View source for Whale

{{Short description|Informal group of large marine mammals}}
{{Redirect|Whales|the country|Wales||Whale (disambiguation)}}
{{pp|small=yes||expiry=}}
{{pp-move}}
{{good article}}
{{Use Oxford spelling|date = October 2015}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2021}}
{{Paraphyletic group
| subheader = {{longitem|An informal group<br/>within the infraorder Cetacea}}
| name = Whale
| fossil_range = [[Eocene]] - [[Holocene|Present]] {{fossil range|50|0|ref=<ref>{{Cite web |title=When whales walked on four legs |url=https://www.nhm.ac.uk/discover/when-whales-walked-on-four-legs.html |access-date=2022-03-12 |website=www.nhm.ac.uk |language=en}}</ref>}}
| image = Southern right whale.jpg
| image_alt = Southern right whale
| image_caption = [[Southern right whale]]
| auto = yes
| parent = Cetacea
| includes = *Parvorder [[Mysticeti]] (baleen whales)
*Parvorder [[Odontoceti]] (partially)
** Family [[Monodontidae]] (Arctic whales)
** Superfamily [[Physeteroidea]] (sperm whales)
** Family [[Ziphiidae]] (beaked whales)
| excludes = * Family [[Delphinidae]] (oceanic dolphins)
* Family [[Phocoenidae]] (porpoises)
* Superfamily [[Platanistoidea]] (Asian river dolphins)
* Superfamily [[Inioidea]] (South American river dolphins)
}}

'''Whales''' are a widely distributed and diverse group of fully [[Aquatic animal|aquatic]] [[placental mammal|placental]] [[marine mammal]]s. As an informal and [[Colloquialism|colloquial]] grouping, they correspond to large members of the infraorder [[Cetacea]], i.e. all cetaceans apart from [[dolphin]]s and [[porpoise]]s. Dolphins and porpoises may be considered whales from a formal, [[Cladistics|cladistic]] perspective. Whales, dolphins and porpoises belong to the order [[Cetartiodactyla]], which consists of even-toed ungulates. Their closest non-cetacean living relatives are the [[hippopotamus]]es, from which they and other cetaceans diverged about 54 million years ago. The two [[parvorder]]s of whales, [[baleen whale]]s (Mysticeti) and [[toothed whale]]s (Odontoceti), are thought to have had their [[Most recent common ancestor|last common ancestor]] around 34 million years ago. Mysticetes include four [[Neontology|extant]] (living) [[Family (biology)|families]]: [[Balaenopteridae]] (the rorquals), [[Balaenidae]] (right whales), [[Cetotheriidae]] (the pygmy right whale), and [[Eschrichtiidae]] (the grey whale). Odontocetes include the [[Monodontidae]] (belugas and narwhals), [[Physeteridae]] (the [[sperm whale]]), [[Kogiidae]] (the dwarf and pygmy sperm whale), and [[Ziphiidae]] (the beaked whales), as well as the six families of dolphins and porpoises which are not considered whales in the informal sense.

Whales are fully aquatic, open-ocean animals: they can feed, mate, give birth, suckle and raise their young at sea. Whales range in size from the {{convert|2.6|m|ft}} and {{convert|135|kg|lbs}} [[dwarf sperm whale]] to the {{convert|29.9|m|ft}} and {{convert|190|tonnes|ST}} [[blue whale]], which is the largest known animal that has ever lived. The [[sperm whale]] is the largest toothed predator on Earth. Several whale species exhibit [[sexual dimorphism]], in that the females are larger than males.

Baleen whales have no teeth; instead, they have plates of baleen, fringe-like structures that enable them to expel the huge mouthfuls of water they take in while retaining the [[krill]] and [[plankton]] they feed on. Because their heads are enormous—making up as much as 40% of their total body mass—and they have throat pleats that enable them to expand their mouths, they are able to take huge quantities of water into their mouth at a time. Baleen whales also have a well-developed sense of smell.

Toothed whales, in contrast, have conical teeth adapted to catching fish or [[squid]]. They also have such keen hearing—whether above or below the surface of the water—that some can survive even if they are blind. Some species, such as sperm whales, are particularly well adapted for diving to great depths to catch squid and other favoured prey.

Whales evolved from land-living mammals, and must regularly surface to breathe air, although they can remain underwater for long periods of time. Some species, such as the [[sperm whale]], can stay underwater for up to 90 minutes.{{sfn|Gray|2013}} They have [[Blowhole (anatomy)|blowholes]] (modified nostrils) located on top of their heads, through which air is taken in and expelled. They are [[Endotherm|warm-blooded]], and have a layer of fat, or [[blubber]], under the skin. With streamlined [[wikt:fusiform|fusiform]] bodies and two limbs that are modified into flippers, whales can travel at speeds of up to 20 [[Knot (unit)|knots]], though they are not as flexible or agile as [[Pinniped|seals]]. Whales produce a great variety of vocalizations, notably the extended songs of the [[humpback whale]]. Although whales are widespread, most species prefer the colder waters of the Northern and Southern Hemispheres and migrate to the equator to give birth. Species such as humpbacks and blue whales are capable of travelling thousands of miles without feeding. Males typically mate with multiple females every year, but females only mate every two to three years. Calves are typically born in the spring and summer; females bear all the responsibility for raising them. Mothers in some species fast and nurse their young for one to two years.

Once relentlessly hunted for their products, whales are now protected by international law. The [[North Atlantic right whale]]s nearly became extinct in the twentieth century, with a population low of 450, and the [[Gray whale#North Pacific|North Pacific grey whale population]] is ranked [[Critically Endangered]] by the [[International Union for Conservation of Nature|IUCN]]. Besides the threat from whalers, they also face threats from bycatch and marine pollution. The meat, blubber and [[baleen]] of whales have traditionally been used by indigenous peoples of the Arctic. Whales have been depicted in various cultures worldwide, notably by the Inuit and the coastal peoples of Vietnam. Whales feature in literature and film, as with the great white whale in [[Herman Melville]]'s novel ''[[Moby-Dick]]''. Small whales, such as [[beluga whale|belugas]], are sometimes kept in captivity, but breeding success has been poor and the animals often die within a few months of capture. [[Whale watching]] has become a form of tourism around the world.

==Etymology and definitions==

The word "whale" comes from the [[Old English]] ''hwæl'', from [[Proto-Germanic]] ''*hwalaz'', from [[Proto-Indo-European]] ''*(s)kwal-o-'', meaning "large sea fish".<ref name=etymonline>{{cite web|title=whale (n.) |work=Online Etymology Dictionary |url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/whale |access-date=18 March 2018}}</ref><ref name=asd>{{cite web |title=hwæl |work=Bosworth-Toller Anglo-Saxon Dictionary |url=http://bosworth.ff.cuni.cz/020037 |access-date=6 June 2019 }}</ref>{{sfn|Skeat|1898}} The etymology is unrelated to the country of [[Wales]].<ref>{{cite web|last= Miller |first= Katherine L. |date= 2014 |title= The Semantic Field of Slavery in Old English: Wealh, Esne, Þræl |type= Doctoral dissertation |publisher= University of Leeds |url= http://etheses.whiterose.ac.uk/8031/1/Katherine%20Miller%20Semantic%20Field%20of%20Slavery%20in%20Old%20English%20v%203.pdf |access-date= August 8, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Tolkien |first=J. R. R. |author-link=J. R. R. Tolkien |title=Angles and Britons: O'Donnell Lectures |publisher=University of Wales Press |year=1963 |location=Cardiff |pages=English and Welsh, an O'Donnell Lecture delivered at Oxford on 21 October 1955 |no-pp=true }}</ref>

The term "whale" is sometimes used to include [[dolphin]]s and [[porpoise]]s, acting as a synonym for [[Cetacea]]. Six species of oceanic dolphins ([[Delphinidae]]) have the word "whale" in their name, collectively known as blackfish: the [[orca]] or killer whale; the [[melon-headed whale]]; the [[pygmy killer whale]]; the [[false killer whale]]; and the two species of [[pilot whale]]s.{{sfn|McBrearty|1991|pp=33–65}}{{sfn|Gormley|1990|p=[{{google books|plainurl=yes|id=xwvWILe_c_cC|page=10}} 10]}}

The term "Great Whales" covers those species currently regulated by the [[International Whaling Commission]]:{{sfn|IWC "Small cetaceans"}} the Odontoceti family Physeteridae (sperm whales); and the Mysticeti families Balaenidae (right and bowhead whales), Eschrichtiidae (grey whales), and some of the Balaenopteridae (Minke, Bryde's, Sei, Blue and Fin; not Eden's and Omura's whales).{{sfn|IWC "The Great Whales"}}

==Taxonomy and evolution==

{{See also|List of cetaceans|List of extinct cetaceans}}

===Phylogeny===

The whales are part of the largely terrestrial mammalian [[clade]] [[Laurasiatheria]]. The immediate clade is [[Cetacea]], but if the [[dolphin]]s and [[porpoise]]s are excluded, the whales are [[paraphyletic]].<ref>{{cite web |title=What are the differences between whales, dolphins and porpoises? |url=https://uk.whales.org/whales-dolphins/what-are-the-differences-between-whales-dolphins-and-porpoises/ |access-date=22 December 2025}}</ref> If on the other hand the dolphins and porpoises are accepted as whales, then the ''[[sensu lato]]'' group is a clade, the Cetacea.<ref>{{cite web |title=Are dolphins whales? |url=https://www.ifaw.org/uk/journal/are-dolphins-whales |publisher=IFAW |access-date=22 December 2025}}</ref> The [[phylogenetic tree]] shows the relationships of whales and other mammals, with whale groups<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Gatesy, John |author2=Geisler, Jonathan H. |author3=Chang, Joseph |author4=Buell, Carl |author5=Berta, Annalisa |author6=Meredith, Robert W. |author7=Springer, Mark S.|author8=McGowen, Michael R. |year=2012 |title=A phylogenetic blueprint for a modern whale |journal=[[Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution]] |volume=66 |issue=2 |pages=479–506 |doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2012.10.012 |pmid=23103570 |url=https://www.montclair.edu/profilepages/media/5008/user/Gatesy_et_al._2012_A_phylogenetic_blueprint_for_a_modern_whale.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130227091508/https://www.montclair.edu/profilepages/media/5008/user/Gatesy_et_al._2012_A_phylogenetic_blueprint_for_a_modern_whale.pdf |archive-date=2013-02-27 |url-status=live |access-date=4 September 2015}}</ref> marked in green boldface<!--intentionally redundant for accessibility-->.

{{clade
|style=font-size:85%;line-height:85%
|label1=[[Laurasiatheria]]
|sublabel1={{circa|99&nbsp;[[MYA (unit)|Mya]]}}
|1={{clade
   |label1=[[Ferae]]
   |1=([[carnivorans]] and allies) [[File:Crocuta crocuta sideview.jpg|60 px]]
   |label2=[[Perissodactyla]]
   |2=([[horse]]s, [[rhino]]s, [[tapir]]s) [[File:Hartmann zebra hobatere S.jpg|60 px]]
   |label3=[[Artiodactyla]]
   |sublabel3={{circa|53&nbsp;[[MYA (unit)|Mya]]}}
   |3={{clade
      |label1=[[Tylopoda]]
      |1=([[camelid|camels, llamas]]) [[File:07. Camel Profile, near Silverton, NSW, 07.07.2007.jpg|45 px]]
      |label2=[[Artiofabula]]
      |2={{clade
         |1={{clade
            |label1=[[Suina]]
            |1=([[List of suines|pigs, hogs, peccaries]]) [[File:Scavenger feast - Yala December 2010 (1) (cropped).jpg|60 px]]
            |label2=[[Cetruminantia]]
            |2={{clade
               |label1=[[Ruminantia|Ruminants]]
               |1=([[cattle]], [[sheep]], [[antelope]]s) [[File:Walia ibex illustration white background.png|60 px]]
               |label2=[[Whippomorpha]]
               |2={{clade
                  |label1=[[Hippopotamidae]]
                  |1=([[Hippopotamidae|hippos]]) [[File:Hippopotamus amphibius in Tanzania 2830 Nevit.jpg|60 px]]
                  |label2=[[Cetacea]]
                  |sublabel2="whales", ''[[sensu lato]]''
                  |2={{clade
                     |label1=
                     |sublabel1=
                     |1={{clade
                        |label1={{extinct}}[[Archaeocetes]]
                        |sublabel1=[[Archaeocetes|ancient whales]]&emsp;
                        |1=({{extinct}}''[[Ambulocetus]]'', {{extinct}}''[[Protocetus]]'', {{extinct}}''[[Basilosaurus]]'')
                        }}
                     |2={{clade
                        |label1=[[Mysticeti|<span style="color: green; font-weight:bold;">Mysticeti</span>]]
                        |sublabel1=<span style="color: green; font-weight:bold;">baleen whales</span>&emsp;
                        |1=([[right whale|<span style="color: green; font-weight:bold;">right whales</span>]], [[gray whale|<span style="color: green; font-weight:bold;">grey whales</span>]], [[rorqual|<span style="color: green; font-weight:bold;">rorquals</span>]])
                        |label2=[[Odontoceti]]
                        |sublabel2=toothed whales
                        |2={{clade
                           |label1=[[Delphinoidea]]
                           |1=([[dolphin]]s, [[porpoise]]s, [[beluga whale|<span style="color: green; font-weight:bold;">beluga whales</span>]], [[narwhal|<span style="color: green; font-weight:bold;">narwhals</span>]])
                           |label2=[[Lipotoidea]]
                           |2=([[river dolphins]])
                           |label3=[[Physeteroidea|<span style="color: green; font-weight:bold;">Physeteroidea</span>]]
                           |3=([[Physeteridae|<span style="color: green; font-weight:bold;">sperm whales</span>]])
                           |label4=[[Ziphioidea|<span style="color: green; font-weight:bold;">Ziphoidea</span>]]
                           |4=([[beaked whale|<span style="color: green; font-weight:bold;">beaked whales</span>]])
                           }}
                        }}
                     }}
                  }}
               }}
            }}
         }}
      }}
   }}
}}

