lang=zh-tw|乾華|里}}), Fuji ({{linktext|lang=zh-tw|富基|里}}), and Demao ({{linktext|lang=zh-tw|德茂|里}}).<ref name="history"/><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.shimen.ntpc.gov.tw/content/en/?parent_id=10334|title=Villages Introduction|access-date=4 July 2019|quote=the current administrative area contains 9 villages, which include Demao, Fuji, Laomei, Shanxi, Shimen, Jianlu, Qianhua, Maolin, and Caoli.|website=石門區公所EN Shimen District Office, New Taipei City Government|language=zh-tw}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://vote2018.cec.gov.tw/pc/en/TV/nm65000002200010000.html|title=2018 Local Elections|quote=Demao Vil. Fuji Vil. Laomei Vil. Shanxi Vil. Shimen Vil. Jianlu Vil. Ganhua[sic] Vil. Maolin Vil. Caoli Vil.|access-date=5 July 2019|website=[[Central Election Commission (Taiwan)|Central Election Commission]]|language=zh-tw}}, Chinese version: [http://vote2018.cec.gov.tw/pc/zh_TW/TV/nm65000002200010000.html]</ref>

==Economy==
Tourism is a major contributor to the economy of Shimen, which also produces a number of agricultural goods including [[mandarin orange|mandarins]], peanuts, and tea.

==Education==
Shimen has one junior high school, Shimen Junior High, and three elementary schools; Shimen, Laomei and Qianhua.

==Tourist attractions==

===Historical buildings===
The [[Fuguijiao Lighthouse]] is located at [[Cape Fugui]].

===Nature===
Shimen is home to [[Baisha Bay]].

===Festivals===
Shimen has also been home to an annual kite festival since the year 2000, drawing competitors from around the world.<ref>{{cite news |last=Shan |first=Shelley |url=http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/taiwan/archives/2008/09/24/2003424057|title=Shihmen to launch kite festival|publisher=[[Taipei Times]]|date=2008-09-24}}</ref>

===Others===
* [[Fuji Fishing Port]]
* [[Temple of the Eighteen Lords]]

==Infrastructure==
Shimen is the site location for Taiwan's first [[nuclear power plant]], the [[Jinshan Nuclear Power Plant]].

==Transportation==
The main road route through the district is the [[Provincial Highway 2 (Taiwan)|Provincial Highway 2]]. It is also served by a number of other county-level roads. There is no rail transportation in the district.

==See also==
* [[New Taipei City]]
* [[List of Taiwanese superlatives]]

==Notes==
{{Notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{commons category|Shimen District, New Taipei}}
{{Wiktionary|Shimen|Shihmen}}
{{Wikivoyage|Shimen}}

{{Districts in Taiwan}}

[[Category:Districts of New Taipei]]

Iphigenia

2025-06-18T14:02:49Z

128.228.164.236: /* External links */ I removed a duplicate Americana external link.

{{short description|Figure from Greek mythology}}
{{about||other uses||the saint|Ephigenia of Ethiopia}}
[[File:Wall painting - sacrifice of Iphigenia - Pompeii (VI 8 5) - Napoli MAN 9112 - 01.jpg|upright=1.35|thumb|Sacrifice of Iphigenia. Antique fresco from Pompeii, probably a copy of a painting by [[Timanthes]].]]
[[File:The Sacrifice of Iphigenia.jpg|thumb|[[François Perrier (painter)|François Perrier]]'s ''The Sacrifice of Iphigenia'' (17th century), depicting [[Agamemnon]]'s sacrifice of his daughter Iphigenia]]

In [[Greek mythology]], '''Iphigenia''' ({{IPAc-en|ɪ|f|ᵻ|ˈ|dʒ|ᵻ|.|n|ɪ|ə}}; {{langx|grc|Ἰφιγένεια|Iphigéneia}}, {{IPA|grc|iːpʰiɡéneː.a|pron}}) was a daughter of King [[Agamemnon]] and Queen [[Clytemnestra]], and thus a princess of [[Mycenae]].

In the story, Agamemnon offends the goddess [[Artemis]] on his way to the [[Trojan War]] by hunting and killing one of Artemis's sacred stags. She retaliates by preventing the Greek troops from reaching [[Troy]] unless Agamemnon kills his eldest daughter, Iphigenia, at [[Aulis (ancient Greece)|Aulis]] as a [[human sacrifice]]. In some versions, Iphigenia dies at Aulis, and in others, Artemis rescues her.<ref name="Nelson 2022 55–101">{{Cite journal|last=Nelson|first=Thomas J.|title=Iphigenia in the Iliad and the Architecture of Homeric Allusion|date=2022|url=https://muse.jhu.edu/article/852866|journal=TAPA|language=en|volume=152|pages=55–101|doi=10.1353/apa.2022.0007|s2cid=248236106 }}</ref> In the version where she is saved, she goes to the [[Tauri]]ans and meets her brother [[Orestes]].<ref name=evans141>Evans (1970), p. 141</ref>

==Name==
"Iphigenia" means "strong-born," "born to strength," or "she who causes the birth of strong offspring."<ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%2351428 Henry George Liddell and Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', ''s.v.'' "Iphigenia"] and Rush Rehm, ''The Play of Space'' (2002, 188). [[Karl Kerenyi]], aware of Iphigenia's obscure pre-history as an autonomous goddess rather than a mere marriageable girl in the house of Agamemnon, renders her name "she who governs births mightily" (Kerenyi 1959:331).</ref>

===Iphianassa===
Iphianassa ({{lang|grc|Ἰφιάνασσα}}) is the name of one of [[Agamemnon]]'s three daughters in [[Homer]]'s ''[[Iliad]]'' (ix.145, 287)<ref>The three are [[Chrysothemis]], Laodice (the double of [[Electra]]) and Iphianassa. In ''Iliad'' ix, the embassy to Achilles is empowered to offer him one of Agamemnon's three daughters, implying that Iphianassa/Iphigenia is still living, as Friedrich Solmsen 1981:353 points out.</ref> The name Iphianassa may be simply an older variant of the name Iphigenia. "Not all poets took Iphigenia and Iphianassa to be two names for the same heroine," Kerenyi remarks,<ref>Kerenyi 1959:331, noting [[Sophocles]], ''Elektra'' 157. Kerenyi clearly distinguishes between parallel accounts of Iphigenia. "It is possible in the ''[[Cypria]]'' Agamemnon was given four daughters, Iphigenia being distinguished from Iphianassa," Friedrich Solmsen remarks, (Solmsen 1981:353 note 1) also noting the scholium on ''Elektra'' 157.</ref> "though it is certain that to begin with they served indifferently to address the same divine being, who had not belonged from all time to the family of Agamemnon."

==In mythology==
In Greek mythology, Iphigenia appears as the Greek fleet gathers in [[Aulis (ancient Greece)|Aulis]] to prepare for war against [[Troy]]. Here, [[Agamemnon]], the leader of the Greeks, hunts and then kills a deer in a grove sacred to the goddess [[Artemis]].<ref name="Siegel1981">{{cite journal |last1=Siegel |first1=Herbert |title=Agamemnon in Euripides' "Iphigenia at Aulis" |journal=Hermes |date=1981 |volume=109 |issue=3 |pages=257–65 |jstor=4476212 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/SIEAIE-2}}{{closed access}}</ref> Artemis punishes Agamemnon by acting upon the winds, so that Agamemnon's fleet cannot sail to Troy. [[Calchas]] the seer tells Agamemnon that to appease Artemis, he must sacrifice his eldest daughter, Iphigenia. At first he refuses but, pressured by the other commanders, agrees.<ref name="Siegel1981"/><ref name=Stanford>{{cite web|title=Mortal women of the Trojan War: Iphigenia|url=https://web.stanford.edu/~plomio/iphigenia.html|publisher=Stanford University|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140715141853/https://web.stanford.edu/~plomio/iphigenia.html|archive-date=July 15, 2014}}</ref>

[[File:Antakya Archaeological Museum Antakya Iphigenia in Aulis mosaic in 2008 06.jpg|left|thumb|Mosaic, 5th-century CE. From left to right: Iphigenia, Clytemnestra, Agamemnon.]]

Iphigenia and her mother [[Clytemnestra]] are brought to Aulis, under the pretence that [[Achilles]] will marry her. In some versions of the story, they realise the truth, while in others, Iphigenia remains unaware of her imminent sacrifice until the last moment, believing until the moment of her death that she is being led to the altar to be married.

In some versions, such as [[Gaius Julius Hyginus|Hyginus]]'s ''Fabulae'', Iphigenia is not sacrificed.<ref name=Stanford/> Some sources claim that Iphigenia was taken by Artemis to [[History of Crimea#Tauri and Scythians|Tauris]] (in [[Crimea]]) at the moment of the sacrifice, the goddess having left a deer in her stead,<ref>Pseudo-Apollodorus, ''[[Bibliotheca (Pseudo-Apollodorus)|Epitome of the Library]]'' 3.21.</ref> or else a goat (actually the god [[Pan (mythology)|Pan]]) in her place.

Euripides's description of her sacrifice is as follows: <blockquote>"...we brought your child to the place where the Greek army had gathered, all together and all at once. When King Agamemnon saw his daughter proceeding to the altar to her death, he heaved a deep sigh and turned his head to one side and wept. He covered his eyes with his robe. But the young girl stood beside her father who had given her life and said: 'Fathers, as you bid me, I am here. I give my body, freely on behalf of my country, for all the land of Greece. Lead me to the altar. There, if that is the gods' will, sacrifice me. May this gift from me bring you success. May you win the crown of victory and win thereafter a glorious homecoming. And no, do not let any man lay his hands upon me. In peace and in good heart I offer you my throat.' So she spoke, and all stood by in wonder at the courage, yes, the virtue of her words. Then Talthybius, for so he was commanded, stood before the assembled army and ordered them to watch and keep holy silence. The Calchas, the prophet, took from its sheath a sharp knife and put it in a basket studded with gold. And upon the young girl's head he put a garland. Achilles, son of Peleus, circled the altar of the goddess, basket in hand, and upon her he sprinkled holy water and he said, 'Artemis, daughter of Zeus, slayer of wild beasts, you that spin the silver light at night, receive this sacrifice which we offer to you. We the Greek army and King Agamemnon offer to you the pure blood that flows from a virgin's throat. Grant our ships an untroubled journey. Grant that our spears will sack the towers of Troy.' The priest seized the knife and offered a prayer as he looked for a place to plunge the knife's point. My soul was deeply troubled and in pain. I stood by, head lowered. Suddenly, it was a miracle: everyone had heard the sound of the knife – but no one could see where in the world the young maiden had disappeared to. The priest cried out. The army echoed his cry, and then they saw the miracle, impossible to believe even as it happened before their eyes. There on the ground lay a deer, gasping for breath. She was a full-grown deer, beautiful, and the altar of the goddess was dripping with her blood. Then Calchas spoke – imagine the joy! – 'Leaders of this the Greek army, do you see this victim that the goddess has laid upon her own altar? This mountain deer? She accepts this offering with greater gladness than the child. For her altar will not now be stained with noble blood. She rejoices in the sacrifice. And she grants us fair sailing and success at Troy. Therefore, courage! To arms, to the ships! For on this day we must leave the hallow bay of Aulis and cross the Aegean Sea.' When the carcass had been reduced to ashes in Hephaestus's fire, Calchas offered a prayer for the safe homecoming of the army. Agamemnon sent me to tell you these things, to tell you of the good fortune he has received from the gods, and of the fame that is now his and will not die, I tell you what I saw. For I was there. There is no doubt your child has been taken to live amongst the gods."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Euripides |title=Iphigenia in Aulis |publisher=Ivan R Dee |year=1997 |isbn=1-56663-112-2 |editor-last=Rudall |editor-first=Nicholas |pages=65–66}}</ref></blockquote>The [[Hesiod]]ic ''[[Catalogue of Women]]'' called her Iphimede ({{lang|grc|Ἰφιμέδη}})<ref>This fragmentary passage (fr. 23(a)17–26), found among the [[Oxyrhynchus Papyri]], has been restored to its proper place in the ''Ehoeae'', the Hesiodic ''Catalogue'', in modern times; the awkward insertion of ''[[eidolon (apparition)|eidolon]]''—the ''image'' of Iphimede—and lines where Artemis saves her are considered a later interpolation by [[Friedrich Solmsen]], "The Sacrifice of Agamemnon's Daughter in Hesiod's' Ehoeae" ''The American Journal of Philology'' '''102'''.4 (Winter 1981), pp. 353–58.</ref> and told that Artemis transformed her into the goddess [[Hecate]].<ref>this doesn't appear in any of the surviving passages of the Hesiodic catalogue but is attested for it by Pausanias, 1.43.1.</ref> [[Antoninus Liberalis]] said that Iphigenia was transported to the [[Snake Island (Black Sea)|island of Leuke]], where she was wedded to [[immortality|immortalized]] [[Achilles]] under the name Orsilochia.

[[File:Artemis and Iphigeneia Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek IN481-82a.jpg|thumb|left|Statue of Artemis rescuing Iphigenia, 1st century AD, Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek]]

In [[Aeschylus]]'s ''Agamemnon'', the first play in the ''[[Oresteia]]'', the sacrifice of Iphigenia is given as one reason for Clytemnestra and her lover [[Aegisthus]] to plan to murder Agamemnon.

In [[Euripides]]'s ''[[Iphigenia at Aulis]]'', it is [[Menelaus]] who convinces Agamemnon to heed the seer Calchas's advice. After Agamemnon sends a message to Clytemnestra informing her of Iphigenia's supposed marriage, he immediately regrets his decision and tries to send another letter telling them not to come. Menelaus intercepts the letter and he and Agamemnon argue. Menelaus insists that it is Agamemnon's duty to do all he can to aid the Greeks. Clytemnestra arrives at Aulis with Iphigenia and the infant [[Orestes]]. Agamemnon tries to convince Clytemnestra to go back to Argos, but Clytemnestra insists on staying for the wedding. When she sees Achilles, Clytemnestra mentions the marriage; Achilles, however, appears to be unaware of it, and she and Iphigenia gradually learn the truth. Achilles, angry that Agamemnon has used him in his plot, vows to help prevent the murder of Iphigenia. Iphigenia and Clytemnestra plead with Agamemnon to spare his daughter's life. Achilles informs them that the Greek army, eager for war, has learned of the seer's advice and now demand that Iphigenia be sacrificed. If Agamemnon refuses, it is likely they will turn on him and kill him and his family. Iphigenia, knowing she is doomed, decides to be sacrificed willingly, reasoning that as a mere mortal, she cannot go against the will of a goddess. She also believes that her death will be heroic, as it is for the good of all Greeks. Iphigenia exits, and the sacrifice takes place offstage. Later, Clytemnestra is told of her daughter's purported death—and how at the last moment, the gods spared Iphigenia and whisked her away, replacing her with a deer.

[[File:Iphigenia in Tauris MAN Napoli Inv111439.jpg|thumb|Iphigenia as a priestess of [[Artemis]] in [[History of Crimea#Tauri and Scythians|Tauris]] sets out to greet prisoners, amongst which are her brother [[Orestes]] and his friend [[Pylades]]; a Roman fresco from [[Pompeii]], 1st century AD]]
Euripides's other play about Iphigenia, ''[[Iphigenia in Tauris]]'', takes place after the sacrifice, and after Orestes has killed Clytemnestra and Aegisthus. [[Apollo (god)|Apollo]] orders Orestes—to escape persecution by the [[Erinyes]] for killing his mother, Clytemnestra, and her lover—to go to Tauris.<ref>Tauris is now the [[History of Crimea#Antiquity|Crimea]].</ref> While in Tauris, Orestes is to carry off the ''[[xoanon]]'' (carved wooden cult image) of Artemis, which had fallen from heaven, and bring it to Athens. When Orestes arrives at Tauris with [[Pylades]], son of [[Strophius]] and intimate friend of Orestes, the pair are immediately captured by the [[Cimmerians#The Tauri|Tauri]], who have a custom of sacrificing all Greek strangers to Artemis. Iphigenia is the priestess of Artemis, and it is her duty to perform the sacrifice. Iphigenia and Orestes don't recognize each other (Iphigenia thinks her brother is dead—a key point). Iphigenia finds out from Orestes, who is still concealing his identity, that Orestes is alive.
[[File:Pompeii - Casa del Centenario - Orest.jpg|thumb|left|Scene from the tragedy ''Iphigenia in Tauris'' by Euripides. In the center Orestes, on the left Pylades, on the right Iphigeneia. Antique fresco from [[Pompeii]]]]

Iphigenia then offers to release Orestes if he will carry home a letter from her to Greece. Orestes refuses to go, and bids Pylades to take the letter while Orestes will stay to be slain. After a conflict of mutual affection, Pylades at last yields, and the letter makes brother and sister recognize each other, and all three escape together, carrying with them the image of Artemis. After they return to Greece—having been saved from dangers by Athena along the way—Athena orders Orestes to take the Xoanon to the town of Halae, where he is to build a temple for Artemis Tauropolos. At the annual festival held there, in honor of Artemis, a single drop of blood must be drawn from the throat of a man to commemorate Orestes's near-sacrifice. Athena sends Iphigenia to the [[sanctuary of Artemis at Brauron]] where she is to be the priestess until she dies. According to the Spartans, however, they carried the image of Artemis to [[Laconia]], where the goddess was worshipped as [[Artemis Orthia]].

These close identifications of Iphigenia with Artemis encourage some scholars to believe that she was originally a hunting goddess, whose cult was subsumed by the Olympian Artemis.<ref>J. Donald Hughes, "Goddess of Conservation." ''Forest and Conservation History'' 34.4 (1990): 191–97.</ref>

===Among the Taurians===
[[File:Salle de Diane (Louvre) - Oreste et Iphigénie enlevant la statue de Diane Taurique.jpg|thumb|right|Orestes and Iphigéneia stealing the statue of Diana [[Tauri]]a]]
The people of [[Taurica|Tauris/Taurica]] facing the [[Euxine Sea]]<ref>[[Taurica]] (Greek: Ταυρίς, Ταυρίδα, Latin: Taurica) also known as the Tauric Chersonese and Chersonesus Taurica, was the name of [[Crimea]] in Antiquity.</ref> worshipped the maiden goddess Artemis. Some very early Greek sources in the [[Epic Cycle]] affirmed that Artemis rescued Iphigenia from the human sacrifice her father was about to perform, for instance in the lost epic ''[[Cypria]]'', which survives in a summary by [[Proclus]]:<ref>''Epicorum Graecorum Fragmenta'', ed. G. Kinkel, p. 19</ref> "Artemis ... snatched her away and transported her to the Tauroi, making her immortal, and put a stag in place of the girl [Iphigenia] upon the altar." The goddess swept the young princess off to Tauris where she became a priestess at the Temple of Artemis.

The earliest known accounts of the purported death of Iphigenia are included in Euripides's ''[[Iphigenia at Aulis]]'' and ''[[Iphigenia in Tauris]]'', both Athenian tragedies of the fifth century BC set in the Heroic Age. In the dramatist's version, the Taurians worshipped both Artemis and Iphigenia in the Temple of Artemis at Tauris. Other variants include her being rescued at her sacrifice by Artemis and transformed into the goddess [[Hecate]].<ref>''Hesiod, The Catalogues'', TRANS. by H. G. Evelyn-White, fragment 71</ref> Another example includes Iphigenia's brother, Orestes, discovering her identity and helping him steal an image of Artemis.<ref>Euripides, Iphigenia in Tauris</ref> Possible reasons for key discrepancies in the telling of the myth by playwrights such as Euripides are to make the story more palatable for audiences and to allow sequels using the same characters.{{citation needed|date=August 2017}}

Many traditions arose from the sacrifice of Iphigenia. One prominent version is credited to the Spartans. Rather than sacrificing virgins, they would whip a male victim in front of a sacred image of Artemis. However, most tributes to Artemis inspired by the sacrifice were more traditional. Taurians especially performed sacrifices of bulls and virgins in honour of Artemis.<ref>Robert Graves, The Greek Myths, London: Penguin, 1955; Baltimore: Penguin pp. 73–75: "Iphigenia Among the Taurians"</ref>

===Among the Etruscans===
The myth was retold in classical Greece and Italy, and it became most popular in Etruria, especially in [[Perusia]].<ref>{{cite book | title=The Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria| volume=2
|author=George Dennis |year=1848 |location=London |publisher=John Murray}}, 463</ref> In the second and first centuries BC the Etruscans adorned their cremation-urns with scenes from the sacrifice.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Pilo, Chiara |author2=Giuman, Marco | title=Greek Myth on Etruscan Urns from Perusia: the sacrifice of Iphigenia | journal=Etruscan Studies | pages=97–125 | year=2015 | volume=18 |issue=2 |doi=10.1515/etst-2015-0016 |hdl=11584/241492 |s2cid=193632035 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> The most common scene: "Iphigenia, a little girl, is held over the altar by Odysseus while Agamemnon performs the ''[[aparchai]]''. Clytemnestra stands beside Agamemnon and Achilles beside Odysseus and each one begs for the life of Iphigenia." This version is closest to the myth as the Romans told it.<ref>{{cite book| author=Helen Evangeline Devlin | title=The Development and Treatment of the Iphigenia Myth in Greek and Roman Literature| year=1914 |publisher=University of Wisconsin}}, page 24</ref>

==In Homer==

The sacrifice of Iphigenia is not explicitly mentioned by [[Homer]], although scholars argue that it is presupposed by [[Agamemnon]]'s criticism of [[Calchas]] at ''[[Iliad]]'' 1.105-108; Nelson has developed this suggestion further by arguing that the story of Iphigenia's sacrifice lies allusively behind the opening scenes of the ''Iliad'': "both the debate over [[Chryseis]] and her eventual return to her father replay and rework the sacrifice story."<ref name="Nelson 2022 55–101"/> He has highlighted six key elements that are shared by each story:

# Agamemnon offends a deity and is punished.
# Calchas discloses divine displeasure and proposes a solution: Agamemnon must give up a prized woman from his possession.
# Achilles loses a potential bride.
# Odysseus collects and brings this woman to her father by the altar.
# Sacrifice is performed at the altar.
# After the sacrifice, the Greeks receive a favorable wind from the offended deity and sail to Troy.