Cetaceans are divided into two parvorders. The larger parvorder, [[Mysticeti]] (baleen whales), is characterized by the presence of baleen, a sieve-like structure in the upper jaw made of [[keratin]], which it uses to filter [[plankton]], among others, from the water. [[Odontoceti|Odontocetes]] (toothed whales) are characterized by bearing sharp teeth for hunting, as opposed to their counterparts' baleen.{{sfn|Klinowska|1991|p=4}}

===Evolution===

{{Main|Evolution of cetaceans}}

[[File:Basilosaurus cetoides (1).jpg|right|thumb|[[Basilosaurus]] skeleton]]

Whales are descendants of land-dwelling mammals of the [[artiodactyl]] [[order (biology)|order]] (even-toed ungulates). They are related to the ''[[Indohyus]]'', an extinct [[chevrotain]]-like ungulate, from which they split approximately 48 million years ago.{{sfn|Northeastern Ohio Universities|2007}}{{sfn|Dawkins|2004}} Primitive cetaceans, or [[archaeocetes]], first took to the sea approximately 49 million years ago and became fully aquatic 5–10 million years later. What defines an archaeocete is the presence of anatomical features exclusive to cetaceans, alongside other primitive features not found in modern cetaceans, such as visible legs or asymmetrical teeth.{{sfn|Berkeley}}{{sfn|Thewissen et al.|2007}}{{sfn|Fahlke et al.|2011}}{{sfn|Gatesy|1997}} Their features became adapted for living in the [[Sea|marine environment]]. Major anatomical changes included their hearing set-up that channeled vibrations from the jaw to the earbone (''[[Ambulocetus]]'' 49 [[Mya (unit)|mya]]), a [[streamline (fluid dynamics)|streamlined]] body and the growth of flukes on the tail (''[[Protocetus]]'' 43 mya), the migration of the nostrils toward the top of the [[cranium]] ([[Blowhole (anatomy)|blowholes]]), and the modification of the forelimbs into flippers (''[[Basilosaurus]]'' 35 mya), and the shrinking and eventual disappearance of the hind limbs (the first odontocetes and mysticetes 34 mya).{{sfn|Kenneth|2001}}{{sfn|Bebej et al.|2012}}{{sfn|Reidenberg|2012|p=508}}

Whale morphology shows several examples of [[convergent evolution]], the most obvious being the streamlined fish-like body shape.{{sfn|Lam|1999}} Other examples include the use of [[Animal echolocation|echolocation]] for hunting in low light conditions&nbsp;— which is the same hearing adaptation used by [[bat]]s&nbsp;— and, in the rorqual whales, jaw adaptations, similar to those found in [[pelican]]s, that enable engulfment feeding.{{sfn|Moskowitz|2011}}

Today, the closest living relatives of cetaceans are the [[hippopotamus]]es; these share a [[Semiaquatic|semi-aquatic]] ancestor that branched off from other artiodactyls some 60 mya.{{sfn|Gatesy|1997}} Around 40 mya, a common ancestor between the two branched off into cetacea and [[anthracotheres]]; nearly all anthracotheres became extinct at the end of the Pleistocene 2.5 mya, eventually leaving only one surviving lineage&nbsp;– the hippopotamus.{{sfn|Boisserie|Lihoreau|Brunet|2005}}

Whales split into two separate parvorders around 34 mya&nbsp;– the baleen whales (Mysticetes) and the toothed whales (Odontocetes).{{sfn|PBS ''Nature''|2012}}{{sfn|Houben et al.|2013|pp=341–344}}{{sfn|Steeman et al.|2009|pp=573–585}}

==Biology==
===Anatomy===
[[File:Baleen parts.png|thumb|right|Features of a [[blue whale]]]]
[[File:Sperm whale skeleton labelled.jpg|thumb|Features of a [[sperm whale]] skeleton]]
Whales have torpedo-shaped bodies with non-flexible necks, limbs modified into flippers, non-existent external ear flaps, a large tail fin, and flat heads (with the exception of [[Monodontidae|monodontids]] and [[Ziphiidae|ziphiids]]). Whale skulls have small eye orbits, long snouts (with the exception of monodontids and ziphiids) and eyes placed on the sides of its head. Whales range in size from the {{convert|2.6|m|ft|adj=on}} and {{convert|135|kg|lbs|adj=on}} dwarf sperm whale to the {{convert|34|m|ft|adj=on}} and {{convert|190|MT|ST|adj=on}} blue whale. Overall, they tend to dwarf other cetartiodactyls; the blue whale is the largest creature on Earth. Several species have female-biased sexual dimorphism, with the females being larger than the males. One exception is with the sperm whale, which has males larger than the females.{{sfn|Reidenberg|2012|pp=510–511}}{{sfn|Ralls|Mesnick|1984|pp=1005–1011}}

Odontocetes, such as the sperm whale, possess teeth with [[cementum]] cells overlying [[dentine]] cells. Unlike human teeth, which are composed mostly of [[Tooth enamel|enamel]] on the portion of the tooth outside of the gum, whale teeth have cementum outside the gum. Only in larger whales, where the cementum is worn away on the tip of the tooth, does enamel show. Mysticetes have large [[whalebone]], as opposed to teeth, made of keratin. Mysticetes have two blowholes, whereas Odontocetes contain only one.{{sfn|Reidenberg|2012|pp=509–510}}

Breathing involves expelling stale air from the [[blowhole (anatomy)|blowhole]], forming an upward, steamy spout, followed by inhaling fresh air into the lungs; a humpback whale's lungs can hold about {{convert|5,000|L|usgal}} of air. Spout shapes differ among species, which facilitates identification.{{sfn|Reidenberg|2012|pp=507–508}}{{sfn|Scholander|1940}}

All whales have a thick layer of [[blubber]]. In species that live near the poles, the blubber can be as thick as {{convert|11|in|cm}}. This blubber can help with buoyancy (which is helpful for a 100-ton whale), protection to some extent as predators would have a hard time getting through a thick layer of fat, and energy for fasting when migrating to the equator; the primary usage for blubber is insulation from the harsh climate. It can constitute as much as 50% of a whale's body weight. Calves are born with only a thin layer of blubber, but some species compensate for this with thick lanugos.{{sfn|Klinowska|1991|p=5}}{{sfn|Reidenberg|2012|p=510}}

Whales have a two- to three-chambered stomach that is similar in structure to those of terrestrial carnivores. Mysticetes contain a [[proventriculus]] as an extension of the [[oesophagus]]; this contains stones that grind up food. They also have [[Fundic stomach|fundic]] and [[Pyloric stomach|pyloric]] chambers.{{sfn|Stevens|Hume|1995|p=11}}

===Locomotion===<!-- [[Whale sounding]] links here -->
[[File:GreenlandWhaleLyd3.jpg|thumb|Skeleton of a [[bowhead whale]]; notice the vestigial [[pelvis]]. [[Richard Lydekker]], 1894]]
Whales have two flippers on the front, and a tail fin. These flippers contain four digits. Although whales do not possess fully developed hind limbs, some, such as the sperm whale and bowhead whale, possess discrete rudimentary appendages, which may contain feet and digits. Whales are fast swimmers in comparison to seals, which typically cruise at 5–15 kn, or {{convert|9|–|28|kph|mph}}; the fin whale, in comparison, can travel at speeds up to {{convert|47|kph|mph}} and the sperm whale can reach speeds of {{convert|35|kph|mph}}. The fusing of the neck vertebrae, while increasing stability when swimming at high speeds, decreases flexibility; whales are unable to turn their heads. When swimming, whales rely on their tail fin to propel them through the water. Flipper movement is continuous. Whales swim by moving their tail fin and lower body up and down, propelling themselves through vertical movement, while their flippers are mainly used for steering. Some species [[Cetacean surfacing behaviour|log]] out of the water, which may allow them to travel faster. Their skeletal anatomy allows them to be fast swimmers. Most species have a [[dorsal fin]].{{sfn|Reidenberg|2012|p=508}}{{sfn|Klinowska|1991|pp=122–262}}

Whales are adapted for diving to great depths. In addition to their streamlined bodies, they can slow their heart rate to conserve oxygen; blood is rerouted from tissue tolerant of water pressure to the heart and brain among other organs; [[haemoglobin]] and [[myoglobin]] store oxygen in body tissue; and they have twice the concentration of myoglobin than haemoglobin. Before going on long dives, many whales exhibit a behaviour known as sounding; they stay close to the surface for a series of short, shallow dives while building their oxygen reserves, and then make a sounding dive.{{sfn|Norena et al.|2000|pp=181–191}}

===Senses===

[[File:Delfinekko.gif|thumb|[[Biosonar]] by cetaceans]]

[[File:Sperm whale drawing with skeleton.jpg|thumb|Sperm whale skeleton. [[Richard Lydekker]], 1894.]]

The whale ear has specific adaptations to the [[Ocean|marine]] environment. In humans, the [[middle ear]] works as an impedance equalizer between the outside air's low [[Acoustic impedance|impedance]] and the [[cochlea]]r fluid's high impedance. In whales, and other marine mammals, there is no great difference between the outer and inner environments. Instead of sound passing through the outer ear to the middle ear, whales receive sound through the throat, from which it passes through a low-impedance fat-filled cavity to the inner ear.{{sfn|Cranford et al.|2008}} The whale ear is acoustically isolated from the skull by air-filled sinus pockets, which allow for greater directional hearing underwater.{{sfn|Nummela et al.|2007|pp=716–733}} Odontocetes send out high-frequency clicks from an organ known as a [[melon (cetacean)|melon]]. This melon consists of fat, and the skull of any such creature containing a melon will have a large depression. The melon size varies between species, the bigger the more dependent they are on it. A beaked whale for example has a small bulge sitting on top of its skull, whereas a sperm whale's head is filled up mainly with the melon.{{sfn|Jeanette et al.|1990|pp=1–19}}{{sfn|Reidenberg|2012|p=512}}{{sfn|Thewissen|Perrin|Wirsig|2002|p={{page needed|date=April 2021}}}}{{sfn|Ketten|1992|pp=717–750}}

The whale eye is relatively small for its size, yet they do retain a good degree of eyesight. As well as this, the eyes of a whale are placed on the sides of its head, so their vision consists of two fields, rather than a binocular view like humans have. When belugas surface, their lens and cornea correct the nearsightedness that results from the refraction of light; they contain both [[rod cell|rod]] and [[cone cell]]s, meaning they can see in both dim and bright light, but they have far more rod cells than they do cone cells. Whales do, however, lack short wavelength sensitive visual pigments in their cone cells indicating a more limited capacity for colour vision than most mammals.{{sfn|Mass et al.|2007|pp=701–715}} Most whales have slightly flattened eyeballs, enlarged pupils (which shrink as they surface to prevent damage), slightly flattened corneas and a [[tapetum lucidum]]; these adaptations allow for large amounts of light to pass through the eye and, therefore, a very clear image of the surrounding area. They also have glands on the eyelids and [[corneal epithelium|outer corneal layer]] that act as protection for the cornea.{{sfn|Jeanette et al.|1990|pp=505–519}}{{sfn|Reidenberg|2012|p=512}}

The [[olfactory lobes]] are absent in toothed whales, suggesting that they have no sense of smell. Some whales, such as the [[bowhead whale]], possess a [[vomeronasal organ]], which does mean that they can "sniff out" krill.{{sfn|Jeanette et al.|1990|pp=481–505}}

Whales are not thought to have a good sense of taste, as their taste buds are atrophied or missing. However, some toothed whales have preferences between different kinds of fish, indicating some sort of attachment to taste. The presence of the Jacobson's organ indicates that whales can smell food once inside their mouth, which might be similar to the sensation of taste.{{sfn|Jeanette et al.|1990|pp=447–455}}

===Communication===

{{Main|Whale vocalization}}

{{Listen|filename=Whales and Dolphins whale nature sounds songs nueva esparta.ogg|title=Humpback whale "song"|description=Recording of Humpback Whales singing and Clicking.|format=[[Ogg]]}}

Whale vocalization is likely to serve several purposes. Some species, such as the humpback whale, communicate using melodic sounds, known as [[whale sound|whale song]]. These sounds may be extremely loud, depending on the species. Humpback whales only make clicks, while toothed whales use [[biosonar|sonar]] that may generate up to 20,000 watts of sound (+73 [[dBm]] or +43 [[Decibel watt|dBw]]), enabling them to be heard at great distances.{{sfn|Whitehead|2003|p=4}}

Captive whales occasionally mimic human speech. Scientists have suggested this indicates a strong desire on behalf of the whales to communicate with humans, as whales have a very different vocal mechanism.{{sfn|Collins|2012}}

Whales emit two distinct kinds of acoustic signals, which are called whistles and clicks. Clicks are quick broadband burst pulses, used for [[biosonar|sonar]], although some lower-frequency broadband vocalizations may serve a non-echolocative purpose such as communication; for example, the pulsed calls of belugas. Pulses in a click train are emitted at intervals of ≈35–50 [[millisecond]]s; the inter-click intervals are usually slightly greater than the round-trip time of sound to the target. Whistles are narrow-band [[frequency modulation|frequency modulated (FM)]] signals, used for communicative purposes, such as contact calls.{{sfn|Mann|2000|p=9}}

===Intelligence===

{{main|Cetacean intelligence}}

{{see also|Cetacean surfacing behaviour}}

Whales teach, learn, cooperate, scheme, and grieve.{{sfn|Siebert|2009}} The neocortex of many species of whale is home to elongated [[spindle neurons]].{{sfn|Watson|2006|pp=1107–1112}} In humans, these cells are involved in social conduct, emotions, judgement, and theory of mind. Whale spindle neurons are found in areas of the brain homologous to where they are found in humans, suggesting that they perform a similar function.{{sfn|Hof|2007|pp=1–31}}

[[File:Whales Bubble Net Feeding-edit1.jpg|thumb|Bubble net feeding]]

[[Brain size]] was previously considered a major indicator of the intelligence of an animal. Since most of the brain is used for maintaining bodily functions, greater ratios of brain-to-body mass may increase the amount of brain mass available for more complex cognitive tasks. [[Allometric]] analysis indicates that mammalian brain size scales at approximately the {{frac|2|3}} or {{frac|3|4}} exponent of the body mass. Comparison of a particular animal's brain size with the expected brain size based on such allometric analysis provides an [[encephalization quotient|encephalisation quotient]] that can be used as an indication of animal intelligence. [[Sperm whale]]s have the largest brain mass of any animal on Earth, averaging {{convert|8000|cm3|in3}} and {{convert|7.8|kg|lbs}} in mature males, in comparison to the average human brain which averages {{convert|1450|cm3|in3}} in mature males.{{sfn|NOAA Fisheries|2013}} The [[brain-to-body mass ratio]] in some odontocetes, such as belugas and narwhals, is second only to humans.{{sfn|Mind Matters|2008}}

Small whales engage in complex play behaviour, which includes producing stable underwater [[toroid]]al air-core [[vortex]] rings or "[[bubble ring]]s". There are two main methods of producing bubble rings: rapid puffing of a burst of air into the water and allowing it to rise to the surface, forming a ring, or swimming repeatedly in a circle and then stopping to inject air into the [[Helix|helical]] vortex currents thus formed. They also appear to enjoy biting the vortex-rings, so that these burst into many separate bubbles and then rise quickly to the surface.{{sfn|Deep Ocean}} Some believe this is a means of communication.{{sfn|Griffin|2015}} Whales also produce bubble-nets for the purpose of foraging.{{sfn|Wiley et al.|2011|pp=575–602}}

Larger whales are thought, to some degree, to engage in play. The [[southern right whale]], for example, elevates itstail fluke above the water, remaining in the same position for a considerable amount of time. This is known as "sailing". This is most commonly seen off the coast of [[Argentina]] and [[South Africa]]. [[Humpback whale]]s display similar behaviour.{{sfn|Leighton et al.|2007|pp=17–21}}

{{anchor|Reproduction}}

=== Life cycle ===

{{See also|Right whale#Courtship and reproduction}}

[[File:Southern right whale4.jpg|thumb|upright|A [[southern right whale]] tail-sailing]]

As with humans, the whale [[R/K selection theory|mode of reproduction]] typically produces but one offspring approximately once each year. This implies ensuring a high probability of survival for each calf with maternal care.<ref>{{cite web |last=Keith |first=Edward O. |year=2008 |title=Critical Review of the Literature on Marine Mammal Population Modelling |website=E&P Sound & Marine Life Programme |pages=1–63 |url=https://nsuworks.nova.edu/occ_facreports/93}}</ref>

Whales have a typical gestation period of 12 months. Once born, the absolute dependency of the calf upon the mother lasts from one to two years. Sexual maturity is achieved at around seven to ten years of age. The length of the developmental phases of a whale's early life varies between different whale species.{{sfn|Johnson|Wolman|1984}}

Being mammals, they have mammary glands used for nursing calves. To feed the newborn, whales, being aquatic, must squirt the milk into the mouth of the calf. Nursing can occur while the mother whale is in the vertical or horizontal position. While nursing in the vertical position, a mother whale may sometimes rest with her tail flukes remaining stationary above the water. This position with the flukes above the water is known as "whale-tail-sailing." Not all whale-tail-sailing includes nursing of the young, as whales have also been observed tail-sailing while no calves were present.{{sfn|Higgs|2023}} This milk contains high amounts of fat which is meant to hasten the development of blubber; it contains so much fat that it has the consistency of toothpaste.{{sfn|Modern Marvels|2007}} Weaning occurs at about 11 months of age. Most baleen whales reside near the poles. To prevent the unborn baleen whale calves from dying of frostbite, the baleen mother must migrate to warmer calving/mating grounds. They stay there for months until the calf has developed enough blubber to survive the low temperatures of the poles. Until then, the baleen calves feed on the mother's fatty milk.{{sfn|Zerbini et al.|2006}}

With the exception of the humpback whale, the timing of whale migration is largely unknown. Most travel from the Arctic or Antarctic into the [[tropics]] to mate, calve, and raise their young during the winter and spring; they return to the poles in the warmer summer months so the calf can continue growing while the mother can continue eating, as they fast in the breeding grounds. An exception to this is the [[southern right whale]], which migrates to [[Patagonia]] and western New Zealand to calve; both are well out of the tropics.{{sfn|Kennedy|2008|p=966}}

===Sleep===
{{Further|Sleep in animals}}
Unlike most animals, whales are conscious breathers. All mammals sleep, but whales cannot afford to become unconscious for long because they may drown. While knowledge of sleep in wild cetaceans is limited, toothed cetaceans in captivity have been recorded to sleep with one side of their brain at a time, so that they may swim, breathe consciously, and avoid both predators and social contact during their period of rest.{{sfn|Miller et al.|2008|pp=21–23}}

A 2008 study found that sperm whales sleep in vertical postures just under the surface in passive shallow "drift-dives", generally during the day, during which whales do not respond to passing vessels unless they are in contact, leading to the suggestion that whales possibly sleep during such dives.{{sfn|Miller et al.|2008|pp=21–23}}

==Ecology==
===Foraging and predation===
{{See also|Beluga whale#Predation}}

[[File:Polar Bear ANWR 10.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Polar bear]] with the remains of a [[beluga whale|beluga]]]]

All whales are carnivorous and predatory. Odontocetes, as a whole, mostly feed on [[fish]] and [[cephalopod]]s, and then followed by [[crustacean]]s and [[bivalve]]s. All species are generalist and opportunistic feeders. Mysticetes, as a whole, mostly feed on [[krill]] and [[plankton]], followed by crustaceans and other [[invertebrate]]s. A few are specialists. Examples include the [[blue whale]], which eats almost exclusively krill, the [[minke whale]], which eats mainly schooling fish, the [[sperm whale]], which specialize on [[squid]], and the grey whale which feed on bottom-dwelling invertebrates.{{sfn|Goldbogen|2010}}{{sfn|Nemoto et al.|1988|pp=292–296}}{{sfn|Lydersen et al.|1991}} The elaborate baleen "teeth" of filter-feeding species, mysticetes, allow them to remove water before they swallow their planktonic food by using the teeth as a sieve.{{sfn|Modern Marvels|2007}} Usually, whales hunt solitarily, but they do sometimes hunt cooperatively in small groups. The former behaviour is typical when hunting non-schooling fish, slow-moving or immobile invertebrates or endothermic prey. When large amounts of prey are available, whales such as certain mysticetes hunt cooperatively in small groups.{{sfn|Defenders of Wildlife}} Some cetaceans may forage with other kinds of animals, such as other species of whales or certain species of [[pinnipeds]].{{sfn|Klinowska|1991|pp=122–162}}{{sfn|Riedman|1991|p=168}}

Large whales, such as mysticetes, are not usually subject to predation, but smaller whales, such as monodontids or ziphiids, are. These species are preyed on by the orca. To subdue and kill whales, orcas continuously ram them with their heads; this can sometimes kill bowhead whales, or severely injure them. Other times they corral the narwhals or belugas before striking. They are typically hunted by groups of 10 or fewer orcas, but they are seldom attacked by an individual. Calves are more commonly taken by orcas, but adults can be targeted as well.{{sfn|Morrel|2012}}

These small whales are also targeted by terrestrial and [[Pagophily|pagophilic]] predators. The polar bear is well adapted for hunting Arctic whales and calves. Bears are known to use sit-and-wait tactics as well as active stalking and pursuit of prey on ice or water. Whales lessen the chance of predation by gathering in groups. This however means less room around the breathing hole as the ice slowly closes the gap. When out at sea, whales dive out of the reach of surface-hunting orcas. Polar bear attacks on belugas and narwhals are usually successful in winter, but rarely inflict any damage in summer.{{sfn|Smith|Sjare|1990}}

===Whale pump===
[[File:Oceanic whale pump - journal.pone.0013255.g001.tiff|thumb|"Whale pump" – the role played by whales in recycling ocean nutrients.{{sfn|Roman|McCarthy|2010}}]]

A 2010 study considered whales to be a positive influence to the productivity of ocean fisheries, in what has been termed a "whale pump." Whales carry nutrients such as nitrogen from the depths back to the surface. This functions as an upward biological pump, reversing an earlier presumption that whales accelerate the loss of nutrients to the bottom. This nitrogen input in the Gulf of Maine is "more than the input of all rivers combined" emptying into the gulf, some {{convert|23000|MT|ST}} each year.{{sfn|University of Vermont|2010}}{{sfn|Roman|McCarthy|2010}} [[Whale faeces|Whales defecate]] at the ocean's surface; their excrement is important for fisheries because it is rich in iron and nitrogen. The whale faeces are liquid and instead of sinking, they stay at the surface where [[phytoplankton]] feed off it.{{sfn|Roman|McCarthy|2010}}{{sfn|Boness|2014}}{{sfn|Roman et al.|2014}}

===Whale fall===
{{Main|Whale fall}}
Upon death, whale carcasses fall to the deep ocean and provide a substantial habitat for marine life. Evidence of whale falls in present-day and fossil records shows that deep sea whale falls support a rich assemblage of creatures, with a global diversity of 407 species, comparable to other [[neritic]] biodiversity hotspots, such as [[cold seep]]s and [[hydrothermal vent]]s.{{sfn|Smith|Baco|2003}}

Deterioration of whale carcasses happens through a series of three stages. Initially, moving organisms such as [[shark]]s and [[hagfish]], scavenge the soft tissues at a rapid rate over a period of months, and as long as two years. This is followed by the colonization of bones and surrounding sediments (which contain organic matter) by enrichment opportunists, such as [[crustaceans]] and [[polychaetes]], throughout a period of years. Finally, sulfophilic bacteria reduce the bones releasing [[hydrogen sulfide]] enabling the growth of [[chemoautotrophic]] organisms, which in turn, support other organisms such as mussels, clams, limpets, and sea snails. This stage may last for decades and supports a rich assemblage of species, averaging 185 species per site.{{sfn|Smith|Baco|2003}}{{sfn|Fujiwara et al.|2007}}

==Relationship with humans==
===Whaling===
{{Main|Whaling|History of whaling}}

[[File:Whale Fishing Fac simile of a Woodcut in the Cosmographie Universelle of Thevet in folio Paris 1574 crop.png|thumb|Whale Fishing: Woodcut by Thevet, Paris, 1574]]
[[File:Walvisvangst bij de kust van Spitsbergen - Dutch whalers near Spitsbergen (Abraham Storck, 1690).jpg|thumb|Dutch whalers near [[Spitsbergen]], their most successful port. ''[[Abraham Storck]], 1690'']]

[[Whaling]] by humans has existed since the [[Stone Age]]. Ancient whalers used [[harpoon]]s to spear the bigger animals from boats out at sea.{{sfn|BBC News|2004}} People from Norway and Japan started hunting whales around 2000 B.C.{{sfn|Marrero|Thornton|2011}} Whales are typically hunted for their [[whale meat|meat]] and blubber by aboriginal groups; they used baleen for baskets or roofing, and made tools and masks out of bones.{{sfn|Marrero|Thornton|2011}} The Inuit hunted whales in the Arctic Ocean.{{sfn|Marrero|Thornton|2011}} The [[History of Basque whaling|Basques]] started whaling as early as the 11th century, sailing as far as [[Newfoundland]] in the 16th century in search of [[right whales]].{{sfn|Ford|2015}}{{sfn|Proulx|1994|pp=260–286}} 18th- and 19th-century whalers hunted whales mainly for their [[whale oil|oil]], which was used as lamp fuel and a lubricant, [[baleen|baleen or whalebone]], which was used for items such as [[corset]]s and [[crinoline|skirt hoops]],{{sfn|Marrero|Thornton|2011}} and [[ambergris]], which was used as a fixative for perfumes. The most successful whaling nations at this time were the Netherlands, Japan, and the United States.{{sfn|New Bedford}}