==In Lucretius==

The sacrifice of Iphigenia appears in the ancient Roman didactic poem ''[[De rerum natura]]'' by [[Lucretius]] as a criticism of religion. Anticipating that his poem will seem sacrilegious, Lucretius attacks the virtue of religion by recounting the story of Iphigenia, which he considers a cruel story of a parent "making his child a sacrificial beast" on her wedding day. Lucretius concludes "such are the crimes to which Religion leads."<ref>{{cite book |author=Titus Lucretius Carus |url=https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Of_the_Nature_of_Things_(Leonard)/Book_I |translator=William Ellery Leonard |title=Of the Nature of Things |year=1916 }}</ref>

==Adaptations==
[[File:Giovanni Battista Tiepolo - The Sacrifice of Iphigenia - Villa Valmarana.jpg|thumb|''The Sacrifice of Iphigenia'' (1757) by [[Giovanni Battista Tiepolo]]]]
===Ballet===
* ''Iphigénie'', ballet by [[Charles le Picq]].

===Films===
* ''[[Iphigenia (film)|Iphigenia]]'', 1977 Greek film by [[Michael Cacoyannis]].

===Novels===
* ''[[The Songs of the Kings]]'', novel by [[Barry Unsworth]].
* "A Memory of Wind", short story by [[Rachel Swirsky]].
* ''[[Agamemnon's Daughter]]'', novel by [[Ismail Kadare]].
* ''A Fair Wind For Troy,'' a novel by [[Doris Gates]]

===Opera===
* ''[[Iphigénie en Aulide]]'', opera by [[Christoph Willibald Gluck]].
* ''[[Iphigénie en Tauride (Desmarets and Campra)|Iphigénie en Tauride]]'', opera by [[Henri Desmarets]] and [[André Campra]].
* ''[[Ifigenia in Tauride (Traetta)|Ifigenia in Tauride]]'', opera by [[Tommaso Traetta]].
* ''[[Iphigénie en Tauride]]'', opera by [[Christoph Willibald Gluck]].
* ''[[Iphigénie en Tauride (Piccinni)|Iphigénie en Tauride]]'', opera by [[Niccolò Piccinni]]
* ''Iphigenia'', 2021 opera by [[Wayne Shorter]] and [[Esperanza Spalding]].
* ''Iphigenia's sacrifice'', 1968 opera by [[Pascal Bentoiu]].

===Plays===
* ''[[Iphigenia at Aulis]]'', a play by [[Euripides]].
* ''[[Iphigénie]] en Aulide'', play by [[Jean Racine]].
* ''Iphigenia'', play by [[Mircea Eliade]].
* ''Ifigeneia'', rewrite of the play by [[Finn Iunker]]
* ''Iphigenia at Aulis'', the first part of ''The Greeks'' trilogy, adapted and directed by [[John Barton (director)|John Barton]] for the [[Royal Shakespeare Company]] in 1980.
[[File:Iphigenia in Tauris by V.Serov (1893).JPG|thumb|''Iphigenia in Tauris'' (1893) by [[Valentin Serov]]]]
[[File:Benjamin West - Pylades and Orestes Brought as Victims before Iphigenia - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|''[[Pylades]] and [[Orestes]] Brought as Victims before Iphigenia'', by [[Benjamin West]], 1766]]
* ''[[Iphigenia in Tauris]]'', play by [[Euripides]].
* ''[[Iphigenie auf Tauris]]'', play by [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe]].
* ''Daughters of Atreus'', play by [[Robert Turney]]
* ''Iphigenia'', play by [[Samuel Coster]].

===Poetry===
* ''Iphigenia'' by [[Ennius]]
* ''[[Metamorphoses]]'', narrative poem by [[Ovid]] (books 12<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ovid.lib.virginia.edu/trans/Metamorph12.htm#486225986 |title=Metamorphoses |access-date=June 25, 2015 }}</ref> and 13<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.poetryintranslation.com/PITBR/Latin/Metamorph13.htm#anchor_Toc64105840 |title=Metamorphoses |access-date=June 25, 2015}}</ref>)
* ''Iphigenia at Aulis'',<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bartleby.com/41/554.html|title=554. Iphigeneia. Walter Savage Landor. 1909–14. English Poetry II: From Collins to Fitzgerald. The Harvard Classics|date=22 August 2022 }}</ref> poem by [[Walter Savage Landor]]

[[File:Feuerbach Iphigenie1.jpg|left|thumb|''Iphigenie'' (1862) by [[Anselm Feuerbach]]]]

==See also==
* [[Depictions of the Death of Iphigenia]]
* [[Jephthah#Sacrifice of daughter|Jephthah]], a similar Biblical story
* [[Thoas (king of the Taurians)]]

{{Clear}}

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

==Modern sources==
* Bonnard, A. (1945) ''Iphigénie à Aulis, Tragique et Poésie'', Museum Helveticum, Basel, v.2, pp. 87–107
* Croisille, J-M (1963) ''Le sacrifice d'Iphigénie dans l'art romain et la littérature latine'', Latomus, Brussels, v. 22 pp. 209–25
* Decharme, P. "Iphigenia" In: C. d'Auremberg and E. Saglio, ''[[Dictionnaire des Antiquités Grecques et Romaines]]'' v.3 (1ère partie), pp. 570–72 (1877–1919)
* {{cite book |last=Evans |first=Bergen |date=1970 |title=Dictionary of Mythology |location=New York |publisher=Dell Publishing |isbn=0-440-20848-3}}
* [[Robert Graves|Graves, Robert]] (1955) ''[[The Greek Myths]]'', Penguin, London, pp. 73–75
* Jouan, F. (1966) "Le Rassemblement d'Aulis et le Sacrifice d'Iphigénie", In: ______, ''Euripide et les Légendes des Chants Cypriens'', Les Belles Lettres, Pris, pp. 73–75
* Kahil, L. (1991) "Le sacrifice d'Iphigénie" in: ''[[Mélanges de l'École française de Rome]], Antiquité'', Rome, v. 103 pp. 183–96
* [[Karl Kerenyi|Kerenyi, Karl]] (1959) ''The Heroes of the Greeks'', Thames and Hudson, London and New York, pp. 331–36 et passim
* Kjelleberg, L. (1916) "Iphigenia" In: A.F. Pauly and G. Wissowa, ''Real-Encyclopädie der Classischen Altertumswissenschaft'', J.B. Metzler, Stuttgart, v. 9, pp. 2588–622
* Lloyd-Jones, H. (1983) "Artemis and Iphigenia", ''Journal of Hellenic Studies'' '''103''', pp. 87–102
*[http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/apa.2022.0007 Nelson, T.J. (2022) ‘Iphigenia in the Iliad and the Architecture of Homeric Allusion’, ''TAPA'' 152, 55-101].
* Peck, Harry (1898) "Iphigenia" in ''Harper's Dictionary of Classical Antiquities'', Harper and Brothers, New York
* Séchen, L. (1931) "Le Sacrifice d'Iphigénie", ''Revue des Études Grecques'', Paris, pp. 368–426
* West, M.L. (1985) ''The Hesiodic Catlogue of Women'', The Clarendon Press, Oxford

==External links==
{{Commons category|Iphigeneia}}
* {{Cite Americana|wstitle= Iphigenia |volume= XV |short= 1}}
*[http://www.smh.com.au/news/arts/shock-and-awe-and-buckets-of-blood--it-must-be-kosky/2007/04/30/1177788059061.html Contemporary interpretation of Gluck] by Australian [[Barrie Kosky]] at the [[Komische Oper Berlin]], May 1, 2007
*[http://www.theoi.com/Olympios/ArtemisFavour.html#Iphigenia "Iphigenia" on Theoi.com]
*[https://iconographic.warburg.sas.ac.uk/category/vpc-taxonomy-000354 The Warburg Institute Iconographic Database (images of Iphigenia)]

{{Iphigenia}}
{{Electra}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Iphigenia| ]]
[[Category:Greek mythological priestesses]]
[[Category:Greek mythological heroes]]
[[Category:Princesses in Greek mythology]]
[[Category:Metamorphoses characters]]
[[Category:Ancient Crimea]]
[[Category:Deeds of Artemis]]
[[Category:Human sacrifice in folklore and mythology]]
[[Category:Children of Agamemnon]]
[[Category:Women of the Trojan war]]
[[Category:Children of Clytemnestra]]

Binding of Isaac

2025-06-18T13:58:51Z

128.228.164.236:

{{Short description|Story from the Hebrew Bible}}
{{Redirect-several|dab=no|The Binding of Isaac (video game){{!}}The Binding of Isaac (video game)|The Binding of Isaac: Rebirth{{!}}The Binding of Isaac: Rebirth|Sacrifice of Isaac (disambiguation)|Akeda (album){{!}}''Akeda'' (album)|Aqidah{{!}}''Aqidah''}}
[[File:Sacrifice of Isaac-Caravaggio (Uffizi).jpg|thumb|''[[Sacrifice of Isaac (Caravaggio)#Uffizi version|The Sacrifice of Isaac]]'' by [[Caravaggio]] (1603), in the [[Baroque]] [[Tenebrism|tenebrist]] manner]]
The '''Binding of Isaac''' ({{langx|hbo|{{Script/Hebrew|עֲקֵידַת יִצְחַק}}|ʿAqēḏaṯ Yīṣḥaq|label=[[Biblical Hebrew|Hebrew]]}}), or simply "'''The Binding'''" ({{Langx|hbo|{{Script/Hebrew|הָעֲקֵידָה}}|hāʿAqēḏā|label=none}}), is a story from [[Book of Genesis#Patriarchal age (chapters 12–50)|chapter 22]] of the [[Book of Genesis]] in the [[Hebrew Bible]]. In the biblical narrative, [[God in Abrahamic religions|God]] orders [[Abraham]] to sacrifice his son [[Isaac]] on the mountain called [[Jehovah-jireh]] in the region of [[Moriah]]. As Abraham begins to comply, having bound Isaac to an altar, he is stopped by the [[Angel of the Lord]]; a ram appears and is slaughtered in Isaac's stead, as God commends Abraham's pious obedience to offer his son as a [[human sacrifice]].

Especially in art, the episode is often called the '''Sacrifice of Isaac''', although in the end Isaac was not sacrificed. Various scholars suggest that the original story of Abraham and Isaac may have been of a completed [[human sacrifice]], later altered by redactors to substitute a ram for Isaac, while some traditions, including certain Jewish and Christian interpretations, maintain that Isaac actually was sacrificed. In addition to being addressed by modern scholarship, this biblical episode has been the focus of a great deal of commentary in traditional sources of [[Judaism]], [[Christianity]], and [[Islam]].

==Biblical narrative==
[[File:Sacrifice of Isaac, The Hammelburg Mahzor.jpg|right|thumb|Sacrifice of Isaac, ''The Hammelburg Mahzor'', 1347–48, Hammelburg, Germany. University and State Library Darmstadt.]]
According to the [[Hebrew Bible]], God commands Abraham to offer his son Isaac as a sacrifice.<ref>{{Bibleverse|Genesis|22:2–8|HE}}</ref> After Isaac is bound to an [[altar]], a [[Angel of the Lord|messenger from God]] stops Abraham before he can complete the sacrifice, saying, "now I know you fear God". Abraham looks up and sees a [[sheep|ram]] and sacrifices it instead of Isaac.
The passage states that the event occurred at "the mount of the {{LORD}}"<ref>{{bibleverse|Genesis|22:14}}</ref> in "the land of Moriah".<ref>{{bibleverse|Genesis|22:2}}</ref> Abraham then named the place 'Jehovah-jireh' (the Lord will provide).<ref>{{bibleverse|Genesis|22:14}}</ref> [[Books of Chronicles|2 Chronicles]] 3:1<ref>{{Bibleverse|2 Chronicles|3:1}}</ref> refers to "mount Moriah" as the site of [[Solomon's Temple]], while [[Psalms]] 24:3,<ref>{{bibleverse|Psalms|24:3|HE}}</ref> [[Book of Isaiah|Isaiah]] 2:3<ref>{{bibleverse|Isaiah|2:3|HE}}</ref> and 30:29,<ref>{{bibleverse|Isaiah|30:29|HE}}</ref> and [[Book of Zechariah|Zechariah]] 8:3<ref>{{bibleverse|Zechariah|8:3|HE}}</ref> use the term "the mount of the {{LORD}}" to refer to the site of [[Solomon's Temple]] in [[Jerusalem]], the location believed to be the [[Temple Mount]] in Jerusalem. In the [[Samaritan Pentateuch]], Genesis 22:14, the phrase {{transliteration|smp|YHWH yireh}} is taken to mean "in the mountain the Lord was seen", the mountain being [[Mount Gerizim]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Porter |first=Stanley E. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qJaEAgAAQBAJ&dq=samaritan+bible+binding+of+isaac&pg=PA271 |title=Dictionary of Biblical Criticism and Interpretation |date=2007-01-24 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-63557-3 |editor-last=Porter |location=Oxford, United Kingdom |pages=271 |language=en}}</ref>[[File:Rembrandt - Sacrifice of Isaac - WGA19096.jpg |thumb|''Abraham and Isaac'', [[Rembrandt]], 1634]]

== Jewish views ==
In ''The Binding of Isaac, Religious Murders & Kabbalah'', Lippman Bodoff argues that Abraham never intended to actually sacrifice his son, and that he had faith that God had no intention that he do so.<ref name="Bodoff2005">{{cite book | author = Lippman Bodoff | date = 2005 | title = The Binding of Isaac, Religious Murders & Kabbalah: Seeds of Jewish Extremism and Alienation? | publisher = Devora Publishing | isbn = 978-1-932687-53-8 | oclc = 1282116298 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=PrShQLgsboYC}}</ref> Rabbi Ari Kahn elaborates this view on the Orthodox Union website as follows:{{blockquote|Isaac's death was never a possibility – not as far as Abraham was concerned, and not as far as God was concerned. God's commandment to Abraham was very specific, and Abraham understood it very precisely: Isaac was to be "raised up as an offering," and God would use the opportunity to teach humankind, once and for all, that human sacrifice, [[child sacrifice]], is not acceptable. This is precisely how the sages of the [[Talmud]] ([[Ta'anit (Talmud)|Taanit]] 4a) understood the Akedah. Citing the Prophet [[Jeremiah]]'s exhortation against child sacrifice (Chapter 19), they state unequivocally that such behavior "never crossed God's mind," referring specifically to the sacrificial slaughter of Isaac. Though readers of this [[parashah]] throughout the generations have been disturbed, even horrified, by the Akedah, there was no miscommunication between God and Abraham. The thought of actually killing Isaac never crossed their minds.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Kahn |first1=Ari |title=It Never Crossed my Mind |url=https://outorah.org/p/21996 |website=OU Torah |date=3 November 2014}}</ref>}}

In ''[[The Guide for the Perplexed]]'', [[Maimonides]] argues that the story of the binding of Isaac contains two "great notions". First, Abraham's willingness to sacrifice Isaac demonstrates the limit of humanity's capability to both love and fear God. Second, because Abraham acted on a prophetic vision of what God had asked him to do, the story exemplifies how prophetic revelation has the same [[truth value]] as philosophical argument and thus carries equal certainty, notwithstanding the fact that it comes in a dream or vision.<ref>Maimonides. ''The Guide of the Perplexed'', Vol. 2, Book III, Ch. 24. English translation by Shlomo Pines. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1963.</ref>
[[File:El sacrificio de Isaac (Domenichino).jpg|thumbnail|God commands Abraham to offer his son Isaac as a sacrifice, [[Domenichino]].]]

In ''Glory and Agony: Isaac's Sacrifice and National Narrative'', [[Yael Feldman]] argues that the story of Isaac's binding, in both its biblical and post-biblical versions (the [[New Testament]] included), has had a great impact on the ethos of [[Altruism|altruist]] heroism and [[self-sacrifice]] in modern Hebrew national culture. As her study demonstrates, over the last century the "Binding of Isaac" has morphed into the "Sacrifice of Isaac," connoting both the glory and agony of heroic death on the battlefield.<ref>{{cite book|last=Feldman|first=Yael S.|title=Glory and Agony: Isaac's Sacrifice and National Narrative|year=2010|publisher=Stanford University Press|location=Stanford, California|isbn=978-0-8047-5902-1}}</ref>
In ''[[Legends of the Jews]]'', Rabbi [[Louis Ginzberg]] argues that the binding of Isaac is a way for God to test Isaac's claim to [[Ishmael]], and to silence Satan's protest about Abraham who had not brought up any offering to God after Isaac was born. It was also to show proof to the world that Abraham is a true God-fearing man who is ready to fulfill any of God's commands, even to sacrifice his own son:

{{blockquote|When God commanded the father to desist from sacrificing Isaac, Abraham said: "One man tempts another, because he knoweth not what is in the heart of his neighbor. But Thou surely didst know that I was ready to sacrifice my son!"

God: "It was manifest to Me, and I foreknew it, that thou wouldst withhold not even thy soul from Me."

Abraham: "And why, then, didst Thou afflict me thus?"

God: "It was My wish that the world should become acquainted with thee, and should know that it is not without good reason that I have chosen thee from all the nations. Now it hath been witnessed unto men that thou fearest God."|''Legends of the Jews''{{sfn|Ginzberg|1909}}}}
[[File:Beit alfa02.jpg|thumb|[[Zodiac mosaics in ancient synagogues|Mosaic]] on the floor of [[Beth Alpha]] depicting the {{transliteration|hbo|Akedah}}]]

Jacob Howland has pointed out that "Ginzberg's work must be used with caution, because his project fabricating a unified narrative from multiple sources inevitably makes the tradition of rabbinic commentary seem more univocal than it actually is." Ginzberg's work does not encompass the way in which [[midrash]] on 'Akedah mirrored the different needs of diverse Jewish communities. Isaac was resurrected after the slaughter in the version of medieval [[Ashkenaz]]. Spiegel has interpreted this as designed to recast the biblical figures in the context of the [[Crusades]].<ref name=HowlandConway>{{cite book |last=Howland |first=Jacob |editor-last=Conway |editor-first=Daniel |title=Kierkegaard's Fear and Trembling |chapter=Fear and Trembling's 'Attunement' as midrash |date=2015|publisher=Cambridge University Press}}</ref>

The [[Book of Genesis]] does not tell the age of Isaac at the time.<ref name=Levenson>{{cite book
|last= Levenson |first= Jon D. | editor1-last = Berlin | editor1-first = Adele | editor2-last = Brettler | editor2-first = Marc Zvi |title=The Jewish Study Bible |chapter=Genesis: introduction and annotations |date= 2004 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn =9780195297515 |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195297515 |url-access= registration |quote= The Jewish study Bible. }}</ref> Some Talmudic sages teach that Isaac was an adult aged thirty seven,{{sfn|Ginzberg|1909}} likely based on the next biblical story, which is of [[Sarah]]'s death at 127 years,<ref>{{Bibleverse|Genesis|23:1|HE}}</ref> being 90 when Isaac was born.<ref>{{Bibleverse|Genesis|17:17, 21|HE}}</ref><ref name=Levin>[[Jon D. Levenson]], Lecture October 13, 2016: [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RtBa3CcuFn8 "Genesis 22: The Binding of Isaac and the Crucifixion of Jesus"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200221141351/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RtBa3CcuFn8&gl=US&hl=en |date=2020-02-21 }}, starting at about 1:05:10</ref> Isaac's reaction to the binding is unstated in the biblical narrative. Some commentators have argued that he was traumatized and angry, often citing the fact that he and Abraham are never seen to speak to each other again; however, [[Jon D. Levenson]] notes that the biblical text never depicts them speaking before the binding, either.<ref name="Levenson 2012 p. 59">{{cite book | last=Levenson | first=J. D. | title=Inheriting Abraham: The Legacy of the Patriarch in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam | publisher=Princeton University Press | series=Library of Jewish Ideas | year=2012 | isbn=978-1-4008-4461-6 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5veRUqfcuNQC&pg=PT59 | page=59 | access-date=2017-12-12 | archive-date=2019-06-15 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190615010413/https://books.google.com/books?id=5veRUqfcuNQC&pg=PT59 | url-status=live }}</ref>

In the [[Genesis Apocryphon]] discovered in the [[Dead Sea Scrolls|Qumrannic Caves Scrolls (Dead Sea Scrolls)]] in 1946, Hebrew tribal patriarch [[Lamech (father of Noah)|Lamech]], son of [[Methuselah]] converses with Abraham who also speaks in first and third person narratives.

===Use in worship===
The narrative of the sacrifice and binding of Isaac is traditionally read in synagogue on the second day of [[Rosh Hashanah]].

The practice of the [[Kabbalists]], observed in some communities but not all, is to recite this chapter every day immediately after [[Birkot hashachar]].