Commercial whaling was historically important as an industry well throughout the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries. Whaling was at that time a sizeable European industry with ships from Britain, France, Spain, Denmark, the Netherlands and Germany, sometimes collaborating to hunt whales in the Arctic, sometimes in competition leading even to war.{{sfn|Stonehouse|2007}} By the early 1790s, whalers, namely the Americans and Australians, focused efforts in the South Pacific where they mainly hunted sperm whales and right whales, with catches of up to 39,000 right whales by Americans alone.{{sfn|Ford|2015}}{{sfn|Tonnessen|1982}} By 1853, US profits reached US$11m (£6.5m), equivalent to US$348m (£230m) today, the most profitable year for the American whaling industry.{{sfn|PBS ''American Experience''}} Commonly exploited species included North Atlantic right whales, sperm whales, which were mainly hunted by Americans, bowhead whales, which were mainly hunted by the Dutch, common minke whales, blue whales, and grey whales. The scale of whale harvesting decreased substantially after 1982 when the [[International Whaling Commission]] (IWC) placed a moratorium which set a catch limit for each country, excluding aboriginal groups until 2004.{{sfn|Economist|2012}}

Current whaling nations are Norway, Iceland, and Japan, despite their membership of the [[International Whaling Commission|IWC]], as well as the aboriginal communities of Siberia, Alaska, and northern Canada.{{sfn|IFAW}} Subsistence hunters typically use whale products for themselves and depend on them for survival. National and international authorities have given special treatment to aboriginal hunters since their methods of hunting are seen as less destructive and wasteful. This distinction is being questioned as these aboriginal groups are using more modern weaponry and mechanized transport to hunt with, and have started to sell whale products. Some anthropologists argue that the term "subsistence" should apply to these cash-based exchanges as long as they take place within local production and consumption.{{sfn|Klinowska|1991|p=13}}{{sfn|IWC "Aboriginal"}}{{sfn|Morseth|1997}} In 1946, the IWC placed a moratorium, limiting the annual whale catch. Since then, yearly profits for these "subsistence" hunters have been close to US$31m (£20m) per year.{{sfn|Economist|2012}}

===Other threats===
{{further|Cetacean bycatch|Cetacean stranding|Marine mammals and sonar}}

Whales can also be threatened by humans more indirectly. They are unintentionally caught in fishing nets by commercial fisheries as [[bycatch]] and accidentally swallow fishing hooks. [[Gillnetting]] and [[Seine fishing|Seine netting]] is a significant cause of mortality in whales and other marine mammals.{{sfn|NOAA Fisheries|2014}} Species commonly entangled include beaked whales. Whales are also affected by [[marine pollution]]. High levels of [[Persistent organic pollutant|organic chemical]]s accumulate in these animals since they are high in the food chain. They have large reserves of blubber, more so for toothed whales as they are higher up the food chain than baleen whales. Lactating mothers can pass the toxins on to their young. These pollutants can cause [[gastrointestinal cancer]]s and greater vulnerability to infectious diseases.{{sfn|Metcalfe|2012}} They can also be poisoned by swallowing litter, such as plastic bags.{{sfn|Tsai|2015}} Advanced [[Marine mammals and sonar|military sonar harms whales]]. Sonar interferes with the basic biological functions of whales—such as feeding and mating—by impacting their ability to [[Animal echolocation|echolocate]]. Whales swim in response to sonar and sometimes experience [[decompression sickness]] due to rapid changes in depth. Mass [[Cetacean stranding|strandings]] have been triggered by sonar activity, resulting in injury or death.{{sfn|Stockton|2016}}{{sfn|Carrington|2013}}{{sfn|Scientific American|2009}}<ref>References prior to 2010, before a more definitive conclusion:
* {{harvnb|Rommel et al.|2006}}
* {{harvnb|Schrope|2003|p=106}}
* {{harvnb|Kirby|2003}}
* {{harvnb|Piantadosi et al.|2004}}
</ref> Whales are sometimes killed or injured during collisions with ships or boats. This is considered to be a significant threat to vulnerable whale populations such as the [[North Atlantic right whale]], whose total population numbers less than 500.{{sfn|WWF}} It is believed that up to two thirds of whale-ship collisions are not reported; either because they are not noticed in large ships, they occur at night or during conditions of adverse weather or some other reasons.<ref name=shipstrike/> From 2013 up to at least 2023 [[Chile]] has been the country in the world with most registered fatal whale-ship collisions.<ref name=shipstrike>{{Cite journal |title=High rate of ship strike to large whales off Chile: Historical data and proposed actions to reduce risk |journal=[[Marine Policy]] |year=2025|author=Toro, Frederick; Buchan Susannah J.; Alvarado-Rybak, Mario; Bedriñana-Romano, Luis; Garcia-Cegarra, Ana M., Hucke-Gaete, Rodrigo; Olavarria, Carlos; Sepúlveda, Maritza; Galletti-Vernazzani, Barbara; Sielfeld, Walter; Aguayo, Anelio; Capella, Juan; Perez-Alvarez, Maria José; Viddi, Francisco; Caceres, Benjamin; Gibbons, Jorge; Acevedo, Jorge; Guzman, Hector; Guerra, Jorge; Saez, Ricardo; Seguel, Mauricio; Fishbach, M. Michael|volume=174 |article-number=106577|doi=10.1016/j.marpol.2024.106577 |bibcode=2025MarPo.17406577T }}</ref>

===Conservation===

{{main|Whale conservation}}

Whaling decreased substantially after 1946 when, in response to the steep decline in whale populations, the [[International Whaling Commission]] placed a moratorium which set a catch limit for each country; this excluded aboriginal groups up until 2004.{{sfn|New Bedford}}{{sfn|IWC "Aboriginal"}}{{sfn|IWC "Key Documents"}}{{sfn|IWC "Catch Limits"}} As of 2015, aboriginal communities are allowed to take 280 [[bowhead whales]] off Alaska and two from the western coast of Greenland, 620 grey whales off Washington state, three [[common minke whale]]s off the eastern coast of Greenland and 178 on their western coast, 10 [[fin whale]]s from the west coast of Greenland, nine [[humpback whale]]s from the west coast of Greenland and 20 off [[St. Vincent and the Grenadines]] each year.{{sfn|IWC "Catch Limits"}} Several species that were commercially exploited have rebounded in numbers; for example, grey whales may be as numerous as they were prior to harvesting, but the [[Gray whale#North Atlantic|North Atlantic population]] is [[functionally extinct]]. Conversely, the North Atlantic right whale was extirpated from much of its former range, which stretched across the North Atlantic, and only remains in small fragments along the coast of Canada, Greenland, and is considered functionally extinct along the European coastline.{{sfn|NOAA|2014}}

The IWC has designated two whale sanctuaries: the [[Southern Ocean Whale Sanctuary]], and the [[Indian Ocean Whale Sanctuary]]. The Southern Ocean whale sanctuary spans {{convert|30560860|km2|sqmi}} and envelopes Antarctica.{{sfn|MacKenzie|1994}} The Indian Ocean whale sanctuary takes up all of the Indian Ocean south of 55°S.{{sfn|IWC "Whale Sanctuaries"}}

At least 86 cetacean species are recognized by the [[International Whaling Commission]] Scientific Committee.{{sfn|Australian Report|2009|p={{pn|date=September 2023}}}} {{As of|2020}}, six are considered at risk, as they are ranked "[[Critically Endangered species|Critically Endangered]]" (North Atlantic right whale{{sfn|Cooke|2020}}), "[[Endangered species|Endangered]]" (blue whale,{{sfn|Cooke|2019}} North Pacific right whale,{{sfn|Cooke|Clapham|2018}} and sei whale,{{sfn|Cooke|2018a}}) and "[[Vulnerable species|Vulnerable]]" (fin whale{{sfn|Cooke|2018c}} and sperm whale{{sfn|Whitehead et al.|2025}}). Twenty-one species have a "[[Data Deficient]]" ranking.{{sfn|Mead|2005|pp=723–743}} Species that live in polar habitats are vulnerable to the effects of recent and ongoing [[climate change]], particularly the time when pack ice forms and melts.{{sfn|Laidre|Stirling|Lowry|Wiig|2008|pp=97–125}}

<gallery class=center mode=nolines widths=250 heights=140>
File:Blue Whale population, Pengo.svg|World population graph of [[blue whale]]s
File:International Whaling Commission members.svg|World map showing [[International Whaling Commission|International Whaling Commission (IWC)]] members in blue
File:Rorqual 070.jpg|Whale Research Expeditions by Mingan Island Cetacean Study (MICS),<ref name="Mingan Island Cetacean Study (MICS)">{{cite web |title=Mingan Island Cetacean Study (MICS) |url=https://www.rorqual.com/english/home |access-date=11 August 2024|date=2024 |quote=The principal study areas include the Quebec North Shore in the Mingan Island / Anticosti region, the Gaspe Peninsula and St. Lawrence Estuary.}}</ref><br/>[[Gulf of St. Lawrence#Marine mammals|Gulf of St. Lawrence]], Canada
</gallery>

===Whale watching===

{{main|Whale watching}}

[[File:Whale Watching.jpg|thumb|[[Whale watching]] off [[Bar Harbor, Maine|Bar Harbour, Maine]]]]

An estimated 13 million people went [[whale watching]] globally in 2008, in all oceans except the Arctic.{{sfn|O'Connor et al.|2009}} Rules and codes of conduct have been created to minimize harassment of the whales.{{sfn|Watchable Wildlife|2004}} Iceland, Japan and Norway have both whaling and whale watching industries. Whale watching lobbyists are concerned that the most inquisitive whales, which approach boats closely and provide much of the entertainment on whale-watching trips, will be the first to be taken if whaling is resumed in the same areas.{{sfn|Björgvinsson|2002}} Whale watching generated US$2.1 billion (£1.4 billion) per annum in tourism revenue worldwide, employing around 13,000 workers.{{sfn|O'Connor et al.|2009}} In contrast, the whaling industry, with the moratorium in place, generates US$31 million (£20 million) per year.{{sfn|Economist|2012}}

===In myth, literature and art===

{{Further|Biomusic#Whale song in music}}

Whales played a major part in shaping the art forms of many coastal civilizations, such as the [[North Germanic peoples|Norse]], with some dating to the [[Stone Age]]. Petroglyphs off a cliff face in Bangudae, South Korea show 300 depictions of various animals, a third of which are whales. Some show particular detail in which there are throat pleats, typical of [[rorqual]]s. These petroglyphs show these people, of around 7,000 to 3,500 B.C.E. in South Korea, were highly dependent on whales.{{sfn|World Archaeology|2014}} The [[Pacific Islanders]] and [[Australian Aborigines|Aboriginal Australians]] viewed whales as bringers of good and joy. One exception is [[French Polynesia]], where cetaceans are often met with brutality.{{sfn|Cressey|1998}} 

In coastal regions of China, Korea and Vietnam, the worship of whale gods, who were associated with [[Dragon King]]s after the arrival of [[Buddhism]], was present along with related legends.{{sfn|Lee Soon Ae|1999}} In Thailand, the most common whales found are the [[Bryde's whale]]. Thai fishermen call them ''Pla pu'' ({{langx|th|ปลาปู่}}; {{IPA|th|plāː puː|pron}}), "grandfather fish", and do not hunt them.{{sfn|Tha Chalom|2024}} In Vietnam, whales hold a [[Whale worship|sense of divinity]]; funerals are sometimes held for beached whales, a custom deriving from Vietnam's ancient sea-based [[Champa|Champa Kingdom]].{{sfn|The Independent|2010}}{{sfn|Sydney Morning Herald|2003}}{{sfn|Viegas|2010}}{{sfn|GNA|2005}}

Whales play a role in sacred texts. The story of [[Jonah]] being swallowed by a great fish is told both in the [[Jonah in Islam|Qur'an]]<ref>{{qref|37|139-148|b=y}}</ref> and in the biblical [[Book of Jonah]] (and is mentioned by Jesus in the New Testament: [[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] 12:40.{{sfn|Matthew}}). This episode was frequently depicted in [[medieval]] art (for example, on a 12th-century column [[capital (architecture)|capital]] at the abbey church of [[Mozac]], France).  The "[[leviathan]]" described at length in Job 41:1-34 is generally understood to refer to a whale. The "sea monsters" in Lamentations 4:3 have been taken by some to refer to marine mammals, in particular whales, although most modern versions use the word "jackals" instead.{{sfn|Lamentations}}<!-- "sea monsters" (marine mammals) in the Douay-Rheims, KJV, Webster, AKJV, and English Jubilee 2000 version - KJV margin "sea calves" (seals) -->

In 1585, [[Alessandro Farnese, Duke of Parma and Piacenza|Alessandro Farnese]], 1585, and Francois, Duke of Anjou, 1582, were greeted on his ceremonial entry into the port city of [[Antwerp]] by floats including "Neptune and the Whale", indicating at least<!--in John Mack's view--> the city's dependence on the sea for its wealth.{{sfn|Mack|2013}} In 1896, an article in ''[[The Pall Mall Gazette]]'' popularised a practice of [[alternative medicine]] that probably began in the whaling town of [[Eden, New South Wales|Eden]], [[Australia]] two or three years earlier.{{sfn|The Pall Mall Gazette|1896}} It was believed that climbing inside a whale carcass and remaining there for a few hours would relieve symptoms of [[rheumatism]].{{sfn|Barlass|2014}}