==Christian views==
[[File:Sasanian-era gem, depicting the sacrifice of Isaac, Pahlavi inscription.jpg|thumb|right|[[Sasanian Empire|Sasanian-era]] carnelian gem, depicting Abraham advancing towards Isaac with a knife in his hands. A ram is depicted to the right of Abraham. [[Middle Persian]] (Pahlavi) inscription {{transliteration|pal|ZNH mwdly l'styny}}. Created 4th–5th century AD]]
[[File:Peter Paul Rubens - Het offer van Abraham, Een engel weerhoudt Abraham om Isaak te offeren (Genesis 22-10-12) - 66-3 - Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art.jpg|thumb|''An angel restrains Abraham from sacrificing Isaac'', [[Rubens]], c. 1614]]
The binding of Isaac is mentioned in the [[New Testament]] [[Epistle to the Hebrews]] among many acts of faith recorded in the [[Old Testament]]: "By faith Abraham, when he was tested, offered up Isaac, and he who had received the promises offered up his only begotten son, of whom it was said, 'In Isaac your seed shall be called', concluding that God was able to raise him up, even from the dead, from which he also received him in a figurative sense." (Hebrews 11:17–19, NKJV)<ref>{{bibleverse|Hebrews|11:17–19|NKJV}}</ref>

Abraham's faith in God is such that he felt God would be able to resurrect the slain Isaac, in order that his prophecy (Genesis 21:12)<ref>{{bibleverse|Genesis|21:12}}</ref> might be fulfilled. Early Christian preaching sometimes accepted Jewish interpretations of the binding of Isaac without elaborating. For example, [[Hippolytus of Rome]] says in his ''Commentary on the Song of Songs'', "The blessed Isaac became desirous of the anointing and he wished to sacrifice himself for the sake of the world" (''On the Song'' 2:15).<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Smith |first=Yancy W. |date=2015-01-01 |title=Mystery of Anointing: Hippolytus' Commentary On the Song of Song in Social and Critical Contexts |url=https://www.academia.edu/3742760 |journal=Gorgias Studies in Early Christianity and Patristics}}</ref>

Other Christians from the period saw Isaac as a type of the "Word of God" who prefigured Christ.<ref>Origen, ''Homilies on Genesis'' 12</ref> This interpretation can be supported by symbolism and context such as Abraham sacrificing his son on the third day of the journey (Genesis 22:4),<ref>{{bibleverse|Genesis|22:4}}</ref> or Abraham taking the wood and putting it on his son Isaac's shoulder (Genesis 22:6).<ref>{{bibleverse|Genesis|22:6}}</ref> Another thing to note is how God reemphasizes Isaac being Abraham's one and only son whom he loves (Genesis 22:2, 12, 16).<ref>{{bibleverse|Genesis|22:2–16}}</ref> As further support to the view of early Christians that the binding of Isaac foretells the Gospel of Jesus Christ, when the two went up there, Isaac asked Abraham "where is the lamb for the burnt offering" to which Abraham responded "God himself will provide the lamb for the burnt offering, my son." (Genesis 22:7–8).<ref>{{bibleverse|Genesis|22:7–8}}</ref> However, it was a ram (not a lamb) that was ultimately sacrificed in Isaac's place, and the ram was caught in a thicket (i.e. thorn bush) (Genesis 22:13).<ref>{{bibleverse|Genesis|22:13}}</ref> In the New Testament, John the Baptist saw Jesus coming toward him and said "Look, the Lamb of God, who takes away the sins of the world!" (John 1:29).<ref>{{bibleverse|Genesis|1:29}}</ref> Thus, the binding is compared to the Crucifixion and the last-minute stay of sacrifice is a type of the Resurrection. [[Søren Kierkegaard]] describes Abraham's actions as arising from the zenith of faith leading to a "teleological suspension of the ethical".{{sfn|Kierkegaard|1954}}

[[Francis Schaeffer]] argues:

{{blockquote|Kierkegaard said this was an act of faith with nothing rational to base it upon or to which to relate it. Out of this came the modern concept of a 'leap of faith' and the total separation of rationality and faith. In this thinking concerning Abraham, Kierkegaard had not read the Bible carefully enough. Before Abraham was asked to move towards the sacrifice of Isaac (which, of course, God did not allow to be consummated), he had much propositional revelation from God, he had seen God, God had fulfilled promises to him. In short, God's words at this time were in the context of Abraham's strong reason for knowing that God both existed and was totally trustworthy.|Francis A. Scaheffer, ''The God Who is There'', 1990{{refn|Francis A. Schaeffer, "The God Who is There," in The Francis A. Schaeffer Trilogy: Three Essential Books in One Volume (Wheaton, IL: Crossway, 1990), 15.1990}} }}

==Muslim views==
{{see also|Isaac in Islam}}
[[File:Timurid_Anthology_Zhertva.jpg|thumb|Ibrahim's Sacrifice. [[Timurid art|Timurid]] Anthology, 1410–11]]
The version in the [[Quran]] differs from that in Genesis in two aspects: the identity of the sacrificed son and the son's reaction towards the requested sacrifice. In Islamic sources, when [[Abraham in Islam|Abraham]] tells his son about the vision, his son agreed to be sacrificed for the fulfillment of God's command, and no binding to the altar occurred. The Quran states that when Abraham asked for a righteous son, God granted him a son possessing forbearance.<ref>[[Quran 37:100-101]]</ref> The son mentioned here is traditionally understood to be [[Ishmael]]. When the son was able to walk and work with him, Abraham saw a vision about sacrificing him. When he told his son about it, his son agreed to fulfill the command of God in the vision. When they both had submitted their will to God and were ready for the sacrifice, God told Abraham he had fulfilled the vision, and provided him with a ram to sacrifice instead. God promised to reward Abraham.<ref>[[Quran 37:105]]</ref> Further verses state God also granted Abraham the righteous son [[Isaac in Islam|Isaac]] and promised more rewards.<ref>[[Quran 37:112–113]]</ref>{{better source needed|date=July 2023}}

Among early Muslim scholars, there was a dispute over the identity of the son. One side of the argument believed it was Isaac rather than Ishmael (notably [[ibn Qutaybah]] and [[al-Tabari]]) interpreting the verse "God's perfecting his mercy on Abraham and Isaac" as referring to his making Abraham his closest one, and to his rescuing Isaac. The other side held that the promise to Sarah was of a son, Isaac, and a grandson, Jacob ([[Quran 11:71–74]]){{better source needed|date=July 2023}} excluded the possibility of a premature death of Isaac. Regardless, most Muslims believe that it is actually [[Ishmael in Islam|Ishmael]] rather than Isaac despite the dispute.<ref name="EoI_Ishaq">''[[Encyclopaedia of Islam]]'', ''Ishaq''.</ref>

The submission of Abraham and his son is celebrated and commemorated by Muslims on the days of [[Eid al-Adha]]. During the festival, those who can afford and the ones in the pilgrimage sacrifice a ram, cow, sheep or a camel. Part of the sacrifice meat is eaten by the household and the remainder is distributed to the neighbors and the needy. The festival marks the end of the [[Hajj]] pilgrimage to [[Mecca]].

==Modern research==
[[File:Sacrifice of Isaac mosaic - Basilica San Vitale (Ravenna).jpg|thumb|Mosaic "Sacrifice of Isaac" – [[Basilica of San Vitale]] (547 AD)]]
The binding also figures prominently in the writings of several of the more important modern [[Theology|theologians]], such as [[Søren Kierkegaard]] in ''[[Fear and Trembling]]'' and Shalom Spiegel in ''The Last Trial''. [[Jewish]] communities regularly review this literature, for instance the 2009 [[mock trial]] held by more than 600 members of the University [[Synagogue]] of [[Orange County, California]].<ref>{{cite news|last=Bird|first=Cameron|title=For 'jury', a case of biblical proportions|work=[[The Orange County Register]]|volume=105|issue=12|page=11|date=12 January 2009}}</ref> [[Jacques Derrida|Derrida]] also looks at the story of the sacrifice as well as [[Søren Kierkegaard|Kierkegaard's]] reading in ''The Gift of Death''.

In ''Mimesis: The Representation of Reality in Western Literature'', the literary critic [[Erich Auerbach]] considers the Hebrew narrative of the binding of Isaac, along with [[Homer]]'s description of [[Odysseus]]'s scar, as the two [[paradigm]]atic models for the representation of [[reality]] in [[literature]]. Auerbach contrasts Homer's attention to detail and foregrounding of the spatial, historical, as well as personal contexts for events to the Bible's sparse account, in which virtually all context is kept in the background or left outside of the narrative. As Auerbach observes, this narrative strategy virtually compels readers to add their own interpretations to the text.

===Redactors and narrative purpose===
[[Historical criticism|Modern biblical critics]] operating under the framework of the [[documentary hypothesis]] have ascribed the binding's narrative to the biblical source [[Elohist]], on the grounds that it generally uses the specific term {{transliteration|hbo|[[Elohim]]}} ({{lang|hbo|אלהים}}) and parallels characteristic E compositions. On that view, the second angelic appearance to Abraham (verses 14–18), praising his obedience and blessing his offspring, is in fact a later [[Jahwist]] interpolation to E's original account (verses 1–13, 19). This is supported by the style and composition of these verses, as well as by the use of the name [[Yahweh]] for the deity.<ref name="WenhamGenesis">G. J. Wenham. (1994). ''Genesis 16-50''. Dallas, TX: Word Biblical Commentary.</ref>

More recent studies question the analysis of E and J as strictly separate. Coats argues that Abraham's obedience to God's command in fact necessitates praise and blessing, which he only receives in the second angelic speech.<ref>Coats, G.W. (1973). Abraham's sacrifice of faith: A form critical study of Genesis 22. ''Interpretation'', ''27'', pp. 389–400.</ref> That speech, therefore, could not have been simply inserted into E's original account. This has suggested to many that the author responsible for the interpolation of the second angelic appearance left their mark also on the original account (verses 1–13, 19).<ref name="WenhamGenesis" />

[[File:Icelandic Isaac sacrifice.jpg|thumb|From a 14th-century Icelandic manuscript of [[Stjórn]]]]

It has also been suggested that these traces are in fact the first angelic appearance (verses 11–12), in which the Angel of Yahweh stops Abraham before he kills Isaac.<ref>Boehm, O. (2002). The binding of Isaac: An inner Biblical polemic on the question of disobeying a manifestly illegal order. ''[[Vetus Testamentum]]'', ''52'' (1) pp. 1–12.</ref> The style and composition of these verses resemble that of the second angelic speech, and Yahweh is used for the deity rather than [[Names of God in Judaism#El|God]]. On that reading, in the original E version of the binding Abraham disobeys God's command, sacrificing the ram "instead of his son" (verse 13) on his own responsibility and without being stopped by an angel: "And Abraham stretched forth his hand, and took the knife to slay his son; but Abraham lifted up his eyes and looked and beheld, behind him was a ram, caught in a thicket by his horns; and Abraham went, and took the ram, and offered it up as a burnt offering instead of his son" (verses 10, 13).

By interpolating the first appearance of the angel, a later redactor shifted responsibility for halting the test from Abraham to the angel (verses 11–12). The second angelic appearance, in which Abraham is rewarded for his obedience (verses 14–18), became necessary due to that shift of responsibility. This analysis of the story sheds light on the connection between the binding and the story of [[Sodom and Gomorrah|Sodom]] (Genesis 18)<ref>{{bibleverse|Genesis|18|NIV}}</ref> in which Abraham asks God whether he will destroy the city without distinguishing between the righteous and the wicked: "Far be it from you to do such a thing: Shall not the judge of all the earth do what is just?" According to this analysis, Abraham's question and conversation with God was a rebellion against him and culminates in Abraham's disobedience to God, refusing to sacrifice Isaac.<ref>O. Boehm, O. (2007). ''The Binding of Isaac: A Religious Model of Disobedience'', New York, NY: T&T Clark.</ref>

===Child sacrifice===
[[File:Abraham about to sacrifice Isaac.jpg|thumb|Abraham about to sacrifice Isaac. From a 14th-century English [[Missal]]]]
[[Francesca Stavrakopoulou]] said that it is possible that the story "contains traces of a tradition in which Abraham does sacrifice Isaac".<ref>"It may be that the biblical story contains traces of a tradition in which Abraham does sacrifice Isaac, for in Genesis 22:19 Abraham appears to return from the mountain without Isaac". [[Francesca Stavrakopoulou|Stavrakopoulou, F.]] (2004). ''King Manasseh and child sacrifice: Biblical distortions of historical realities'', pp. 193–194.</ref> [[Richard Elliott Friedman|R. E. Friedman]] stated that in the original E story, Abraham may have carried out the sacrifice of Isaac, but that later repugnance at the idea of a human sacrifice led the redactor of JE to add the lines in which a ram is substituted for Isaac.<ref>[[Richard Elliott Friedman|Friedman, R.E.]] (2003). ''The Bible With Sources Revealed'', p. 65.</ref> Likewise, Terence Fretheim wrote that "the text bears no specific mark of being a polemic against [[child sacrifice]]".<ref>Terence E. Fretheim,  in [[Marcia Bunge|Marcia J. Bunge]], Terence E. Fretheim, [[Beverly Roberts Gaventa]] (eds.), ''The Child in the Bible'', p. 20</ref> Wojciech Kosior also said that the [[Genealogies in the Bible|genealogical snippet]] (Genesis 22:20–24) contain a hint to an alternative reading where Abraham sacrificed Isaac, since there would be no reason to list all these descendants of Abraham's brother.<ref name=Kosior>{{cite journal|last1=Kosior|first1=Wojciech|title='You have not withheld your son, your only one, from Me'. Some arguments for the consummated sacrifice of Abraham|journal=The Polish Journal of the Arts and Culture|date=2013|volume=8 (5/2013)|pages=73–75|url=https://www.academia.edu/5644517|accessdate=16 June 2014}}</ref>

Interpretations of the text have contradicted the version where a ram is sacrificed. For example, [[Martin S. Bergmann]] stated "The [[Aggadah]] rabbis asserted that "father Isaac was bound on the altar and reduced to ashes, and his sacrificial dust was cast on [[Moriah|Mount Moriah]]."<ref name="Bergmann1992">{{cite book |last=Bergmann |first=Martin S. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4DnL2ryuprYC&pg=PA97 |title=In the Shadow of Moloch: The Sacrifice of Children and Its Impact on Western Religions, Volume 10 |date=1992 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-07248-9 |pages=97 |oclc=1024062728}}</ref> A similar interpretation was made in the [[Epistle to the Hebrews]].<ref name="Bergmann1992" /> [[Margaret Barker]] said that "Abraham returned to [[Bersheeba]] without Isaac" according to Genesis 22:19,<ref>{{bibleverse|Genesis|22:19}}</ref> a possible sign that he was indeed sacrificed.<ref name="Barker2012">{{cite book |last=Barker |first=Margaret |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jNzeBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA131 |title=The Mother of the Lord: Volume 1: The Lady in the Temple |date=27 September 2012 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=978-0-567-37861-3 |pages=131 |oclc=1075712859}}</ref> Barker also said that wall paintings in the ancient [[Dura-Europos synagogue]] explicitly show Isaac being sacrificed, followed by his soul traveling to heaven.<ref name="Barker2012" /> According to [[Jon D. Levenson]] a part of Jewish tradition interpreted Isaac as having been sacrificed.<ref name="Morgan-Wynne2020">{{cite book |last=Morgan-Wynne |first=John Eifion |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tgLtDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA186 |title=Abraham in the New Testament |date=22 May 2020 |publisher=Wipf and Stock Publishers |isbn=978-1-72525-829-7 |pages=186–187 |oclc=1159564269}}</ref> Similarly the German theologians {{ill|Christian Rose (theologian)|de|Christian Rose (Theologe)|vertical-align=sup|lt=Christian Rose}} and {{ill|Hans-Friedrich Weiß|de|vertical-align=sup}} said that due to the grammatical [[Perfect (grammar)|perfect tense]] used to describe Abraham's sacrifice of Isaac, he did, in fact, follow through with the action.<ref name="Morgan-Wynne2020" />

[[Rav Kook]], the first Chief Rabbi of Israel, said that the climax of the story, commanding Abraham not to sacrifice Isaac, is the whole point: to put an end to, and God's total aversion to, the ritual of child sacrifice.<ref>"Olat Reiya", p. 93.</ref> According to Irving Greenberg the story of the binding of Isaac symbolizes the prohibition to worship God by [[human sacrifice]]s, at a time when human sacrifices were the norm worldwide.<ref>Irving Greenberg. 1988. The Jewish Way: Living the Holidays. New York: Summit Books. p.195.</ref>

===Rite of passage===
It has been suggested that Genesis 22 contains an intrusion of the liturgy of a rite of passage, including mock sacrifice, as commonly found in early and preliterate societies, marking the passage from youth to adulthood.<ref>T. McElwain (2005) ''The Beloved and I: New Jubilees Version of Sacred Scripture with Verse Commentaries'' pages 57–58.</ref>

== Music ==
The Binding of Isaac has inspired multiple pieces of music, including [[Marc-Antoine Charpentier]]'s ''Sacrificium Abrahae'' (H.402, oratorio for soloists, chorus, doubling instruments, and bc; 1680–81), [[Benjamin Britten]]'s ''[[Canticle II: Abraham and Isaac]]'', later adapted for inclusion in the [[War Requiem]], [[Igor Stravinsky]]'s [[Abraham and Isaac (Stravinsky)|Abraham and Isaac]], [[Leonard Cohen]]'s "Story of Isaac" from the 1969 album ''[[Songs from a Room]]'',<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.leonardcohen.com/music/songs-from-a-room|title=Songs From A Room – The Official Leonard Cohen Site|website=www.leonardcohen.com|access-date=2021-10-19|archive-date=2021-10-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211019025954/https://www.leonardcohen.com/music/songs-from-a-room|url-status=live}}</ref> and "You Want It Darker" from the 2016 album ''[[You Want It Darker|You Want it Darker]],'' the eponymous "[[Highway 61 Revisited (song)|Highway 61 Revisited]]" from ''[[Highway 61 Revisited]]'' (1965) by [[Bob Dylan]], [[Sufjan Stevens]]' "Abraham" from the album ''[[Seven Swans]]'' (2004), [[Gilad Hochman]]'s "''Akeda'' for Solo Viola" (2006), and [[Anaïs Mitchell]]'s "Dyin Day" from the album ''[[Young Man in America]]'' (2012).

[[Wilfred Owen]]'s poem "[[The Parable of the Old Man and the Young]]", set to music by [[Benjamin Britten]] in his [[War Requiem]], ends with the couplet "But the old man would not so, but slew his son, And half the seed of Europe, one by one."<ref>{{Cite web |title=War Requiem: The complete text |url=https://www.classicfm.com/composers/britten/guides/war-requiem-the-complete-text/ |access-date=2023-09-08 |website=Classic FM |language=en}}</ref>

== Comparative ==
=== Greece: Toneia ===
The myth at the [[Heraion of Samos]] is that of [[Hera]]. According to the local tradition, the goddess was born under a ''lygos'' tree (''[[Vitex agnus-castus]]'', the "chaste-tree"). At the annual Samian festival called the ''Toneia'', the "binding", the [[cult image]] of Hera was ceremonially bound with ''lygos'' branches, before being carried down to the sea to be washed. The tree still featured on the [[Ancient Greek coinage|coinage of Samos]] in Roman times and [[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]] mentions that the tree still stood in the sanctuary.<ref>Kyrieleis (1993) 135; Pedley (2005), 156-7; Pausanias 8.23.5</ref>

== See also ==
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
* [[Binding of Ishmael (Islam)]]
* [[Child sacrifice]]
* [[Covenant of the pieces]]
* [[Eid al-Adha]]
* ''[[Fear and Trembling]]''
* [[Filicide]]
* [[Iphigenia]]
* [[Jephthah's daughter]]
* [[Phrixus]] in Greek mythology, child sacrifice thwarted by ram
* [[Tophet]]
* [[Vayeira]], the [[parashah]] containing the binding of Isaac
{{div col end}}