Whales are prevalent in modern literature. [[Herman Melville]]'s ''[[Moby Dick]]'' features a "great white whale" as the main antagonist for Ahab. The tale is partly [[Cetology of Moby-Dick|based on historical events]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Philbrick |first=Nathaniel |author-link=Nathaniel Philbrick |year=2000 |title=In the Heart of the Sea: The Tragedy of the Whaleship Essex |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=roXy5kT34j4C |publisher=Viking| location=New York |isbn=0-670-89157-6 |pages=xii-xv}}</ref> including the albino sperm whale [[Mocha Dick]].<ref name="Reynolds 1839">Reynolds, J. N., "Mocha Dick: or the White Whale of the Pacific: A Leaf from a Manuscript Journal", ''The Knickerbocker, or New-York Monthly Magazine''. 13.5, May 1839, pp. 377–392.</ref> [[Rudyard Kipling]]'s ''[[Just So Stories]]'' includes the story of "How the Whale got in his Throat".<ref>{{cite book |last=Kipling |first=Rudyard |title=Just So Stories |date=1902 |publisher=Macmillan |chapter=How the Whale Got His Throat}}</ref> A whale features in the award-winning children's book ''[[The Snail and the Whale]]'' (2003) by [[Julia Donaldson]] and [[Axel Scheffler]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Donaldson |first=Julia |title=The Snail and the Whale |date=2003 |publisher=Macmillan |isbn=978-0-330-51734-8}}</ref>

[[Niki Caro]]'s film the ''[[Whale Rider]]'' has a Māori girl ride a whale in her journey to be a suitable heir to the chieftain-ship.{{sfn|Jøn|2014}} Walt Disney's film ''[[Pinocchio (1940 film)|Pinocchio]]'' features a showdown with a giant whale named [[Monstro]] at the end of the film, voiced by [[Thurl Ravenscroft]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Ellis |first=Richard |year=2011 |title=The Great Sperm Whale: A Natural History of the Ocean's Most Magnificent and Mysterious Creature |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bi-nEAAAQBAJ |publisher=University Press of Kansas |isbn=978-0-700-61772-2 |page=225}}</ref>

A recording of ''Song with a Humpback Whale'' by a team of marine scientists became popular in 1970. [[Alan Hovhaness]]'s orchestral composition ''[[And God Created Great Whales]]'' (1970) includes the recorded sounds of humpback and bowhead whales.{{sfn|Hovhannes|1970}}

<gallery class=center mode=nolines widths=180 heights=180>
File:Im Februar 1598 an der holländischen Küste gestrandeter Walfisch.jpg|Engraving by [[Gilliam van der Gouwen]] depicting a stranded sperm whale being butchered on the Dutch coast, 1598
File:Gustave Doré - Baron von Münchhausen - 067.jpg|Illustration by [[Gustave Doré]] of [[Baron Munchausen]]'s tale of being swallowed by a whale
File:Oswald Brierly - Whalers off Twofold Bay, New South Wales, 1867.jpg|''Whalers off Twofold Bay, New South Wales''. [[Watercolour]] by [[Oswald Brierly]], 1867
</gallery>

===In captivity===

{{Main|Cetaceans in captivity}}

{{Further|Beluga whale#Captivity}}

[[File:WIKI SEA WORLD FL 2.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Beluga whale]]s and trainers in an aquarium]]

Belugas were the first whales to be kept in captivity. The first beluga was shown at [[Barnum's American Museum|Barnum's Museum]] in [[New York City]] in 1861.{{sfn|''New York Times''|1861}} For most of the 20th century, Canada was the predominant source of wild belugas,{{sfn|CMEPS|2006}} followed by Russia when the practice was banned in Canada.{{sfn|CMEPS|2006}} Most captive belugas are caught in the wild, since captive-breeding has had limited success.{{sfn|WAZA}}

Between 1960 and 1992, the [[United States Navy|Navy]] studied marine mammals' abilities with [[Animal echolocation|sonar]], using dolphins and then belugas, to improve the detection of underwater objects.{{sfn|PBS ''Frontline''}} A similar program was used by the [[Russian Navy]] during the Cold War, in which belugas were also trained for [[Naval mine|antimining]] operations in the Arctic.{{sfn|Beland|1996}} 

As of 2006, 30 belugas were in Canada and 28 in the United States, and 42 deaths in captivity had been reported up to that time.{{sfn|CMEPS|2006}} Aquariums have tried housing other species of whales such as narwhal, Sowerby's beaked whale, grey whale, and minke whale in captivity, often unsuccessfully.{{sfn|Klinowska|1991|p=279}}{{sfn|Klinowska|1991|pp=372–373, 383, 421}}

==See also==
* [[List of individual cetaceans]]
* [[Whaling in Japan]]
* [[Whaling in Norway]]
* [[Whaling in Iceland]]

==References==
{{Reflist|20em}}

==Bibliography==
===Books===
{{refbegin|35em}}
*{{cite book|last1=Björgvinsson|first1=Ásbjörn|last2=Lugmayr |first2=Helmut|last3=Camm|first3=Martin |last4=Skaptason |first4=Jón |year=2002|title=Whale watching in Iceland |isbn=978-9979-761-55-6|ref={{harvid|Björgvinsson|2002}}}}
*{{cite book |last=Beland |first=Pierre |year=1996 |title=Beluga: A Farewell to Whales |publisher=The Lyons Press |edition=1st |isbn=978-1-55821-398-2 |page=[https://archive.org/details/belugafarewellto0000bela/page/224 224] |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/belugafarewellto0000bela}}
*{{cite book|last=Dawkins |first=Richard |author-link=Richard Dawkins |year=2004 |title=The Ancestor's Tale, A Pilgrimage to the Dawn of Life |title-link=The Ancestor's Tale |publisher=Houghton Mifflin |isbn=978-0-618-00583-3}}
*{{cite book|last=Gormley|first=Gerard|year=1990 |title=Orcas of the Gulf: A Natural History |publisher=toExcel |location=Lincoln, NE |isbn=978-0-595-01118-6 |url={{google books|plainurl=yes|id=xwvWILe_c_cC}}}}
*{{cite encyclopedia |last1=Kennedy |first1=Robert |last2=Perrin |first2=W.F. |last3=Wursig |first3=B. |last4=Thewissen |first4=J. G. M. |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Marine Mammals |title=Right whales (''E. glacialis'', ''E. japonica'', and ''E. australis'' |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2rkHQpToi9sC&pg=PA966 |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-12-373553-9 |ref={{harvid|Kennedy|2008}}}}
*{{cite book |last1=Ketten |first1=Darlene R.|year=1992 |chapter=The Marine Mammal Ear: Specializations for Aquatic Audition and Echolocation |title=The Evolutionary Biology of Hearing |editor1-last=Webster |editor1-first=Douglas B. |editor2-last=Fay |editor2-first=Richard R. |editor3-last=Popper |editor3-first=Arthur N. |publisher=Springer–Verlag |doi=10.1007/978-1-4612-2784-7_44 |isbn=978-1-4612-7668-5 |pages=717–750}}
*{{cite book|last1=Klinowska |first1=Margaret |year=1991 |title=Dolphins, Porpoises, and Whales of the World: the IUCN Red Data Book |publisher=IUCN Publications |location=Columbia University Press, NY |url=https://portals.iucn.org/library/sites/library/files/documents/RD-1991-001.pdf|isbn=978-2-88032-936-5}}
*{{cite book |last1=Mack |first1=John |title=The Sea: a cultural history |date=2013 |publisher=Reaktion Books |isbn=978-1-78023-184-6 |pages=205–206}}
*{{cite book |editor-last1=Mann |editor-first1=Janet |editor-last2=Connor |editor-first2=Richard C. |editor-last3=Tyack |editor-first3=Peter L. |editor-last4=Whitehead |editor-first4=Hal |year=2000 |title=Cetacean Societies: Field Studies of Dolphins and Whales |publisher=University of Chicago |isbn=978-0-226-50341-7 |page=9 |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=W-UQNoxMONwC}} |ref={{harvid|Mann|2000}}}}
*{{cite book|last=McBrearty|first=D.|year=1991 |chapter=Records of 'blackfish' (killer, false killer, pilot, pygmy killer, and melon-headed whales) in the Indian Ocean Sanctuary, 1772–1986 |editor-last1=Leatherwood |editor-first1=S. |editor-last2=Donovan |editor-first2=G.P. |title=Cetaceans and cetacean research in the Indian Ocean Sanctuary |pages=33–65 |location=Nairobi |publisher=UNEP |series=Marine Mammal Technical Report |volume=3 |oclc=28388647 |url=https://portals.iucn.org/library/node/27925}}
*{{cite book |last1=Mead |first1=J.G. |last2=Brownell | first2=R.L. Jr. |year=2005 |chapter=Order Cetacea |title=Mammal Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference |publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press |pages=723–743 |isbn=978-0-8018-8221-0 |ref={{harvid|Mead|2005}}}}
*{{cite book |last1=Nemoto |first1=T. |last2=Okiyama |first2=M. |last3=Iwasaki |first3=N. |last4=Kikuchi |first4=T. |year=1988 |editor1=Dietrich Sahrhage |publisher=Springer Berlin Heidelberg|title=Antarctic Ocean and Resources Variability |chapter=Squid as Predators on Krill (Euphausia superba) and Prey for Sperm Whales in the Southern Ocean |pages=292–296 |doi=10.1007/978-3-642-73724-4_25 |isbn=978-3-642-73726-8|ref={{harvid|Nemoto et al.|1988}}}}
*{{cite book|last=Proulx|first=Jean-Pierre|year=1994 |title=Basque whaling in Labrador in the 16th century |pages=260–286 |publisher=National Historic Sites, Parks Service, Environment Canada |isbn=978-0-660-14819-9}}
*{{cite encyclopedia |last1=Ralls |first1=Katherine |last2=Mesnick |first2=Sarah |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Marine Mammals |title=Sexual Dimorphism |pages=1005–1011 |edition=2nd |year=1984 |publisher=Academic Press |location=San Diego |isbn=978-0-08-091993-5 |url=http://www.cetus.ucsd.edu/SIO133/PDF/Sexual%20Dimorphism.pdf |access-date=17 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190725004132/http://www.cetus.ucsd.edu/SIO133/PDF/Sexual%20Dimorphism.pdf |archive-date=25 July 2019 }}
*{{cite book |last=Riedman |first=M. |year=1991 |title=The Pinnipeds: Seals, Sea Lions, and Walruses |publisher=University of California Press |page=[https://archive.org/details/pinnipedssealsse0000ried/page/168 168] |isbn=978-0-520-06498-0 |url=https://archive.org/details/pinnipedssealsse0000ried/page/168 }}
*{{cite book|last=Skeat|first=Walter W.|year=1898|title=An Etymological Dictionary of the English Language |edition=3rd |publisher=Clarendon Press|page=704 |url={{Google books|plainurl=yes|id=vDZAAAAAYAAJ|page=704}}}}
*{{cite book |last1=Stevens |first1=C. Edward |last2=Hume |first2=Ian D. |year=1995 |title=Comparative Physiology of the Vertebrate Digestive System |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-44418-7 |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=DZuAsci2apAC |page=11}}}}
*{{cite book |last1=Thewissen |first1=J. G. M. |last2=Perrin |first2=William R. |last3=Wirsig |first3=Bernd |chapter=Hearing |pages=[https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofma2002unse/page/570 570–572] |title=Encyclopedia of Marine Mammals |year=2002 |publisher=Academic Press |location=San Diego |isbn=978-0-12-551340-1 |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofma2002unse/page/570}}
*{{cite book|last1=Thomas |first1=Jeanette A. |last2=Kastelein |first2=Ronald A. |title=Sensory Abilities of Cetaceans: Laboratory and Field Evidence |isbn=978-1-4899-0860-5 |doi=10.1007/978-1-4899-0858-2 |date=1990 |url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=VWz1BwAAQBAJ |page=1}} |volume=196 |publisher= Springer Science & Business Media |location=New York|s2cid=32801659 |ref={{harvid|Jeanette et al.|1990}}}}
*{{cite book |last1=Tonnessen |first1=J.N. |last2=Johnsen |first2=A.O |year=1982 |title=The History of Modern Whaling |publisher=C. Hurst |isbn=978-0-905838-23-6|ref={{harvid|Tonnessen|1982}}}}
*{{cite book|last=Whitehead|first=H.|year=2003|title=Sperm Whales: Social Evolution in the Ocean |location=Chicago |publisher=University of Chicago Press|page=[https://archive.org/details/spermwhalessocia0000whit/page/4 4] |isbn=978-0-226-89518-5 |url=https://archive.org/details/spermwhalessocia0000whit/page/4}}
{{refend}}

===Articles===
{{refbegin|35em}}
*{{cite journal |last1=Bebej |first1=R. M. |last2=ul-Haq |first2=M. |last3=Zalmout |first3=I. S. |last4=Gingerich |first4=P. D. |title=Morphology and Function of the Vertebral Column in ''Remingtonocetus domandaensis'' (Mammalia, cetacea) from the Middle Eocene Domanda Formation of Pakistan |journal=Journal of Mammalian Evolution |date=June 2012 |volume=19 |issue=2 |doi=10.1007/S10914-011-9184-8 |pages=77–104|s2cid=17810850 |ref={{harvid|Bebej et al.|2012}} | issn = 1064-7554}}
*{{cite journal |last1=Boisserie |first1=Jean-Renaud |last2=Lihoreau |first2=Fabrice |last3=Brunet |first3=Michel |year=2005 |title=The position of Hippopotamidae within Cetartiodactyla |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=102 |issue=5 |pages=1537–1541 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0409518102 |pmid=15677331 |pmc=547867 |bibcode=2005PNAS..102.1537B|doi-access=free }}
*{{cite journal |last1=Cranford |first1=T.W. |last2=Krysl |first2=P. |last3=Hildebrand |first3=J.A. |date=2008 |title=Acoustic pathways revealed: simulated sound transmission and reception in Cuvier's beaked whale (''Ziphius cavirostris'') |journal=Bioinspiration & Biomimetics |volume=3 |issue=1 |at=016001 |doi=10.1088/1748-3182/3/1/016001 |pmid=18364560 |bibcode=2008BiBi....3a6001C |s2cid=26098966 |ref={{harvid|Cranford et al.|2008}}}}
*{{cite iucn |vauthors=Cooke JG |year=2018a |title=''Balaenoptera borealis'' |at=e.T2475A130482064 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-2.RLTS.T2475A130482064.en}}
*{{cite iucn |vauthors=Cooke JG |title=''Balaenoptera musculus'' |errata=2019 |year=2018 |at=e.T2477A156923585 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-2.RLTS.T2477A156923585.en}}{{sfn whitelist|CITEREFCooke2019}}
*{{cite iucn |vauthors=Cooke JG |year=2018c |title=''Balaenoptera physalus'' |at=e.T2478A50349982 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-2.RLTS.T2478A50349982.en}}
*{{cite iucn |vauthors=Cooke JG |title=''Eubalaena glacialis'' |errata=2020 |year=2020 |at=e.T41712A178589687 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-2.RLTS.T41712A178589687.en}}
*{{cite iucn |vauthors=Cooke JG, Clapham PJ |title=''Eubalaena japonica'' |year=2018 |at=e.T41711A50380694 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-1.RLTS.T41711A50380694.en }}
*{{cite iucn |vauthors=Whitehead H, Barlow J, Dawson SM, Eguiguren A, Miller B, Shabangu, F |year=2025 |title=''Physeter macrocephalus'' |at= e.T41755A50382216 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2025-2.RLTS.T41755A50382216.en |ref={{harvid|Whitehead et al.|2025}}}}
*{{cite journal |last=Cressey |first=Jason |year=1998 |title=Making a Splash in the Pacific Ocean: Dolphin and Whale Myths and Legends of Oceania |journal=Rapa Nui Journal |volume=12 |pages=75–84 |url=http://islandheritage.org/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2010/06/RNJ_12_3_Cressey.pdf |access-date=5 August 2015 |archive-date=20 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181120050556/http://islandheritage.org/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2010/06/RNJ_12_3_Cressey.pdf }}
*{{cite journal |last1=Fahlke |first1=Julia M. |last2=Gingerich |first2=Philip D. |last3=Welsh |first3=Robert C. |last4=Wood |first4=Aaron R. |year=2011 |title=Cranial asymmetry in Eocene archaeocete whales and the evolution of directional hearing in water |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=108 |issue=35 |pages=14545–14548 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1108927108 |pmid=21873217|ref={{harvid|Fahlke et al.|2011}} |pmc=3167538 |bibcode=2011PNAS..10814545F |doi-access=free }}
*{{cite journal |last1=Fujiwara |first1=Yoshihiro |display-authors=etal |date=16 February 2007 |title=Three-year investigations into sperm whale-fall ecosystems in Japan |journal=Marine Ecology |volume=28 |issue=1 |pages=219–230 |doi=10.1111/j.1439-0485.2007.00150.x |bibcode=2007MarEc..28..219F |doi-access=free |ref={{harvid|Fujiwara et al.|2007}}}}
*{{cite journal |last1=Gatesy |first1=J. |date=1997 |title=More DNA support for a Cetacea/Hippopotamidae clade: the blood-clotting protein gene gamma-fibrinogen |journal=Molecular Biology and Evolution | volume=14 |pages=537–543 |pmid=9159931|issue=5 |doi=10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a025790 |doi-access=free }}
*{{cite journal|last1=Goldbogen|first1=Jeremy A.|date=2010|title=The Ultimate Mouthful: Lunge Feeding in Rorqual Whales|journal=American Scientist|volume=98|issue=2|pages=124–131|doi=10.1511/2010.83.124|url=http://www.americanscientist.org/issues/pub/the-ultimate-mouthful-lunge-feeding-in-rorqual-whales|access-date=19 July 2015|archive-date=28 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161028092321/http://www.americanscientist.org/issues/pub/the-ultimate-mouthful-lunge-feeding-in-rorqual-whales|url-access=subscription}}
*{{cite journal |last1=Hof |first1=Patrick R. |last2=Van Der Gucht |first2=Estel |year=2007 |title=Structure of the cerebral cortex of the humpback whale, ''Megaptera novaeangliae'' (Cetacea, Mysticeti, Balaenopteridae) |journal=The Anatomical Record |volume=290 |issue=1 |pages=1–31 |doi=10.1002/ar.20407 |pmid=17441195|s2cid=15460266 |ref={{harvid|Hof|2007}}|doi-access=free }}
*{{cite journal |last1=Houben|first1=A. J. P. |last2=Bijl|first2=P. K. |last3=Pross|first3=J. |last4=Bohaty|first4=S. M. |last5=Passchier|first5=S. |last6=Stickley|first6=C. E. |last7=Rohl|first7=U. |last8=Sugisaki|first8=S. |last9=Tauxe|first9=L. |last10=van de Flierdt|first10=T. |last11=Olney|first11=M. |last12=Sangiorgi|first12=F. |last13=Sluijs|first13=A. |last14=Escutia |first14=C. |last15=Brinkhuis|first15=H. |date=2013 |title=Reorganization of Southern Ocean Plankton Ecosystem at the Onset of Antarctic Glaciation |journal=Science|volume=340|issue=6130|pages=341–344 |doi=10.1126/science.1223646 |pmid=23599491 |s2cid=30549019 |bibcode=2013Sci...340..341H |hdl=1874/385683 |ref={{harvid|Houben et al.|2013}}|hdl-access=free}}
*{{cite journal |last1=Johnson |first1=James H. |last2=Wolman |first2=Allen A. |date=1984 |title=The Humpback Whale ''Megaptera novaeangliae'' |journal=Marine Fisheries Review |volume=46 |issue=4 |pages=30–37 |url=http://spo.nwr.noaa.gov/mfr464/mfr4647.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925102700/http://spo.nwr.noaa.gov/mfr464/mfr4647.pdf |archive-date=2015-09-25 }}
*{{Cite journal |last=Jøn |first=A. Asbjørn |date=2014 |title=The whale road: Transitioning from spiritual links, to whaling, to whale watching in Aotearoa New Zealand |journal=Australian Folklore: A Yearly Journal of Folklore Studies |issue=29 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/288579743 |access-date=11 February 2016 }}
*{{Cite journal |vauthors=Laidre KL, Stirling I, Lowry LF, Wiig Ø, Heide-Jørgensen MP, Ferguson SH |title=Quantifying the sensitivity of Arctic marine mammals to climate-induced habitat change |journal=Ecological Applications |volume=18 |issue=2 Suppl |pages=S97–S125 |year=2008 |pmid=18494365 |doi=10.1890/06-0546.1 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2008EcoAp..18S..97L }}{{sfn whitelist|CITEREFLaidreStirlingLowryWiig2008}}
*{{cite report |author=Lee Soon Ae |year=1999 |title=護る神から守られる神へ: 韓国とベトナムの鯨神信仰を中心に|trans-title=From Gods Who Protect To The Gods Who Are Protected: Focusing on Korean and Vietnamese worship of whale gods (?) |series=国立民族学博物館調査報告 [National Museum of Ethnology Research Report] |language=ja |volume=149 |pages=195–212}}
*{{cite journal|last1=Leighton|first1=Tim|last2=Finfer|first2=Dan|last3=Grover|first3=Ed|last4=White|first4=Paul|date=2007|title=An acoustical hypothesis for the spiral bubble nets of humpback whales, and the implications for whale feeding|journal=Acoustics Bulletin|volume=32|number=1|pages=17–21|url=http://eprints.soton.ac.uk/45654/1/Spiral_net__Leighton__web_1.pdf|ref={{harvid|Leighton et al.|2007}}}}
*{{cite journal |last1=Lydersen |first1=Christian |last2=Weslawski |first2=Jan Marcin |last3=Øritsland |first3=Nils Are |year=1991 |title=Stomach content analysis of minke whales ''Balaenoptera acutorostrata'' from the Lofoten and Vesterålen areas, Norway |journal=Ecography |volume=1 |issue=3 |pages=219–222 |ref={{harvid|Lydersen et al.|1991}} |doi=10.1111/j.1600-0587.1991.tb00655.x|bibcode=1991Ecogr..14..219L }}
*{{cite journal |last1=Mass|first1=Alla|last2=Supin |first2=Alexander|date=21 May 2007 |title=Adaptive features of aquatic mammals' eyes |journal=Anatomical Record |volume=290 |issue=6 |pages=701–715 |doi=10.1002/ar.20529 |ref={{harvid|Mass et al.|2007}} |pmid=17516421|s2cid=39925190|doi-access=free }}
*{{Cite journal |last1=Miller |first1=P. J. O. |last2=Aoki |first2=K. |last3=Rendell |first3=L. E. |last4=Amano |first4=M. |year=2008 |title=Stereotypical resting behavior of the sperm whale |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2007.11.003 |journal=Current Biology |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=R21–R23 |pmid=18177706 |s2cid=10587736 |ref={{harvid|Miller et al.|2008}}|doi-access=free |bibcode=2008CBio...18..R21M }}
*{{cite journal |last=Morrel |first=Virginia |date=30 January 2012 |title=Killer Whale Menu Finally Revealed |journal=Science |url=https://www.science.org/content/article/killer-whale-menu-finally-revealed |access-date=29 August 2015 }}
*{{cite journal |last=Morseth |first=C. Michele |title=Twentieth-Century Changes in Beluga Whale Hunting and Butchering by the Kaηiġmiut of Buckland, Alaska |journal=Arctic |volume=50 |issue=3 |pages=241–255 |year=1997 |doi=10.14430/arctic1106 |jstor=40511703}}
*{{cite journal |last1=Norena |first1=S. R. |last2=Williams |first2=T. M. |year=2000 |title=Body size and skeletal muscle myoglobin of cetaceans: adaptations for maximizing dive duration |journal= Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology A |volume=126 |issue=2 |pages=181–191 |doi=10.1016/S1095-6433(00)00182-3 |pmid=10936758|bibcode=2000CmpBP.126..181N |ref={{harvid|Norena et al.|2000}}}}
*{{cite journal |last1=Nummela |first1=Sirpa |last2=Thewissen |first2=J.G.M |last3=Bajpai |first3=Sunil |last4=Hussain |first4=Taseer |last5=Kumar |first5=Kishor |title=Sound transmission in archaic and modern whales: Anatomical adaptations for underwater hearing |journal=The Anatomical Record |volume=290 |issue=6 |pages=716–733 |year=2007 |doi=10.1002/ar.20528 |pmid=17516434 |s2cid=12140889 |ref={{harvid|Nummela et al.|2007}} |url=http://repository.ias.ac.in/4651/1/321.pdf |doi-access=free }}
*{{cite journal |last1=Piantadosi|first1=C. A.|last2=Thalmann|first2=E. D.|journal=Nature |title=Pathology: whales, sonar and decompression sickness |date=2004 |volume=428 |issue=6894 |doi=10.1038/nature02527a |pmid=15085881 |pages=716–718 |s2cid=4391838 |ref={{harvid|Piantadosi et al.|2004}}}}
*{{cite journal |last1=Reidenberg |first1=Joy S. |title=Anatomical adaptations of aquatic mammals |journal=The Anatomical Record |date=2007 |volume= 290 |issue=6 |pages=507–513 |doi=10.1002/ar.20541|ref={{harvid|Reidenberg|2012}} |pmid=17516440|s2cid=42133705 |doi-access=free }}
*{{cite journal |last1=Roman |first1=J. |last2=McCarthy |first2=J. J. |date=October 2010 |title=The Whale Pump: Marine Mammals Enhance Primary Productivity in a Coastal Basin |journal=PLOS ONE|volume=5 |issue=10 |article-number=e13255 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0013255 |doi-access=free |pmid=20949007 |pmc=2952594 |bibcode=2010PLoSO...513255R}}
*{{cite journal |vauthors=Roman J, Estes JA, Morissette L, Smith C, Costa D, McCarthy J, Nation JB, Nicol S, Pershing A, Smetacek V |date=2014 |title=Whales as marine ecosystem engineers |journal=Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment |volume=12 |issue=7 |pages=377–385 |doi=10.1890/130220 |bibcode=2014FrEE...12..377R |ref={{harvid|Roman et al.|2014}} |url=http://ecite.utas.edu.au/93252 }}
*{{cite journal |last=Rommel |first=S. A. |display-authors=etal |year=2023 |title=Elements of beaked whale anatomy and diving physiology and some hypothetical causes of sonar-related stranding |journal=Journal of Cetacean Research and Management |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=189–209 |doi=10.47536/jcrm.v7i3.730 |s2cid=32951311 |url=http://foodweb.uhh.hawaii.edu/MARE390_files/Rommel%20et%20al.%202006.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100610142207/http://foodweb.uhh.hawaii.edu/MARE390_files/Rommel%20et%20al.%202006.pdf |archive-date=2010-06-10 |ref={{harvid|Rommel et al.|2006}} }}
*{{cite journal|last=Rose|first=Kenneth D.|year=2001|title=The Ancestry of Whales|journal=Science|volume=293|issue=5538|pages=2216–2217|doi=10.1126/science.1065305|ref={{harvid|Kenneth|2001}}|pmid=11567127|s2cid=82651628|url=http://courses.washington.edu/biol354/Rose_Science_WHIPPO.pdf}}
*{{cite journal |last1=Scholander |first1=Per Fredrik |title=Experimental investigations on the respiratory function in diving mammals and birds |year=1940 |journal=Hvalraadets Skrifter |volume=22 |pages=1–131}}
*{{cite journal |last=Schrope |first=Mark |year=2003 |title=Whale deaths caused by US Navy's sonar |journal=Nature |volume=415 |issue=6868 |page=106 |doi=10.1038/415106a |bibcode=2002Natur.415..106S |pmid=11805797 |doi-access=free}}
*{{cite journal|last1=Smith|first1=Craig R.|last2=Baco|first2=Amy R.|date=2003|title=Ecology of Whale Falls at the Deep-Sea Floor|journal=Oceanography and Marine Biology: An Annual Review|volume=41|pages=311–354|url=http://www.soest.hawaii.edu/oceanography/faculty/csmith/Files/Smith%20and%20Baco%202003.pdf}}
*{{cite journal |last1=Smith |first1=Thomas G. |last2=Sjare |first2=Becky |year=1990 |title=Predation of Belugas and Narwhals by Polar Bears in Nearshore Areas of the Canadian High Arctic |journal=Arctic |volume=43 |number=2 |pages=99–102 |url=http://pubs.aina.ucalgary.ca/arctic/Arctic43-2-99.pdf |doi=10.14430/arctic1597 |bibcode=1990Arcti..43c1597S |access-date=19 July 2015 |archive-date=8 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150908094417/http://pubs.aina.ucalgary.ca/arctic/Arctic43-2-99.pdf }}
*{{cite journal |vauthors=Steeman ME, Hebsgaard MB, Fordyce RE, ((Ho SYW)), Rabosky DL, Nielsen R, Rahbek C, Glenner H, Sorensen MV, Willerslev E |date=2009 |title=Radiation of Extant Cetaceans Driven by Restructuring of the Oceans |journal=Systematic Biology |volume=58 |issue=6 |pages=573–585 |doi=10.1093/sysbio/syp060 |pmid=20525610 |pmc=2777972 |ref={{harvid|Steeman et al.|2009}}}}
*{{cite journal |last1=Thewissen |first1=J. G. M. |last2=Cooper |first2=L. N. |last3=Clementz |first3=M. T. |last4=Bajpai |first4=S. |last5=Tiwari |first5=B. N. |title=Whales originated from aquatic artiodactyls in the Eocene epoch of India |year=2007 |journal=Nature |volume=450 |issue=7173 |pages=1190–1194 |url=http://repository.ias.ac.in/4642/1/316.pdf |doi=10.1038/nature06343 |pmid=18097400 |bibcode=2007Natur.450.1190T |s2cid=4416444 |ref={{harvid|Thewissen et al.|2007}} }}
*{{cite journal |last1=Watson |first1=K. K. |last2=Jones |first2=T. K. |last3=Allman |first3=J. M. |year=2006 |title=Dendritic architecture of the Von Economo neurons |journal=Neuroscience |volume=141 |issue=3 |pages=1107–1112 |doi=10.1016/j.neuroscience.2006.04.084 |pmid=16797136 |s2cid=7745280 |ref={{harvid|Watson|2006}}}}
*{{cite journal |last1=Wiley |first1=David |display-authors=etal |year=2011 |title=Underwater components of humpback whale bubble-net feeding behaviour |journal=Behaviour |volume=148 |issue=5 |pages=575–602 |doi=10.1163/000579511X570893 |ref={{harvid|Wiley et al.|2011}}}}
*{{cite journal |last=Zerbini |first=Alexandre N. |display-authors=etal |date=11 May 2006 |title=Satellite-monitored movements of humpback whales ''Megaptera novaeanglia'' in the Southwest Atlantic Ocean |journal=Marine Ecology Progress Series |volume=313 |pages=295–304 |doi=10.3354/meps313295 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2006MEPS..313..295Z|ref={{harvid|Zerbini et al.|2006}}}}
{{refend}}