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

==References==
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book
| author=Berman, Louis A.
| title=The Akedah: The Binding of Isaac
| publisher=Rowman & Littlefield
| year=1997
| isbn=1-56821-899-0
}}
* {{cite book
| author=Bodoff, Lippman
| title=The Binding of Isaac, Religious Murders & Kabbalah: Seeds of Jewish Extremism and Alienation?
| publisher=Devora Publishing
| year=2005
| isbn=1-932687-52-1
}}
* {{cite journal
| author=Bodofff, Lippman
| title=The Real Test of the Akedah: Blind Obedience versus Moral Choice
| journal=Judaism
| volume=42 | issue=1
| year=1993
}}
* {{cite journal
| author=Bodofff, Lippman
| title=God Tests Abraham – Abraham Tests God
| journal=Bible Review
| volume=IX | issue=5
| year=1993
| page=52
}}
* {{cite journal
| author=Boehm, Omri
| author-link=Omri Boehm
| title=The Binding of Isaac: An Inner Biblical Polemic on the Question of Disobeying a Manifestly Illegal Order
| journal=[[Vetus Testamentum]]
| volume=52 | issue=1
| year=2002
| pages=1–12
| doi=10.1163/15685330252965686
}}
* {{cite book
| author=Boehm, Omri
| title=The Binding of Isaac: A Religious Model of Disobedience
| publisher=T&T Clark
| year=2007
| isbn=978-0-567-02613-2
}}
* {{cite book
| author=Delaney, Carol
| title=Abraham on Trial
| publisher=Princeton University Press
| year=1998
| isbn=0-691-05985-3
}}
* {{cite journal
| author=Delaney, Carol
| title=Abraham, Isaac, and Some Hidden Assumptions of Our Culture
| journal=The Humanist
| year=1999
| volume=May/June
| url=http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Abraham,+Isaac,+and+Some+Hidden+Assumptions+of+Our+Culture.-a054574811
| access-date=2015-02-02
| archive-date=2016-03-05
| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305135442/http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Abraham,+Isaac,+and+Some+Hidden+Assumptions+of+Our+Culture.-a054574811
| url-status=live
}}
* {{cite book
| first=Bruce
| last=Feiler
| author-link=Bruce Feiler
| title=Abraham: A Journey to the Heart of Three Faiths
| publisher=HarperCollins
| year=2002
| isbn=0-06-083866-3
| url-access=registration
| url=https://archive.org/details/abrahambruc00bruc
}}
* {{cite book
| author=Feldman, Yael
| title=Glory and Agony: Isaac's Sacrifice and National Narrative'
| publisher=Stanford University Press
| year=2010
| isbn=978-0-8047-5902-1
| author-link=Yael S. Feldman
}}
* {{cite book
| author=Firestone, Reuven
| title=Journeys in Holy Lands: The Evolution of the Abraham-Ishmael Legends in Islamic Exegesis
| publisher=State University of New York Press
| year=1990
| isbn=0-7914-0332-7
}}
* {{cite book
| last=Ginzberg
| first=Louis
| title=The Legends of the Jews Vol. I : Satan Accuses Abraham
| year=1909
| url=http://www.swartzentrover.com/cotor/e-books/misc/Legends/Legends%20of%20the%20Jews.pdf
| publisher=Jewish Publication Society
| location=Philadelphia
| others=Translated by Henrietta Szold
| access-date=2018-02-14
| archive-date=2020-03-13
| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200313050820/http://www.swartzentrover.com/cotor/e-books/misc/Legends/Legends
| url-status=live
}}
* {{cite book
| author=Goodman, James
| title=Abraham and His Son: The Story of a Story
| publisher=Sandstone Press
| year=2015
| isbn=978-1-910124-15-4
}}
* {{cite book
| author=Goodman, James
| title=But Where Is the Lamb? Imagining the Story of Abraham and Isaac
| publisher=Schocken Books
| year=2013
| isbn=978-0-8052-4253-9
}}
* {{cite journal
| author=Jensen, Robin M.
| title=The Binding or Sacrifice of Isaac: How Jews and Christians See Differently
| journal=Bible Review
| volume=9 | issue=5
| year=1993
| pages=42–51
}}
* {{cite book
| last=Kierkegaard |first=Søren
| title=Fear and Trembling
| publisher=Anchor Books
| year=1954
| isbn=
}}
* {{cite book
| author=Levenson, Jon D.
| title=The Death and Resurrection of the Beloved Son: The Transformation of Child Sacrifice in Judaism and Christianity
| publisher=Yale University Press
| year=1995
| isbn=0-300-06511-6
}}
* {{cite book
| first=Aviezer
| last=Ravitzky
| title=Abraham: Father of the Believers
| publisher=Hebrew University
|language=he}}
* {{cite book
| first=Nahum
| last=Sarna
| author-link=Nahum Sarna
| title=The JPS Torah Commentary: Genesis
| publisher=Jewish Publication Society
| year=1989
| isbn=0-8276-0326-6
| url-access=registration
| url=https://archive.org/details/genesisbereshitt0000sarn
}}
* {{cite book
| author=Spiegel, Shalom
| title=The Last Trial: On the Legends and Lore of the Command to Abraham to Offer Isaac As a Sacrifice: The Akedah
| publisher=Jewish Lights Publishing
| edition = 1993 reprint
| year=1967
| isbn=1-879045-29-X
}}
{{refend}}

== External links ==
{{Wikiquote}}
{{Commons category|Sacrifice of Isaac}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20041223205959/http://www.christusrex.org/www1/ofm/sbf/dialogue/symp95.html Symposium on the Sacrifice of Isaac in the Three Monotheistic Religions]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20071117232228/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3708/is_199901/ai_n8828474 The Sacrifice of Isaac in Medieval English Drama]
* [[Mystery play]] texts in the cycles from [https://web.archive.org/web/20070813033925/http://www.umm.maine.edu/faculty/necastro/drama/chester/play_04.txt Chester], [http://www.hti.umich.edu/cgi/c/cme/cme-idx?type=HTML&rgn=DIV1&byte=13541401 Wakefield],{{Dead link|date=February 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} [http://www.hti.umich.edu/cgi/c/cme/cme-idx?type=HTML&rgn=DIV1&byte=14418055 York],{{Dead link|date=February 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} and [http://www.chass.utoronto.ca/~ajohnsto/abraham.html n-Town]; {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080317193954/http://www.chass.utoronto.ca/~ajohnsto/abraham.html |date=2008-03-17 }}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20111001040057/http://www.g-dcast.com/roshhashanah Shofar Callin' (G-dcast's animated retelling of the Binding of Isaac, to a hip hop soundtrack)]

{{Book of Genesis}}
{{Characters and Names in Quran}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Binding Of Isaac}}
[[Category:Abraham]]
[[Category:Angelic apparitions in the Bible]]
[[Category:Child sacrifice]]
[[Category:Human sacrifice in folklore and mythology]]
[[Category:Isaac]]
[[Category:Jewish sacrificial law]]
[[Category:Mount Gerizim]]
[[Category:Rosh Hashanah]]
[[Category:Shacharit]]
[[Category:Siddurim of Orthodox Judaism]]
[[Category:Temple Mount]]
[[Category:Vayeira]]

Peasants' Revolt

2025-06-17T21:35:35Z

128.228.164.236: /* External links */

{{Short description|1381 uprising in England}}
{{About|the English peasants' revolt of 1381|other peasants' revolts|List of peasant revolts}}
{{Featured article}}
{{Use British English|date=May 2011}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2020}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict = Peasants' Revolt
| width =
| colour_scheme = background:#bbcccc
| image = Jean Froissart, Chroniques, 154v, 12148 btv1b8438605hf336, crop.jpg
| image_size = 300px
| alt = Painting of Richard II
| caption = The boy-king [[Richard II of England|Richard II]] meets the rebels on 14 June 1381, in a miniature from [[Froissart of Louis of Gruuthuse (BnF Fr 2643-6)|a 1470s copy]] of [[Jean Froissart]]'s ''[[Froissart's Chronicles|Chronicles]]''.
| date = 30 May – November 1381
| place = England
| result = *Sacking of [[Tower of London]] and mass execution of royal officials
* [[Municipal charter|Charters]] granted to rebel towns
* Eventual suppression of revolt and execution of rebel leaders
| combatant1 = The People
| combatant2 = Royal government
| commander1 = {{ubl|[[Wat Tyler]]{{KIA}}|[[Jack Straw (rebel leader)|Jack Straw]]{{executed}}|[[Thomas Baker (Peasants' Revolt leader)|Thomas Baker]]{{executed}}|[[John Wrawe]]{{executed}}|[[John Ball (priest)|John Ball]]{{executed}}|[[William Grindecobbe]]{{executed}}|[[Johanna Ferrour]]}}
| commander2 = {{ubl|King [[Richard II of England|Richard II]]|Sir [[William Walworth]]|Archbishop [[Simon Sudbury]]{{executed}}|Bishop [[Henry Despenser]]|Sir [[Robert Hales (knight)|Robert Hales]]{{executed}}|Sir [[Richard Lyons (Warden of the Mint)|Richard Lyons]]{{executed}}|Sir [[John Cavendish]]{{executed}}}}
| strength1 =
| strength2 =
| casualties1 = At least 1,500 killed
| casualties2 = Unknown
}}

The '''Peasants' Revolt''', also named '''Wat Tyler's Rebellion''' or the '''Great Rising''', was a major uprising across large parts of England in 1381. The revolt had various causes, including the socio-economic and political tensions generated by the [[Black Death]] in the 1340s, the high taxes resulting from the conflict with France during the [[Hundred Years' War]], and instability within the local leadership of London. The revolt heavily influenced the course of the Hundred Years' War by deterring later Parliaments from raising additional taxes to pay for military campaigns in France.

Interpretations of the revolt by academics have shifted over the years. It was once seen as a defining moment in English history, in particular causing a promise by King [[Richard II]] to abolish serfdom, and a suspicion of [[Lollardy]], but modern academics are less certain of its impact on subsequent social and economic history.

The revolt has been widely used in [[socialist]] literature, including by the author [[William Morris]], and remains a potent symbol for the [[Left-wing politics|political left]], informing the arguments surrounding the introduction of the [[Poll tax (Great Britain)|Community Charge]] in the United Kingdom during the 1980s.

{{TOC limit|3}}

== Terminology ==
The term "Peasants' Revolt" does not occur in medieval sources: contemporary chronicles did not give the events a specific title, and the term "peasant" did not appear in the English language until the 15th century.<ref name="Strohm2008P201" /> In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries it was generally known as "the Insurrection of Wat Tyler".<ref>{{harvnb|Prescott|2017|p=79}}</ref> Though he commented that "which eighteenth- or nineteenth-century historian first used the doubly discredited phrase 'Peasants' Revolt' I have been unable to determine", Paul Strohm's first identified usage of the term was in [[John Richard Green]]'s ''Short History of the English People'' in 1874.<ref name="Strohm2008P201" /> The name has been critiqued by modern historians such as Strohm and [[Miri Rubin]], both on the grounds that many in the movements were not peasants, and that the events more closely resemble a prolonged protest or rising rather than a revolt or rebellion.<ref>{{harvnb|Rubin|2006|p=121}}; {{harvnb|Strohm|2008|p=202}}; {{harvnb|Cohn|2013|p=3}}</ref> Alternative terms include "the 1381 Rising"<ref name="Strohm2008P201" /> and "the English
Rising of 1381".<ref>{{harvnb|Prescott|2017|p=78}}</ref>

==Background and causes==

===Economics===
{{main|Consequences of the Black Death}}

The Peasants' Revolt was fed by the economic and social upheaval of the 14th century.<ref>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|pp=22–23}}</ref> At the start of the century, the majority of English people worked in the countryside economy that fed the country's towns and cities and supported an extensive international trade.<ref>{{harvnb|Rubin|2006|pp=1–3}}</ref> Across much of England, production was organised around [[Manorialism|manor]]s, controlled by local lords – including the [[gentry]] and the [[Religion in England|Church]] – and governed through a system of [[manorial court]]s.<ref>{{harvnb|Rubin|2006|p=2}}; {{harvnb|Dunn|2002|p=14}}</ref> Some of the population were unfree [[serf]]s, who had to work on their lords' lands for a period each year, although the balance of free and unfree varied across England, and in the south-east serfdom was relatively rare.<ref>{{harvnb|Postan|1975|p=172}}</ref> Some serfs were born unfree and could not leave their manors to work elsewhere without the consent of the local lord; others accepted limitations on their freedom as part of the tenure agreement for their farmland.<ref>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|p=14}}; {{harvnb|Postan|1975|p=172}}</ref> Population growth led to pressure on the available agricultural land, increasing the power of local landowners.<ref>{{harvnb|Dyer|2009|p=249}}; {{harvnb|Dunn|2002|p=15}}</ref>

In 1348 a plague known as the [[Black Death]] crossed from mainland Europe into England, rapidly killing an estimated 50 percent of the population.<ref>{{harvnb|Dyer|2009|pp=271–272}}</ref> After an initial period of economic shock, England began to adapt to the changed economic situation.<ref>{{harvnb|Dyer|2009|pp=273–274}}</ref> The death rate among the peasantry meant that suddenly land was relatively plentiful and labourers in much shorter supply.<ref>{{harvnb|Rubin|2006|p=65}}</ref> Labourers could charge more for their work and, in the consequent competition for labour, wages were driven sharply upwards.<ref>{{harvnb|Dyer|2009|p=278}}</ref> In turn, the profits of landowners were eroded.<ref>{{harvnb|Dyer|2000|pp=202–203}}</ref> The trading, commercial and financial networks in the towns disintegrated.<ref>{{harvnb|Butcher|1987|p=86}}</ref>

The authorities responded to the chaos by passing emergency legislation, the [[Ordinance of Labourers 1349|Ordinance of Labourers]] in 1349, and the [[Statute of Labourers 1351|Statute of Labourers]] in 1351.<ref>{{harvnb|Dyer|2009|p=282}}</ref> These attempted to fix wages at pre-plague levels, making it a crime to refuse work or to break an existing contract, imposing fines on those who transgressed.<ref>{{harvnb|Dyer|2009|p=282}}; {{harvnb|Rubin|2006|p=69}}</ref> The system was initially enforced through special [[Judicial officer|Justices]] of Labourers and then, from the 1360s onwards, through the normal [[Justice of the peace|Justices of the Peace]], typically members of the local gentry.<ref>{{harvnb|Dyer|2009|pp=282, 285}}</ref> Although in theory these laws applied to both labourers seeking higher wages and to employers tempted to outbid their competitors for workers, they were in practice applied only to labourers, and then in a rather arbitrary fashion.<ref>{{harvnb|Dyer|2009|pp=282–283}}</ref> The legislation was strengthened in 1361, with the penalties increased to include [[Human branding|branding]] and imprisonment.<ref>{{harvnb|Rubin|2006|p=69}}</ref> The royal government had not intervened in this way before, nor allied itself with the local landowners in quite such an obvious or unpopular way.<ref name="Dyer 2009 285">{{harvnb|Dyer|2009|p=285}}</ref>

Over the next few decades, economic opportunities increased for the English peasantry.<ref>{{harvnb|Rubin|2006|p=122}}</ref> Some labourers took up specialist jobs that would have previously been barred to them, and others moved from employer to employer, or became servants in richer households.<ref>{{harvnb|Dyer|2009|p=279}}; {{harvnb|Rubin|2006|pp=122–123}}</ref> These changes were keenly felt across the south-east of England, where the London market created a wide range of opportunities for farmers and artisans.<ref>{{harvnb|Dyer|2000|p=200}}</ref> Local lords had the right to prevent serfs from leaving their manors, but when serfs found themselves blocked in the manorial courts, many simply left to work illegally on manors elsewhere.<ref>{{harvnb|Rubin|2006|p=122}}; {{harvnb|Dyer|2009|p=278}}; {{harvnb|Postan|1975|p=172}}</ref> Wages continued to rise, and between the 1340s and the 1380s the purchasing power of rural labourers increased by around 40 percent.<ref>{{harvnb|Dyer|2009|p=279}}</ref> As the wealth of the lower classes increased, Parliament brought in [[Statute Concerning Diet and Apparel 1363|fresh laws in 1363]] to prevent them from consuming expensive goods formerly only affordable by the elite. These [[sumptuary law]]s proved unenforceable, but the wider labour laws continued to be firmly applied.<ref>{{harvnb|Dyer|2009|pp=283–284}}; {{harvnb|Jones|2010|p=16}}</ref>

===War and finance===
Another factor in the revolt of 1381 was the conduct of the war with France. In 1337 [[Edward III of England]] had pressed [[English claims to the French throne|his claims to the French throne]], beginning a long-running conflict that became known as the [[Hundred Years' War]]. Edward had initial successes, but his campaigns were not decisive. [[Charles V of France]] became more active in the conflict after 1369, taking advantage of his country's greater economic strength to commence cross-Channel raids on England.<ref>{{harvnb|Rubin|2006|p=121}}; {{harvnb|Sumption|2009|pp=18, 53–60}}</ref> By the 1370s, England's armies on the continent were under huge military and financial pressure; the garrisons in [[Calais]] and [[Brest, France|Brest]] alone, for example, were costing £36,000 a year to maintain, while military expeditions could consume £50,000 in only six months.<ref>{{harvnb|Sumption|2009|pp=325–327, 354–355, 405}}; {{harvnb|Dunn|2002|p=52}}</ref>{{#tag:ref|It is impossible to accurately compare 14th century and modern prices or incomes. For comparison, the income of a typical nobleman such as [[Richard le Scrope, 1st Baron Scrope of Bolton|Richard le Scrope]] was around £600 a year, while only six [[earl]]s in the kingdom enjoyed incomes of over £5,000 a year.<ref>{{harvnb|Given-Wilson|1996|p=157}}; {{harvnb|Rubin|2006|p=161}}</ref>|group="nb"}} Edward died in 1377, leaving the throne to his grandson, [[Richard II of England|Richard II]], then only ten years old.<ref>{{harvnb|Rubin|2006|p=120}}</ref>

[[File:Troupe anglaise débarquant en Normandie XIVeme siecle.jpg|thumb|alt=Medieval painting|English soldiers landing in [[Normandy]], c. 1380–1400, during the [[Hundred Years' War]]]]

Richard's government was formed around his uncles, most prominently the rich and powerful [[John of Gaunt]], and many of his grandfather's former senior officials. They faced the challenge of financially sustaining the war in France. Taxes in the 14th century were raised on an ''ad hoc'' basis through Parliament, then comprising the [[House of Lords|Lords]], the titled aristocracy and clergy; and the [[House of Commons of England|Commons]], the representatives of the knights, merchants and senior gentry from across England.<ref>{{harvnb|Rubin|2006|p=50}}</ref> These taxes were typically imposed on a household's movable possessions, such as their goods or stock.<ref>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|p=50}}</ref> The raising of these taxes affected the members of the Commons much more than the Lords.<ref>{{harvnb|Jones|2010|pp=19–20}}</ref> To complicate matters, the official statistics used to administer the taxes pre-dated the Black Death and, since the size and wealth of local communities had changed greatly since the plague, effective collection had become increasingly difficult.<ref>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|p=51}}</ref>

Just before Edward's death, Parliament introduced a new form of taxation called the [[Poll tax#14th century|poll tax]], which was levied at the rate of four pence on every person over the age of 14, with a deduction for married couples.<ref name=Jones2010Dunn201P51>{{harvnb|Jones|2010|p=21}}; {{harvnb|Dunn|2002|p=51}}</ref>{{#tag:ref|For comparison, the wage for an unskilled labourer in Essex in 1380 was around three pence a day.<ref>{{harvnb|Dyer|2000|p=168}}</ref>|group="nb"}} Designed to spread the cost of the war over a broader economic base than previous tax levies, this round of taxation proved extremely unpopular but raised £22,000.<ref name=Jones2010Dunn201P51/> The war continued to go badly and, despite raising some money through forced loans, the Crown returned to Parliament in 1379 to request further funds.<ref>{{harvnb|Sumption|2009|pp=325–327, 354–355}}; {{harvnb|Dunn|2002|pp=51–52}}</ref> The Commons were supportive of the young King, but had concerns about the amounts of money being sought and the way this was being spent by the King's counsellors, whom they suspected of corruption.<ref>{{harvnb|Rubin|2006|p=120}}; {{harvnb|Sumption|2009|p=355}}</ref> A second poll tax was approved, this time with a sliding scale of taxes against seven different classes of English society, with the upper classes paying more in absolute terms.<ref>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|pp=50–51}}</ref> Widespread evasion proved to be a problem, and the tax only raised £18,600 – far short of the £50,000 that had been hoped for.<ref>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|p=51}}; {{harvnb|Jones|2010|p=22}}</ref>

In November 1380, Parliament was called together again in [[Northampton]]. Archbishop [[Simon Sudbury]], the new [[Lord Chancellor]], updated the Commons on the worsening situation in France, a collapse in international trade, and the risk of the Crown having to default on its debts.<ref>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|pp=52–53}}</ref> The Commons were told that the colossal sum of £160,000 was now required in new taxes, and arguments ensued between the royal council and Parliament about what to do next.<ref>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|p=53}}; {{harvnb|Sumption|2009|p=407}}</ref> Parliament passed a third poll tax (this time on a flat-rate basis of 12 pence on each person over 15, with no allowance made for married couples) which they estimated would raise £66,666.<ref>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|p=53}}; {{harvnb|Sumption|2009|p=408}}</ref> The third poll tax was highly unpopular and many in the south-east [[Tax evasion|evaded]] it by refusing to register.<ref>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|p=54}}; {{harvnb|Sumption|2009|p=419}}</ref> The royal council appointed new commissioners in March 1381 to interrogate local village and town officials in an attempt to find those who were refusing to comply.<ref>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|p=55}}</ref> The extraordinary powers and interference of these teams of investigators in local communities, primarily in the south-east and east of England, raised still further the tensions surrounding the taxes.<ref>{{harvnb|Sumption|2009|pp=419–420}}; {{harvnb|Powell|1896|p=5}}</ref>

===Protest and authority===
[[File:Sheep pen (Luttrell Psalter).png|thumb|upright=1.2|alt=Medieval painting|Sheep farming, from the [[Luttrell Psalter]], c. 1320–1340]]
{{Quote box
|width=40%
|align=right
|quote=...from the beginning all men by nature were created alike...
|source=–[[John Ball (priest)|John Ball]], 1381<ref name=bbc>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/history/voices/voices_reading_revolt.shtml|title=BBC Radio 4 Voices of the Powerless – featuring Peasants Revolt|website=www.bbc.co.uk}}</ref>
}}
The decades running up to 1381 were a rebellious, troubled period.<ref>{{harvnb|Postan|1975|p=171}}; {{harvnb|Dyer|2000|p=214}}</ref> London was a particular focus of unrest, and the activities of the city's politically active [[guild]]s and [[fraternity|fraternities]] often alarmed the authorities.<ref>{{harvnb|Rubin|2006|pp=121–122}}</ref> Londoners resented the expansion of the royal legal system in the capital, in particular the increased role of the [[Marshalsea Court]] in Southwark, which had begun to compete with the city authorities for judicial power in London.<ref>{{harvnb|Harding|1987|pp=176–180}}; {{harvnb|Dunn|2002|pp=80–81}}</ref>{{#tag:ref|The Marshalsea Court was originally intended to provide justice for the royal household and those doing business with it, travelling with the King around the country and having authority covering {{convert|12|miles}} around the monarch. The monarchs of the 14th century were increasingly based in London, resulting in the Marshalsea Court taking up semi-permanent business in the capital. Successive monarchs used the court to exercise royal power, often at the expense of the City of London's Corporation.<ref>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|pp=80–81}}</ref>|group="nb"}} The city's population also resented the presence of foreigners, [[Flemish people|Flemish]] weavers in particular.<ref>{{harvnb|Spindler|2012|pp=65,72}}</ref> Londoners detested John of Gaunt because he was a supporter of the religious reformer [[John Wycliffe]], whom the London public regarded as a heretic.<ref>{{harvnb|Jones|2010|p=34}}</ref> John of Gaunt was also engaged in a feud with the London elite and was rumoured to be planning to replace the elected [[Lord Mayor of London|mayor]] with a captain, appointed by the Crown.<ref>{{harvnb|Jones|2010|pp=34, 35, 40}}</ref> The London elite were themselves fighting out a vicious, internal battle for political power.<ref>{{harvnb|Oman|1906|p=18}}</ref> As a result, in 1381 the ruling classes in London were unstable and divided.<ref>{{harvnb|Jones|2010|p=40}}</ref>