===Websites===
{{refbegin|35em}}
*{{Cite report |title=Global cetacean summary report |publisher=Australian Government Department for the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts |date=June 2009 |url=https://www.awe.gov.au/sites/default/files/documents/global-cetacean-summary.pdf |ref={{harvid|Australian Report|2009}} }}
*{{cite web |last=Boness |first=Laura |date=26 May 2014 |title=Whale poo important for ocean ecosystems |work=Australian Geographic |url=http://www.australiangeographic.com.au/news/2014/05/whale-poo-important-for-ocean-ecosystems |access-date=18 November 2014 }}
*{{cite magazine |last=Ford |first=Catherine |date=July 2015 |magazine=The Monthly |title=John Newton's 'A Savage History: Whaling in the South Pacific and Southern Oceans' |url=https://www.themonthly.com.au/issue/2013/july/1372600800/catherine-ford/john-newton-s-savage-history-whaling-pacific-and-southern |url-access=registration |access-date=30 March 2022 }}
*{{cite web|last=Griffin|first=Catherine|date=7 December 2015|title=Beluga Bubbles Reveal How These Whales Are Feeling|url=http://www.scienceworldreport.com/articles/34203/20151207/beluga-bubbles-reveal-whales-feeling.htm|access-date=19 December 2015|work=Science World Report}}
*{{cite web |last=Higgs |first=Eleanor |title=Watch A Humpback Whale "Tail Sailing" In Incredible Video |website=Lifescience.com |date=14 August 2023 |url=https://www.iflscience.com/watch-a-humpback-whale-tail-sailing-in-incredible-video-70237 |access-date=Aug 14, 2023 }}
*{{cite web |last=Hovhannes |first=Alan |year=1970 |title=And God Created Great Whales (1970) for Orchestra and Whale Songs |url=http://www.artistdirect.com/nad/store/artist/album/0,,197507,00.html |access-date=10 October 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050524070440/http://www.artistdirect.com/nad/store/artist/album/0,,197507,00.html |archive-date=2005-05-24 }}
*{{Cite web |author=IWC |title=Small cetaceans |publisher=International Whaling Commission |url=https://iwc.int/smallcetacean |access-date=2018-04-08 |ref={{harvid|IWC "Small cetaceans"}} |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170321074145/https://iwc.int/smallcetacean |archive-date=2017-03-21 }}
*{{Cite web |author=IWC |title=The Great Whales |publisher=International Whaling Commission |url=https://iwc.int/lives |access-date=2018-04-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170321080108/https://iwc.int/lives |archive-date=2017-03-21 |ref={{harvid|IWC "The Great Whales"}} |url-status=deviated }}
*{{cite web |author=IWC |url=https://iwc.int/aboriginal |title=Aboriginal Subsistence Whaling |publisher=International Whaling Commission |access-date=29 August 2015 |ref={{harvid|IWC "Aboriginal"}} }}
*{{cite web |author=IWC |url=https://iwc.int/convention |title=Key Documents |publisher=International Whaling Commission |access-date=29 August 2015 |ref={{harvid|IWC "Key Documents"}} }}
*{{cite web |author=IWC |url=https://iwc.int/catches |title=Catch Limits |publisher=International Whaling Commission |access-date=6 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161208153737/https://iwc.int/catches |archive-date=8 December 2016 |ref={{harvid|IWC "Catch Limits"}} }}
*{{cite web |author=IWC |url=https://iwc.int/sanctuaries |title=Whale Sanctuaries |publisher=International Whaling Commission |access-date=4 September 2015 |ref={{harvid|IWC "Whale Sanctuaries"}} }}
*{{Cite web |last=Lam |first=Andy |date=Fall 1999 |title=The Convergent Evolution of Marine Fish and Whales |publisher=The University of Arizona |url=http://marinediscovery.arizona.edu/lessonsF99/andylam/ |access-date=17 January 2017 |archive-date=7 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170207214201/http://marinediscovery.arizona.edu/lessonsF99/andylam/ }}
*{{cite magazine |last=MacKenzie |first=Debora |title=Whales win southern sanctuary |magazine=New Scientist |date=4 June 1994 |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg14219280-900-whales-win-southern-sanctuary/ |access-date=12 September 2015 }}
*{{cite magazine |last1=Marrero |first1=Meghan E. |last2=Thornton |first2=Stuart |title=Big Fish: A Brief History of Whaling |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.org/article/big-fish-history-whaling/ |magazine=National Geographic |date=1 November 2011 |access-date=2 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151011123701/http://education.nationalgeographic.com/news/big-fish-history-whaling/ |archive-date=11 October 2015 |url-status=live }}
*{{cite web |last=Metcalfe |first=C. |date=23 February 2012 |title=Persistent organic pollutants in the marine food chain |publisher=United Nations University |url=http://unu.edu/publications/articles/persistent-organic-pollutants-in-the-marine-food-chain.html |access-date=16 August 2013 |archive-date=22 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191022142022/https://unu.edu/publications/articles/persistent-organic-pollutants-in-the-marine-food-chain.html }}
*{{cite web |author=Mind Matters |date=15 January 2008 |title=Are whales smarter than we are? |publisher=Scientific American |url=http://blogs.scientificamerican.com/news-blog/are-whales-smarter-than-we-are/ |access-date=9 August 2015 }}
*{{Cite web |last=Moskowitz |first=Clara |author-link=Clara Moskowitz |date=2 June 2011 |title=Jaw-Dropping Similarity Found in Whales and Pelicans |work=Live Science |url=http://www.livescience.com/14404-rorqual-whales-pelicans-jaw-convergent-evolution.html |access-date=17 January 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120703234733/https://www.livescience.com/14404-rorqual-whales-pelicans-jaw-convergent-evolution.html |archive-date=2012-07-03 }}
*{{cite report |author1=O'Connor, S. |author2=Campbell, R. |author3=Cortez, H. |author4=Knowles, T. |year=2009 |access-date=29 August 2015 |title=Whale Watching Worldwide: tourism numbers, expenditures and expanding economic benefits |url=http://www.ifaw.org/sites/default/files/whale_watching_worldwide.pdf |publisher=International Fund for Animal Welfare |ref={{harvid|O'Connor et al.|2009}} |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150508041447/http://www.ifaw.org/sites/default/files/whale_watching_worldwide.pdf |archive-date=2015-05-08 }}
*{{cite magazine |last=Siebert |first=Charles |title=Watching Whales Watching Us |magazine=[[The New York Times]] Magazine |date=8 July 2009 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/07/12/magazine/12whales-t.html?pagewanted=all |access-date=29 August 2015 }}
*{{Cite magazine |last=Stockton |first=Nick |date=19 July 2016 |title=The Sea Will Get a Lot Quieter Without the Navy's Whale-Killing Sonar |magazine=[[Wired (magazine)|Wired]] |url=https://www.wired.com/2016/07/sea-will-get-lot-quieter-without-navys-whale-killing-sonar/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160828123356/https://www.wired.com/2016/07/sea-will-get-lot-quieter-without-navys-whale-killing-sonar/ |archive-date=28 August 2016 |access-date=23 January 2018 }}
*{{cite web|last1=Stonehouse|first1=Bernard|date=5 October 2007|title=British Arctic whaling: an overview|url=http://www.hull.ac.uk/baw/overview/overview.htm|publisher=University of Hull|access-date=4 September 2015|archive-date=5 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161005044227/https://www.hull.ac.uk/baw/overview/overview.htm}}
*{{cite web |last=Viegas |first=Jennifer |date=23 February 2010 |title=Thousands Mourn Dead Whale in Vietnam |work=Seeker |url=https://www.seeker.com/thousands-mourn-dead-whale-in-vietnam-1765029259.html |access-date=30 March 2022 }}
*{{cite web |title=Introduction to Cetacea: Archaeocetes: The Oldest Whales |publisher=University of Berkeley |url=http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/mammal/cetacea/cetacean.html |access-date=25 July 2015 |ref={{harvid|Berkeley}} }}
*{{cite web |url=http://www.defenders.org/whales/basic-facts |title=Mysticetes hunt in groups |date=2012-04-10 |publisher=Defenders of Wildlife |access-date=24 July 2015 |ref={{harvid|Defenders of Wildlife}} }}
*{{cite web |url=http://www.whalingmuseum.org/learn/research-topics/overview-of-north-american-whaling/whales-hunting |title=Whale products |work=New Bedford Whaling Museum |access-date=29 August 2015 |ref={{harvid|New Bedford}} }}
*{{cite web |url=http://www.ifaw.org/united-states/our-work/whales/which-countries-are-still-whaling |title=Which countries are still whaling |publisher=International Fund for Animal Welfare |access-date=29 August 2015 |ref={{harvid|IFAW}} }}
*{{cite web |title=The physics of bubble rings and other diver's exhausts |website=Deep Ocean's Diving Science |url=http://www.deepocean.net/deepocean/index.php?science09.php |access-date=19 December 2015 |ref={{harvid|Deep Ocean}} |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061006163548/http://www.deepocean.net/deepocean/index.php?science09.php |archive-date=6 October 2006 }}
*{{cite web |url=http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/pdfs/education/viewing_wildlife.pdf |access-date=6 August 2010 |title=Marine Wildlife Viewing Guidelines |date=January 2004 |publisher=Watchable Wildlife Marine Viewing Working Group |ref={{harvid|Watchable Wildlife|2004}} |archive-date=2006-10-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061004180945/http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/pdfs/education/viewing_wildlife.pdf }}
*{{cite web |url=http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/species/mammals/cetaceans/spermwhale.htm |title=Sperm Whales (''Physeter macrocephalus'') |date=13 November 2013 |publisher=NOAA Fisheries – Office of Protected Resources |access-date=9 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140710154413/http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/species/mammals/cetaceans/spermwhale.htm |archive-date=2014-07-10 |ref={{harvid|NOAA Fisheries|2013}} }}
*{{cite web |url=http://swfsc.noaa.gov/textblock.aspx?Division=PRD&ParentMenuId=228&id=1408 |title=The Tuna-Dolphin Issue |date=2014-12-24 |publisher=NOAA Fisheries – Southwest Fisheries Science Center |access-date=29 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925084644/https://swfsc.noaa.gov/textblock.aspx?Division=PRD&ParentMenuId=228&id=1408 |archive-date=2015-09-25 |ref={{harvid|NOAA Fisheries|2014}} }}
*{{cite web |title=North Atlantic Right Whale (''Eubalaena glacialis'') Source Document for the Critical Habitat Designation: A review of information pertaining to the definition of "critical habitat" |url=http://www.greateratlantic.fisheries.noaa.gov/regs/2015/February/narwsourcedocumentfinal072114.pdf |publisher=National Marine Fisheries Service |date=July 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924023539/http://www.greateratlantic.fisheries.noaa.gov/regs/2015/February/narwsourcedocumentfinal072114.pdf |archive-date=2015-09-24 |ref={{harvid|NOAA|2014}} }}
*{{cite report | title=Beluga Whales in Captivity: Hunted, Poisoned, Unprotected | year=2006 | work=Special Report on Captivity 2006 | publisher=Canadian Marine Environment Protection Society|ref={{harvid|CMEPS|2006}}}}
*{{cite web | url=http://www.waza.org/en/zoo/visit-the-zoo/aquatic-mammals-1254385523/delphinapterus-leucas | title=Beluga (''Delphinapterus leucas'') Facts – Distribution – In the Zoo | access-date=5 December 2011 | publisher=World Association of Zoos and Aquariums | ref={{harvid|WAZA}} | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120210101419/http://www.waza.org/en/zoo/visit-the-zoo/aquatic-mammals-1254385523/delphinapterus-leucas | archive-date=10 February 2012 }}
*{{cite web |title=Going Aquatic: Cetacean Evolution |work=Nature |publisher=PBS |date=21 March 2012 |url=https://www.pbs.org/wnet/nature/ocean-giants-going-aquatic-cetacean-evolution/7577/ |access-date=29 August 2015 |ref={{harvid|PBS ''Nature''|2012}} }}
*{{cite web |title=Timeline: The History of Whaling in America |work=American Experience |publisher=PBS |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/timeline/timeline-whaling/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100501033301/https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/timeline/timeline-whaling/ |archive-date=2010-05-01 |ref={{harvid|PBS ''American Experience''}} }}
*{{cite web |title=The Story of Navy Dolphins |work=Frontline |publisher=PBS |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/whales/etc/navycron.html |access-date=12 October 2008 |ref={{harvid|PBS ''Frontline''}} }}
*{{Cite web |title=Does Military Sonar Kill Marine Wildlife? |website=Scientific American |date=10 June 2009 |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/does-military-sonar-kill/ |access-date=23 January 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171126083015/https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/does-military-sonar-kill/ |archive-date=26 November 2017 |url-status=live |ref={{harvid|Scientific American|2009}} }}
*{{cite web|url=http://www.world-archaeology.com/travel/cwa-travels-to-the-petroglyphs-of-bangudae.htm|title=CWA travels to The Petroglyphs of Bangudae|website=World Archaeology|date=24 January 2014|access-date=31 August 2015|ref={{harvid|World Archaeology|2014}}}}
*{{Cite web |title=Watching out for whales: Reducing risks when ships and whales share the seas |website=wwf.panda.org |url=https://wwf.panda.org/discover/knowledge_hub/endangered_species/cetaceans/threats/shipping.cfm |access-date=2021-09-06 |publisher=WWF |ref={{harvid|WWF}} }}
*{{cite web|work=Facebook|language=thai|date=2024-11-25|access-date=2024-04-19|url=https://www.facebook.com/share/p/15ETd4V4kE/|title=ชวนดูวาฬบรูด้า ยักษ์ใหญ่ใจดีแห่งท้องทะเลไทย|trans-title=Come see Bryde's whales, the gentle giants of the Thai seas|author=Ban Tha Chalom|ref={{harvid|Tha Chalom|2024}}}}
{{refend}}

===News===
{{refbegin|35em}}
*{{cite news|last=Barlass|first=Tim |title=Bizarre whale treatment for rheumatism revealed|date=2014-03-30 |work=The Sydney Morning Herald |url=https://www.smh.com.au/environment/animals/bizarre-whale-treatment-for-rheumatism-revealed-20140329-35q0w.html |access-date=2017-06-18}}
*{{Cite news|last=Carrington|first=Damian|date=3 July 2013|title=Whales flee from military sonar leading to mass strandings, research shows |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2013/jul/03/whales-flee-military-sonar-strandings |access-date=23 January 2018 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171001191231/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2013/jul/03/whales-flee-military-sonar-strandings |archive-date=1 October 2017}}
*{{cite news |last=Collins|first=Nick|date=22 October 2012 |title=Whale learns to mimic human speech |work=The Telegraph |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/science/science-news/9625687/Whale-learns-to-mimic-human-speech.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/science/science-news/9625687/Whale-learns-to-mimic-human-speech.html |archive-date=11 January 2022 |url-status=live |url-access=registration |access-date=22 October 2012}}{{cbignore}}
*{{cite news|title=Commercial Whaling: Good Whale Hunting|newspaper=The Economist|date=4 March 2012 |url=https://www.economist.com/blogs/babbage/2012/03/commercial-whaling|access-date=1 September 2015|url-access=subscription|ref={{harvid|Economist|2012}}}}
*{{Cite news|last=Gray|first=Richard|date=2013-06-13|title=How the sperm whale can hold its breath for 90 minutes |work=The Daily Telegraph |issn=0307-1235 |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/science/science-news/10119516/How-the-sperm-whale-can-hold-its-breath-for-90-minutes.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/science/science-news/10119516/How-the-sperm-whale-can-hold-its-breath-for-90-minutes.html |archive-date=11 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |access-date=2017-09-21}}{{cbignore}}
*{{cite news |last=Kirby |first=Alex |date=8 October 2003 |title=Sonar may cause Whale deaths |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/3173942.stm |access-date=14 September 2006}}
*{{cite news |author=Northeastern Ohio Universities Colleges of Medicine and Pharmacy |date=21 December 2007 |title=Whales Descended From Tiny Deer-like Ancestors |work=Science Daily |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/12/071220220241.htm |access-date=21 December 2007 |ref={{harvid|Northeastern Ohio Universities|2007}}}}
*{{cite news|author=The Pall Mall Gazette|date=1896-03-07|title=A New Cure for Rheumatism |url=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1896/03/07/106848504.pdf |access-date=2017-06-18}}
*{{cite news |last=Tsai |first=Wen-Chu |date=3 July 2015 |title=Whales and trash-bags |newspaper=Taipei Times |url=http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/taiwan/archives/2015/07/03/2003622174 |access-date=5 August 2015}}
*{{cite news |author=University of Vermont |date=12 October 2010 |title=Whale poop pumps up ocean health |work=Science Daily |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/10/101012101255.htm |access-date=18 November 2011}}
*{{cite news |title=Rock art hints at whaling origins |date=20 April 2004 |work=BBC News |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/3638853.stm |access-date=2 September 2015 |quote=Stone Age people may have started hunting whales as early as 6,000 BC, new evidence from South Korea suggests.|ref={{harvid|BBC News|2004}}}}
*{{cite news |title=Thousand gather for whale's funeral in Vietnam |work=The Independent |date=23 February 2010 |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/thousand-gather-whale-s-funeral-vietnam-1907716.html |agency=Associated Press | access-date=15 April 2011 |url-access=registration |ref={{harvid|The Independent|2010}}}}
*{{cite news |title=Whale funeral draws 1000 mourners in Vietnam |work=The Sydney Morning Herald |date=14 April 2003 |url=https://www.smh.com.au/articles/2003/04/13/1050172476288.html | agency=AFP |access-date=15 April 2011 |ref={{harvid|Sydney Morning Herald|2003}}}}
*{{cite news |title=Live Whales from the St. Lawrence |work=The New York Times |date=9 August 1861 |url= https://www.nytimes.com/1861/08/09/archives/live-whales-from-the-st-lawrence.html |access-date=2021-04-11 |ref={{harvid|''New York Times''|1861}}}}
*{{cite news |title=Funeral for a Whale held at Apam |agency=Ghana News Agency |work=GhanaWeb |date=10 August 2005 |url=http://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/NewsArchive/artikel.php?ID=87737 |access-date=15 April 2011|ref={{harvid|GNA|2005}}}}
{{refend}}

=== Other ===
{{refbegin|35em}}
*{{cite book|chapter=Lamentations 4:3|title=Bible|chapter-url=http://biblehub.com/lamentations/4-3.htm |access-date=29 August 2015|ref={{harvid|Lamentations}}}}
*{{cite book|chapter=Matthew|title=Bible|chapter-url=https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=jonah+1-4 |access-date=30 December 2013|ref={{harvid|Matthew}}}}
*{{cite episode |series=[[Modern Marvels]] |title=Milk |season=14 |network=The History Channel |air-date=2008-01-07 |ref={{harvid|Modern Marvels|2007}}}}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==

{{Wikivoyage|Whale watching}}

* Children's drawings and lyrics from the song Story [https://ouellette001.com/regard/041regard.htm Jonas in the Whale/Lord Jonas the Story] (French)
* {{cite episode |series=[[Walking with Beasts|Walking with Prehistoric Beasts]] |title=New Dawn |network=Discovery Channel |air-date=2002 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |last=Bonner |first=Nigel |year=1980 |title=Whales |publisher=Blandford Press |isbn=978-0-7137-0887-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w4S47N3YMgwC |ref=none}}
* {{cite journal | last1=O'Connell | first1=M. | last2=Berrow | first2=S. | year=2015 | title=Records from the Irish Whales and Dolphin Group for 2013 | journal=Irish Naturalists' Journal | volume=34 | issue=2| pages=154–161  |ref=none}}
* {{Cite NIE|wstitle=Whale|short=x |ref=none}}
* {{cite web |last1=Froias |first1=Gustin |title=Balaenidae |work=New Bedford Whaling Museum |url=http://www.whalingmuseum.org/learn/about-cetaceans/Balaenidae |date=2012 |access-date=29 August 2015 |archive-date=20 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200420173732/http://www.whalingmuseum.org/learn/about-cetaceans/Balaenidae  |ref=none}}
* {{cite web |url=http://species-identification.org/species.php?species_group=marine_mammals&id=15&menuentry=groepen |title=Gray whale (Family Eschrichtiidae) |last1=Jefferson |first1=T. A. |last2=Leatherwood |first2=S. |last3=Webber |first3=M. A. |publisher=Marine Species Identification Portal |access-date=29 August 2015 |ref=none}}
* {{cite web |url=http://species-identification.org/species.php?species_group=marine_mammals&id=21&menuentry=groepen |title=Narwhal and White Whale (Family Monodontidae) |last1=Jefferson |first1=T. A. |last2=Leatherwood |first2=S. |last3=Webber |first3=M. A. |publisher=Marine Species Identification Portal |access-date=29 August 2015 |ref=none}}
* {{cite web |url=http://species-identification.org/species.php?species_group=marine_mammals&id=23&menuentry=groepen |title=Sperm Whale (Family Physeteridae) |last1=Jefferson |first1=T. A. |last2=Leatherwood |first2=S. |last3=Webber |first3=M. A. |publisher=Marine Species Identification Portal |access-date=29 August 2015 |ref=none}}
* {{cite web |url=http://species-identification.org/species.php?species_group=marine_mammals&id=26&menuentry=groepen |title=Beaked Whales (Family Ziphiidae) |last1=Jefferson |first1=T. A. |last2=Leatherwood |first2=S. |last3=Webber |first3=M. A. |publisher=Marine Species Identification Portal |access-date=29 August 2015 |ref=none}}

{{Cetacea|M.}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Cetaceans]]
[[Category:Whales| ]]
[[Category:Paraphyletic groups]]