Rural communities, particularly in the south-east, were unhappy with the operation of [[serfdom]] and the use of the local manorial courts to exact traditional fines and levies, not least because the same landowners who ran these courts also often acted as enforcers of the unpopular labour laws or as royal judges.<ref>{{harvnb|Dyer|2000|pp=213–217}}</ref> Many of the village elites refused to take up positions in local government and began to frustrate the operation of the courts.<ref>{{harvnb|Dyer|2000|pp=211–212}}</ref> Animals seized by the courts began to be retaken by their owners, and legal officials were assaulted.<ref>{{harvnb|Dyer|2000|p=212}}</ref> Some started to advocate the creation of independent village communities, respecting traditional laws but separate from the hated legal system centred in London.<ref>{{harvnb|Dyer|2000|p=219}}; {{harvnb|Rubin|2006|pp=123–124}}</ref> As the historian [[Miri Rubin]] describes, for many, "the problem was not the country's laws, but those charged with applying and safeguarding them".<ref>{{harvnb|Rubin|2006|p=124}}</ref>

Concerns were raised about these changes in society.<ref>{{harvnb|Dyer|2009|p=281}}</ref> [[William Langland]] wrote the poem ''[[Piers Plowman]]'' in the years before 1380, praising peasants who respected the law and worked hard for their lords, but complaining about greedy, travelling labourers demanding higher wages.<ref>{{harvnb|Dyer|2009|pp=281, 282}}</ref> The poet [[John Gower]] warned against a future revolt in both ''[[Mirour de l'Omme]]'' and ''[[Vox Clamantis]]''.<ref>{{harvnb|Wickert|2016|p=18}}</ref> There was a [[moral panic]] about the threat posed by newly arrived workers in the towns and the possibility that servants might turn against their masters.<ref>{{harvnb|Rubin|2006|p=70}}</ref> New legislation was introduced in 1359 to deal with migrants, existing [[conspiracy (crime)|conspiracy laws]] were more widely applied and the [[Treason Act 1351|treason laws]] were extended to include servants or wives who betrayed their masters and husbands.<ref>{{harvnb|Rubin|2006|p=70}}; {{harvnb|Harding|1987|pp=18–190}}</ref> By the 1370s, there were fears that if the French invaded England, the rural classes might side with the invaders.<ref name="Dyer 2009 285"/>

The discontent began to give way to open protest. In 1377, the "[[Great Rumour]]" occurred in south-east and south-west England.<ref>{{harvnb|Faith|1987|p=43}}</ref> Rural workers organised themselves and refused to work for their lords, arguing that, according to the [[Domesday Book]], they were exempted from such requests.<ref>{{harvnb|Faith|1987|pp=44–46}}</ref> The workers made unsuccessful appeals to the law courts and the King.<ref>{{harvnb|Faith|1987|p=69}}</ref> There were also widespread urban tensions, particularly in London, where John of Gaunt narrowly escaped being lynched.<ref>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|p=88}}; {{harvnb|Cohn|2013|p=100}}</ref> The troubles increased again in 1380, with protests and disturbances across northern England and in the western towns of [[Shrewsbury]] and [[Bridgwater]].<ref>{{harvnb|Cohn|2013|p=105}}; {{harvnb|Dilks|1927|p=59}}</ref> An uprising occurred in York, during which John de Gisborne, the city's mayor, was removed from office, and fresh tax riots followed in early 1381.<ref>{{harvnb|Dobson|1987|p=123}}</ref> There was a great storm in England during May 1381, which many felt to prophesy future change and upheaval, adding further to the disturbed mood.<ref>{{harvnb|Dyer|2000|p=218}}.</ref>

==Events==

===Overview===
The final trigger for the revolt was the intervention of a royal official, John Bampton, in [[Essex]] on 30 May 1381. His attempts to collect unpaid [[poll taxes]] in [[Brentwood, Essex|Brentwood]] ended in a violent confrontation, which rapidly spread across the southeast of the country. A wide spectrum of rural society, including many local artisans and village officials, rose up in protest, burning court records and opening the local prisons. The rebels sought a reduction in taxation, an end to [[serfdom]], and the removal of King [[Richard II]]'s senior officials and law courts.

Inspired by the sermons of the radical cleric [[John Ball (priest)|John Ball]] and led by [[Wat Tyler]], a contingent of [[Kent]]ish rebels advanced on London. They were met at [[Blackheath, London|Blackheath]] by representatives of the royal government, who unsuccessfully attempted to persuade them to return home. King Richard, then aged 14, retreated to the safety of the [[Tower of London]], but most of the royal forces were abroad or in northern England. On 13 June, the rebels entered London and, joined by many local townsfolk, attacked the prisons, destroyed the [[Savoy Palace]], set fire to law books and buildings in [[Temple, London|the Temple]], and killed anyone associated with the royal government. The following day, Richard met the rebels at [[Mile End]] and agreed to most of their demands, including the abolition of serfdom. Meanwhile, rebels entered the Tower of London, killing [[Simon Sudbury]], [[Lord Chancellor]], and [[Robert Hales (knight)|Robert Hales]], [[Lord High Treasurer]], whom they found inside.

On 15 June, Richard left the city to meet Tyler and the rebels at [[Smithfield, London|Smithfield]]. Violence broke out, and Richard's party killed Tyler. Richard defused the tense situation long enough for London's mayor, [[William Walworth]], to gather a militia from the city and disperse the rebel forces. Richard immediately began to re-establish order in London and rescinded his previous grants to the rebels. The revolt had also spread into [[East Anglia]], where the [[University of Cambridge]] was attacked and many royal officials were killed. Unrest continued until the intervention of [[Henry Despenser]], who defeated a rebel army at the [[Battle of North Walsham]] on 25 or 26 June. Troubles extended north to [[York]], [[Beverley]], and [[Scarborough, North Yorkshire|Scarborough]], and as far west as [[Bridgwater]] in [[Somerset]]. Richard mobilised 4,000 soldiers to restore order. Most of the rebel leaders were tracked down and executed; by November, at least 1,500 rebels had been killed.

===Outbreak of revolt===

====Essex and Kent====
The revolt of 1381 broke out in [[Essex]], following the arrival of John Bampton to investigate non-payment of the poll tax on 30 May.<ref name=Dunn2002P73>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|p=73}}</ref> Bampton was a Member of Parliament, a Justice of the Peace and well-connected with royal circles.<ref name=Dunn2002P73/> He based himself in [[Brentwood, Essex|Brentwood]] and summoned representatives from the neighbouring villages of [[Corringham, Essex|Corringham]], [[Fobbing]] and [[Stanford-le-Hope]] to explain and make good the shortfalls on 1 June.<ref name=Dunn2002P73/> The villagers appear to have arrived well-organised, and armed with old bows and sticks.<ref name="Sumption 2009 420">{{harvnb|Sumption|2009|p=420}}</ref> Bampton first interrogated the people of Fobbing, whose representative, [[Thomas Baker (Peasants' Revolt leader)|Thomas Baker]], declared that his village had already paid their taxes, and that no more money would be forthcoming.<ref name="Sumption 2009 420"/> When Bampton and two sergeants attempted to arrest Baker, violence broke out.<ref name=Dunn2002P73/> Bampton escaped and retreated to London, but three of his clerks and several of the Brentwood townsfolk who had agreed to act as jurors were killed.<ref>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|p=73}}; {{harvnb|Sumption|2009|p=420}}</ref> [[Robert Bealknap]], the Chief Justice of the [[Court of Common Pleas (England)|Court of Common Pleas]], who was probably already holding court in the area, was empowered to arrest and deal with the perpetrators.<ref>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|pp=73–74}}</ref>

[[File:Longbowmen.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|alt=Medieval painting|Peasant longbowmen at practice, from the [[Luttrell Psalter]], c. 1320–1340]]
By the next day, the revolt was rapidly growing.<ref name=Dunn2002P74>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|p=74}}</ref> The villagers spread the news across the region, and John Geoffrey, a local bailiff, rode between Brentwood and [[Chelmsford]], rallying support.<ref name=Dunn2002P74/> On 4 June, the rebels gathered at [[Bocking, Essex|Bocking]], where their future plans seem to have been discussed.<ref>{{harvnb|Sumption|2009|pp=420–421}}</ref> The Essex rebels, possibly a few thousand strong, advanced towards London, some probably travelling directly and others via Kent.<ref name=Dunn2002P74/> One group, under the leadership of [[John Wrawe]], a former [[chaplain]], marched north towards the neighbouring county of Suffolk, with the intention of raising a revolt there.<ref>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|p=122}}; {{harvnb|Powell|1896|p=9}}</ref>

Revolt also flared in neighbouring [[Kent]].<ref name=Dunn2002P75>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|p=75}}</ref> Sir [[Simon de Burley]], a close associate of both Edward III and the young Richard, had claimed that a man in Kent, called Robert Belling, was an escaped serf from one of his estates.<ref name=Dunn2002P75/> Burley sent two sergeants to [[Gravesend]], where Belling was living, to reclaim him.<ref name=Dunn2002P75/> Gravesend's local bailiffs and Belling tried to negotiate a solution under which Burley would accept a sum of money in return for dropping his case, but this failed and Belling was taken away to be imprisoned at [[Rochester Castle]].<ref name=Dunn2002P75/> A furious group of local people gathered at [[Dartford]], possibly on 5 June, to discuss the matter.<ref>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|pp=75–76}}</ref> From there the rebels travelled to [[Maidstone]], where they stormed the prison, and then on to [[Rochester, Kent|Rochester]] on 6 June.<ref>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|pp=60, 76}}</ref> Faced by the angry crowds, the constable in charge of Rochester Castle surrendered it without a fight and Belling was freed.<ref name=Dunn2002P76>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|p=76}}</ref>

Some of the Kentish crowds now dispersed, but others continued.<ref name=Dunn2002P76/> From this point, they appear to have been led by [[Wat Tyler]], whom the ''Anonimalle Chronicle'' suggests was elected their leader at a large gathering at Maidstone on 7 June.<ref name=Dunn2002Sumption2009P421>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|p=58}}; {{harvnb|Sumption|2009|p=421}}</ref> Relatively little is known about Tyler's former life; chroniclers suggest that he was from Essex, had served in France as an archer and was a charismatic and capable leader.<ref name=Dunn2002Sumption2009P421/> Several chroniclers believe that he was responsible for shaping the political aims of the revolt.<ref>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|p=58}}</ref> Some also mention a [[Jack Straw (rebel leader)|Jack Straw]] as a leader among the Kentish rebels during this phase in the revolt, but it is uncertain if this was a real person, or a pseudonym for Wat Tyler or John Wrawe.<ref>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|pp=62–63}}</ref>{{#tag:ref|Walsingham highlights the role of a "Jack Straw", and is supported by Froissart, although Knighton argues that this was a pseudonym; other chroniclers fail to mention him at all. The historian Friedrich Brie popularised the argument in favour of the pseudonym in 1906. Modern historians recognise Tyler as the primary leader, and are doubtful about the role of "Jack Straw".<ref>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|pp=62–63}}; {{harvnb|Brie|1906|pp=106–111}}; {{harvnb|Matheson|1998|p=150}}</ref>|group="nb"}}

Tyler and the Kentish men advanced to [[Canterbury]], entering the [[Canterbury city walls|walled city]] and [[Canterbury Castle|castle]] without resistance on 10 June.<ref>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|pp=76–77}}; {{harvnb|Lyle|2002|p=91}}</ref> The rebels deposed the absent Archbishop of Canterbury, Sudbury, and made the cathedral monks swear loyalty to their cause.<ref>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|p=77}}</ref> They attacked properties in the city with links to the hated royal council, and searched the city for suspected enemies, dragging the suspects out of their houses and executing them.<ref>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|p=77}}; {{harvnb|Sumption|2009|p=421}}</ref> The city prison was opened and the prisoners freed.<ref>{{harvnb|Sumption|2009|p=421}}</ref> Tyler then persuaded a few thousand of the rebels to leave Canterbury and advance with him on London the next morning.<ref name=Dunn2002P78/>

====March on the capital====
[[File:John Ball encouraging Wat Tyler rebels from ca 1470 MS of Froissart Chronicles in BL.jpg|thumb|upright=1.4|alt=Medieval painting|15th-century representation of the cleric [[John Ball (priest)|John Ball]] encouraging the rebels; [[Wat Tyler]] is shown in red, front left]]

The Kentish advance on London appears to have been coordinated with the movement of the rebels in Essex, [[Suffolk]] and [[Norfolk]].<ref name=Dunn2002P78/> Their forces were armed with weapons including sticks, battle axes, old swords and bows.<ref>{{harvnb|Sumption|2009|p=422}}</ref>{{#tag:ref|Military historian Jonathan Sumption considers this description of the rebels' weaponry, drawn from the chronicler [[Thomas Walsingham]], as reliable; literary historian Stephen Justice is less certain, noting the sarcastic manner in which Walsingham mocks the rebels' old and dilapidated arms, including their bows "reddened with age and smoke."<ref>{{harvnb|Justice|1994|p=204}}; {{harvnb|Sumption|2009|p=422}}</ref>|group="nb"}} Along their way, they encountered [[Joan of Kent|Lady Joan]], the King's mother, who was travelling back to the capital to avoid being caught up in the revolt; she was mocked but otherwise left unharmed.<ref name=Dunn2002P78/> The Kentish rebels reached [[Blackheath, London|Blackheath]], just south-east of the capital, on 12 June.<ref name=Dunn2002P78/>{{#tag:ref|Historian Andrew Prescott has critiqued these timings, arguing that it would have been unlikely that so many rebels could have advanced so fast on London, given the condition of the medieval road networks.<ref name="Strohm 2008 203">{{harvnb|Strohm|2008|p=203}}</ref>|group="nb"}}

Word of the revolt reached the King at [[Windsor Castle]] on the night of 10 June.<ref name=Dunn2002P78/> He travelled by boat down the [[River Thames]] to London the next day, taking up residence in the powerful fortress of the [[Tower of London]] for safety, where he was joined by his mother, Archbishop Sudbury, the [[Lord High Treasurer]] Sir [[Robert Hales (knight)|Robert Hales]], the Earls of [[Richard FitzAlan, 11th Earl of Arundel|Arundel]], [[William de Montacute, 2nd Earl of Salisbury|Salisbury]] and [[Thomas de Beauchamp, 12th Earl of Warwick|Warwick]] and several other senior nobles.<ref>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|p=78}}; {{harvnb|Sumption|2009|p=423}}</ref> A delegation, headed by [[Thomas Brinton]], the [[Bishop of Rochester]], was sent out from London to negotiate with the rebels and persuade them to return home.<ref name=Dunn2002P78>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|p=78}}</ref>

At Blackheath, [[John Ball (priest)|John Ball]] gave a famous sermon to the assembled Kentishmen.<ref name="Sumption 2009 423">{{harvnb|Sumption|2009|p=423}}</ref> Ball was a well-known priest and radical preacher from Kent, who was by now closely associated with Tyler.<ref>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|p=60}}; {{harvnb|Sumption|2009|p=422}}</ref> Chroniclers' accounts vary as to how he came to be involved in the revolt; he may have been released from Maidstone prison by the crowds, or might have been already at liberty when the revolt broke out.<ref>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|p=76}}; {{harvnb|Sumption|2009|p=422}}</ref> Ball rhetorically asked the crowds "When Adam delved and Eve span, who was then a gentleman?" and promoted the rebel slogan "With King Richard and the true commons of England".<ref name="Sumption 2009 423"/> The phrases emphasised the rebel opposition to the continuation of serfdom and to the hierarchies of the Church and State that separated the subject from the King, while stressing that they were loyal to the monarchy and, unlike the King's advisers, were "true" to Richard.<ref>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|p=58}}; {{harvnb|Jones|2010|pp=62, 80}}; {{harvnb|Rubin|2006|p=124}}</ref> The rebels rejected proposals from the Bishop of Rochester that they should return home, and instead prepared to march on.<ref name=Dunn2002P78/>

Discussions took place in the Tower of London about how to deal with the revolt.<ref name=Dunn2002P78/> The King had only a few troops at hand, in the form of the castle's garrison, his immediate bodyguard and, at most, several hundred soldiers.<ref>{{harvnb|Sumption|2009|p=422}}; {{harvnb|Dunn|2002|p=135}}; {{harvnb|Tuck|1987|p=199}}</ref>{{#tag:ref|Chronicler figures for the King's immediate forces in London vary; Henry Knighton argues that the King had between 150–180 men in the Tower of London, Thomas Walsingham suggests 1,200. These were probably over-estimates, and historian Alastair Dunn assesses that only a skeleton force was present; Jonathan Sumption judges that around 150 men-at-arms were present, and some archers.<ref>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|pp=91–92}}; {{harvnb|Sumption|2009|p=423}}</ref>|group="nb"}} Many of the more experienced military commanders were in France, Ireland and Germany, and the nearest major military force was in the north of England, guarding against a potential Scottish invasion.<ref>{{harvnb|Sumption|2009|p=423}}; {{harvnb|Dunn|2002|p=135}}; {{harvnb|Tuck|1987|p=199}}</ref> Resistance in the provinces was also complicated by English law, which stated that only the King could summon local militias or lawfully execute rebels and criminals, leaving many local lords unwilling to attempt to suppress the uprisings on their own authority.<ref>{{harvnb|Tuck|1987|pp=198–200}}</ref>

Since the Blackheath negotiations had failed, the decision was taken that the King himself should meet the rebels, at [[Greenwich]], on the south side of the Thames.<ref>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|pp=78–79}}</ref> Guarded by four barges of soldiers, Richard sailed from the Tower on the morning of 13 June, where he was met on the other side by the rebel crowds.<ref name=Dunn2002P79>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|p=79}}</ref> The negotiations failed, as Richard was unwilling to come ashore and the rebels refused to enter discussions until he did.<ref name=Dunn2002P79/> Richard returned across the river to the Tower.<ref name="autogenerated79">{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|p=79}}; {{harvnb|Sumption|2009|p=424}}</ref>

===Events in London===

====Entry to the city====
[[File:Map of London, 1381 labelled.png|thumb|300px|alt=Map of London|Map of London in 1381:
{{image key
|A – Clerkenwell
|B – Priory of St. John
|C – Smithfield
|D – Newgate and Fleet Prisons
|E – The Savoy Palace
|F – The Temple
|G – Black Friars
|H – Aldgate
|I – Mile End
|J – Westminster
|K – Southwark
|L – Marshalsea Prison
|M – London Bridge
|N – Tower of London}}]]
The rebels began to cross from [[Southwark]] onto [[London Bridge]] on the afternoon of 13 June.<ref name="autogenerated79"/> The defences on London Bridge were opened from the inside, either in sympathy for the rebel cause or out of fear, and the rebels advanced into the city.<ref>{{harvnb|Sumption|2009|p=424}}; {{harvnb|Dobson|1983|p=220}}; {{harvnb|Barron|1981|p=3}}</ref>{{#tag:ref|It is uncertain who opened the defences at London Bridge and Aldgate. After the revolt three aldermen, John Horn, Walter Sibil and William Tongue, were put on trial by the authorities, but it is unclear how far these accusations were motivated by the post-conflict London politics. The historian Nigel Saul is doubtful of their guilt in collaborating with the rebels. Rodney Hilton suggests that they may have opened the gates in order to buy time and so prevent the destruction of their city, although he prefers the theory that the London crowds forced the gates to be opened. Jonathan Sumption similarly argues that the aldermen were forced to open the gates in the face of popular pressure.<ref>{{harvnb|Saul|1999|p=424}}; {{harvnb|Hilton|1995|pp=189–190}}; {{harvnb|Sumption|2009|p=424}}</ref>|group="nb"}} At the same time, the rebel force from Essex made its way towards [[Aldgate]] on the north side of the city.<ref>{{harvnb|Sumption|2009|p=424}}</ref> The rebels swept west through the centre of the city, and Aldgate was opened to let the rest of the rebels in.<ref>{{harvnb|Sumption|2009|p=425}}</ref>

The Kentish rebels had assembled a wide-ranging list of people whom they wanted the King to hand over for execution.<ref name=Dunn2002P79/> It included national figures, such as John of Gaunt, Archbishop Sudbury and Hales; other key members of the royal council; officials, such as Belknap and Bampton who had intervened in Kent; and other hated members of the wider royal circle.<ref name=Dunn2002P79/> When they reached the Marshalsea Prison in Southwark, they tore it apart.<ref>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|p=81}}; {{harvnb|Sumption|2009|p=424}}</ref> By now the Kent and Essex rebels had been joined by many rebellious Londoners.<ref>{{harvnb|Sumption|2009|p=425}}; {{harvnb|Dunn|2002|p=81}}</ref> The [[Fleet Prison|Fleet]] and [[Newgate Prison]]s were attacked by the crowds, and the rebels also targeted houses belonging to Flemish immigrants.<ref>{{harvnb|Sumption|2009|p=425}}; {{harvnb|Dunn|2002|pp=81–82}}</ref>

On the north side of London, the rebels approached [[Smithfield, London|Smithfield]] and [[Clerkenwell Priory]], the headquarters of the [[Knights Hospitaller]] which was headed by Hales.<ref name=Dunn2002P83>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|p=83}}</ref> The priory was destroyed, along with the nearby manor.<ref name=Dunn2002P83/> Heading west along [[Fleet Street]], the rebels attacked [[Temple, London|the Temple]], a complex of legal buildings and offices owned by the Hospitallers.<ref name=Dunn2002P84>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|p=84}}</ref> The contents, books and paperwork were brought out and burned in the street, and the buildings systematically demolished.<ref name=Dunn2002P84/> Meanwhile, [[John Fordham (bishop)|John Fordham]], the [[Lord Privy Seal|Keeper of the Privy Seal]] and one of the men on the rebels' execution list, narrowly escaped when the crowds ransacked his accommodation but failed to notice he was still in the building.<ref name=Dunn2002P84/>

Next to be attacked along Fleet Street was the [[Savoy Palace]], a huge, luxurious building belonging to John of Gaunt.<ref name=Dunn2002PP85>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|pp=85, 87}}</ref> According to the chronicler [[Henry Knighton]] it contained "such quantities of vessels and silver plate, without counting the parcel-gilt and solid gold, that five carts would hardly suffice to carry them"; official estimates placed the value of the contents at around £10,000.<ref name=Dunn2002PP85/> The interior was systematically destroyed by the rebels, who burnt the soft furnishings, smashed the precious metal work, crushed the gems, set fire to the Duke's records and threw the remains into the Thames and the city drains.<ref name=Dunn2002PP85/> Almost nothing was stolen by the rebels, who declared themselves to be "zealots for truth and justice, not thieves and robbers".<ref>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|p=86}}</ref> The remains of the building were then set alight.<ref>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|pp=86–87}}</ref> In the evening, rebel forces gathered outside the Tower of London, from where the King watched the fires burning across the city.<ref>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|p=92}}</ref>

====Taking the Tower of London====
[[File:Towrlndn.JPG|thumb|upright=1.4|alt=Medieval painting|Late 15th-century depiction of the [[Tower of London]] and its [[keep]], the [[White Tower (Tower of London)|White Tower]]. [[Old London Bridge]] is visible in the background.]]
On the morning of 14 June, the crowd continued west along the Thames, burning the houses of officials around [[Westminster]] and opening the Westminster prison.<ref name=Dunn2002P88>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|p=88}}</ref> They then moved back into central London, setting fire to more buildings and storming Newgate Prison.<ref name=Dunn2002P88/> The hunt for Flemings continued, and those with Flemish-sounding accents were killed, including the royal adviser, [[Richard Lyons (Warden of the Mint)|Richard Lyons]].<ref>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|p=90}}</ref>{{#tag:ref|The royal adviser Richard Lyons was believed to have Flemish origins, although he was also unpopular in his own right as a result of his role in government.<ref>{{harvnb|Cohn|2013|p=286}}; {{harvnb|Dunn|2002|p=90}}</ref>|group="nb"}} In one city [[Ward (country subdivision)|ward]], the bodies of 40 executed Flemings were piled up in the street, and at the Church of [[St Martin Vintry]], popular with the Flemish, 35 of the community were killed.<ref>{{harvnb|Spindler|2012|pp=62, 71}}; {{harvnb|Saul|1999|p=70}}</ref> Historian [[Rodney Hilton]] argues that these attacks may have been coordinated by the weavers' guilds of London, who were commercial competitors of the Flemish weavers.<ref name="Hilton 1995 195">{{harvnb|Hilton|1995|p=195}}</ref>

Isolated inside the Tower, the royal government was in a state of shock at the turn of events.<ref>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|pp=92–93}}</ref> The King left the castle that morning and made his way to negotiate with the rebels at [[Mile End]] in east London, taking only a very small bodyguard with him.<ref>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|p=95}}; {{harvnb|Sumption|2009|p=427}}</ref> The King left Sudbury and Hales behind in the Tower, either for their own safety or because Richard had decided it would be safer to distance himself from his unpopular ministers.<ref>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|p=95}}</ref> Along the way, several Londoners accosted the King to complain about alleged injustices.<ref>{{harvnb|Saul|1999|p=68}}</ref>

It is uncertain who spoke for the rebels at Mile End, and Wat Tyler may not have been present on this occasion, but they appear to have put forward their various demands to the King, including the surrender of the hated officials on their lists for execution; the abolition of serfdom and unfree tenure; "that there should be no law within the realm save the law of Winchester", and a general amnesty for the rebels.<ref>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|pp=68, 96}}; {{harvnb|Oman|1906|p=200}}</ref> It is unclear precisely what was meant by the law of [[Winchester]], but it probably referred to the rebel ideal of self-regulating village communities.<ref>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|p=69}}; {{harvnb|Harding|1987|pp=166–167}}</ref>{{#tag:ref|The rebel call for a return to the "law of Winchester" has been much debated. One theory is that it was another term for the [[Domesday Book]] of [[William the Conqueror|William I]], which was believed to provide protection for particular groups of tenants. Another is that it referred to the [[Statute of Winchester]] in 1285, which allowed for the enforcement of local law through armed village communities, and which had been cited in more recent legislation on the criminal law. The creation of special justices and royal officials during the 14th century were seen as eroding these principles.<ref>{{harvnb|Harding|1987|pp=165–169}}; {{harvnb|Dunn|2002|p=69}}</ref>|group="nb"}} Richard issued charters announcing the abolition of serfdom, which immediately began to be disseminated around the country.<ref>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|pp=96–97}}</ref> He declined to hand over any of his officials, apparently instead promising that he would personally implement any justice that was required.<ref>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|p=98}}</ref>

While Richard was at Mile End, the Tower was taken by the rebels.<ref name=Dunn2002P99>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|p=99}}</ref> This force, separate from those operating under Tyler at Mile End, approached the castle, possibly in the late morning.<ref name=Dunn2002P99/>{{#tag:ref|Most chroniclers stated that the force that attacked the Tower of London was separate to that operating under Tyler's command at Mile End; only the ''Anonimalle Chronicle'' links them to Tyler. The timing of the late morning attack relies on the account of the ''Westminster Chronicle''.<ref name=Dunn2002P99/>|group="nb"}} The gates were open to receive Richard on his return and a crowd of around 400 rebels entered the fortress, encountering no resistance, possibly because the guards were terrified by them.<ref>{{harvnb|Sumption|2009|p=427}}; {{harvnb|Saul|1999|p=69}}</ref>

Once inside, the rebels began to hunt down their key targets, and found Archbishop Sudbury and Robert Hales in the chapel of the White Tower.<ref name=Sumptio2009PP427>{{harvnb|Sumption|2009|pp=427–428}}</ref> Along with William Appleton, John of Gaunt's physician, and John Legge, a royal sergeant, they were taken out to [[Tower Hill]] and beheaded.<ref name=Sumptio2009PP427/> Their heads were paraded around the city, before being affixed to [[London Bridge]].<ref>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|p=101}}</ref> The rebels found John of Gaunt's son, the future [[Henry IV of England|Henry IV]], and were about to execute him as well, when John Ferrour, one of the royal guards, successfully interceded on his behalf.<ref>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|p=101}}; {{harvnb|Mortimer|1981|p=18}}</ref> The rebels also discovered Lady Joan and [[Joan Holland, Duchess of Brittany|Joan Holland]], Richard's sister, in the castle but let them go unharmed after making fun of them.<ref>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|pp=99–100}}</ref> The castle was thoroughly looted of armour and royal paraphernalia.<ref name=Saul1999P69>{{harvnb|Saul|1999|p=69}}</ref>

In the aftermath of the attack, Richard did not return to the Tower but instead travelled from Mile End to the Great Wardrobe, one of his royal houses in [[Blackfriars, London|Blackfriars]], part of south-west London.<ref>{{harvnb|Mortimer|1981|p=18}}</ref> There he appointed the military commander [[Richard FitzAlan, 11th Earl of Arundel|Richard FitzAlan]], the [[Earl of Arundel]], to replace Sudbury as Chancellor, and began to make plans to regain an advantage over the rebels the following day.<ref>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|p=102}}; {{harvnb|Sumption|2009|p=428}}</ref> Many of the Essex rebels now began to disperse, content with the King's promises, leaving Tyler and the Kentish forces the most significant faction in London.<ref>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|p=97}}</ref> Tyler's men moved around the city that evening, seeking out and killing John of Gaunt's employees, foreigners and anyone associated with the legal system.<ref>{{harvnb|Sumption|2009|p=428}}.</ref>

====Smithfield====
[[File:DeathWatTylerFull.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|alt=Medieval painting|Late 14th-century depiction of [[William Walworth]] killing [[Wat Tyler]]; the King is represented twice, watching events unfold (left) and addressing the crowd (right). [[British Library]], London.]]

On 15 June the royal government and the remaining rebels, who were unsatisfied with the charters granted the previous day, agreed to meet at Smithfield, just outside the city walls.<ref>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|pp=103, 105}}</ref> London remained in confusion, with various bands of rebels roaming the city independently.<ref name=Saul1999P69/> Richard prayed at [[Westminster Abbey]], before setting out for the meeting in the late afternoon.<ref>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|pp=102–103}}</ref> The chroniclers' accounts of the encounter all vary on matters of detail, but agree on the broad sequence of events.<ref>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|p=103}}</ref> The King and his party, at least 200 strong and including [[man-at-arms|men-at-arms]], positioned themselves outside [[St Bartholomew-the-Great|St Bartholomew's Priory]] to the east of Smithfield, and the thousands of rebels massed along the western end.<ref>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|p=103}}; {{harvnb|Saul|1999|p=70}}</ref>{{#tag:ref|The primary sources for the events at Smithfield are the ''Anonimalle Chronicle'', Thomas Walsingham, Jean Froissart, Henry Knighton and the ''Westminster Chronicler''. There are minor differences in their accounts of events. Froissart suggests that Wat Tyler intended to capture the King and kill the royal party, and that Tyler initiated the engagement with Richard in order to carry out this plan. The ''Anonimalle Chronicle'' and Walsingham both go into some, if varying, detail as to the rebels' demands. Walsingham and Knighton wrote that Tyler, rather than being about to depart at the end of his discussions with Richard, appeared to be about to kill the King, triggering the royal response. Walsingham differs from the other chroniclers in giving a key role in the early part of the encounter to Sir John Newton.<ref>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|pp=103–106}}</ref>|group="nb"}}

Richard probably called Tyler forwards from the crowd to meet him, and Tyler greeted the King with what the royal party considered excessive familiarity, terming Richard his "brother" and promising him his friendship.<ref>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|p=104}}</ref> Richard queried why Tyler and the rebels had not yet left London following the signing of the charters the previous day, but this brought an angry rebuke from Tyler, who requested that a further charter be drawn up.<ref>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|pp=104–105}}</ref> The rebel leader rudely demanded refreshment and, once this had been provided, attempted to leave.<ref name=Dunn2002PP106>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|pp=106–107}}</ref>

An argument then broke out between Tyler and some of the royal servants.<ref name=Dunn2002PP106/> The Lord Mayor of London, [[William Walworth]], stepped forward to intervene, Tyler made some motion towards the King, and the royal soldiers leapt in.<ref>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|p=106}}</ref> Either Walworth or Richard ordered Tyler to be arrested, Tyler attempted to attack the Mayor, and Walworth responded by stabbing Tyler.<ref name=Dunn2002PP106/> Ralph Standish, a royal [[squire]], then repeatedly stabbed Tyler with his sword, mortally injuring him.<ref name=Dunn2002P107>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|p=107}}</ref>

The situation was now precarious and violence appeared likely as the rebels prepared to unleash a volley of arrows.<ref name=Dunn2002P107/> Richard rode forward towards the crowd and persuaded them to follow him away from Smithfield, to [[Clerkenwell|Clerkenwell Fields]], defusing the situation.<ref name=Dunn2002P107/> Walworth meanwhile began to regain control of the situation, backed by reinforcements from the city.<ref>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|pp=107–108}}</ref> Tyler's head was cut off and displayed on a pole and, with their leader dead and the royal government now backed by the London militia, the rebel movement began to collapse.<ref>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|p=107}}; {{harvnb|Jones|2010|pp=154–155}}</ref> Richard promptly knighted Walworth and his leading supporters for their services.<ref name=Dunn2002P107/>

===Wider revolt===

====Eastern England====
[[File:Abbeygate In Bury St Edmunds.jpg|thumb|upright|alt=Photograph|The Abbey Gate of [[Bury St Edmunds Abbey]], stormed by the rebels on 13 June]]
While the revolt was unfolding in London, John Wrawe led his force into Suffolk.<ref>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|p=122}}</ref> Wrawe had considerable influence over the development of the revolt across eastern England, where there may have been almost as many rebels as in the London revolt.<ref>{{harvnb|Powell|1896|pp=41, 60–61}}</ref> The authorities put up very little resistance to the revolt: the major nobles failed to organise defences, key fortifications fell easily to the rebels and the local militias were not mobilised.<ref>{{harvnb|Powell|1896|pp=57–58}}</ref> As in London and the south-east, this was in part due to the absence of key military leaders and the nature of English law, but any locally recruited men might also have proved unreliable in the face of a popular uprising.<ref>{{harvnb|Powell|1896|p=58}}; {{harvnb|Tuck|1987|pp=197–198}}</ref>

On 12 June, Wrawe attacked Sir Richard Lyons' property at Overhall, advancing on to [[Cavendish, Suffolk|Cavendish]] and [[Bury St Edmunds]] in west Suffolk the next day, gathering further support as they went.<ref>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|pp=122–123}}</ref> John Cambridge, the Prior of the wealthy [[Bury St Edmunds Abbey]], was disliked in the town, and Wrawe allied himself with the townspeople and stormed the abbey.<ref>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|pp=123–124}}</ref> The Prior escaped, but was found two days later and beheaded.<ref>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|p=124}}; {{harvnb|Powell|1896|p=19}}</ref> A small band of rebels marched north to [[Thetford]] to extort [[protection money]] from the town, and another group tracked down Sir [[John Cavendish]], the [[Lord Chief Justice of England and Wales|Chief Justice of the King's Bench]] and [[Chancellor (education)|Chancellor]] of the [[University of Cambridge]].<ref>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|p=124}}; {{harvnb|Powell|1896|p=12}}</ref> Cavendish was caught in [[Lakenheath]] and killed.<ref>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|pp=124–125}}</ref> John Battisford and Thomas Sampson independently led a revolt near [[Ipswich]] on 14 June.<ref name=Dunn2002P126>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|p=126}}</ref> They took the town without opposition and looted the properties of the [[archdeacon]] and local tax officials.<ref name=Dunn2002P126/> The violence spread out further, with attacks on many properties and the burning of the local court records.<ref>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|p=126}}; {{harvnb|Powell|1896|p=24}}.</ref> One official, Edmund Lakenheath, was forced to flee from the Suffolk coast by boat.<ref>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|p=126}}; {{harvnb|Powell|1896|p=21}}</ref>

Revolt began to stir in [[St Albans]] in [[Hertfordshire]] late on 13 June, when news broke of the events in London.<ref name=Dunn2002P113>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|p=113}}</ref> There had been long-running disagreements in St Albans between the town and the local [[St Albans Abbey|abbey]], which had extensive privileges in the region.<ref>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|pp=112–113}}</ref> On 14 June, protesters met with the Abbot, Thomas de la Mare, and demanded their freedom from the abbey.<ref name=Dunn2002P113/> A group of townsmen under the leadership of [[William Grindecobbe]] travelled to London, where they appealed to the King for the rights of the abbey to be abolished.<ref>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|p=114}}</ref> Wat Tyler, then still in control of the city, granted them authority in the meantime to take direct action against the abbey.<ref>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|pp=114–115}}</ref> Grindecobbe and the rebels returned to St Albans, where they found the Prior had already fled.<ref>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|p=115}}</ref> The rebels broke open the abbey prison, destroyed the fences marking out the abbey lands and burnt the abbey records in the town square.<ref>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|pp=115–117}}</ref> They then forced Thomas de la Mare to surrender the abbey's rights in a charter on 16 June.<ref>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|pp=117–118}}</ref> The revolt against the abbey spread out over the next few days, with abbey property and financial records being destroyed across the county.<ref>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|p=119}}</ref>

[[File:Back of the Old Court, Corpus Christi College, Cambridge.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Photograph|[[Corpus Christi College, Cambridge|Corpus Christi College]]'s Old Court, attacked by the rebels on 15 June]]
On 15 June, a revolt broke out in [[Cambridgeshire]], led by elements of Wrawe's Suffolk rebellion and some local men, such as John Greyston, who had been involved in the events in London and had returned to his home county to spread the revolt, and Geoffrey Cobbe and John Hanchach, members of the local gentry.<ref name=Dunn2002P127>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|p=127}}</ref> The University of Cambridge, staffed by priests and enjoying special royal privileges, was widely hated by the other inhabitants of the town.<ref name=Dunn2002P127/> A revolt backed by the Mayor of Cambridge broke out with the university as its main target.<ref name=Dunn2002P127/> The rebels ransacked [[Corpus Christi College, Cambridge|Corpus Christi College]], which had connections to John of Gaunt, and the [[Church of St Mary the Great, Cambridge|University's church]], and attempted to execute the university [[bedel]], who escaped.<ref>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|p=128}}</ref> The university's library and archives were burnt in the centre of the town, with one Margery Starre leading the mob in a dance to the rallying cry ''[["Away with the learning of clerks, away with it!"]]'' while the documents burned.<ref>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|pp=128–129}}</ref> The next day, the university was forced to negotiate a new charter, giving up its royal privileges.<ref>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|p=129}}</ref> Unrest then spread north from Cambridge toward [[Ely, Cambridgeshire|Ely]], where the prison was opened and the local Justice of the Peace executed.<ref>{{harvnb|Powell|1896|pp=45–49}}</ref>

In Norfolk, the revolt was led by Geoffrey Litster, a weaver, and Sir Roger Bacon, a local lord with ties to the Suffolk rebels.<ref>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|p=130}}; {{harvnb|Powell|1896|p=26}}</ref> Litster began sending out messengers across the county in a call to arms on 14 June, and isolated outbreaks of violence occurred.<ref>{{harvnb|Powell|1896|pp=27–28}}</ref> The rebels assembled on 17 June outside [[Norwich]] and killed Sir Robert Salle, who was in charge of the city defences and had attempted to negotiate a settlement.<ref name=Dunn2002Powell1896P29>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|p=130}}; {{harvnb|Powell|1896|p=29}}</ref> The people of the town then opened the gates to let the rebels in.<ref name=Dunn2002Powell1896P29/> They began looting buildings and killed Reginald Eccles, a local official.<ref>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|pp=130–131}}</ref> [[William de Ufford, 2nd Earl of Suffolk|William de Ufford]], the [[Earl of Suffolk]] fled his estates and travelled in disguise to London.<ref name=Dunn2002P131>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|p=131}}</ref> The other leading members of the local gentry were captured and forced to play out the roles of a royal household, working for Litster.<ref name=Dunn2002P131/> Violence spread out across the county, as prisons were opened, Flemish immigrants killed, court records burned, and property looted and destroyed.<ref>{{harvnb|Powell|1896|pp=31–36}}</ref>

====Northern and western England====
[[File:John Gower world Vox Clamantis.jpg|thumb|upright|alt=Medieval painting|An illustration from ''[[Vox Clamantis]]'' by [[John Gower]], a poem which described and condemned the Revolt, in [[Glasgow University Library]]]]
Revolts also occurred across the rest of England, particularly in the cities of the north, traditionally centres of political unrest.<ref>{{harvnb|Dobson|1987|pp=112–114}}</ref> In the town of [[Beverley]], violence broke out between the richer mercantile elite and the poorer townspeople during May.<ref>{{harvnb|Dobson|1987|p=124}}</ref> By the end of the month the rebels had taken power and replaced the former town administration with their own.<ref>{{harvnb|Dobson|1987|pp=126–127}}</ref> The rebels attempted to enlist the support of [[Alexander Neville]], the [[Archbishop of York]], and in June forced the former town government to agree to arbitration through Neville.<ref>{{harvnb|Dobson|1987|pp=127–128}}</ref> Peace was restored in June 1382 but tensions continued to simmer for many years.<ref>{{harvnb|Dobson|1987|pp=128–129}}</ref>

Word of the troubles in the south-east spread north, slowed by the poor communication links of medieval England.<ref name=Dunn2002P121>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|p=121}}</ref> In [[Leicester]], where John of Gaunt had a substantial [[Leicester Castle|castle]], warnings arrived of a force of rebels advancing on the city from [[Lincolnshire]], who were intent on destroying the castle and its contents.<ref name=Dunn2002P121/> The mayor and the town mobilised their defences, including a local militia, but the rebels never arrived.<ref>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|pp=121–123}}</ref> John of Gaunt was in [[Berwick-upon-Tweed|Berwick]] when word reached him on 17 June of the revolt.<ref>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|p=143}}</ref> Not knowing that Wat Tyler had by now been killed, John of Gaunt placed his castles in Yorkshire and Wales on alert.<ref name=Dunn2002PP143>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|pp=143–144}}</ref> Fresh rumours, many of them incorrect, continued to arrive in Berwick, suggesting widespread rebellions across the west and east of England and the looting of the ducal household in Leicester; rebel units were even said to be hunting for the Duke himself.<ref name=Dunn2002PP143/> Gaunt began to march to [[Bamburgh Castle]], but then changed course and diverted north into Scotland, only returning south once the fighting was over.<ref>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|p=144}}</ref>

News of the initial events in London also reached York around 17 June, and attacks at once broke out on the properties of the Dominican friars, the Franciscan friaries and other religious institutions.<ref>{{harvnb|Dobson|1987|p=121}}</ref> Violence continued over the coming weeks, and on 1 July a group of armed men, under the command of John de Gisbourne, forced their way into the city and attempted to seize control.<ref name=Dobson1987P122>{{harvnb|Dobson|1987|pp=122–123}}</ref> The mayor, Simon de Quixlay, gradually began to reclaim authority, but order was not properly restored until 1382.<ref name=Dobson1987P122/> The news of the southern revolt reached Scarborough where riots broke out against the ruling elite on 23 June, with the rebels dressed in white hoods with a red tail at the back.<ref>{{harvnb|Dobson|1987|pp=130–136}}</ref> Members of the local government were deposed from office, and one tax collector was nearly lynched.<ref>{{harvnb|Dobson|1987|pp=136–137}}</ref> By 1382 the elite had re-established power.<ref>{{harvnb|Dobson|1987|p=138}}</ref>

In the [[Somerset]] town of Bridgwater, revolt broke out on 19 June, led by Thomas Ingleby and Adam Brugge.<ref>{{harvnb|Dilks|1927|p=64}}</ref> The crowds attacked the local [[Augustinians|Augustine]] house and forced their master to give up his local privileges and pay a ransom.<ref>{{harvnb|Dilks|1927|p=65}}</ref> The rebels then turned on the properties of John Sydenham, a local merchant and official, looting his manor and burning paperwork, before executing Walter Baron, a local man.<ref>{{harvnb|Dilks|1927|pp=65–66}}</ref> The [[Ilchester]] prison was stormed, and one unpopular prisoner executed.<ref>{{harvnb|Dilks|1927|p=66}}</ref>

===Suppression===
[[File:Henry le Despenser 2.jpg|thumb|upright|alt=Photograph|A 14th-century carving of [[Henry Despenser]], the victor of the [[Battle of North Walsham]] in Norfolk]]
The royal suppression of the revolt began shortly after the death of Wat Tyler on 15 June.<ref>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|p=135}}</ref> Sir [[Robert Knolles]], Sir [[Nicholas Brembre]] and Sir Robert Launde were appointed to restore control in the capital.<ref>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|pp=135–136}}</ref> A summons was put out for soldiers, probably around 4,000 men were mustered in London, and expeditions to the other troubled parts of the country soon followed.<ref>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|pp=135–136}}; {{harvnb|Tuck|1987|p=200}}</ref>

The revolt in East Anglia was independently suppressed by [[Henry Despenser]], the [[Bishop of Norwich]].<ref name=Dunn2002P131/> Henry was in [[Stamford, Lincolnshire|Stamford]] in Lincolnshire when the revolt broke out, and when he found out about it he marched south with eight men-at-arms and a small force of archers, gathering more forces as he went.<ref>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|p=131}}; {{harvnb|Oman|1906|pp=130–132}}</ref> He marched first to [[Peterborough]], where he routed the local rebels and executed any he could capture, including some who had taken shelter in the local abbey.<ref>{{harvnb|Jones|2010|pp=172–173}}</ref> He then headed south-east via [[Huntingdon]] and Ely, reached Cambridge on 19 June, and then headed further into the rebel-controlled areas of Norfolk.<ref>{{harvnb|Jones|2010|pp=178–182}}</ref> Henry reclaimed Norwich on 24 June, before heading out with a company of men to track down the rebel leader, Geoffrey Litster.<ref>{{harvnb|Jones|2010|p=194}}</ref> The two forces met at the [[Battle of North Walsham]] on 25 or 26 June; the Bishop's forces triumphed and Litster was captured and executed.<ref>{{harvnb|Jones|2010|pp=194–195}}</ref> Henry's quick action was essential to the suppression of the revolt in East Anglia, but he was very unusual in taking matters into his own hands in this way, and his execution of the rebels without royal sanction was illegal.<ref>{{harvnb|Tuck|1987|pp=197, 201}}; {{harvnb|Powell|1896|p=61}}</ref>

On 17 June, the King dispatched his half-brother [[Thomas Holland, 2nd Earl of Kent|Thomas Holland]] and Sir Thomas Trivet to Kent with a small force to restore order.<ref name=Dunn2002P136>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|p=136}}</ref> They held courts at Maidstone and Rochester.<ref name=Dunn2002P136/> William de Ufford, the Earl of Suffolk, returned to his county on 23 June, accompanied by a force of 500 men.<ref>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|pp=126, 136}}</ref> He quickly subdued the area and was soon holding court in [[Mildenhall, Suffolk|Mildenhall]], where many of the accused were sentenced to death.<ref>{{harvnb|Powell|1896|p=25}}; {{harvnb|Dunn|2002|p=136}}</ref> He moved on into Norfolk on 6 July, holding court in Norwich, [[Great Yarmouth]] and [[Hacking, Norfolk|Hacking]].<ref name=Dunn2002P136/> Hugh, Lord la Zouche, led the legal proceedings against the rebels in Cambridgeshire.<ref name=Dunn2002P136/> In St Albans, the Abbot arrested William Grindecobbe and his main supporters.<ref>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|pp=140–141}}</ref>

On 20 June, the King's uncle, [[Thomas of Woodstock, 1st Duke of Gloucester|Thomas of Woodstock]], and [[Robert Tresilian]], the replacement Chief Justice, were given special commissions across the whole of England.<ref name=Dunn2002P136/> Thomas oversaw court cases in Essex, backed up by a substantial military force as resistance was continuing and the county was still in a state of unrest.<ref>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|pp=136–137}}</ref> Richard himself visited Essex, where he met with a rebel delegation seeking confirmation of the grants the King had given at Mile End.<ref name=Saul1999P74>{{harvnb|Saul|1999|p=74}}</ref> Richard rejected them, allegedly telling them that "rustics you were and rustics you are still. You will remain in bondage, not as before, but incomparably harsher".<ref name=Saul1999P74/>{{#tag:ref|The "rustics" quotation from Richard II is from the chronicler Thomas Walsingham, and should be treated with caution. Historian Dan Jones suspects that although Richard no doubt despised the rebels, the language itself may have been largely invented by Walsingham.<ref>{{harvnb|Jones|2010|p=196}}; {{harvnb|Saul|1999|p=74}}; {{harvnb|Strohm|2008|p=198}}</ref>|group="nb"}} Tresilian soon joined Thomas, and carried out 31 executions in Chelmsford, then travelled to St Albans in July for further court trials, which appear to have utilised dubious techniques to ensure convictions.<ref>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|pp=137, 140–141}}</ref> Thomas went on to Gloucester with 200 soldiers to suppress the unrest there.<ref name=Dunn2002P137>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|p=137}}</ref> [[Henry Percy, 1st Earl of Northumberland|Henry Percy]], the [[Earl of Northumberland]], was tasked to restore order to Yorkshire.<ref name=Dunn2002P137/>

A wide range of laws were invoked in the process of the suppression, from general [[treason]] to charges of book burning or demolishing houses, a process complicated by the relatively narrow definition of treason at the time.<ref>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|pp=137–138}}; {{harvnb|Federico|2001|p=169}}</ref> The use of informants and denunciations became common, causing fear to spread across the country; by November at least 1,500 people had been executed or killed in battle.<ref>{{harvnb|Jones|2010|pp=200–201}}; {{harvnb|Prescott|2004}}, cited {{harvnb|Jones|2010|p=201}}</ref> Many of those who had lost property in the revolt attempted to seek legal compensation, and John of Gaunt made particular efforts to track down those responsible for destroying his Savoy Palace.<ref name=Dunn2002P138>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|p=138}}; {{harvnb|Rubin|2006|p=127}}</ref> Most had only limited success, as the defendants were rarely willing to attend court.<ref name=Dunn2002P138/> The last of these cases was resolved in 1387.<ref name=Dunn2002P138/>

The rebel leaders were quickly rounded up.<ref>{{harvnb|Jones|2010|p=20}}</ref> A rebel leader by the name of Jack Straw was captured in London and executed.<ref name=Dunn2002P139>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|p=139}}</ref>{{#tag:ref|As noted above, questions exist over Jack Straw's identity. The chronicler [[Thomas Walsingham]] attributes a long confession to the Jack Straw executed in London, but the reliability of this is questioned by historians: Rodney Hilton refers to it as "somewhat dubious", while Alastair Dunn considers it to be essentially a fabrication. There are no reliable details of the trial or execution.<ref>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|pp=71, 139}};{{harvnb|Hilton|1995|p=219}}</ref>|group="nb"}} John Ball was caught in Coventry, tried in St Albans, and executed on 15 July.<ref>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|pp=137, 139–140}}</ref> Grindecobbe was also tried and executed in St Albans.<ref name=Dunn2002P139/> John Wrawe was tried in London; he probably [[turn state's evidence|gave evidence]] against 24 of his colleagues in the hope of a pardon, but was sentenced to be executed by being [[hanged, drawn and quartered]] on 6 May 1382.<ref>{{harvnb|Powell|1896|p=25}}; {{harvnb|Dunn|2002|p=139}}</ref> Sir Roger Bacon was probably arrested before the final battle in Norfolk, and was tried and imprisoned in the Tower of London before finally being pardoned by the Crown.<ref>{{harvnb|Powell|1896|p=39}}</ref> As of September 1381, Thomas Ingleby of Bridgwater had successfully evaded the authorities.<ref>{{harvnb|Dilks|1927|p=67}}</ref>

Although women such as Johanna Ferrour played a prominent role in the revolt, no evidence has been found of women being executed or punished as harshly as their male counterparts.<ref name=BBC>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-18373149|title=Peasants' Revolt: The time when women took up arms|author=Melissa Hogenboom|date=14 June 2012|work=[[BBC News Magazine]]|access-date=14 June 2012}}</ref>

===Aftermath===
[[File:Richard II King of England.jpg|thumb|upright=1.4|alt=Medieval painting|Late 14th-century portrait of [[Richard II of England|Richard II]], now in [[Westminster Abbey]]]]

The royal government and Parliament began to re-establish the normal processes of government after the revolt; as the historian [[Michael Postan]] describes, the uprising was in many ways a "passing episode".<ref>{{harvnb|Postan|1975|p=172}};{{harvnb|Tuck|1987|p=212}}</ref> On 30 June, the King ordered England's serfs to return to their previous conditions of service, and on 2 July the royal charters signed under duress during the rising were formally revoked.<ref name=Dunn2002P136/> Parliament met in November to discuss the events of the year and how best to respond to their challenges.<ref>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|pp=141–142}}</ref> The revolt was blamed on the misconduct of royal officials, who, it was argued, had been excessively greedy and overbearing.<ref>{{harvnb|Tuck|1987|pp=205–206}}</ref> The Commons stood behind the existing labour laws, but requested changes in the royal council, which Richard granted.<ref>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|p=142}}</ref> Richard also granted general pardons to those who had executed rebels without due process, to all men who had remained loyal, and to all those who had rebelled – with the exception of the men of Bury St Edmunds, any men who had been involved in the killing of the King's advisers, and those who were still on the run from prison.<ref>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|pp=142–143}}</ref>

Despite the violence of the suppression, the government and local lords were relatively circumspect in restoring order after the revolt, and continued to be worried about fresh revolts for several decades.<ref>{{harvnb|Hilton|1995|p=231}}; {{harvnb|Tuck|1987|p=210}}</ref> Few lords took revenge on their peasants except through the legal processes of the courts.<ref>{{harvnb|Tuck|1987|p=201}}</ref> Low-level unrest continued for several more years.<ref>{{harvnb|Rubin|2006|p=127}}</ref> In September 1382 there was trouble in Norfolk, involving an apparent plot against the Bishop of Norwich, and in March the following year there was an investigation into a plot to kill the [[sheriff of Devon]].<ref>{{harvnb|Eiden|1999|p=370}}; {{harvnb|Rubin|2006|p=127}}</ref> When negotiating rents with their landlords, peasants alluded to the memory of the revolt and the threat of violence.<ref name="Dyer 2009 291">{{harvnb|Dyer|2009|p=291}}</ref>

There were no further attempts by Parliament to impose a poll tax or to reform England's fiscal system.<ref>{{harvnb|Tuck|1987|pp=203–205}}</ref> The Commons instead concluded at the end of 1381 that the military effort on the Continent should be "carefully but substantially reduced".<ref>{{harvnb|Sumption|2009|p=430}}</ref> Unable to raise fresh taxes, the government had to curtail its foreign policy and military expeditions and began to examine the options for peace.<ref>{{harvnb|Tuck|1987|pp=208–209}}; {{harvnb|Sumption|2009|p=430}}</ref> The institution of [[serfdom]] declined after 1381, but primarily for economic rather than political reasons.<ref>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|p=147}}</ref> Rural wages continued to increase, and lords increasingly sold their serfs' freedom in exchange for cash, or converted traditional forms of tenure to new [[leasehold]] arrangements.<ref>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|p=147}}; {{harvnb|Hilton|1995|p=232}}</ref> During the 15th century serfdom vanished in England.<ref name="Dyer 2009 291"/>

==Rebels==
[[File:Reeve and Serfs.jpg|thumb|upright=1.7|alt=Medieval painting|14th-century rural scene of a [[Reeve (England)|reeve]] directing [[serf]]s, from the [[Queen Mary Psalter]]. [[British Library]], London]]
Chroniclers primarily described the rebels as rural serfs, using broad, derogatory [[Latin]] terms such as ''serviles rustici'', ''servile genus'' and ''rusticitas''.<ref name=Hilton1995Crane1992P202>{{harvnb|Hilton|1995|pp=176–177}}; {{harvnb|Crane|1992|p=202}}</ref> Some chroniclers, including Knighton, also noted the presence of runaway apprentices, artisans and others, sometimes terming them the "lesser commons".<ref name=Hilton1995Crane1992P202/> The evidence from the court records following the revolt, albeit biased in various ways, similarly shows the involvement of a much broader community, and the earlier perception that the rebels were only constituted of unfree serfs is now rejected.<ref>{{harvnb|Postan|1975|p=171}}; {{harvnb|Hilton|1995|pp=178, 180}}; {{harvnb|Strohm|2008|p=197}}</ref>{{#tag:ref|Historian Sylvia Federico notes the dangers in treating the pardons lists simplistically, given the tendency for some innocent individuals to acquire pardons for additional security, and the tendency for cases to be brought against individuals for local, non-political reasons.<ref>{{harvnb|Federico|2001|pp=162–163}}</ref>|group="nb"}}

The rural rebels came from a wide range of backgrounds, but typically they were, as the historian [[Christopher Dyer]] describes, "people well below the ranks of the gentry, but who mainly held some land and goods", and not the very poorest in society, who formed a minority of the rebel movement.<ref>{{harvnb|Dyer|2000|p=196}}; {{harvnb|Hilton|1995|p=184}}; {{harvnb|Strohm|2008|p=197}}</ref> Many had held positions of authority in local village governance, and these seem to have provided leadership to the revolt.<ref>{{harvnb|Dyer|2000|pp=197–198}}</ref> Some were artisans, including, as the historian Rodney Hilton lists, "carpenters, sawyers, masons, cobblers, tailors, weavers, fullers, glovers, hosiers, skinners, bakers, butchers, innkeepers, cooks and a lime-burner".<ref>{{harvnb|Hilton|1995|p=179}}</ref> They were predominantly male, but with some women in their ranks.<ref>{{harvnb|Federico|2001|p=165}}</ref> The rebels were typically illiterate; only between 5 and 15 per cent of England could read during this period.<ref>{{harvnb|Crane|1992|p=202}}</ref> They also came from a broad range of local communities, including at least 330 south-eastern villages.<ref>{{harvnb|Dyer|2000|p=192}}</ref>

Many of the rebels had urban backgrounds, and the majority of those involved in the events of London were probably local townsfolk rather than peasants.<ref>{{harvnb|Rubin|2006|p=121}}; {{harvnb|Strohm|2008|pp=197–198}}</ref> In some cases, the townsfolk who joined the revolt were the urban poor, attempting to gain at the expense of the local elites.<ref>{{harvnb|Butcher|1987|pp=84–85}}</ref> In London, for example, the urban rebels appear to have largely been the poor and unskilled.<ref name="Hilton 1995 195"/> Other urban rebels were part of the elite, such as at York where the protesters were typically prosperous members of the local community, while in some instances, townsfolk allied themselves with the rural population, as at Bury St Edmunds.<ref>{{harvnb|Butcher|1987|p=85}}; {{harvnb|Strohm|2008|p=197}}</ref> In other cases, such as Canterbury, the influx of population from the villages following the Black Death made any distinction between urban and rural less meaningful.<ref>{{harvnb|Butcher|1987|p=85}}</ref> With the Peasants’ Revolt marking the revolution of the freedom fight, labour had become so expensive that the feudal system was ultimately coming to an end.<ref name="auto">{{Cite web|title=Interpretations of the Peasants' Revolt – KS3 History Revision|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/z2c2pv4/revision/5|access-date=2021-12-10|website=BBC Bitesize|language=en-GB}}</ref> The rebels of the Peasants’ Revolt were represented by various writers since they did not represent themselves in historical records.{{sfn|Crane|1992}} The distortion of written records implied that these rebels were illiterate, or otherwise incoherent.{{sfn|Crane|1992}} Some of these distortions made by countless authors were also interpretative and favored their own positions, making the job of historians more difficult as they try to uncover a more truthful representation of the rebels.{{sfn|Crane|1992}} Author and medievalist Steven Justice exemplifies that the rebels were, in fact, capable of speech and language at its most developed.<ref name="Justice">{{Cite web|title=Protest, Complaint, and Uprising in the "Miller's Tale."|url=https://chaucer.lib.utsa.edu/items/show/275243|access-date=2021-12-10|website=chaucer.lib.utsa.edu}}</ref> Examples of this included cultural forms of expression such as rituals, performances, and literary texts.<ref name="Justice" />

The vast majority of those involved in the revolt of 1381 were not represented in Parliament and were excluded from its decision-making.<ref>{{harvnb|Rubin|2006|p=121}}</ref> In a few cases the rebels were led or joined by relatively prosperous members of the gentry, such as Sir Roger Bacon in Norfolk.<ref>{{harvnb|Hilton|1995|p=184}}</ref> Some of them later claimed to have been forced to join the revolt by the rebels.<ref>{{harvnb|Tuck|1987|p=196}}</ref> Clergy also formed part of the revolt; as well as the more prominent leaders, such as John Ball or John Wrawe, nearly 20 are mentioned in the records of the revolt in the south-east.<ref>{{harvnb|Hilton|1995|pp=207–208}}</ref> Some were pursuing local grievances, some were disadvantaged and suffering relative poverty, and others appear to have been motivated by strong radical beliefs.<ref>{{harvnb|Hilton|1995|pp=208–210}}</ref>

Many of those involved in the revolt used pseudonyms, particularly in the letters sent around the country to encourage support and fresh uprisings.<ref>{{harvnb|Jones|2010|p=169}}; {{harvnb|Hilton|1995|pp=214–215}}</ref> They were used both to avoid incriminating particular individuals and to allude to popular values and stories.<ref>{{harvnb|Jones|2010|p=169}}</ref> One popular assumed name was Piers Plowman, taken from the main character in [[William Langland]]'s [[Piers Plowman|poem]].<ref>{{harvnb|Justice|1994|p=223}}</ref> Jack was also a widely used rebel pseudonym, and historians Steven Justice and Carter Revard suggest that this may have been because it resonated with the Jacques of the French [[Jacquerie]] revolt several decades earlier.<ref>{{harvnb|Justice|1994|p=222}}</ref>

==Legacy==

===Historiography===
[[File:Portrait of William Stubbs by Hubert von Herkomer.jpeg|thumb|upright=0.8|alt=Portrait painting of an older grey-haired man with grey whiskers clad in black and sitting in a chair|Historian [[William Stubbs]], who considered the revolt "one of the most portentous events in the whole of our history", painted by [[Hubert von Herkomer]]<ref name=Hilton1987P2>{{harvnb|Hilton|1987|p=2}}</ref>]]
Contemporary chroniclers of the events in the revolt have formed an important source for historians. The chroniclers were biased against the rebel cause and typically portrayed the rebels, in the words of the historian Susan Crane, as "beasts, monstrosities or misguided fools".<ref>{{harvnb|Crane|1992|p=208}}; {{harvnb|Strohm|2008|pp=198–199}}</ref> London chroniclers were also unwilling to admit the role of ordinary Londoners in the revolt, preferring to place the blame entirely on rural peasants from the south-east.<ref name=Strohm2008P201>{{harvnb|Strohm|2008|p=201}}</ref> Among the key accounts was the anonymous ''[[The Anonimalle Chronicle|Anonimalle Chronicle]]'', whose author appears to have been part of the royal court and an eye-witness to many of the events in London.<ref>{{harvnb|Jones|2010|p=215}}</ref> The chronicler [[Thomas Walsingham]] was present for much of the revolt, but focused his account on the terror of the social unrest and was extremely biased against the rebels.<ref>{{harvnb|Dunn|2002|pp=99–100}}; {{harvnb|Jones|2010|p=215}}</ref> The events were recorded in France by [[Jean Froissart]], the author of the ''[[Froissart's Chronicles|Chronicles]]''.<ref>{{harvnb|Reynaud|1897|p=94}}</ref> He had well-placed sources close to the revolt, but was inclined to elaborate the known facts with colourful stories.<ref>{{harvnb|Jones|2010|pp=215–216}}</ref> No sympathetic accounts of the rebels survive.<ref name="Strohm 2008 203"/>

For four centuries, chroniclers and historians of the revolt were overwhelmingly negative, but attitudes started to change in the 18th century as serfdom was long rejected and in the aftermath of the radicalism associated with the [[French Revolution]].<ref>{{harvnb|Crossley|2022}}</ref> At the end of the 19th century, there was a surge in historical interest in the Peasants' Revolt, spurred by the contemporary growth of the [[Labour movement|labour]] and [[Socialism|socialist]] movements.<ref>{{harvnb|Dyer|2003|p=x}}; {{harvnb|Crossley|2022|pp=241–267}}</ref> Work by [[Charles Oman]], Edgar Powell, André Réville and [[G. M. Trevelyan]] established the course of the revolt.<ref>{{harvnb|Dyer|2003|p=x}}; {{harvnb|Powell|1896}}; {{harvnb|Oman|1906}}; {{harvnb|Réville |1898}}; {{harvnb|Trevelyan|1899}}</ref> By 1907, the accounts of the chroniclers were all widely available in print and the main public records concerning the events had been identified.<ref>{{harvnb|Dyer|2000|p=191}}</ref> Réville began to use the legal indictments that had been used against suspected rebels after the revolt as a fresh source of historical information, and over the next century extensive research was carried out into the local economic and social history of the revolt, using scattered local sources across south-east England.<ref>{{harvnb|Dyer|2000|pp=191–192}}; {{harvnb|Hilton|1987|p=5}}</ref>

Interpretations of the revolt have changed over the years. Historians of the 17th century, such as John Smyth, established the idea that the revolt had marked the end of unfree labour and serfdom in England.<ref name=Hilton1987P2/> Historians of the 19th century, such as [[William Stubbs]] and [[Thorold Rogers]], reinforced this conclusion, Stubbs describing it as "one of the most portentous events in the whole of our history".<ref name=Hilton1987P2/> In the 20th century, this interpretation was increasingly challenged by historians such as [[May McKisack]], Michael Postan and Richard Dobson, who revised the impact of the revolt on further political and economic events in England.<ref>{{harvnb|Hilton|1987|pp=2–3}}</ref> Mid-20th century [[Marxist historiography|Marxist]] historians were both interested in, and generally sympathetic to, the rebel cause, a trend culminating in Hilton's 1973 account of the uprising, set against the wider context of [[Popular revolts in late medieval Europe|peasant revolts across Europe during the period]].<ref>{{harvnb|Strohm|2008|p=203}}; {{harvnb|Hilton|1995}}; {{harvnb|Jones|2010|p=217}}; {{harvnb|Dyer|2003|pp=xii–xiii}}; {{harvnb|Crossley|2022|pp=345–401}}</ref> The Peasants' Revolt has received more academic attention than any other medieval revolt, and this research has been interdisciplinary, involving historians, literary scholars and international collaboration.<ref>{{harvnb|Cohn|2013|pp=3–4}}</ref>

A large slate memorial to "The Great Rising" was commissioned by Matthew Bell and carved by Emily Hoffnung. It was unveiled by the film director [[Ken Loach]] in [[Smithfield, London|Smithfield]] on 15 July 2015.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2015-07-17|title=Peasants' Revolt Plaque Unveiled In Smithfield|url=https://londonist.com/2015/07/peasants-revolt-plaque-unveiled-in-smithfield|access-date=18 October 2020|website=Londonist|language=en}}</ref>

===Popular culture===
[[File:William.Morris.John.Ball.trimmed.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|alt=Engraved illustration|Illustration from title page to [[William Morris]]'s ''[[A Dream of John Ball]]'' (1888), by [[Edward Burne-Jones]]]]

The Peasants' Revolt became a popular literary subject.<ref>{{harvnb|Jones|2010|p=208}}; {{harvnb|Crossley|2022|}}</ref> The poet [[John Gower]], who had close ties to officials involved in the suppression of the revolt, amended his famous poem ''[[Vox Clamantis]]'' after the revolt, inserting a section condemning the rebels and likening them to wild animals.<ref>{{harvnb|Fisher|1964|p=102}}; {{harvnb|Galloway|2010|pp=298–299}}; {{harvnb|Saul|2010|p=87}}; {{harvnb|Justice|1994|p=208}}; {{harvnb|Crossley|2022|p=47}}</ref> [[Geoffrey Chaucer]], who lived in Aldgate and may have been in London during the revolt, used the rebel killing of Flemings as a metaphor for wider disorder in ''[[The Nun's Priest's Tale]]'' part of ''[[The Canterbury Tales]]'', parodying Gower's poem.<ref>{{harvnb|Justice|1994|pp=207–208}}; {{harvnb|Crow|Leland|2008|p=xviii}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Scales |first1=Len |date=15 June 2007 |title=Bread, Cheese and Genocide: Imagining the Destruction of Peoples in Medieval Western Europe |url=https://durham-repository.worktribe.com/preview/1537208/4440.pdf |journal=History |volume=92 |issue=307 |pages=284–300 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-229X.2007.00396.x |access-date=22 April 2022}}</ref> Although the Peasant's Revolt was only ever mentioned sparingly in Geoffrey Chaucer's ''The Canterbury Tales,'' the Peasant's Revolt was one of the many historical incidents that occurred in Chaucer's life prior to his popular works.<ref name="auto"/> With other events such as The Black Death, the devastation that followed after the plague incited the peasants that survived to seek a better quality of life.<ref name="Justice" /> Evidence of the impression that the revolt made on Chaucer can be seen in the Miller's Prologue of ''The Canterbury Tales.'' Chaucer portrays the Miller as someone who is not entirely satisfied with the typical idea of what a peasant is and how they should live, and he uses metaphors in order to make this implication in the Miller's Prologue.<ref name="Justice" /> The notion that the Miller is able to tell a tale that can match, or is even better than one of the highest-ranking Knights in the pilgrimage shows the rebellion and persistence in bettering one's status, which is similar to what was seen in the attitudes of the peasants in their revolt.<ref name="Justice" /> Chaucer otherwise made no reference to the revolt in his work, possibly because as he was a client of the King it would have been politically unwise to discuss it.<ref>{{harvnb|Hussey|1971|p=6}}</ref> William Langland, the author of the poem ''Piers Plowman'', which had been widely used by the rebels, made various changes to its text after the revolt in order to distance himself from their cause.<ref>{{harvnb|Justice|1994|pp=233–237}}; {{harvnb|Crane|1992|pp=211–213}}</ref>

The revolt formed the basis for the late 16th-century play, ''[[The Life and Death of Jack Straw]]'', possibly written by [[George Peele]] and probably originally designed for production in the city's guild pageants.<ref>{{harvnb|Ribner|2005|pp=71–72}}</ref> It portrays Jack Straw as a tragic figure, being led into wrongful rebellion by John Ball, making clear political links between the instability of late-Elizabethan England and the 14th century.<ref>{{harvnb|Ribner|2005|pp=71–74}}</ref> The story of the revolt was used in pamphlets during the [[English Civil War]] of the 17th century, and formed part of [[John Cleveland]]'s early history of the war.<ref>{{harvnb|Jones|2010|p=210}}; {{harvnb|Matheson|1998|p=135}}; {{harvnb|Crossley|2022|pp=89–100}}</ref> It was deployed as a cautionary account in political speeches during the 18th century, and a [[chapbook]] entitled ''The History of Wat Tyler and Jack Strawe'' proved popular during the [[Jacobite risings]] and [[American War of Independence]].<ref>{{harvnb|Jones|2010|p=210}}; {{harvnb|Matheson|1998|pp=135–136}}; {{harvnb|Crossley|2022|pp=131–136}}</ref> The historian James Crossley argues that after the [[French Revolution]], the Peasants' Revolt was seen more positively, especially among radicals and revolutionaries.<ref>{{harvnb|Crossley|2022|}}</ref> [[Thomas Paine]] and [[Edmund Burke]] argued over the lessons to be drawn from the revolt, Paine expressing sympathy for the rebels and Burke condemning the violence.<ref>{{harvnb|Matheson|1998|pp=138–139}};{{harvnb|Crossley|2022|pp=155–161}}</ref> The [[Romantic poetry|Romantic poet]] [[Robert Southey]] based his 1794 play ''Wat Tyler'' on the events, taking a radical and pro-rebel perspective.<ref>{{harvnb|Matheson|1998|p=143}}; {{harvnb|Crossley|2022|pp=161–183}}</ref>

As the historian Michael Postan describes, the revolt became famous "as a landmark in social development and [as] a typical instance of working-class revolt against oppression", and was widely used in 19th and 20th century [[socialist]] literature.<ref name=Ortenberg1981P79>{{harvnb|Ortenberg|1981|p=79}}; {{harvnb|Postan|1975|p=171}}; {{harvnb|Crossley|2022|pp=183–429}}</ref> [[William Morris]] built on Chaucer in his novel ''[[A Dream of John Ball]]'', published in 1888, creating a narrator who was openly sympathetic to the peasant cause, albeit a 19th-century persona taken back to the 14th century by a dream.<ref>{{harvnb|Ellis|2000|pp=13–14}}</ref> The story ends with a prophecy that socialist ideals will one day be successful.<ref>{{harvnb|Matheson|1998|p=144}}; {{harvnb|Crossley|2022|pp=268–297}}</ref> In turn, this representation of the revolt influenced Morris's [[utopian socialism|utopian socialist]] ''[[News from Nowhere]]''.<ref>{{harvnb|Ousby|1996|p=120}}</ref> [[Florence Converse]] used the revolt in her novel ''Long Will'' in 1903.<ref name=Ortenberg1981P79/> Later 20th century socialists continued to draw parallels between the revolt and contemporary political struggles, including during the arguments over the introduction of the [[Poll tax (Great Britain)|Community Charge]] in the United Kingdom during the 1980s.<ref name=Ortenberg1981P79/>

[[Conspiracy theory|Conspiracy theorists]], including writer [[John J. Robinson|John Robinson]], have attempted to explain alleged flaws in mainstream historical accounts of the events of 1381, such as the speed with which the rebellion was coordinated.<ref>{{harvnb|Robinson|2009|pp=51–59}}</ref> Theories include that the revolt was led by a secret, [[occult]] organisation called "the Great Society", said to be an offshoot of the order of the [[Knights Templar]] destroyed in 1312, or that the fraternity of the [[Freemasons]] was covertly involved in organising the revolt.<ref>{{harvnb|Robinson|2009|pp=51–59}}; {{harvnb|Silvercloud|2007|p=287}}; {{harvnb|Picknett|Prince|2007|p=164}}</ref>{{#tag:ref|The term "the Great Society" emerges from indictments against the rebels, in which references were made the ''magne societatis''. This probably meant "large company" or "great band" of rebels, but was mistranslated in the late 19th century to refer to the "Great Society".<ref>{{harvnb|Hilton|1995|pp=214–216}}</ref>|group="nb"}}

==See also==
* [[Jack Cade]]
* [[Kett's Rebellion]]
* [[Levellers]]
* [[John Preston (rebel)]]
* [[Popular revolt in late-medieval Europe]]
* [[Statute of Cambridge 1388]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist|group="nb"}}

==References==
{{Reflist|15em}}

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| volume =40
| issue=2
| pages =159–183
| doi=10.1086/386239}}
* {{cite book
|last=Fisher
|first=John H.
|title=John Gower, Moral Philosopher and Friend of Chaucer
|url=https://archive.org/details/johngowermoralph00fish
|url-access=registration
|year=1964
|publisher=New York University Press
| location = New York
|isbn=978-0-8147-0149-2}}
* {{cite book
| last = Galloway
| first = Andrew
| editor1-last=Dutton
| editor1-first=Elizabeth
| editor2-last=Hines
| editor2-first=John
| editor3-last=Yeager
| editor3-first=R. F.
| year = 2010
| chapter = Reassessing Gower's Dream Visions
| title = John Gower, Trilingual Poet: Language, Translation, and Tradition
| publisher = Boydell Press
| location= Woodbridge, UK
| isbn = 978-1-84384-250-7
| pages = 288–303
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Given-Wilson
| first = Chris
| year = 1996
| title = The English Nobility in the Late Middle Ages
| publisher = Routledge
| location= London
| isbn = 978-0-203-44126-8
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Harding
| first = Alan
| editor1-last=Hilton
| editor1-first=Rodney
| editor2-last=Alton
| editor2-first=T. H.
| year = 1987
| chapter = The Revolt Against the Justices
| title = The English Rising of 1381
| publisher = Cambridge University Press
| location= Cambridge
| isbn = 978-1-84383-738-1
| pages = 165–193
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Hilton
| first = Rodney
| editor1-last=Hilton
| editor1-first=Rodney
| editor2-last=Alton
| editor2-first=T. H.
| year = 1987
| chapter = Introduction
| title = The English Rising of 1381
| publisher = Cambridge University Press
| location= Cambridge
| isbn = 978-1-84383-738-1
| pages = 1–8
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Hilton
| first = Rodney
| year = 1995
| title = Bondmen Made Free: Medieval Peasant Movements and the English Rising of 1381
| publisher = Routledge
| location= London
| isbn = 978-0-415-01880-7
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Hussey
| first = Stanley Stewart
| year = 1971
| title = Chaucer: an Introduction
| url = https://archive.org/details/chaucerintroduct0000huss_h4r9
| url-access = registration
| publisher = Methuen
| location= London
| isbn = 978-0-416-29920-5
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Israel
| first = Charles E.
| year = 1963
| title = Who was then the gentleman? A novel
| publisher = Simon and Schuster
| location = New York
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Jones
| first = Dan
| year = 2010
| title = Summer of Blood: the Peasants' Revolt of 1381
| publisher = Harper Press
| location= London| isbn = 978-0-00-721393-1
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Justice
| first = Steven
| year = 1994
| title = Writing and Rebellion: England in 1381
| publisher = University of California Press
| location= Berkeley and Los Angeles
| isbn = 0-520-20697-5
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Lyle
| first = Marjorie
| year = 2002
| title = Canterbury: 2000 Years of History
| edition = Revised
| publisher = Tempus
| location= Stroud, UK
| isbn = 978-0-7524-1948-0
}}
* {{cite journal
| last1=Matheson
| first1=Lister M.
| year=1998
| title=The Peasants' Revolt through Five Centuries of Rumor and Reporting: Richard Fox, John Stow, and Their Successors
| journal = Studies in Philology
| volume =95
| number = 2
| pages =121–151
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Mortimer
| first = Ian
| year = 1981
| title = The Fears of Henry IV: the Life of England's Self-Made King
| publisher = Vintage
| location= London| isbn = 978-1-84413-529-5
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Oman
| first = Charles
| year = 1906
| title = The Great Revolt of 1381
| url = https://archive.org/details/greatrevoltof13800omanuoft
| publisher = Clarendon Press
| location= Oxford
| oclc = 752927432
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Ortenberg
| first = Veronica
| year = 1981
| title = In Search of the Holy Grail: the Quest for the Middle Ages
| publisher =Hambledon Continuum
| location= London
| isbn = 978-1-85285-383-9
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Ousby
| first = Ian
| year = 1996
| title = The Cambridge Paperback Guide to Literature in English
| publisher = Cambridge University Press
| location = Cambridge
| isbn = 978-0-521-43627-4
| url = https://archive.org/details/cambridgepaperba00ousb
}}
* {{cite book
| last1 = Picknett
| first1 = Lynn
| last2 = Prince
| first2 = Clive
| year = 2007
| title = The Templar Revelation: Secret Guardians of the True Identity of Christ
| edition = 10th anniversary
| publisher = Random House
| location= London
| isbn = 978-0-552-15540-3
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Postan
| first = Michael
| year = 1975
| title = The Medieval Economy and Society
| publisher = Penguin Books
| location= Harmondsworth, UK
| isbn = 0-14-020896-8
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* {{cite book
| last = Powell
| first = Edgar
| year = 1896
| title = The Rising of 1381 in East Anglia
| publisher = Cambridge University Press
| location= Cambridge
| oclc = 1404665
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Prescott
| first = Andrew
| editor1-last=Morgan
| editor1-first=Nigel
| year = 2004
| chapter = 'The Hand of God': the Suppression of the Peasants' Revolt in 1381
| title = Prophecy, Apocalypse and the Day of Doom
| publisher = Shaun Tyas
| location= Donington, UK
| isbn = 978-1-900289-68-9
| pages = 317–341
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Prescott
| first = Andrew
| editor1-last=Firnhaber-Baker
| editor1-first=Justine
| editor2-last=Schoenaers
| editor2-first=Dirk
| year = 2017
| chapter = 'Great and Horrible Rumour': Shaping the English Revolt of 1381
| title = The Routledge History Handbook of Medieval Revolt
| publisher = Routledge
| location= London
| isbn = 9781315542423
| pages = 76–103
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Réville
| first = André
| year = 1898
| title = Étude sur le Soulèvement de 1381 dans les Comtés de Hertford, de Suffolk et de Norfolk
| publisher = A. Picard and sons
| location= Paris
| oclc = 162490454
|language=fr}}
* {{cite book
| last = Reynaud
| first = Gaston
| year = 1897
| title = Chroniques de Jean Froissart
| volume = 10
| publisher = Société de l'histoire de France
| location= Paris
|language=fr}}
* {{cite book
| last = Ribner
| first = Irving
| year = 2005
| title = The English History Play in the Age of Shakespeare
| publisher = Routledge
| location= Abingdon, UK
| isbn = 978-0-415-35314-4
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* {{cite book
| last = Robinson
| first = John J.
| year = 2009
| title = Born in Blood: the Lost Secrets of Freemasonry
| publisher = Rowman and Littlefield
| location= Lanham, US
| isbn = 978-1-59077-148-8
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* {{cite book
| last = Rubin
| first = Miri
| year = 2006
| title = The Hollow Crown: a History of Britain in the Late Middle Ages
| publisher = Penguin
| location = London
| isbn = 978-0-14-014825-1
| url = https://archive.org/details/hollowcrown00miri
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Saul
| first = Nigel
| year = 1999
| title = Richard II
| publisher = Yale University Press
| location= New Haven
| isbn = 978-0-300-07875-6
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* {{cite book
| last = Saul
| first = Nigel
| editor1-last=Dutton
| editor1-first=Elizabeth
| editor2-last=Hines
| editor2-first=John
| editor3-last=Yeager
| editor3-first=R. F.
| year = 2010
| chapter = John Gower: Prophet or Turncoat?
| title = John Gower, Trilingual Poet: Language, Translation, and Tradition
| publisher = Boydell Press
| location= Woodbridge, UK
| isbn = 978-1-84384-250-7
| pages = 85–97
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Silvercloud
| first = Terry David
| year = 2007
| title = The Shape of God: Secrets, Tales, and Legends of the Dawn Warriors
| publisher = Trafford
| location= Victoria, Canada
| isbn = 978-1-4251-0836-6
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* {{cite book
| last = Spindler
| first = Erik
| editor1-last=Skoda
| editor1-first=Hannah
| editor2-last=Lantschner
| editor2-first=Patrick
| editor3-last=Shaw
| editor3-first=R.
| year = 2012
| chapter = Flemings in the Peasants' Revolt, 1381
| title = Contact and Exchange in Later Medieval Europe: Essays in Honour of Malcolm Vale
| publisher = The Boydell Press
| location= Woodbridge, UK
| isbn = 978-1-84383-738-1
| pages = 59–78
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Strohm
| first = Paul
| editor1-last= Harris
| editor1-first= Stephen J.
| editor2-last= Grigsby
| editor2-first= Bryon Lee
| year = 2008
| chapter = A 'Peasants' Revolt'?
| title = Misconceptions About the Middle Ages
| publisher = Routledge
| location= New York
| isbn = 978-0-415-77053-8
| pages = 197–203
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Sumption
| first = Jonathan
| year = 2009
| title = Divided Houses: the Hundred Years War III
| publisher = Faber and Faber
| location= London
| isbn = 978-0-571-24012-8
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Trevelyan
| first = George
| year = 1899
| title = England in the Age of Wycliffe
| url = https://archive.org/details/englandinageofwy01trev
| publisher = Longmans and Green
| location= London| oclc = 12771030
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Tuck
| first = J. A.
| editor1-last=Hilton
| editor1-first=Rodney
| editor2-last=Alton
| editor2-first=T. H.
| year = 1987
| chapter = Nobles, Commons and the Great Revolt of 1381
| title = The English Rising of 1381
| publisher = Cambridge University Press
| location= Cambridge| isbn = 978-1-84383-738-1
| pages = 192–212
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Wickert
|first=Maria
|date=2016
|title=Studies in John Gower
|orig-year=1953
|location=Tempe, Arizona
|publisher=Arizona Center for Medieval and Renaissance Studies
|page=18
|isbn=9780866985413
|translator-last=Meindl
|translator-first=Robert J. }}{{Refend}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|English Peasants' Revolt}}
* [https://www.worldhistory.org/Peasants'_Revolt/ The Peasants' Revolt] – ''World History Encyclopedia''
* [https://johnball1381.org/ John Ball, English Legend] – A website about John Ball and the Peasants' Revolt from 1381 to the present
* [https://www.1381.online/ People of 1381] – A project on collecting data about individuals involved in the events of 1381
* [https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p0038x8s "The Peasants' Revolt"], [[BBC Radio 4]] discussion with Miri Rubin, Caroline Barron & Alastair Dunn (''[[In Our Time (radio series)|In Our Time]]'', 16 November 2006)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4kq9sbtFCR8 When Medieval Peasants Revolted Against the Establishment – Peasants' Revolt of 1381 – Timeline], presented by Tony Robinson

{{Riots in England}}
{{London history}}
{{Tax resistance}}
{{Medieval and Early Modern European Peasant Wars}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Peasants' Revolt| ]]
[[Category:1381 in England]]
[[Category:14th century in London]]
[[Category:14th-century rebellions]]
[[Category:Battles and military actions in London]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1381]]
[[Category:History of Essex]]
[[Category:History of Kent]]
[[Category:History of the Royal Borough of Greenwich]]
[[Category:Medieval farmers]]
[[Category:Protests in England]]
[[Category:Rebellions in medieval England]]
[[Category:Richard II of England]]
[[Category:Riots and civil disorder in England]]